{"ID":79296,"post_author":"9412100","post_date":"2019-03-07 13:57:55","post_date_gmt":"2019-03-07 18:57:55","post_content":"","post_title":"The Complete Guide to LIMS & Laboratory Informatics","post_excerpt":"","post_status":"publish","comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","post_password":"","post_name":"the-complete-guide-to-lims-laboratory-informatics-2019-edition","to_ping":"","pinged":"","post_modified":"2019-04-03 16:28:55","post_modified_gmt":"2019-04-03 20:28:55","post_content_filtered":"","post_parent":0,"guid":"https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/?post_type=ebook&p=79296","menu_order":0,"post_type":"ebook","post_mime_type":"","comment_count":"0","filter":"","_ebook_metadata":{"enabled":"on","private":"0","guid":"AC549A82-5E03-4ABB-A2B3-9EE803F1CA85","title":"The Complete Guide to LIMS & Laboratory Informatics","subtitle":"2019 Edition","cover_theme":"nico_10","cover_image":"https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/wp-content\/plugins\/rdp-ebook-builder\/pl\/cover.php?cover_style=nico_10&subtitle=2019+Edition&editor=John+H.+Jones&title=The+Complete+Guide+to+LIMS+%26+Laboratory+Informatics&title_image=https%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org%2Fwikipedia%2Fcommons%2Fa%2Fa3%2FBiomedical_Engineering_Laboratory.jpg&publisher=LiMSwiki.org","editor":"John H. Jones","publisher":"LiMSwiki.org","author_id":"2","image_url":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a3\/Biomedical_Engineering_Laboratory.jpg","items":{"7425071817da7746e6c36f293d487eb4_type":"article","7425071817da7746e6c36f293d487eb4_title":"All laboratory informatics vendors with pricing","7425071817da7746e6c36f293d487eb4_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory,_Scientific,_and_Health_Informatics_Buyer%27s_Guide","7425071817da7746e6c36f293d487eb4_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tLaboratory, Scientific, and Health Informatics Buyer's Guide\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThis buyer's guide is based off the LIMS Buyer's Guide, a former publication of the Laboratory Informatics Institute (LII), an open trade association associated with LabLynx, Inc.[1][2] In late 2013, the LII and LabLynx discontinued publishing a copyrighted version and chose to release future guides to the public domain via this wiki. Per the Creative Commons license and the copyright terms of this site, you are free to copy, adapt, distribute, and transmit this guide as long as you 1. give proper attribution and 2. distribute the work only under the same or a similar license.\nContents\n\n1 About this guide \n\n1.1 Notes about the content \n\n\n2 How do I find the right LIMS, and how much will it cost? \n\n2.1 Purchase vs. subscribe \n2.2 Onsite vs. SaaS \n2.3 Modular vs. complete \n2.4 Named users vs. concurrent users \n2.5 The company \n2.6 The functionality \n\n2.6.1 Core functions and features \n2.6.2 Additional useful features \n\n\n2.7 How much will it cost? \n\n2.7.1 Licenses \n2.7.2 Subscriptions \n2.7.3 Services \n\n\n\n\n3 Commercial vendors with public pricing \n4 Additional resources and help \n\n4.1 LIMSforum \n4.2 LIMSforum Career Opportunities \n4.3 LIMSforum Online Courses \n4.4 LIMSfinder \n4.5 LIMSpec.com \n4.6 LIMSwiki informatics resource portal \n\n\n5 References \n\n\n\nAbout this guide \nWhat exactly is a laboratory information management system (LIMS) or laboratory information system (LIS) anyway? Do I need one? What options are available and how do I compare them? What about a request for information (RFI), request for proposal (RFP), or request for quotation (RFQ)? These are questions laboratory professionals typically ponder upon finding themselves charged with the mission of finding software for their lab. It can be a daunting \nproposition, and there doesn't seem to be any objective reference to help with it all. This guide hopes to change that.\nFor this free public domain version of the guide, we've added more vendors, updated new information, and added links to video demonstrations of their systems, with the goal of providing the accurate information you need to make decisions for your lab. This guide also strives to be different from any buyer's guide that has ever come before by including pricing. For the first time you have real information as well as pricing so you can quickly pursue only the vendors and products that make sense for you and your lab. While in the past vendors have refrained from providing public pricing, the trend is arguably changing towards a more open information process, though not without its own set of caveats.[3] In theory, that means prices should decrease as LIMS become commodities that labs can compare and contrast in a more competitive fashion. \nAt the core all labs are in the business of producing reports, data... essentially information.[4] Everything else is just a means to that central goal. So in a very real sense, information management is the core of any lab. In a world where we use the latest technology for most of our daily tasks and pleasures, why do so many labs still rely on hand-written notes and spreadsheets? Spend thousands of dollars on a sophisticated analytical instrument yet hesitate when faced with purchasing an information management system? Why? The primary reason is price priorities.\nSince LIMS are increasingly becoming commodities, driving down prices, potential buyers don't need to make the tough decision of one or the other anymore. As technology has improved, smaller LIMS companies have emerged, along with affordable SaaS online subscription models that are trustworthy. This means any lab can put their resources where they belong: in information and its management.\n\nNotes about the content \nThe LIMS Buyers Guide is here to help you wade through the mire. Use the information and vendor profiles to get a feel for what's out there and what makes the most sense. This guide contains information on everything from \"what is a LIMS?\" to maintaining and supporting your system. Additionally, whether you call it a LIMS, LIS, or even a LMS, in the end it's simply a tool to better manage your lab's data. This guide will refer to it all as \u201cLIMS\u201d for the sake of simplicity and consistency, though this guide may include systems officially dubbed as a LIS or ELN. Finally, a primary criterion for inclusion in this guide is publicly available pricing information that can thusly be cited. If citeable public pricing is not available, the vendor will not be listed in this guide. Any inappropriate additions will be removed.\n\nHow do I find the right LIMS, and how much will it cost? \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n \nOK, LIMS are getting more affordable, but where do you start? You may know the needs of your lab and how it runs, but perhaps you don't know LIMS and are intimidated by all the options. Take heart! This guide features a compiled list of major and minor players to help you make initial comparisons. However, you'll first need to gauge your lab's informatics needs in order to determine which products are worth investigating further. Of course your lab's analysis requirements, reporting and data sharing constraints, instrument interfacing, barcoding needs, quality assurance processes, etc. are very important factors. But LIMS vary in numerous ways, and other important factors exist. Price should certainly be considered, although value is ultimately more important than a low price. Other important considerations: \n\n Should we purchase licenses or \"rent\" them via subscription?\n Does the software need to be on-site, or is a SaaS hosted option more practical?\n Is a modular or complete system better for us?\n What is the best licensing\/rental scheme for us? Show we consider site, named user, concurrent user, or workstation licenses?\n Is the company qualified and trustworthy?\nPurchase vs. subscribe \nIn the past this was not an option. But much like the recent trend toward leasing cars rather than finding a large amount of money for up-front purchasing, labs can choose to pay only the cost of services (setup, training, report configuration, instrument interfaces, data migration, custom functions, etc.) and get started on a monthly subscription rather than buy licenses outright. When does this make sense? Subscriptions make sense primarily:\n\n ...if a large lump sum is hard to get budgeted. If your business cash flow will support the regular subscription fee but finding license fees is more problematic, then a subscription may be right for you. But do the math. Calculate project costs over a reasonable period (e.g. five years) to make sure it is a value proposition. Be sure to include maintenance and support in your figures; this is often included in a subscription but not in a license.\n ...if you may need to reduce the number of users. Once you buy licenses, they are yours. You can't \"un-buy\" them. But with a subscription you can raise and lower the number of users, workstations, etc. as you need to.\n ...if you may need to bail. Business decisions often need to be dynamic. Your lab may decide to go into another area of analysis, and if your LIMS isn't versatile enough to support the change, you have potentially wasted a lot of money.\nOn the other hand, it may be important to you to have the LIMS source code. Some subscriptions allow you just as much access to it as if you had purchased licenses, while others may not give you the access you seek. Confirm this with the vendor. Alos, ask whether you get to keep an image of the database should you decide to end your subscription.\n\nOnsite vs. SaaS \nA small but growing number of LIMS vendors will actually host your system on their servers for you or cloud-host it elsewhere. We refer to software accessed via the Internet rather than your workstation or server as software as a service or SaaS. Most of us already make copious use of SaaS whenever we \"Google\" something. Cloudhosted SaaS is characterized by multiple load-balanced servers that allow resources to be strategically used, and virtualized servers that allow for the creation of custom environments.To decide if SaaS is for you or if you should go the traditional route, here are some points to consider:\n\n If you have a small or overworked IT department, or none at all, then it may make sense to let the LIMS provider take care of those functions rather than invest in additional hardware, personnel, and other resources just to support your LIMS. If you are a large company with an extensive and capable IT department, then you may prefer the LIMS and its database to reside on premises.\n IT techs cite security as a major reason to keep a LIMS on lab premises. The truth is, if the vendor uses a SAS-70 or SAS 70 Type II data center to host, with GxP SOPs, your system and data are probably a lot safer than on a typical business infrastructure. Ask the vendor.\n If you decide to have your system hosted, ensure it's not by Bob and his buddy in their basement. The vendor needs to have been around awhile, have solid references, and feature good customer service.\n A reputable SaaS host will guarantee you high availability, approaching 100% up time, with quick and responsive catastrophe response. Redundant components and infrastructure (power, cooling, etc.) allow them to do that.\nModular vs. complete \nSome LIMS are offered as a collection of modules for you to select from to constitute your completed system, while others come complete with all the functionality available. Those whose LIMS are modular espouse the benefit of only paying for the functionality you need. Those whose LIMS come as a complete package say labs won't need to pay extra for any add-ons. Who's right? Well, it depends. If buying modules means you need one module for sample tracking and another for data entry, and still another to generate reports, then it may not be long before you run up a sizable bill just to get basic standard functionality, especially if the modules require hourly services to implement. If the modules tend to be industry-specific and complete, then they may make sense. Make sure you compare your needs with the product functionality and identify all costs associated with getting everything you need out of the software.\n\nNamed users vs. concurrent users \nWhen comparing license fees, understand the difference between named users and concurrent users. If a vendor charges by named users, and your lab will have 30 people who will use the LIMS at any time, you will need 30 licenses. If the vendor charges by concurrent users, then you only need enough licenses to cover the number of users who are likely to be on the system at the same time. Typically in a lab with 30 staff, you might need a maximum of 20 concurrent user licenses. This is reduced even further if you have sites in other parts of the world whose work days differ.\n\nThe company \nAs important as the LIMS and its functions are to you, the company is at least as important. Make no mistake: this is a relationship you are entering into. This is not like selecting a piece of furniture. A LIMS is like a living, dynamic entity, and you'll need to interact with the vendor from time to time even with the most trouble-free system. Of course that interaction will be particularly intense in the beginning as they provide installation, provisioning, training, and other set-up services. Take your cue from your initial dealings with them. Just like in any relationship, they will be presenting their best side to you then. If the vendor return calls or emails late or fails to follow through with what they say they'll do, then you can bet it will be much worse once you are their customer. So yes, do the usual: research their years in business, size, staff qualifications, references, etc., but also ask yourself if you would be comfortable doing business with the vendor in the long term.\n\nThe functionality \nAnd now we come to what probably has weighed most on your mind since you had the first idea you might need a LIMS: functions and features. The functionality of the LIMS is paramount, so it is important you first have an idea of what a LIMS can do, and then you can begin to decide which functions and features you need or want.\n\nCore functions and features \nYou should expect the following functions to be demonstrated in a full-function LIMS:\n\n audit trail\n barcoding\n batching\n chain of custody\n configurable setup\n data entry\n data warehousing and mining\n document management\n electronic data exchange\n data warehousing and mining\n event-driven actions\n fax and email integration\n formulas\n instrument interfacing, calibration, and maintenance\n inventory\n login and accessioning\n multiple location\/department support\n regulatory compliance\n reporting\n review and approval\n sample management and tracking\n scheduling\n training tracking\n trending and control charting\n version control\n workload management\n workflow management\nAdditional useful features \nThe following functions aren't necessary for all but useful for many:\n\n case management\n complaints and corrective actions\n customer relationship management\n electronic laboratory notebook\n ERP and accounting interfaces\n invoicing\n product specification management\n project management\n RFID\n quoting\n safety tracking and compliance\n supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) interfacing\n stability management\n web client or portal\nHow much will it cost? \nOK, now you understand what to look for in a company and its products. What you likely don't yet know: the price tag. Heck, most of us don't even know how LIMS vendors price their products or what is involved, much less how much they actually cost. In truth, there are three vital pricing components for any LIMS:\n\n licenses\n subscriptions\n services\nThe software itself never comprises the entire cost. LIMS are complex creatures, and your lab, even if it's small, is fairly complex, too. Let's go over what's involved and how much it's roughly going to cost.\n\nLicenses \nIf the software has a purchased license type (as opposed to rented\/subscription), then you will of course have to pay for those. Keep in mind what we said earlier about named vs. concurrent user pricing. Other methods include by site, by CPU or server, by workstation, or by unlimited user corporate level licensing. Arguably the lack of standardization in this area has contributed as much as anything to the vagueness that has surrounded LIMS pricing for so long. The linked vendor profiles in the next section feature pricing information for licenses for the included vendors. (Remember: the primary criterion for inclusion is publicly available pricing.) Review and compare, but make sure you factor in pricing method.\n\nSubscriptions \nThese include two possible items:\n\n rented or SaaS LIMS\n annual maintenance, support, and warranty (MSW)\nThe cost of LIMS rental is equivalent to the licensed type, but a lump sum up front is not required. These can run anywhere from a couple of hundred \ndollars a month for a single user up to maybe $2000 or so for 20+ users. Just like purchased licenses, however, these can be priced by site, concurrent or named users, etc., so make sure you compare like with like or at least factor these considerations in as you shop. And your rental may be annual instead of monthly. In most cases it does include all IT services and maintenance, support, and warranty, including updates, at a specified level.\nThe second type of subscription cost is annual MSW, and you need to factor that into your budgeting if you are buying LIMS licenses. Typically it is priced at around 15 percent of the license fee and is available at graduated levels. A certain level may be standard for a certain number of licenses (for example, 10 hours of support and additional services available at $200 per hour for a 10-concurrent user LIMS), but you can buy a higher level of support and cheaper \nrate for additional services if you want to pay extra. One thing to keep in mind: with an MSW you will certainly need coverage as you go through your first year. If you think you can then drop it, think again. A modern LIMS should be built on technology that can give it a much longer life span than those in years past. That is dependent on staying updated. If you lose that update path, your LIMS will expire prematurely. If you decide later to renew MSW, you may \nfind yourself liable for the missed years before the vendor will bring you current.\n\nServices \nYour LIMS is a function of the cost of the LIMS itself plus the services involved in its implementation plus, in the case of a licensed LIMS, annual MSW. Many first-time LIMS buyers neglect to factor in the cost of services when budgeting. As mentioned earlier, any LIMS will require services to get going, and you may want more if there are extras you need or want. Services break down more or less like this:\nBasic implementation services\n\n kickoff meeting (planning, coordination, communication procedures, etc.)\n \u0083training\n setup (enter users, configure profiles, departments, tests, screens, etc.)\n create main report(s)\n go live support\nAdditional or optional services\n\n instrument interfaces\n additional reports\n data migration from a previous system\n interfaces to other systems or databases\n special customizations\n web portal configuration\n validation\n standards certification support\nYou may need other services. Rates for services vary from vendor to vendor, but a good rule of thumb for initial budgeting purposes is to figure service costs to be roughly equal to the licensing cost or to a year's worth of LIMS subscription.\n\n\n \nCommercial vendors with public pricing \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n \n\n\n\n \n For free open-source laboratory informatics software, please see the open-source laboratory informatics software page.\r\n \n\n\n\r\n\nClick the link of each vendor to find useful product information, pricing information, and demo videos.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Vendor\n\n Has cloud or\r\nSaaS offering?\n\n # of demo\r\nvideos\n\n LIMS?\n\n LIS?\n\n ELN?\n\n CDMS\r\nand\/or\r\nSDMS?\n\n Additional notes\n\n\nAgilent Technologies, Inc.\n\nNo\n\n85\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\n\n\n\nSLCLAB Inform\u00e1tica SL\n\nYes\n\n38\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nBenchling, Inc.\n\nYes\n\n36\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nAll but enterprise pricing available.\n\n\nLabLynx, Inc. \n\nYes\n\n36\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nlabfolder GmbH\n\nYes\n\n21\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nLaucks Technical Services, LLC\n\nNo\n\n19\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nLabArchives, LLC\n\nYes\n\n18\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nPricing only available for non-profit entities; for-profit prices not public.\n\n\nLabLite, LLC\n\nNo\n\n16\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nAutoscribe Informatics, Inc. \n\nNo\n\n13\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nResearch Innovations Limited\n\nYes\n\n12\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nBiomatters Ltd.\n\nNo\n\n10\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\neBioSys Pty. Ltd.\n\nNo\n\n9\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nMestrelab Research S.L.\n\nYes\n\n9\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nAgileBio\n\nNo\n\n8\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nWaters Corporation\n\nNo\n\n7\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\n\n\n\nBio-ITech BV\n\nYes\n\n6\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nLabVantage Solutions, Inc.\n\nYes\n\n6\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nAbbott Informatics Corporation \n\nYes\n\n5\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nPricing only available for LIMS, not ELN or SDMS.\n\n\nLabii, Inc.\n\nYes\n\n5\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nProduct is combination LIMS and ELN\n\n\nAsymptotic Automation Solutions LLP\n\nYes\n\n4\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nBiochemLab Solutions\n\nNo\n\n4\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nFree ad-based and paid ad-free versions of ELN exist.\n\n\nNoteBookMaker, LLC\n\nYes\n\n4\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nLabstep Ltd.\n\nYes\n\n3\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nBase version free to academia; Enterprise pricing not public\n\n\nThe Edge Software Consultancy Ltd.\n\nYes\n\n3\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nWebPathLab, Inc.\n\nYes\n\n3\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nPay-per-report pricing made public\n\n\nAiderbotics Corporation\n\nNo\n\n2\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nBioInfoRx, Inc.\n\nYes\n\n2\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nBiomed Systems Ltd.\n\nYes\n\n2\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nLIMS available with ELN as add-on\n\n\nBioSistemika LLC\n\nYes\n\n2\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nBroughton Software Ltd.\n\nYes\n\n2\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nBlaze Systems Corporation \n\nNo\n\n1\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nBytewize AB\n\nYes\n\n1\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nPricing only available for O3 LimsXpress.\n\n\nCloudLIMS.com, LLC\n\nYes\n\n1\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nDynamic Databases, LLC\n\nYes\n\n1\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nJusticeTrax, Inc.\n\nNo\n\n1\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nLabWare, Inc.\n\nNo\n\n1\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n LIMS software with additional LIS-like functionality[5]\n\n\nPharmLabs, LLC\n\nYes\n\n1\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nPromium, LLC\n\nYes\n\n1\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nRed Arrow Labs, LLC\n\nYes\n\n1\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nLIMS formerly a ChemWare product\n\n\nApex HealthWare, LLC\n\nYes\n\n0\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nPricing only available for cloud-based POL version.\n\n\nChemBytes\n\nNo\n\n0\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nDendi, Inc.\n\nYes\n\n0\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nFindings Software SAS\n\nNo\n\n0\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nFORMULATOR Software, LLC\n\nYes\n\n0\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nGenetic Technologies, Inc.\n\nNo\n\n0\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nHindline Technologies Pvt. Ltd.\n\nNo\n\n0\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nLabPro 2000 Ltd.\n\nYes\n\n0\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nLabSpace, LLC\n\nYes\n\n0\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nINTEGRIS LIMS GmbH\n\nNo\n\n0\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nPricing available for \"Small lab solution\"\n\n\nMountain States Consulting, LLC\n\nNo\n\n0\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nProgeny Software, LLC\n\nYes\n\n0\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nshazino SAS\n\nYes\n\n0\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\nTerra Systems O\u00dc\n\nNo\n\n0\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n Pricing only available for MiniLIS, not other products.\n\n\nWixon and Cross, LLC\n\nYes\n\n0\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAdditional resources and help \nLIMSforum \nFormerly a LinkedIn-associated group, LIMSforum is a web portal for those interested in laboratory, scientific, and health informatics.\n\nLIMSforum Career Opportunities \nFormerly the LinkedIn-associated Lab Careers group, LIMSforum's career opportunities section is available for the viewing and posting of job openings for laboratory, scientific, and health lab careers.\n\nLIMSforum Online Courses \nFormerly LIMS University, the laboratory courses at LIMSforum provide free, open-access learning and teaching resources for those wanting to learn more about laboratory informatics.\n\nLIMSfinder \nLIMSfinder is a web portal for those looking for a LIMS and related information, services, products, news, events, resources, jobs, etc.\n\nLIMSpec.com \nLIMSpec.com provides a collection of datasheets \u2014 from lab requirements assessment to LIMS vendor and system questionnaires, validation documents, and more \u2014 for identifying LIMS needs and matching them with what's out there.\n\nLIMSwiki informatics resource portal \nThe informatics resource portal here at LIMSwiki features a collection of as many useful online scientific and health informatics-related materials and research tools as possible, including books, journals, blogs, web portals, education programs, conferences, and more.\n\nReferences \n\n\u2191 \"Laboratory Informatics Institute Established\". Laboratory Informatics Institute, Inc. 17 July 2006. http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=31049_0_3_0_C . Retrieved 06 September 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"The LIMSbook ...everything about LIMS\". Laboratory Informatics Institute, Inc. http:\/\/limsbook.com\/ . Retrieved 06 September 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Metrick, Gloria (15 August 2011). \"Understanding Openness and Other Marketing Tactics in Laboratory Informatics and Other Industries\". GeoMetrick Enterprises. http:\/\/outonalims.com\/2011\/08\/15\/understanding-openness-and-other-marketing-tactics-in-laboratory-informatics-and-other-industries\/ . Retrieved 06 September 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Allen, Thomas J.; Cohen, Stephen I. (1969). \"Information Flow in Research and Development Laboratories\". Administrative Science Quarterly 14 (1): 12\u201319. http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/2391357 . Retrieved 06 September 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Clinical Lab Information Management\". LabWare, Inc. http:\/\/www.labware.com\/en\/p\/Industries\/Clinical-Lab-Information-Management . Retrieved 22 September 2014 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory,_Scientific,_and_Health_Informatics_Buyer%27s_Guide\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory,_Scientific,_and_Health_Informatics_Buyer%27s_Guide<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 14 March 2019, at 17:07.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 29,374 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","7425071817da7746e6c36f293d487eb4_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Laboratory_Scientific_and_Health_Informatics_Buyer_s_Guide skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Laboratory, Scientific, and Health Informatics Buyer's Guide<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Emil_Christian_Hansen_in_the_lab_by_Frederik_Riise.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" title=\"Emil Christian Hansen (1842-1909), Danish microbiologist and mycologist\" data-key=\"9e073244993c9c99d3c3388ac8f3d596\"><img alt=\"Emil Christian Hansen (1842-1909), Danish microbiologist and mycologist\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/fa\/Emil_Christian_Hansen_in_the_lab_by_Frederik_Riise.jpg\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a><\/div>This buyer's guide is based off the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_Buyer%27s_Guide\" title=\"LIMS Buyer's Guide\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91b06fd35679bc54d2fdf32520a043f6\">LIMS Buyer's Guide<\/a>, a former publication of the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabLynx,_Inc.#Community_history\" title=\"LabLynx, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3b0ef89620b90e4fd5f8efaf8370d20\">Laboratory Informatics Institute<\/a> (LII), an open trade association associated with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabLynx,_Inc.\" title=\"LabLynx, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da3f96536cf2c54de1960f26fe5712a1\">LabLynx, Inc.<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LII_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LII-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LBGOrig_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LBGOrig-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> In late 2013, the LII and LabLynx discontinued publishing a copyrighted version and chose to release future guides to the public domain via this wiki. Per the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons license<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSWiki:Copyrights\" title=\"LIMSWiki:Copyrights\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"82beaa580db1383b84471da14e928cd9\">copyright terms of this site<\/a>, you are free to copy, adapt, distribute, and transmit this guide as long as you 1. give proper attribution and 2. distribute the work only under the same or a similar license.\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"About_this_guide\">About this guide<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>What exactly is a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information system<\/a> (LIS) anyway? Do I need one? What options are available and how do I compare them? What about a request for information (RFI), request for proposal (RFP), or request for quotation (RFQ)? These are questions <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> professionals typically ponder upon finding themselves charged with the mission of finding software for their lab. It can be a daunting \nproposition, and there doesn't seem to be any objective reference to help with it all. This guide hopes to change that.\n<\/p><p>For this free public domain version of the guide, we've added more vendors, updated new information, and added links to video demonstrations of their systems, with the goal of providing the accurate information you need to make decisions for your lab. This guide also strives to be different from any buyer's guide that has ever come before by including pricing. For the first time you have real information as well as pricing so you can quickly pursue only the vendors and products that make sense for you and your lab. While in the past vendors have refrained from providing public pricing, the trend is arguably changing towards a more open information process, though not without its own set of caveats.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OOaLOpen_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OOaLOpen-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> In theory, that means prices should decrease as LIMS become commodities that labs can compare and contrast in a more competitive fashion. \n<\/p><p>At the core all labs are in the business of producing reports, data... essentially <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IFlowJourn_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IFlowJourn-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> Everything else is just a means to that central goal. So in a very real sense, information management is the core of any lab. In a world where we use the latest technology for most of our daily tasks and pleasures, why do so many labs still rely on hand-written notes and spreadsheets? Spend thousands of dollars on a sophisticated analytical instrument yet hesitate when faced with purchasing an information management system? Why? The primary reason is price priorities.\n<\/p><p>Since LIMS are increasingly becoming commodities, driving down prices, potential buyers don't need to make the tough decision of one or the other anymore. As technology has improved, smaller LIMS companies have emerged, along with affordable <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">SaaS<\/a> online subscription models that are trustworthy. This means any lab can put their resources where they belong: in information and its management.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes_about_the_content\">Notes about the content<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The LIMS Buyers Guide is here to help you wade through the mire. Use the information and vendor profiles to get a feel for what's out there and what makes the most sense. This guide contains information on everything from \"what is a LIMS?\" to maintaining and supporting your system. Additionally, whether you call it a LIMS, LIS, or even a LMS, in the end it's simply a tool to better manage your lab's data. This guide will refer to it all as \u201cLIMS\u201d for the sake of simplicity and consistency, though this guide may include systems officially dubbed as a LIS or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">ELN<\/a>. <i>Finally, a primary criterion for inclusion in this guide is publicly available pricing information that can thusly be cited.<\/i> If citeable public pricing is not available, the vendor will not be listed in this guide. Any inappropriate additions will be removed.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"How_do_I_find_the_right_LIMS.2C_and_how_much_will_it_cost.3F\">How do I find the right LIMS, and how much will it cost?<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p> <\/p>\n<p>OK, LIMS are getting more affordable, but where do you start? You may know the needs of your lab and how it runs, but perhaps you don't know LIMS and are intimidated by all the options. Take heart! This guide features a compiled list of major and minor players to help you make initial comparisons. However, you'll first need to gauge your lab's informatics needs in order to determine which products are worth investigating further. Of course your lab's <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_and_trend_analysis\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1539cd55185863ffbb2284c2b5cc14d5\">analysis requirements<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Reporting.2C_barcoding.2C_and_printing\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"372f48a338fb611872a6a717f02c13a0\">reporting<\/a> and data sharing constraints, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19c828f7d6e33928579d97389a65a675\">instrument interfacing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">barcoding needs<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#QA.2FQC_functions\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2bf55c170c7429ac892dd177aaa2e2\">quality assurance<\/a> processes, etc. are very important factors. But LIMS vary in numerous ways, and other important factors exist. Price should certainly be considered, although value is ultimately more important than a low price. Other important considerations: \n<\/p>\n<ul><li> Should we purchase licenses or \"rent\" them via subscription?<\/li>\n<li> Does the software need to be on-site, or is a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">SaaS<\/a> hosted option more practical?<\/li>\n<li> Is a modular or complete system better for us?<\/li>\n<li> What is the best licensing\/rental scheme for us? Show we consider site, named user, concurrent user, or workstation licenses?<\/li>\n<li> Is the company qualified and trustworthy?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Purchase_vs._subscribe\">Purchase vs. subscribe<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the past this was not an option. But much like the recent trend toward leasing cars rather than finding a large amount of money for up-front purchasing, labs can choose to pay only the cost of services (setup, training, report configuration, instrument interfaces, data migration, custom functions, etc.) and get started on a monthly subscription rather than buy licenses outright. When does this make sense? Subscriptions make sense primarily:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> ...if a large lump sum is hard to get budgeted. If your business cash flow will support the regular subscription fee but finding license fees is more problematic, then a subscription may be right for you. But do the math. Calculate project costs over a reasonable period (e.g. five years) to make sure it is a value proposition. Be sure to include maintenance and support in your figures; this is often included in a subscription but not in a license.<\/li>\n<li> ...if you may need to reduce the number of users. Once you buy licenses, they are yours. You can't \"un-buy\" them. But with a subscription you can raise and lower the number of users, workstations, etc. as you need to.<\/li>\n<li> ...if you may need to bail. Business decisions often need to be dynamic. Your lab may decide to go into another area of analysis, and if your LIMS isn't versatile enough to support the change, you have potentially wasted a lot of money.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>On the other hand, it may be important to you to have the LIMS source code. Some subscriptions allow you just as much access to it as if you had purchased licenses, while others may not give you the access you seek. Confirm this with the vendor. Alos, ask whether you get to keep an image of the database should you decide to end your subscription.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Onsite_vs._SaaS\">Onsite vs. SaaS<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A small but growing number of LIMS vendors will actually host your system on their servers for you or cloud-host it elsewhere. We refer to software accessed via the Internet rather than your workstation or server as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> or SaaS. Most of us already make copious use of SaaS whenever we \"Google\" something. Cloudhosted SaaS is characterized by multiple load-balanced servers that allow resources to be strategically used, and virtualized servers that allow for the creation of custom environments.To decide if SaaS is for you or if you should go the traditional route, here are some points to consider:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> If you have a small or overworked IT department, or none at all, then it may make sense to let the LIMS provider take care of those functions rather than invest in additional hardware, personnel, and other resources just to support your LIMS. If you are a large company with an extensive and capable IT department, then you may prefer the LIMS and its database to reside on premises.<\/li>\n<li> IT techs cite security as a major reason to keep a LIMS on lab premises. The truth is, if the vendor uses a SAS-70 or SAS 70 Type II <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_center\" title=\"Data center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f5f939040d714745138ee295af8be71\">data center<\/a> to host, with GxP SOPs, your system and data are probably a lot safer than on a typical business infrastructure. Ask the vendor.<\/li>\n<li> If you decide to have your system hosted, ensure it's not by Bob and his buddy in their basement. The vendor needs to have been around awhile, have solid references, and feature good customer service.<\/li>\n<li> A reputable SaaS host will guarantee you high availability, approaching 100% up time, with quick and responsive catastrophe response. Redundant components and infrastructure (power, cooling, etc.) allow them to do that.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modular_vs._complete\">Modular vs. complete<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Some LIMS are offered as a collection of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Modular\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"126843b63279f958fbb99b221dff0513\">modules<\/a> for you to select from to constitute your completed system, while others come complete with all the functionality available. Those whose LIMS are modular espouse the benefit of only paying for the functionality you need. Those whose LIMS come as a complete package say labs won't need to pay extra for any add-ons. Who's right? Well, it depends. If buying modules means you need one module for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4622d31a3236faeab999eee2d2493313\">sample tracking<\/a> and another for data entry, and still another to generate reports, then it may not be long before you run up a sizable bill just to get basic standard functionality, especially if the modules require hourly services to implement. If the modules tend to be industry-specific and complete, then they may make sense. Make sure you compare your needs with the product functionality and identify all costs associated with getting everything you need out of the software.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Named_users_vs._concurrent_users\">Named users vs. concurrent users<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>When comparing license fees, understand the difference between named users and concurrent users. If a vendor charges by named users, and your lab will have 30 people who will use the LIMS at any time, you will need 30 licenses. If the vendor charges by concurrent users, then you only need enough licenses to cover the number of users who are likely to be on the system at the same time. Typically in a lab with 30 staff, you might need a maximum of 20 concurrent user licenses. This is reduced even further if you have sites in other parts of the world whose work days differ.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_company\">The company<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As important as the LIMS and its functions are to you, the company is at least as important. Make no mistake: this is a relationship you are entering into. This is not like selecting a piece of furniture. A LIMS is like a living, dynamic entity, and you'll need to interact with the vendor from time to time even with the most trouble-free system. Of course that interaction will be particularly intense in the beginning as they provide installation, provisioning, training, and other set-up services. Take your cue from your initial dealings with them. Just like in any relationship, they will be presenting their best side to you then. If the vendor return calls or emails late or fails to follow through with what they say they'll do, then you can bet it will be much worse once you are their customer. So yes, do the usual: research their years in business, size, staff qualifications, references, etc., but also ask yourself if you would be comfortable doing business with the vendor in the long term.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_functionality\">The functionality<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>And now we come to what probably has weighed most on your mind since you had the first idea you might need a LIMS: functions and features. The functionality of the LIMS is paramount, so it is important you first have an idea of what a LIMS can do, and then you can begin to decide which functions and features you need or want.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Core_functions_and_features\">Core functions and features<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>You should expect the following functions to be demonstrated in a full-function LIMS:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d184d528c3d8bec99c88b45a9e026379\">audit trail<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">barcoding<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_and_result_batching\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4616ac6ee0e19b94e4dbaa51df9c799\">batching<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Chain_of_custody\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57c608855a16e5bdf3db2a1f6abb50db\">chain of custody<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">configurable<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Administrator_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f50a63eeb9565f98cb5f9288a37bd9e9\">setup<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Option_for_manual_result_entry\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"621709a9ae6a8b6bb4f2de549e344b5c\">data entry<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_warehouse\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3082d0bb37d14d6ab62b393bd2834094\">data warehousing<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Data_mining\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9efad8d775c7b4c1e4c0b46ab4a5c2ac\">mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd9e325ecd80a3deb3b4aa2159bc0eda\">document management<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#External_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00cfd3cdc2831d07936f16a65aa57ffd\">electronic<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Import_data\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50124e3027d3b3bcb1801c0adb042e82\">data<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19c828f7d6e33928579d97389a65a675\">exchange<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_warehouse\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3082d0bb37d14d6ab62b393bd2834094\">data warehousing<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Data_mining\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9efad8d775c7b4c1e4c0b46ab4a5c2ac\">mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f358fd26f821c76edf862b7dee946f8\">event-driven<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2851659b2739ded940b9f4bfd6415cf2\">actions<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Fax_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f5c8fec31f5ee1ab836255b270acfec\">fax<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Email_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2de26fc661eeed4a6cb63ef2b35976c2\">email integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Test.2C_experiment.2C_and.2For_trial_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b87ebc9e3d0a68d7610ddd6c006f976b\">formulas<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19c828f7d6e33928579d97389a65a675\">instrument interfacing, calibration, and maintenance<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"922cb0190a1750c3545849959a860288\">inventory<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Sample_login_and_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3acb1e2120792bd6073f0b9e2c2b97bb\">login and accessioning<\/a><\/li>\n<li> multiple location\/department support<\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e58f73cb3d51704d053508c71fae968\">regulatory compliance<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Custom_reporting\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"739c5efda3365bab28d01299a831e693\">reporting<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148c3f13ce1e0562e2d8b33c7002622e\">review and approval<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_login_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98071177bc94b23b88297692a3a52005\">sample management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4622d31a3236faeab999eee2d2493313\">tracking<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f358fd26f821c76edf862b7dee946f8\">scheduling<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Performance_evaluation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba19c1d4cef221fdadce596bafe8bea3\">training tracking<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_and_trend_analysis\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1539cd55185863ffbb2284c2b5cc14d5\">trending and control charting<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Version_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0f243a35540cf60e68f6749ca5ffaac\">version control<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Project_and.2For_task_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0b65cad4546629d814bd000b0c6836a\">workload management<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"233ebf71073035e741a5acf410dc8242\">workflow management<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Additional_useful_features\">Additional useful features<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The following functions aren't necessary for all but useful for many:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Case_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91a43f1107cf4cfbf9fb8ea707bead64\">case management<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customer_and_supplier_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ee1c9037a1a9e877bca2bb7821de8d\">complaints and corrective actions<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customer_and_supplier_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ee1c9037a1a9e877bca2bb7821de8d\">customer relationship management<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#ELN_support_or_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6a4efca41b1810ae03ddf7ebcffcb25\">electronic laboratory notebook<\/a><\/li>\n<li> ERP and accounting interfaces<\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Billing_and_revenue_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85476dde92ee1785c887d20bc9e0f304\">invoicing<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Specification_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2bd724c42ae9a6a8cc382720d399154\">product specification management<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Project_and.2For_task_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0b65cad4546629d814bd000b0c6836a\">project management<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Barcode_and.2For_RFID_support\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3029c1eb2ffdf072fdcf93dfb60f7c49\">RFID<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Billing_and_revenue_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85476dde92ee1785c887d20bc9e0f304\">quoting<\/a><\/li>\n<li> safety tracking and compliance<\/li>\n<li> supervisory control and data acquisition (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA\" title=\"SCADA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d\">SCADA<\/a>) interfacing<\/li>\n<li> stability management<\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Web_client_or_portal\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b67393b52f03168301d7499fd803c22\">web client or portal<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"How_much_will_it_cost.3F\">How much will it cost?<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>OK, now you understand what to look for in a company and its products. What you likely don't yet know: the price tag. Heck, most of us don't even know how LIMS vendors price their products or what is involved, much less how much they actually cost. In truth, there are three vital pricing components for any LIMS:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li> licenses<\/li>\n<li> subscriptions<\/li>\n<li> services<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>The software itself never comprises the entire cost. LIMS are complex creatures, and your lab, even if it's small, is fairly complex, too. Let's go over what's involved and how much it's roughly going to cost.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Licenses\">Licenses<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>If the software has a purchased license type (as opposed to rented\/subscription), then you will of course have to pay for those. Keep in mind what we said earlier about <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_Buyer%27s_Guide#Named_users_vs._concurrent_users\" title=\"LIMS Buyer's Guide\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4956fd5b7febc05389ec9a4c31e87207\">named vs. concurrent user pricing<\/a>. Other methods include by site, by CPU or server, by workstation, or by unlimited user corporate level licensing. Arguably the lack of standardization in this area has contributed as much as anything to the vagueness that has surrounded LIMS pricing for so long. The linked vendor profiles in the next section feature pricing information for licenses for the included vendors. (Remember: the primary criterion for inclusion is publicly available pricing.) Review and compare, but make sure you factor in pricing method.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subscriptions\">Subscriptions<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>These include two possible items:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li> rented or SaaS LIMS<\/li>\n<li> annual maintenance, support, and warranty (MSW)<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>The cost of LIMS rental is equivalent to the licensed type, but a lump sum up front is not required. These can run anywhere from a couple of hundred \ndollars a month for a single user up to maybe $2000 or so for 20+ users. Just like purchased licenses, however, these can be priced by site, concurrent or named users, etc., so make sure you compare like with like or at least factor these considerations in as you shop. And your rental may be annual instead of monthly. In most cases it does include all IT services and maintenance, support, and warranty, including updates, at a specified level.\n<\/p><p>The second type of subscription cost is annual MSW, and you need to factor that into your budgeting if you are buying LIMS licenses. Typically it is priced at around 15 percent of the license fee and is available at graduated levels. A certain level may be standard for a certain number of licenses (for example, 10 hours of support and additional services available at $200 per hour for a 10-concurrent user LIMS), but you can buy a higher level of support and cheaper \nrate for additional services if you want to pay extra. One thing to keep in mind: with an MSW you will certainly need coverage as you go through your first year. If you think you can then drop it, think again. A modern LIMS should be built on technology that can give it a much longer life span than those in years past. That is dependent on staying updated. If you lose that update path, your LIMS will expire prematurely. If you decide later to renew MSW, you may \nfind yourself liable for the missed years before the vendor will bring you current.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Services\">Services<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Your LIMS is a function of the cost of the LIMS itself plus the services involved in its implementation plus, in the case of a licensed LIMS, annual MSW. Many first-time LIMS buyers neglect to factor in the cost of services when budgeting. As mentioned earlier, any LIMS will require services to get going, and you may want more if there are extras you need or want. Services break down more or less like this:\n<\/p><p><b>Basic implementation services<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> kickoff meeting (planning, coordination, communication procedures, etc.)<\/li>\n<li> \u0083training<\/li>\n<li> setup (enter users, configure profiles, departments, tests, screens, etc.)<\/li>\n<li> create main report(s)<\/li>\n<li> go live support<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>Additional or optional services<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> instrument interfaces<\/li>\n<li> additional reports<\/li>\n<li> data migration from a previous system<\/li>\n<li> interfaces to other systems or databases<\/li>\n<li> special customizations<\/li>\n<li> web portal configuration<\/li>\n<li> validation<\/li>\n<li> standards certification support<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>You may need other services. Rates for services vary from vendor to vendor, but a good rule of thumb for initial budgeting purposes is to figure service costs to be roughly equal to the licensing cost or to a year's worth of LIMS subscription.\n<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p> <\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Commercial_vendors_with_public_pricing\">Commercial vendors with public pricing<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p> <\/p>\n\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p><p>Click the link of each vendor to find useful product information, pricing information, and demo videos.\n<\/p>\n<table cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" style=\"margin:0em 0em 1em 0em; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; width:95%\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width:32%; vertical-align:top; border:0px; background-color: #LightYellow;\" rowspan=\"1\">\n<div style=\"padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;\">\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable sortable\" style=\"padding:5px;\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\">\n\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; padding:5px;\"> Vendor\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; padding:15px;\"> Has cloud or<br \/><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">SaaS<\/a> offering?\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; padding:15px;\"> # of demo<br \/>videos\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; padding:15px;\"> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">LIMS<\/a>?\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; padding:15px;\"> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">LIS<\/a>?\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; padding:15px;\"> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">ELN<\/a>?\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; padding:15px;\"> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_management_system\" title=\"Chromatography data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0b59eaaca214b3b757b613af60743ad\">CDMS<\/a><br \/>and\/or<br \/><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">SDMS<\/a>?\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; padding:5px;\"> Additional notes\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Agilent_Technologies,_Inc.\" title=\"Agilent Technologies, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dcea1a676a012bcbe3af9562dd17f8a0\">Agilent Technologies, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Agilent_Technologies,_Inc.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Agilent Technologies, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9225f61694fdae0fef1314b3302d107a\">85<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SLCLAB_Inform%C3%A1tica_SL\" title=\"SLCLAB Inform\u00e1tica SL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79400a95a2c7594421f69d99c5b9182c\">SLCLAB Inform\u00e1tica SL<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SLCLAB_Inform%C3%A1tica_SL#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"SLCLAB Inform\u00e1tica SL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3aa63b12319eeecf90e1739c1515d688\">38<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Benchling,_Inc.\" title=\"Benchling, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67634090ee7d17da2ed0d3748a65379d\">Benchling, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Benchling,_Inc.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Benchling, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ed073efb7914309b944fc59b08e7473\">36<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">All but enterprise pricing available.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; line-height: 50px; vertical-align: middle;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabLynx,_Inc.\" title=\"LabLynx, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da3f96536cf2c54de1960f26fe5712a1\">LabLynx, Inc.<\/a> <div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:LLX_Current_Logo_277.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"137ba78ff4f29b1568bcb1432bb2cd26\"><img alt=\"LLX Current Logo 277.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/f\/f5\/LLX_Current_Logo_277.jpg\" width=\"140\" height=\"54\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabLynx,_Inc.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"LabLynx, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d41bd114f1d4bcd40230e98afc528135\">36<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Labfolder_GmbH\" title=\"Labfolder GmbH\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5775e652296ab4cfbb38a3fe92fffcd\">labfolder GmbH<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Labfolder_GmbH#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Labfolder GmbH\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02fe5973bbd48bae1972d78092f0c31f\">21<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laucks_Technical_Services,_LLC\" title=\"Laucks Technical Services, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ade561362316db12af9713d9decb7cc\">Laucks Technical Services, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laucks_Technical_Services,_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Laucks Technical Services, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0fcdd5c44495c5ec73c5d0c4a6dd6c28\">19<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabArchives,_LLC\" title=\"LabArchives, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5bb3fd02213c041f2b90dd24a4ac606\">LabArchives, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabArchives,_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"LabArchives, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f12363c15f82172326c7903f9b9c9beb\">18<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Pricing only available for non-profit entities; for-profit prices not public.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabLite,_LLC\" title=\"LabLite, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d263b476476ba224f4f002ea2c7e039\">LabLite, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabLite,_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"LabLite, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b84538d7764d4de6e283da2210f3a\">16<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; line-height: 50px; vertical-align: middle;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Autoscribe_Informatics,_Inc.\" title=\"Autoscribe Informatics, Inc.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"a187eaeb93bae7889be44009f869fc9c\">Autoscribe Informatics, Inc.<\/a> <div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Vendor667.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"400af14cc2536e8fc9f691d5a9ab947a\"><img alt=\"Vendor667.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a8\/Vendor667.jpg\" width=\"140\" height=\"34\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Autoscribe_Informatics,_Inc.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Autoscribe Informatics, Inc.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"d48ffbb8e57a67a5526546949161da05\">13<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Research_Innovations_Limited\" title=\"Research Innovations Limited\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86e4420c2ac1ce0318b81c6b529ac425\">Research Innovations Limited<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Research_Innovations_Limited#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Research Innovations Limited\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93bff75bef57dc5a001a5821fc532a4e\">12<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biomatters_Ltd.\" title=\"Biomatters Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"506681e49f25e73e9bd31f6bbd62b506\">Biomatters Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biomatters_Ltd.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Biomatters Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"874fcb0bcec8c56b58335ce83658758c\">10<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/EBioSys_Pty._Ltd.\" title=\"EBioSys Pty. Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59b5e7309996858ca6063872c07e6444\">eBioSys Pty. Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/EBioSys_Pty._Ltd.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"EBioSys Pty. Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc81ff0dbfc599a171e3ed8b5677ee02\">9<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Mestrelab_Research_S.L.\" title=\"Mestrelab Research S.L.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64064a4cd659df3ed0b841716bb24cc4\">Mestrelab Research S.L.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Mestrelab_Research_S.L.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Mestrelab Research S.L.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aea1e71c0d50ea2cabd32276de1c295b\">9<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/AgileBio\" title=\"AgileBio\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c34addf58af91e53114eed40843f5e6e\">AgileBio<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/AgileBio#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"AgileBio\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1928ed9276395ad843045080dc45e32\">8<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Waters_Corporation\" title=\"Waters Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d17153eab93be07066660e3cff4b84c5\">Waters Corporation<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Waters_Corporation#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Waters Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24c5384b687bab01cd218c1706f6b18a\">7<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bio-ITech_BV\" title=\"Bio-ITech BV\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ab0bcce001863e24f1715ef1acef1ef\">Bio-ITech BV<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bio-ITech_BV#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Bio-ITech BV\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"adc8ad4303a89c181bbc0857777ccfc7\">6<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabVantage_Solutions,_Inc.\" title=\"LabVantage Solutions, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1855d5158d4dd8f748e925e626daf5ee\">LabVantage Solutions, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LABVANTAGE_Solutions,_Inc.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"LABVANTAGE Solutions, Inc.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb7bd368383f841a0406a5b6e52648ea\">6<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; line-height: 60px; vertical-align: middle;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\" title=\"Abbott Informatics Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90479bab12020c96864541696a62156f\">Abbott Informatics Corporation<\/a> <div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Vendor284.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"8dabe8a08aa6afbe9fc5360262c53206\"><img alt=\"Vendor284.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/e\/e3\/Vendor284.jpg\" width=\"130\" height=\"64\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Abbott_Informatics_Corporation#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Abbott Informatics Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2f0097a52372f9574c24d37f5f703b9\">5<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Pricing only available for LIMS, not ELN or SDMS.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Labii,_Inc.\" title=\"Labii, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26694f1b8383d3bce3421b9e4dc2cfc7\">Labii, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Labii,_Inc.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Labii, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f293c56d196d80655380ea5c2a52eac9\">5<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Product is combination LIMS and ELN\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Asymptotic_Automation_Solutions_LLP\" title=\"Asymptotic Automation Solutions LLP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e44b3401eccde96d75e6eb7e5374f6f8\">Asymptotic Automation Solutions LLP<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Asymptotic_Automation_Solutions_LLP#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Asymptotic Automation Solutions LLP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e97f44c03d4affad00fad7864dd663af\">4<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/BiochemLab_Solutions\" title=\"BiochemLab Solutions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff73cc5928506ba559397bdd44035cd5\">BiochemLab Solutions<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/BiochemLab_Solutions#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"BiochemLab Solutions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9cbb2874d1594888d8020faef7a4bc1\">4<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Free ad-based and paid ad-free versions of ELN exist.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/NoteBookMaker,_LLC\" title=\"NoteBookMaker, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bec4e5a9a276507d892a08620e7ecee2\">NoteBookMaker, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/NoteBookMaker,_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"NoteBookMaker, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e19e1bb872bc08e7d62ba5483e054ed\">4<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Labstep_Ltd.\" title=\"Labstep Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a30508688b9be01bc5e543cb47ce9ac\">Labstep Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Labstep_Ltd.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Labstep Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4505d3ea99cce93530307eda0b74d096\">3<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Base version free to academia; Enterprise pricing not public\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_Edge_Software_Consultancy_Ltd.\" title=\"The Edge Software Consultancy Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bba6fa76abd035e8e7d8c09f0d5ab19\">The Edge Software Consultancy Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_Edge_Software_Consultancy_Ltd.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"The Edge Software Consultancy Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd20eba8b08a2a01c661d0276d5a5df1\">3<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/WebPathLab,_Inc.\" title=\"WebPathLab, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1174edfae7425822cc967d2f0169fbb3\">WebPathLab, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/WebPathLab,_Inc.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"WebPathLab, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76b35421bd0efa69409cade24bfb7d0d\">3<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Pay-per-report pricing made public\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Aiderbotics_Corporation\" title=\"Aiderbotics Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13b290c0aedad754f3de500f7c007c70\">Aiderbotics Corporation<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Aiderbotics_Corporation#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Aiderbotics Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3986e31c06f3bab869b0af22c95b019c\">2<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/BioInfoRx,_Inc.\" title=\"BioInfoRx, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c35df6582332a8f913b5b8b6b2e27c1a\">BioInfoRx, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/BioInfoRx,_Inc.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"BioInfoRx, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5035feb3b33ecc8c4aaa186d1aeb9c07\">2<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biomed_Systems_Ltd.\" title=\"Biomed Systems Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e52541ec9cbe7a9c1c530f5d01ea1ef1\">Biomed Systems Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biomed_Systems_Ltd.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Biomed Systems Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc00cbcbf665b9cf971643476449e28\">2<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">LIMS available with ELN as add-on\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/BioSistemika_LLC\" title=\"BioSistemika LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8ebc7d99ca5a21be4a6ee3549cdddc0\">BioSistemika LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/BioSistemika_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"BioSistemika LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4af831047c2562530b76d9252a563bb4\">2<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Broughton_Software_Ltd.\" title=\"Broughton Software Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36876bf9799791e657042de2ac8d8789\">Broughton Software Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Broughton_Software_Ltd.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Broughton Software Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"740127de2c1b35f24ad94960eeb7d8d5\">2<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; line-height: 50px; vertical-align: middle;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blaze_Systems_Corporation\" title=\"Blaze Systems Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb2aea14f6811852668d37103fd9190b\">Blaze Systems Corporation<\/a> <div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Vendor244.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c605e990b0fc76cbe1f3ef2bb8504f9\"><img alt=\"Vendor244.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/ac\/Vendor244.jpg\" width=\"100\" height=\"71\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blaze_Systems_Corporation#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Blaze Systems Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14b042101149f9bb467bba30fa266b56\">1<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bytewize_AB\" title=\"Bytewize AB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b7e72632dace83ccc9312311dc06e57\">Bytewize AB<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bytewize_AB#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Bytewize AB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33f783edb7e9cf6e06cf72e1cb20d500\">1<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Pricing only available for O3 LimsXpress.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/CloudLIMS.com,_LLC\" title=\"CloudLIMS.com, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1fd0120f26ee0671738287a672cb5d7f\">CloudLIMS.com, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/CloudLIMS.com,_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"CloudLIMS.com, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e63c7704136b7e271d9ff2d11859d8f8\">1<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dynamic_Databases,_LLC\" title=\"Dynamic Databases, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d14deba3fae14529fb9217061071efd8\">Dynamic Databases, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dynamic_Databases,_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Dynamic Databases, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5cb65bda68a05141df00f71778a68247\">1<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/JusticeTrax,_Inc.\" title=\"JusticeTrax, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce36173af358f2fd823c8fe50983f55a\">JusticeTrax, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/JusticeTrax,_Inc.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"JusticeTrax, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb2e3c3e3c37057acaeca2174fe71fc3\">1<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabWare,_Inc.\" title=\"LabWare, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34254ba2e2bbcd4ce616eba66db7d2f6\">LabWare, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabWare,_Inc.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"LabWare, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee2a01300383cb5bc6121c67231f129d\">1<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"> LIMS software with additional LIS-like functionality<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/PharmLabs,_LLC\" title=\"PharmLabs, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e140ebf43f4198454ce9c348d40797ba\">PharmLabs, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/PharmLabs,_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"PharmLabs, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53d0ecca444669816563dc4f3242353f\">1<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Promium,_LLC\" title=\"Promium, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd099d6b29039ad59a849f38770d01cc\">Promium, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Promium,_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Promium, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c1a8ef9858079152932bcfaf9366701\">1<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Red_Arrow_Labs,_LLC\" title=\"Red Arrow Labs, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b81b78787eac29cf3c9a87e87f0799b1\">Red Arrow Labs, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Red_Arrow_Labs,_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Red Arrow Labs, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9fe22ebca5a2902ecfafedc137c94b4\">1<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">LIMS formerly a product\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Apex_HealthWare,_LLC\" title=\"Apex HealthWare, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3049ccb3ad04f5dfd444d9b1dc9d67d7\">Apex HealthWare, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Apex_HealthWare,_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Apex HealthWare, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45e810e4163c3e37b145654680d9dca9\">0<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Pricing only available for cloud-based POL version.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ChemBytes\" title=\"ChemBytes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d70d945ed9cbf087854270847b17a199\">ChemBytes<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ChemBytes#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"ChemBytes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c88d0cd2a5a10565398aa555be936b19\">0<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dendi,_Inc.\" title=\"Dendi, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a64190a39a89f761d6698d46ea393200\">Dendi, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dendi,_Inc.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Dendi, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a111a8f471fec8b7f5af222087eec6d6\">0<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Findings_Software_SAS\" title=\"Findings Software SAS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78ceda488219315d70b7a6464f4ac9e3\">Findings Software SAS<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Findings_Software_SAS#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Findings Software SAS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc8570ba1c33f48dc5b199452e8ad94d\">0<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/FORMULATOR_Software,_LLC\" title=\"FORMULATOR Software, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9041092621bd9cac16bea9056071c4a\">FORMULATOR Software, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/FORMULATOR_Software,_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"FORMULATOR Software, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68a643e2dfc36d827c4709fc25466367\">0<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Genetic_Technologies,_Inc.\" title=\"Genetic Technologies, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0b4e58d41d67172a0a77e0438ec5803\">Genetic Technologies, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Genetic_Technologies,_Inc.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Genetic Technologies, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b81918324a6fa2957debe55ccc9b8595\">0<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hindline_Technologies_Pvt._Ltd.\" title=\"Hindline Technologies Pvt. Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7676535f6a61b39918afaea18dd65a60\">Hindline Technologies Pvt. Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hindline_Technologies_Pvt._Ltd.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Hindline Technologies Pvt. Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"846e1aabc1d33f47680a02865dc007e2\">0<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabPro_2000_Ltd.\" title=\"LabPro 2000 Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ee0d5be189b246e1361bdaaecc71374\">LabPro 2000 Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabPro_2000_Ltd.#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"LabPro 2000 Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5d40ae78b51ed273b802d7faa36bd27\">0<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabSpace,_LLC\" title=\"LabSpace, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c8ac2f4ba5488ed5871231fe453d2d7\">LabSpace, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabSpace,_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"LabSpace, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8218ffcc36b267c8caf322eda0575e7\">0<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/INTEGRIS_LIMS_GmbH\" title=\"INTEGRIS LIMS GmbH\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d40e4f2def2349fe04a1e7797df73ff\">INTEGRIS LIMS GmbH<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/INTEGRIS_LIMS_GmbH#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"INTEGRIS LIMS GmbH\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c48e99d06e9753eaa7ffada47d92b8b6\">0<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Pricing available for \"Small lab solution\"\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Mountain_States_Consulting,_LLC\" title=\"Mountain States Consulting, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07aa1abcf286c45d2d5f3b6713e6d43d\">Mountain States Consulting, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Mountain_States_Consulting,_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Mountain States Consulting, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ede02bcc155a2e10f10e1f005d0787a9\">0<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Progeny_Software,_LLC\" title=\"Progeny Software, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68a5e1e206d438b6497ca60780c1a3be\">Progeny Software, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Progeny_Software,_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Progeny Software, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"83c321b6484cff5244cd019ac6b57ab8\">0<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Shazino_SAS\" title=\"Shazino SAS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"82033ad38126416056f1272926cf8aa5\">shazino SAS<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Shazino_SAS#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Shazino SAS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6836033ec811d1807bdf3694c32fd482\">0<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Terra_Systems_O%C3%9C\" title=\"Terra Systems O\u00dc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6bde0a4a2ed9a0481c4b81149d066846\">Terra Systems O\u00dc<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Terra_Systems_O%C3%9C#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Terra Systems O\u00dc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a0725dceb5c1abd196ee7d3c2df4617\">0<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"> Pricing only available for MiniLIS, not other products.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Wixon_and_Cross,_LLC\" title=\"Wixon and Cross, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f9ddae3f43c6e73a3ed6b2883c6c0f4\">Wixon and Cross, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Wixon_and_Cross,_LLC#Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\" title=\"Wixon and Cross, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cab89de21b4d885487a888b3c072350c\">0<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<\/div>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Additional_resources_and_help\">Additional resources and help<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMSforum\">LIMSforum<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Formerly a LinkedIn-associated group, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsforum.com\" target=\"_blank\">LIMSforum<\/a> is a web portal for those interested in laboratory, scientific, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_informatics\" title=\"Health informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"055eb51f53cfdbacc08ed150b266c9f4\">health informatics<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMSforum_Career_Opportunities\">LIMSforum Career Opportunities<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Formerly the LinkedIn-associated Lab Careers group, LIMSforum's <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/career-opportunities\/\" target=\"_blank\">career opportunities<\/a> section is available for the viewing and posting of job openings for laboratory, scientific, and health lab careers.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMSforum_Online_Courses\">LIMSforum Online Courses<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Formerly LIMS University, the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/labcourses\/\" target=\"_blank\">laboratory courses<\/a> at LIMSforum provide free, open-access learning and teaching resources for those wanting to learn more about <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMSfinder\">LIMSfinder<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">LIMSfinder<\/a> is a web portal for those looking for a LIMS and related information, services, products, news, events, resources, jobs, etc.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMSpec.com\">LIMSpec.com<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limspec.com\/index.php?title=Main_Page\" data-key=\"62e752c1baccff86d81df457014724e5\">LIMSpec.com<\/a> provides a collection of datasheets \u2014 from lab requirements assessment to LIMS vendor and system questionnaires, validation documents, and more \u2014 for identifying LIMS needs and matching them with what's out there.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMSwiki_informatics_resource_portal\">LIMSwiki informatics resource portal<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSWiki:Resources\" title=\"LIMSWiki:Resources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96ec340066c65cd990e5ce5deb9ccaf3\">The informatics resource portal<\/a> here at LIMSwiki features a collection of as many useful online scientific and health informatics-related materials and research tools as possible, including books, journals, blogs, web portals, education programs, conferences, and more.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-LII-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LII_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=31049_0_3_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Informatics Institute Established\"<\/a>. Laboratory Informatics Institute, Inc. 17 July 2006<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=31049_0_3_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=31049_0_3_0_C<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 September 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Laboratory+Informatics+Institute+Established&rft.atitle=&rft.date=17+July+2006&rft.pub=Laboratory+Informatics+Institute%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.limsfinder.com%2FBlogDetail.aspx%3Fid%3D31049_0_3_0_C&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory,_Scientific,_and_Health_Informatics_Buyer%27s_Guide\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LBGOrig-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LBGOrig_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/limsbook.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The LIMSbook ...everything about LIMS\"<\/a>. Laboratory Informatics Institute, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/limsbook.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/limsbook.com\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 September 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+LIMSbook+...everything+about+LIMS&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Laboratory+Informatics+Institute%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flimsbook.com%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory,_Scientific,_and_Health_Informatics_Buyer%27s_Guide\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OOaLOpen-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OOaLOpen_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Metrick, Gloria (15 August 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/outonalims.com\/2011\/08\/15\/understanding-openness-and-other-marketing-tactics-in-laboratory-informatics-and-other-industries\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Understanding Openness and Other Marketing Tactics in Laboratory Informatics and Other Industries\"<\/a>. GeoMetrick Enterprises<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/outonalims.com\/2011\/08\/15\/understanding-openness-and-other-marketing-tactics-in-laboratory-informatics-and-other-industries\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/outonalims.com\/2011\/08\/15\/understanding-openness-and-other-marketing-tactics-in-laboratory-informatics-and-other-industries\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 September 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Understanding+Openness+and+Other+Marketing+Tactics+in+Laboratory+Informatics+and+Other+Industries&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Metrick%2C+Gloria&rft.au=Metrick%2C+Gloria&rft.date=15+August+2011&rft.pub=GeoMetrick+Enterprises&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foutonalims.com%2F2011%2F08%2F15%2Funderstanding-openness-and-other-marketing-tactics-in-laboratory-informatics-and-other-industries%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory,_Scientific,_and_Health_Informatics_Buyer%27s_Guide\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IFlowJourn-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-IFlowJourn_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Allen, Thomas J.; Cohen, Stephen I. (1969). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/2391357\" target=\"_blank\">\"Information Flow in Research and Development Laboratories\"<\/a>. <i>Administrative Science Quarterly<\/i> <b>14<\/b> (1): 12\u201319<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/2391357\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/2391357<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 September 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Information+Flow+in+Research+and+Development+Laboratories&rft.jtitle=Administrative+Science+Quarterly&rft.aulast=Allen%2C+Thomas+J.%3B+Cohen%2C+Stephen+I.&rft.au=Allen%2C+Thomas+J.%3B+Cohen%2C+Stephen+I.&rft.date=1969&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12%E2%80%9319&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2391357&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory,_Scientific,_and_Health_Informatics_Buyer%27s_Guide\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labware.com\/en\/p\/Industries\/Clinical-Lab-Information-Management\" target=\"_blank\">\"Clinical Lab Information Management\"<\/a>. LabWare, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labware.com\/en\/p\/Industries\/Clinical-Lab-Information-Management\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.labware.com\/en\/p\/Industries\/Clinical-Lab-Information-Management<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 22 September 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Clinical+Lab+Information+Management&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=LabWare%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.labware.com%2Fen%2Fp%2FIndustries%2FClinical-Lab-Information-Management&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory,_Scientific,_and_Health_Informatics_Buyer%27s_Guide\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203047\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.232 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.833 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 3126\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 15786\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20200\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 7722\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 109.237 1 - -total\n 80.59% 88.031 5 - Template:Citation\/core\n 73.18% 79.942 4 - Template:Cite_web\n 18.41% 20.114 1 - Template:Cite_journal\n 5.34% 5.835 5 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 5.27% 5.753 1 - Template:Ombox\n 3.19% 3.482 1 - Template:Ombox\/core\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:4438-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403203045 and revision id 35222\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory,_Scientific,_and_Health_Informatics_Buyer%27s_Guide\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory,_Scientific,_and_Health_Informatics_Buyer%27s_Guide<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","7425071817da7746e6c36f293d487eb4_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/fa\/Emil_Christian_Hansen_in_the_lab_by_Frederik_Riise.jpg","https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/thumb\/e\/eb\/Blue_check.svg\/80px-Blue_check.svg.png","https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/f\/f5\/LLX_Current_Logo_277.jpg","https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a8\/Vendor667.jpg","https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/e\/e3\/Vendor284.jpg","https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/ac\/Vendor244.jpg"],"7425071817da7746e6c36f293d487eb4_timestamp":1554323445,"da3f96536cf2c54de1960f26fe5712a1_type":"article","da3f96536cf2c54de1960f26fe5712a1_title":"LabLynx, Inc.","da3f96536cf2c54de1960f26fe5712a1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabLynx,_Inc.","da3f96536cf2c54de1960f26fe5712a1_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tLabLynx, Inc.\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tLabLynx, Inc.\nType\n \nIncorporatedIndustry\n \nLaboratory informaticsFounded\n \nJuly 24, 2000[1]Founder(s)\n \nJohn H. JonesHeadquarters\n \n2400 Lake Park Drive\r\nSuite 435\r\nSmyrna, Georgia 30080 , U.S.\r\n1-866-LABLYNX Area served\n \nWorldwideProducts\n \n\n Products list\n ELab\r\nHealth Cloud Hub\r\nLiMStudio\r\nwebLIMS\nRevenue\n \n~ $10 million[2]Employees\n \n20+[2]Website\n \nLabLynx.com LinkedIn\n \nhttps:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/company\/209217\n\nLabLynx, Inc. is a privately owned, funded, and managed American corporation that develops, supports, and markets laboratory information management system (LIMS) solutions. Its most well-known product is webLIMS, a browser-based LIMS offered as a local installation or under a scalable, hosted \"software as a service\" (SaaS) delivery model. The company\u2019s primary clients include laboratories in the agriculture, clinical, environmental, forensics, health care, and manufacturing industries, including government agencies.[3] The company is known for introducing one of the first browser-based LIMS products in 1997[4][5] and being a long-term player in the laboratory informatics market.\n\nContents\n\n1 History \n\n1.1 Community history \n\n\n2 Technology and products \n\n2.1 ELab \n2.2 LabVia \n\n2.2.1 Product Features \n\n\n2.3 Pricing \n\n2.3.1 ELab \n\n\n2.4 Demonstration videos and other media \n2.5 Additional information \n\n\n3 External links \n4 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nBefore LabLynx was a company, it was a LIMS product offered by Atlanta Systems Consultants, Inc. (ASC).[6][7] Formed in 1992,[8] ASC's LabLynx division later began work on a laboratory information management system designed specifically for a web browser. ASC demonstrated its new Internet Explorer-based LabLynx LIMS at Pittcon in 1997, among the first browser-based LIMS to appear at the time.[4][5] The company again showcased LabLynx at Pittcon in 1998[9] and soon after picked up a major LIMS-based contract with the U.S. Customs Service.[10]\n\n\n\n\nBy July 2000, the LabLynx division of ASC separated to become its own incorporated entity.[1] And while ASC eventually ceased to exist in 2005,[8] LabLynx, Inc. went on to diversify its offerings. LabLynx\u2019s browser-based LIMS previously demonstrated at Pittcon in 1997 expanded to become ELab, which in 2001 took on an application service provider (ASP) model of distribution.[11] In 2004 LabLynx released a browser-based tool called openLIMS, which gave consultants and end-users the ability \"to build custom LIMS solutions that are geared to the exact operational needs of many different laboratories.\"[12]\nOn June 19, 2006, LabLynx established the Laboratory Informatics Institute, an open membership group with the purpose of advancing the field of laboratory informatics and shaping the standards associated with it.[13] LabLynx made further moves to better its LIMS offerings in August 2008, renewing and expanding its contract with Nagarro, Inc., a U.S.-based technology consulting firm. The collaboration allowed LabLynx to upgrade its existing LIMS software to .NET architecture and expand its initiative to create and market a SaaS-based LIMS.[14] Less than a year after the announced renewed partnership, LabLynx revealed its redeveloped webLIMS product to the public, featuring ELab in a SaaS model and additional integration of developer tools to allow users to create and modify modules for the LIMS.[15][16] This move to a cloud-based SaaS model brought renewed interest in the company\u2019s LIMS, with clients like the Georgia Department of Agriculture[17] and Cypress Bioscience[18][19] taking on the new LIMS.\nIn 2011, LabLynx was involved in an initiative to standardize and structure the transmission of laboratory data that first originates in a LIMS or LIS and then moves to a person's or population of people's electronic health records.[20] This laboratory results interface (LRI) pilot began in August 2011 and included collaborations with the supported open source project mdDigest and the U.S. Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONC).[21]\nIn February 2015, LabLynx announced the introduction of HealthCloudPOL, a cloud-based laboratory information system (LIS) for the physician office laboratory (POL), making the basic starter package free to users.[22][23] That product line soon after changed names, becoming sciCloud.net, though as of January 2018 that product line had not fully launched.\n\nCommunity history \nSince transitioning from Atlanta Systems Consultants, Inc. to LabLynx, Inc. in 2000, LabLynx has become increasingly active in the laboratory informatics community. Projects that LabLynx has started or been involved in within the community include:\n\n the Laboratory Informatics Institute, an open trade association with the mission of educating, standardizing, and promoting the laboratory informatics industry[13]\n LIMSfinder, an online interactive magazine released by the Laboratory Informatics Institute that aims to be \"the best resource for information technology in the laboratory\"[24]\n LIMSbook, a LIMS buyer\u2019s guide released by the Laboratory Informatics Institute[25]\n LIMSforum, a LinkedIn discussion group created to facilitate the exchange of ideas and technical information across the fields of laboratory, science, and health informatics[26][27]; this later became a stand-alone community web portal.[28]\n LIMSuniversity, an open-access learning resource released by the Laboratory Informatics Institute, targeted towards laboratories and the LIMS community[29]\n LIMSwiki, a Creative Commons-licensed wiki with the goal of bringing related informatics communities together to maintain a repository of information about the industry[30]\nTechnology and products \nELab \nELab is a hosted software as a service (SaaS) laboratory information management system (LIMS) + laboratory information system (LIS). Introduced in 2009 as webLIMS[15], ELab \"offers complete functionality for every type of lab - at a price that's affordable.\"[31] The software can be hosted in the cloud or self-hosted.\n\nLabVia \nLabVia is a middleware hardware\/software-based hub that \"intelligently manages multiple data communications between all kinds of devices, services, systems or other sources.\"[32]\n\nProduct Features \n\n\n\n \n The following feature list(s) is\/are derived solely from public, freely-available online information the vendor provides. A lack of a \"Y\" does not necessarily mean that the product doesn't have that feature. The lack of a \"Y\" could mean:\n the vendor chose to not put relevant feature information online despite its existence in the product.\n the vendor chooses to make the feature information available only to those who create an account or call\/e-mail.\n the feature information exists online to the public, but a URL could not be found to cite the existence of the feature.\n the feature does not exist for the product.\nA vendor's product may receive more confirmed features with the addition of more public information to the vendor's site and\/or by providing a URL to a page or document that can act as a citation for the existence of the feature. Prospective buyers are highly recommended to contact the vendor directly to verify features as this list isn't authoritative, and product upgrades and changes happen rapidly in some cases.\r\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Product: ELab\n\n\n Sample, inventory, and data managementSample login and management?Y[31]Sample tracking?Y[31]Sample and\/or result batching?Y[31]Task and event scheduling?Y[31]Option for manual result entry?Y[31]Multiple data viewing methods?Y[31]Data and trend analysis?Y[31]Data and equipment sharing?Y[31]Customizable fields and\/or interface?Y[31]Query capability?Y[31]Import data?Y[31]Internal file or data linking?Y[31]External file or data linking?Y[31]ELN support or integration?Y[31]Export data to MS Excel?Y[31]Raw data management?Y[31]Data warehouse?Y[31]Deadline control?Y[31]Production control?Y[31]Project and\/or task management?Y[31]Inventory management?Y[31]Document creation and\/or management?Y[31]Case management?Y[31]Workflow management?Y[31]Specification management?Y[31]Customer and supplier management?Y[31]Billing management?Y[31]Quality, security, and complianceRegulatory compliance?Y[31]QA \/ QC functions?Y[31]Performance evaluation?Y[31]Audit trail?Y[31]Chain of custody?Y[31]Configurable roles and security?Y[31]Data normalization?Y[31]Data validation?Y[31]Data encryption?Y[31]Version control?Y[31]Automatic data backup?Y[31]Environmental monitoring?Y[31]Reporting, barcoding, and printingCustom reporting?Y[31]Report printing?Y[31]Label support?Y[31]Barcode support?Y[31]Export to PDF?Y[31]Export to MS Word?Y[31]Export to HTML and\/or XML?Y[31]Fax integration?Y[31]Email integration?Y[31]Base functionalityAdministrator management?Y[31]Modular?Instrument interfacing and management?Y[31]Mobile device integration?Y[31]Alarms and\/or alerts?Y[31]Work-related time tracking?Y[31]Voice recognition system?External monitoring?Y[31]Messaging?Y[31]Multilingual?Y[31]Network-capable?Y[31]Web client or portal?Y[31]Online or integrated help?Y[31]Software as a service delivery model?Y[31]Usage-based cost?Industries servedagriculture, cannabis, chemical, clinical research, contract services, cosmetic, environmental, food and beverage, geology and mining, law enforcement and forensic, general, health care, manufacturing and R&D, material testing, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, toxicology, veterinary\n\n\n\n\nPricing \nELab \nSource for pricing information is directly from LabLynx. Additional pricing information can be gleaned from GSA Avantage. As prices may change at any time, always contact the vendor directly to obtain a price list or quote.\n\n\nDemonstration videos and other media \nThe following demonstration videos are available for ELab:\n\n LabLynx Solutions\n LabLynx: A Guide to the Company\n LIMS: The Laboratory ERP\n LIMS and ISO 17025\n The LabLynx ELab LIMS for Water\/Wastewater and Environmental Labs\n The LabLynx ELab LIMS for Medical Examiners\n The LabLynx ELab LIMS for Pharmaceutical Labs\n ELab - Key Functions and Topics\n ELab: FOG Functionality\n ELab: Sample Login and Receiving in ELab\n ELab: Sample Receiving \u2013 In Depth\n ELab: Local and Remote Accessioning\n ELab: Data Entry - Manual, Bulk, Importing, and Instrument Interfaces\n ELab: External Interfaces, Queries, and Exporting Data\n ELab: Case Coordination\n ELab: Project Receiving\n ELab: Benchsheets\n ELab: Analysis Price Quoting and Invoicing\n ELab: Invoicing - Special Pricing, Editing and Tracking Invoices\n ELab: e-Signatures\n ELab: Password Management and Session Timeout\n ELab: Work Assignment and Tracking\n ELab: Inventory of Stocks, Standards, and Reagents\n ELab: Creating Storage Locations\n ELab: Changing Field Captions and Labels\n ELab: Instrument Calibration and Maintenance Management\n ELab: Creating and Editing Custom Reports\n ELab: Tracking and Versioning Reports\n ELab: Security Access Control\n ELab: Audit Trail\n ELab: Results Trending, QC Charting, and Limits Update\n ELab: Analyte and Test Group Management\n ELab: Creating and Managing Picklists\n ELab: System Setup\n ELab: Training Management and Certification Tracking\n ELab: Forensic Case Management\nAdditional information \nExternal links \n Official website\n LIMSforum community portal\n LIMSwiki site\n LabLynx on Vimeo\n LabLynx on YouTube\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 \"Business Entity \u2013 LabLynx, Inc.\". Georgia Secretary of State. https:\/\/ecorp.sos.ga.gov\/BusinessSearch\/BusinessInformation?businessId=33586 . Retrieved 29 December 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 \"LabLynx, Inc.\". Owler, Inc. https:\/\/www.owler.com\/iaApp\/505814\/lablynx-company-profile . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Internet Software and Services \u2013 LabLynx, Inc.\". Bloomberg Business. Bloomberg L.P.. http:\/\/investing.businessweek.com\/research\/stocks\/private\/snapshot.asp?privcapId=40482985 . Retrieved 22 October 2011 .   \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 \"LIMSource: LIMS Vendor: LabLynx, Inc.\". Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20071012123126\/http:\/\/www.limsource.com\/products\/vatlanta.html . Retrieved 22 October 2011 .   \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 McGinnis, Mike and Norman Perkins (2003). \"I. Wireless LANs\". LIMS Workbook - A Practical Guide (3rd ed.). Q2marketsite, Inc. pp. I-16. ASIN B00161Y71K.   \n\n\u2191 \"LABLynx On The Web\". Archived from the original on 25 January 1998. http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19990125100717\/http:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/ . Retrieved 22 October 2011 .   \n\n\u2191 \"LABLynx on the Web\" (PDF). Florida Department of Health. 8 March 2000. Archived from the original on 31 August 2004. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20040831183340\/http:\/\/www.doh.state.fl.us\/Irm\/Apps\/ihis\/JADS\/deh\/Market%20Research\/background\/asc_website.pdf . Retrieved 29 December 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 \"Business Entity \u2013 Atlanta Systems Consultants, Inc.\". Georgia Secretary of State. https:\/\/ecorp.sos.ga.gov\/BusinessSearch\/BusinessInformation?businessId=863106 . Retrieved 29 December 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"LIMSource: Calendar: Pittcon \u201998 Preview\". Archived from the original on 29 May 1998. http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980529121944\/http:\/\/www.limsource.com\/calendar\/pitt98.html . Retrieved 22 October 2011 .   \n\n\u2191 \"70 -- Laboratory Information Management Software (LIMS) (07\/30\/98)\". FedBizOpps. http:\/\/www.fbodaily.com\/cbd\/archive\/1998\/07(July)\/30-Jul-1998\/70awd003.htm . Retrieved 22 October 2011 .   \n\n\u2191 \"LIMSource: LIMS Vendor: Atlanta Systems Consultants, Inc.\". Archived from the original on 9 April 2001. http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20010409200118\/http:\/\/www.limsource.com\/products\/vatlanta.html . Retrieved 22 October 2011 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Build your own LIMS: News from LabLynx\". LaboratoryTalk.com. Pro-Talk Ltd. 6 January 2004. Archived from the original on 19 April 2012. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120419143618\/http:\/\/www.laboratorytalk.com\/news\/lbl\/lbl100.html . Retrieved 29 December 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 13.0 13.1 \"Laboratory Informatics Institute Established\". Laboratory Informatics Institute, Inc.. 17 July 2006. Archived from the original on 27 October 2016. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161027121044\/http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=31049_0_3_0_C . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 \"LABLynx Extends Contract with Nagarro to Include Additional Product Development and SaaS Projects\". Nagarro, Inc. 20 August 2008. Archived from the original on 16 July 2012. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120716033503\/http:\/\/nagarro.com\/NewsEvents\/Press%20Releases\/LABLynx%20Extends%20Contract%20with.aspx . Retrieved 29 December 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 15.0 15.1 \"LabLynx launches the new webLiMS.com, Laboratory SaaS Provider\". Argyle News. 6 March 2009. Archived from the original on 04 March 2016. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304101223\/http:\/\/scienceandresearch.argylenews.com\/press_release.aspx?LabLynx-launches-the-new-webLiMScom-Laboratory-SaaS-Provider-542 . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Weblims \u2013 LabLynx\". Scientific Computing World. 6 March 2009. https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/press-releases\/weblims . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 Mullin, Rick (24 May 2010). \"LIMS In The Cloud\". Chemical & Engineering News. American Chemical Society. http:\/\/cen.acs.org\/articles\/88\/i21\/LIMS-Cloud.html . Retrieved 29 December 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Dubin, Cindy (29 July 2010). \"SaaS Model Turns LIMS Paradigm On Its Head\". Pharmaceutical Online. VertMarkets, Inc. http:\/\/www.pharmaceuticalonline.com\/doc\/saas-model-turns-lims-paradigm-on-its-0001 . Retrieved 29 December 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"SaaS - Is a web hosted LIMS right for your laboratory?\". LabLynx, Inc. 15 August 2009. Archived from the original on 09 May 2012. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120509064611\/http:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/ArticlesBlogs\/tabid\/326\/articleType\/ArticleView\/articleId\/13\/SaaS--Is-a-web-hosted-LIMS-right-for-your-laboratory.aspx . Retrieved 29 December 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Clarke, Ann (2011). Laboratory Results Interface (LRI) Pilots Guide (v0.9.4.093011 ed.). LabLynx\/mdDigest. pp. 1\u20132. Archived from the original on 12 August 2014. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140812142427\/http:\/\/wiki.siframework.org\/file\/view\/LRI_Pilots_Guide_Draft_v0_9_4_093011.docx .   \n\n\u2191 \"PROJECT BRIEF: LabLynx\/mdDigest Pilot\". LabLynx\/mdDigest. Archived from the original on 12 August 2016. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140812142106\/http:\/\/wiki.siframework.org\/LabLynx+Pilot+Brief . Retrieved 16 January 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 LabLynx, Inc (February 2015). \"Security, Reliability, and Regulatory Compliance: healthcloudpol.com\". LinkedIn Corporation. https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/company\/lablynx-inc.\/comments?topic=5979788253375520768&type=U&scope=209217&stype=C&a=NHFX . Retrieved 29 December 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"HealthCloudPOL \u2014 the FREE Cloud-based Physician Office LIS\". LabLynx, Inc. Archived from the original on 14 March 2015. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150314182554\/www.healthcloudpol.com . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 \"LIMSfinder Home\". Laboratory Informatics Institute, Inc.. Archived from the original on 06 March 2017. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170306214114\/http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/Home.aspx . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 \"The LIMS Book\". Laboratory Informatics Institute, Inc.. Archived from the original on 04 January 2014. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140104091826\/http:\/\/limsbook.com\/ . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Lablynx - latest company news\". LaboratoryTalk.com. Pro-Talk Ltd. 25 August 2009. Archived from the original on 19 April 2012. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120419143627\/http:\/\/www.laboratorytalk.com\/news\/lbl\/lbl103.html . Retrieved 29 December 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"LiMS forum - Laboratory Informatics Institute user's group for LIMS, Scientific & Health Informatics\". LinkedIn.com. http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups?about=&gid=2069898 . Retrieved 22 October 2011 .   \n\n\u2191 \"LiMSForum\". LabLynx, Inc. https:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/ . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 \"LiMSuniversity.com, the on-line, Open Access, Virtual Learning Center for Laboratory Informatics users and professionals\". Laboratory Informatics Institute, Inc.. 4 April 2011. Archived from the original on 06 March 2017. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170306214123\/http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=35134_0_25_0_C . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 \"LIMSwiki mission\". 4 June 2015. https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSwiki_mission . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 31.00 31.01 31.02 31.03 31.04 31.05 31.06 31.07 31.08 31.09 31.10 31.11 31.12 31.13 31.14 31.15 31.16 31.17 31.18 31.19 31.20 31.21 31.22 31.23 31.24 31.25 31.26 31.27 31.28 31.29 31.30 31.31 31.32 31.33 31.34 31.35 31.36 31.37 31.38 31.39 31.40 31.41 31.42 31.43 31.44 31.45 31.46 31.47 31.48 31.49 31.50 31.51 31.52 31.53 31.54 31.55 31.56 31.57 31.58 31.59 31.60 \"Laboratory Management System (LIMS\/LIS\/LES)\". LabLynx, Inc. https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/weblims\/ . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 \"LabVia\". LabLynx, Inc. https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/eai\/ . Retrieved 26 January 2018 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabLynx,_Inc.\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabLynx,_Inc.<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Agriculture LIMSCannabis LIMSChemical LIMSClinical LISClinical research LIMSCloud-based LIMSCloud-based LISContract services LIMSCosmetic LIMSEnvironmental LIMSFood and beverage LIMSGeneral LIMSGeneral LISGeology and mining LIMSHealth care LIMSLabLynx KB:ArticlesLabLynx, Inc.Law enforcement and forensic LIMSLIMS vendorManufacturing and R&D LIMSMaterial testing LIMSPetrochemical LIMSPharmaceutical LIMSToxicology LIMSVeterinary LIS\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 4 March 2019, at 20:59.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 71,493 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","da3f96536cf2c54de1960f26fe5712a1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-LabLynx_Inc skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LabLynx, Inc.<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\">\n<p><b>LabLynx, Inc.<\/b> is a privately owned, funded, and managed American corporation that develops, supports, and markets <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) solutions. Its most well-known product is webLIMS, a browser-based LIMS offered as a local installation or under a scalable, hosted \"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a>\" (SaaS) delivery model. The company\u2019s primary clients include <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratories<\/a> in the agriculture, clinical, environmental, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Forensic_science\" title=\"Forensic science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"415d36a7b65494677b6d2873d5febec1\">forensics<\/a>, health care, and manufacturing industries, including government agencies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The company is known for introducing one of the first browser-based LIMS products in 1997<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LS_prod_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LS_prod-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LIMSwb_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LIMSwb-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> and being a long-term player in the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> market.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Before LabLynx was a company, it was a LIMS product offered by Atlanta Systems Consultants, Inc. (ASC).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LLX_archive1_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LLX_archive1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-doh_fl_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-doh_fl-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Formed in 1992,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SoS_asc_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SoS_asc-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> ASC's LabLynx division later began work on a laboratory information management system designed specifically for a web browser. ASC demonstrated its new Internet Explorer-based LabLynx LIMS at in 1997, among the first browser-based LIMS to appear at the time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LS_prod_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LS_prod-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LIMSwb_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LIMSwb-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> The company again showcased LabLynx at Pittcon in 1998<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LS_pitt98_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LS_pitt98-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> and soon after picked up a major LIMS-based contract with the U.S. Customs Service.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FBO_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FBO-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"col-sm-4 pull-right\">\n<div class=\"thumbnail img-thumbnail\"><div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:2400_Lake_Park_Drive,_Smyrna,_Georgia.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" title=\"LabLynx home office\" data-key=\"70cb5f875b283dc364fc1b269193e69f\"><img alt=\"LabLynx home office\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/c2\/2400_Lake_Park_Drive%2C_Smyrna%2C_Georgia.jpg\" width=\"350\" height=\"263\" \/><\/a><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>By July 2000, the LabLynx division of ASC separated to become its own incorporated entity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SoS_llx_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SoS_llx-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> And while ASC eventually ceased to exist in 2005,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SoS_asc_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SoS_asc-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> LabLynx, Inc. went on to diversify its offerings. LabLynx\u2019s browser-based LIMS previously demonstrated at Pittcon in 1997 expanded to become ELab, which in 2001 took on an application service provider (ASP) model of distribution.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LS_prod2_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LS_prod2-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> In 2004 LabLynx released a browser-based tool called openLIMS, which gave consultants and end-users the ability \"to build custom LIMS solutions that are geared to the exact operational needs of many different laboratories.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On June 19, 2006, LabLynx established the Laboratory Informatics Institute, an open membership group with the purpose of advancing the field of laboratory informatics and shaping the standards associated with it.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LII_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LII-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> LabLynx made further moves to better its LIMS offerings in August 2008, renewing and expanding its contract with Nagarro, Inc., a U.S.-based technology consulting firm. The collaboration allowed LabLynx to upgrade its existing LIMS software to .NET architecture and expand its initiative to create and market a SaaS-based LIMS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nagarro1_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nagarro1-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Less than a year after the announced renewed partnership, LabLynx revealed its redeveloped webLIMS product to the public, featuring ELab in a SaaS model and additional integration of developer tools to allow users to create and modify modules for the LIMS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-webLIMS1_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-webLIMS1-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-webLIMS2_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-webLIMS2-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> This move to a cloud-based SaaS model brought renewed interest in the company\u2019s LIMS, with clients like the Georgia Department of Agriculture<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChemEng1_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChemEng1-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> and Cypress Bioscience<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> taking on the new LIMS.\n<\/p><p>In 2011, LabLynx was involved in an initiative to standardize and structure the transmission of laboratory data that first originates in a LIMS or LIS and then moves to a person's or population of people's <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_health_record\" title=\"Electronic health record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2e31a73217185bb01389404c1fd5255\">electronic health records<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> This laboratory results interface (LRI) pilot began in August 2011 and included collaborations with the supported open source project mdDigest and the U.S. Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology (ONC).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In February 2015, LabLynx announced the introduction of HealthCloudPOL, a cloud-based <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information system<\/a> (LIS) for the physician office laboratory (POL), making the basic starter package free to users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HCPOL_LinkedIn_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HCPOL_LinkedIn-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HCPOLArch_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HCPOLArch-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> That product line soon after changed names, becoming sciCloud.net, though as of January 2018 that product line had not fully launched.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Community_history\">Community history<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Since transitioning from Atlanta Systems Consultants, Inc. to LabLynx, Inc. in 2000, LabLynx has become increasingly active in the laboratory informatics community. Projects that LabLynx has started or been involved in within the community include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> the Laboratory Informatics Institute, an open trade association with the mission of educating, standardizing, and promoting the laboratory informatics industry<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LII_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LII-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li> LIMSfinder, an online interactive magazine released by the Laboratory Informatics Institute that aims to be \"the best resource for information technology in the laboratory\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li> LIMSbook, a LIMS buyer\u2019s guide released by the Laboratory Informatics Institute<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li> LIMSforum, a LinkedIn discussion group created to facilitate the exchange of ideas and technical information across the fields of laboratory, science, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_informatics\" title=\"Health informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"055eb51f53cfdbacc08ed150b266c9f4\">health informatics<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>; this later became a stand-alone community web portal.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LIMSForumSite_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LIMSForumSite-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li> LIMSuniversity, an open-access learning resource released by the Laboratory Informatics Institute, targeted towards laboratories and the LIMS community<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li> LIMSwiki, a Creative Commons-licensed wiki with the goal of bringing related informatics communities together to maintain a repository of information about the industry<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technology_and_products\">Technology and products<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ELab\">ELab<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>ELab is a hosted <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> (SaaS) <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) + <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information system<\/a> (LIS). Introduced in 2009 as webLIMS<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-webLIMS1_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-webLIMS1-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>, ELab \"offers complete functionality for every type of lab - at a price that's affordable.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> The software can be hosted in the cloud or self-hosted.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LabVia\">LabVia<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>LabVia is a middleware hardware\/software-based hub that \"intelligently manages multiple data communications between all kinds of devices, services, systems or other sources.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabVia_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabVia-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Product_Features\">Product Features<\/span><\/h4>\n\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" style=\"border-style:none;\" border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\"> Product: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/Products\/webLiMScom\/tabid\/237\/Default.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">ELab<\/a>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; border-style:none;\"> <table class=\"databox collabsible\" cellspacing=\"5\" style=\"width:22em; margin:0 0 0 0; padding:0; float:left; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-collapse:collapse; width:280px;\"><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Sample, inventory, and data management<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_login_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98071177bc94b23b88297692a3a52005\">Sample login and management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4622d31a3236faeab999eee2d2493313\">Sample tracking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_and_result_batching\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4616ac6ee0e19b94e4dbaa51df9c799\">Sample and\/or result batching?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f358fd26f821c76edf862b7dee946f8\">Task and event scheduling?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Option_for_manual_result_entry\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"621709a9ae6a8b6bb4f2de549e344b5c\">Option for manual result entry?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Multiple_data_viewing_methods\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88041a37ca09479d4858d43199e187b2\">Multiple data viewing methods?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_and_trend_analysis\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1539cd55185863ffbb2284c2b5cc14d5\">Data and trend analysis?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_and_equipment_sharing\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc0f0b1238edddbf7f495d253e27e7c9\">Data and equipment sharing?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customizable_fields_and.2For_interface\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"541386f8b0249149ca54737c459828d0\">Customizable fields and\/or interface?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Query_capability\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0ca33e764fc74bb1de10416b0561a27\">Query capability?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Import_data\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50124e3027d3b3bcb1801c0adb042e82\">Import data?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Internal_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e535cc310bda347927d684c2b50f959a\">Internal file or data linking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#External_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5fe00aac17d418abd170f40c01b923e\">External file or data linking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#ELN_support_or_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6a4efca41b1810ae03ddf7ebcffcb25\">ELN support or integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_MS_Excel\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85c5b88d0a67d8a91af0fe101dd7f9b4\">Export data to MS Excel?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Raw_data_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cca7f6e63ef148ca5cf28164361cc503\">Raw data management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_warehouse\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3082d0bb37d14d6ab62b393bd2834094\">Data warehouse?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Deadline_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc8fea028df4821085de3db1d02476a8\">Deadline control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Production_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"add9164269d9ecfd27c163f9c50e2469\">Production control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Project_and.2For_task_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0b65cad4546629d814bd000b0c6836a\">Project and\/or task management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"922cb0190a1750c3545849959a860288\">Inventory management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd9e325ecd80a3deb3b4aa2159bc0eda\">Document creation and\/or management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Case_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91a43f1107cf4cfbf9fb8ea707bead64\">Case management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"233ebf71073035e741a5acf410dc8242\">Workflow management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Specification_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2bd724c42ae9a6a8cc382720d399154\">Specification management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customer_and_supplier_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ee1c9037a1a9e877bca2bb7821de8d\">Customer and supplier management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Billing_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a2e904b24f87cdc1232ce7370774d8c\">Billing management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Quality, security, and compliance<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e58f73cb3d51704d053508c71fae968\">Regulatory compliance?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#QA.2FQC_functions\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2bf55c170c7429ac892dd177aaa2e2\">QA \/ QC functions?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Performance_evaluation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba19c1d4cef221fdadce596bafe8bea3\">Performance evaluation?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d184d528c3d8bec99c88b45a9e026379\">Audit trail?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Chain_of_custody\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57c608855a16e5bdf3db2a1f6abb50db\">Chain of custody?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">Configurable roles and security?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_normalization\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df6840ac3ee14b940990e04bfe4fed70\">Data normalization?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148c3f13ce1e0562e2d8b33c7002622e\">Data validation?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_encryption\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"075eb206aa07fb4b3f183f50fc547f43\">Data encryption?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Version_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0f243a35540cf60e68f6749ca5ffaac\">Version control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Automatic_data_backup\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f865b497bf295ba58d4ee5d9a03b2e6\">Automatic data backup?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Environmental_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"784f7ba1fb87304630630ab73bb57cc6\">Environmental monitoring?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Reporting, barcoding, and printing<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Custom_reporting\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"739c5efda3365bab28d01299a831e693\">Custom reporting?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Report_printing\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebf26bf9e1368b8e9ac1c5ba42a10bb0\">Report printing?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Label_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c45986a47a971ad2357a50e5d5fd8db0\">Label support?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">Barcode support?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_PDF\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb88d516821bee6fe453ff0f17572046\">Export to PDF?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_MS_Word\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3427765ca13832c0c18b4793745e92b1\">Export to MS Word?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_HTML_or_XML\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"303a1f820db39efe713a7859b62ef834\">Export to HTML and\/or XML?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Fax_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f5c8fec31f5ee1ab836255b270acfec\">Fax integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Email_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2de26fc661eeed4a6cb63ef2b35976c2\">Email integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Base functionality<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Administrator_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f50a63eeb9565f98cb5f9288a37bd9e9\">Administrator management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Modular\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"126843b63279f958fbb99b221dff0513\">Modular?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19c828f7d6e33928579d97389a65a675\">Instrument interfacing and management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Mobile_device_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8184312de234dae3fa4c8b1a511bc9fa\">Mobile device integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2851659b2739ded940b9f4bfd6415cf2\">Alarms and\/or alerts?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Work-related_time_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a1c775a9fc866d0f19372667539beb9\">Work-related time tracking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Voice_recognition_system\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fa989a8a7aeab9d20920e6ebdd2ab12\">Voice recognition system?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#External_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00cfd3cdc2831d07936f16a65aa57ffd\">External monitoring?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Messaging\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a920d6d387f5c9b40b613451efbd5aab\">Messaging?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Multilingual\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fd0b3665c1c3057e482b85ebea2bab8\">Multilingual?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Network-capable\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d561bd66353ffdfc0a692e355935ab18\">Network-capable?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Web_client_or_portal\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b67393b52f03168301d7499fd803c22\">Web client or portal?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Online_or_integrated_help\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f5054dc326fa1c419635dcfa86d51ea\">Online or integrated help?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Software_as_a_service_delivery_model\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f46c447d0b14caf739e43e17a9baeba\">Software as a service delivery model?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Usage-based_cost\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e54f0cc036fe25fbe3019764e581d7b\">Usage-based cost?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Industries served<\/th><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:8px; text-align:left;\">agriculture, cannabis, chemical, clinical research, contract services, cosmetic, environmental, food and beverage, geology and mining, law enforcement and forensic, general, health care, manufacturing and R&D, material testing, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, toxicology, veterinary<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Pricing\">Pricing<\/span><\/h3>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ELab_2\">ELab<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Source for pricing information is directly from LabLynx. Additional pricing information can be gleaned from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gsaadvantage.gov\/ref_text\/GS35F511DA\/0R3HDC.3GGC22_GS-35F-511DA_IFSS600LABLYNX.PDF\" target=\"_blank\">GSA Avantage<\/a>. As prices may change at any time, always contact the vendor directly to obtain a price list or quote.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:2019_LLX_Price_List.PNG\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"4846abd52f93998461813047e47c7d40\"><img alt=\"2019 LLX Price List.PNG\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a5\/2019_LLX_Price_List.PNG\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\">Demonstration videos and other media<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The following demonstration videos are available for ELab:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/vimeo.com\/193706366\" target=\"_blank\">LabLynx Solutions<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.net\/vid\/P3\/Presentation_Files\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">LabLynx: A Guide to the Company<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.net\/vid\/P4\/Presentation_Files\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">LIMS: The Laboratory ERP<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d100\/d100.html\" target=\"_blank\">LIMS and ISO 17025<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.scicloud.net\/s\/HPsWr77CQ9JTQWm\" target=\"_blank\">The LabLynx ELab LIMS for Water\/Wastewater and Environmental Labs<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.net\/vid\/p13\/Presentation_Files\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">The LabLynx ELab LIMS for Medical Examiners<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.net\/vid\/p2\/Presentation_Files\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">The LabLynx ELab LIMS for Pharmaceutical Labs<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/T4\/T4.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab - Key Functions and Topics<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d108\/d108.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: FOG Functionality<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d11\/d11.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Sample Login and Receiving in ELab<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d140\/d140.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Sample Receiving \u2013 In Depth<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d102\/d102.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Local and Remote Accessioning<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d104\/d104.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Data Entry - Manual, Bulk, Importing, and Instrument Interfaces<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d105\/d105.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: External Interfaces, Queries, and Exporting Data<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d106\/d106.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Case Coordination<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d139\/d139.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Project Receiving<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d14\/d14.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Benchsheets<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d163\/d163.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Analysis Price Quoting and Invoicing<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d103\/d103.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Invoicing - Special Pricing, Editing and Tracking Invoices<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d161\/d161.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: e-Signatures<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d162\/d162.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Password Management and Session Timeout<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d166\/d166.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Work Assignment and Tracking<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d23\/d23.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Inventory of Stocks, Standards, and Reagents<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d172\/d172.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Creating Storage Locations<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d188\/d188.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Changing Field Captions and Labels<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d24\/d24.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Instrument Calibration and Maintenance Management<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d26\/d26.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Creating and Editing Custom Reports<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d31\/d31.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Tracking and Versioning Reports<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d34\/d34.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Security Access Control<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d35\/d35.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Audit Trail<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d37\/d37.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Results Trending, QC Charting, and Limits Update<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d40\/d40.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Analyte and Test Group Management<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d75\/d75.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Creating and Managing Picklists<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d93\/d93.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: System Setup<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/d98\/d98.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Training Management and Certification Tracking<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/lablynx.net\/vid\/f1\/f1.html\" target=\"_blank\">ELab: Forensic Case Management<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Additional_information\">Additional information<\/span><\/h3>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Official website<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">LIMSforum community portal<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/\" data-key=\"d5c14912f2277f3ce380ed5b8cb708be\">LIMSwiki site<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/vimeo.com\/lablynx\" target=\"_blank\">LabLynx on Vimeo<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/user\/lablynx\" target=\"_blank\">LabLynx on YouTube<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-SoS_llx-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SoS_llx_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SoS_llx_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ecorp.sos.ga.gov\/BusinessSearch\/BusinessInformation?businessId=33586\" target=\"_blank\">\"Business Entity \u2013 LabLynx, Inc.\"<\/a>. Georgia Secretary of State<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/ecorp.sos.ga.gov\/BusinessSearch\/BusinessInformation?businessId=33586\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/ecorp.sos.ga.gov\/BusinessSearch\/BusinessInformation?businessId=33586<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 December 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Business+Entity+%E2%80%93+LabLynx%2C+Inc.&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Georgia+Secretary+of+State&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fecorp.sos.ga.gov%2FBusinessSearch%2FBusinessInformation%3FbusinessId%3D33586&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Owler-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Owler_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Owler_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.owler.com\/iaApp\/505814\/lablynx-company-profile\" target=\"_blank\">\"LabLynx, Inc.\"<\/a>. Owler, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.owler.com\/iaApp\/505814\/lablynx-company-profile\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.owler.com\/iaApp\/505814\/lablynx-company-profile<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 26 January 2018<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LabLynx%2C+Inc.&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Owler%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.owler.com%2FiaApp%2F505814%2Flablynx-company-profile&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/investing.businessweek.com\/research\/stocks\/private\/snapshot.asp?privcapId=40482985\" target=\"_blank\">\"Internet Software and Services \u2013 LabLynx, Inc.\"<\/a>. <i>Bloomberg Business<\/i>. Bloomberg L.P.<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/investing.businessweek.com\/research\/stocks\/private\/snapshot.asp?privcapId=40482985\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/investing.businessweek.com\/research\/stocks\/private\/snapshot.asp?privcapId=40482985<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 22 October 2011<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Internet+Software+and+Services+%E2%80%93+LabLynx%2C+Inc.&rft.atitle=Bloomberg+Business&rft.pub=Bloomberg+L.P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finvesting.businessweek.com%2Fresearch%2Fstocks%2Fprivate%2Fsnapshot.asp%3FprivcapId%3D40482985&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LS_prod-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LS_prod_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LS_prod_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20071012123126\/http:\/\/www.limsource.com\/products\/vatlanta.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMSource: LIMS Vendor: LabLynx, Inc.\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsource.com\/products\/vatlanta.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 12 October 2007<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20071012123126\/http:\/\/www.limsource.com\/products\/vatlanta.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20071012123126\/http:\/\/www.limsource.com\/products\/vatlanta.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 22 October 2011<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LIMSource%3A+LIMS+Vendor%3A+LabLynx%2C+Inc.&rft.atitle=&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20071012123126%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.limsource.com%2Fproducts%2Fvatlanta.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LIMSwb-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LIMSwb_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LIMSwb_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">McGinnis, Mike and Norman Perkins (2003). \"I. Wireless LANs\". <i>LIMS Workbook - A Practical Guide<\/i> (3rd ed.). Q2marketsite, Inc. pp. I-16. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ASIN\" data-key=\"5cc6746513dcbbbee6f1bf9284ead699\">ASIN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.amazon.com\/dp\/B00161Y71K\" target=\"_blank\">B00161Y71K<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=I.+Wireless+LANs&rft.atitle=LIMS+Workbook+-+A+Practical+Guide&rft.aulast=McGinnis%2C+Mike+and+Norman+Perkins&rft.au=McGinnis%2C+Mike+and+Norman+Perkins&rft.date=2003&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3BI-16&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Q2marketsite%2C+Inc&rft_id=info:asin\/B00161Y71K&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LLX_archive1-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LLX_archive1_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19990125100717\/http:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"LABLynx On The Web\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 25 January 1998<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19990125100717\/http:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19990125100717\/http:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 22 October 2011<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LABLynx+On+The+Web&rft.atitle=&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F19990125100717%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.lablynx.com%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-doh_fl-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-doh_fl_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20040831183340\/http:\/\/www.doh.state.fl.us\/Irm\/Apps\/ihis\/JADS\/deh\/Market%20Research\/background\/asc_website.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"LABLynx on the Web\"<\/a> (PDF). Florida Department of Health. 8 March 2000. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.doh.state.fl.us\/Irm\/Apps\/ihis\/JADS\/deh\/Market%20Research\/Background\/asc_website.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 31 August 2004<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20040831183340\/http:\/\/www.doh.state.fl.us\/Irm\/Apps\/ihis\/JADS\/deh\/Market%20Research\/background\/asc_website.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20040831183340\/http:\/\/www.doh.state.fl.us\/Irm\/Apps\/ihis\/JADS\/deh\/Market%20Research\/background\/asc_website.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 December 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LABLynx+on+the+Web&rft.atitle=&rft.date=8+March+2000&rft.pub=Florida+Department+of+Health&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20040831183340%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.doh.state.fl.us%2FIrm%2FApps%2Fihis%2FJADS%2Fdeh%2FMarket%2520Research%2Fbackground%2Fasc_website.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SoS_asc-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SoS_asc_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SoS_asc_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ecorp.sos.ga.gov\/BusinessSearch\/BusinessInformation?businessId=863106\" target=\"_blank\">\"Business Entity \u2013 Atlanta Systems Consultants, Inc.\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved 29 December 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Business+Entity+%E2%80%93+Atlanta+Systems+Consultants%2C+Inc.&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Georgia+Secretary+of+State&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fecorp.sos.ga.gov%2FBusinessSearch%2FBusinessInformation%3FbusinessId%3D863106&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LS_pitt98-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LS_pitt98_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980529121944\/http:\/\/www.limsource.com\/calendar\/pitt98.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMSource: Calendar: Pittcon \u201998 Preview\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsource.com\/calendar\/pitt98.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 29 May 1998<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980529121944\/http:\/\/www.limsource.com\/calendar\/pitt98.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980529121944\/http:\/\/www.limsource.com\/calendar\/pitt98.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved 22 October 2011<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=70+--+Laboratory+Information+Management+Software+%28LIMS%29+%2807%2F30%2F98%29&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=FedBizOpps&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fbodaily.com%2Fcbd%2Farchive%2F1998%2F07%28July%29%2F30-Jul-1998%2F70awd003.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LS_prod2-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LS_prod2_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20010409200118\/http:\/\/www.limsource.com\/products\/vatlanta.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMSource: LIMS Vendor: Atlanta Systems Consultants, Inc.\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsource.com\/products\/vatlanta.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 9 April 2001<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20010409200118\/http:\/\/www.limsource.com\/products\/vatlanta.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20010409200118\/http:\/\/www.limsource.com\/products\/vatlanta.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 22 October 2011<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LIMSource%3A+LIMS+Vendor%3A+Atlanta+Systems+Consultants%2C+Inc.&rft.atitle=&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20010409200118%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.limsource.com%2Fproducts%2Fvatlanta.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120419143618\/http:\/\/www.laboratorytalk.com\/news\/lbl\/lbl100.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Build your own LIMS: News from LabLynx\"<\/a>. <i>LaboratoryTalk.com<\/i>. Pro-Talk Ltd. 6 January 2004. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.laboratorytalk.com\/news\/lbl\/lbl100.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 19 April 2012<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120419143618\/http:\/\/www.laboratorytalk.com\/news\/lbl\/lbl100.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120419143618\/http:\/\/www.laboratorytalk.com\/news\/lbl\/lbl100.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 December 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Build+your+own+LIMS%3A+News+from+LabLynx&rft.atitle=LaboratoryTalk.com&rft.date=6+January+2004&rft.pub=Pro-Talk+Ltd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120419143618%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.laboratorytalk.com%2Fnews%2Flbl%2Flbl100.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LII-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LII_13-0\">13.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LII_13-1\">13.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161027121044\/http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=31049_0_3_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Informatics Institute Established\"<\/a>. Laboratory Informatics Institute, Inc.. 17 July 2006. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=31049_0_3_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 27 October 2016<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161027121044\/http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=31049_0_3_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161027121044\/http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=31049_0_3_0_C<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 26 January 2018<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Laboratory+Informatics+Institute+Established&rft.atitle=&rft.date=17+July+2006&rft.pub=Laboratory+Informatics+Institute%2C+Inc.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20161027121044%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.limsfinder.com%2FBlogDetail.aspx%3Fid%3D31049_0_3_0_C&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Nagarro1-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Nagarro1_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120716033503\/http:\/\/nagarro.com\/NewsEvents\/Press%20Releases\/LABLynx%20Extends%20Contract%20with.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"LABLynx Extends Contract with Nagarro to Include Additional Product Development and SaaS Projects\"<\/a>. Nagarro, Inc. 20 August 2008. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nagarro.com\/NewsEvents\/Press%20Releases\/LABLynx%20Extends%20Contract%20with.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 16 July 2012<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120716033503\/http:\/\/nagarro.com\/NewsEvents\/Press%20Releases\/LABLynx%20Extends%20Contract%20with.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120716033503\/http:\/\/nagarro.com\/NewsEvents\/Press%20Releases\/LABLynx%20Extends%20Contract%20with.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 December 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LABLynx+Extends+Contract+with+Nagarro+to+Include+Additional+Product+Development+and+SaaS+Projects&rft.atitle=&rft.date=20+August+2008&rft.pub=Nagarro%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120716033503%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fnagarro.com%2FNewsEvents%2FPress%2520Releases%2FLABLynx%2520Extends%2520Contract%2520with.aspx&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-webLIMS1-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-webLIMS1_15-0\">15.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-webLIMS1_15-1\">15.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304101223\/http:\/\/scienceandresearch.argylenews.com\/press_release.aspx?LabLynx-launches-the-new-webLiMScom-Laboratory-SaaS-Provider-542\" target=\"_blank\">\"LabLynx launches the new webLiMS.com, Laboratory SaaS Provider\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved 26 January 2018<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Weblims+%E2%80%93+LabLynx&rft.atitle=&rft.date=6+March+2009&rft.pub=Scientific+Computing+World&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientific-computing.com%2Fpress-releases%2Fweblims&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChemEng1-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChemEng1_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Mullin, Rick (24 May 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/cen.acs.org\/articles\/88\/i21\/LIMS-Cloud.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS In The Cloud\"<\/a>. <i>Chemical & Engineering News<\/i>. 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LabLynx, Inc. 15 August 2009. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/ArticlesBlogs\/tabid\/326\/articleType\/ArticleView\/articleId\/13\/SaaS--Is-a-web-hosted-LIMS-right-for-your-laboratory.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 09 May 2012<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120509064611\/http:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/ArticlesBlogs\/tabid\/326\/articleType\/ArticleView\/articleId\/13\/SaaS--Is-a-web-hosted-LIMS-right-for-your-laboratory.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120509064611\/http:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/ArticlesBlogs\/tabid\/326\/articleType\/ArticleView\/articleId\/13\/SaaS--Is-a-web-hosted-LIMS-right-for-your-laboratory.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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LabLynx\/mdDigest. pp. 1\u20132. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wiki.siframework.org\/file\/view\/LRI_Pilots_Guide_Draft_v0_9_4_093011.docx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 12 August 2014<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140812142427\/http:\/\/wiki.siframework.org\/file\/view\/LRI_Pilots_Guide_Draft_v0_9_4_093011.docx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140812142427\/http:\/\/wiki.siframework.org\/file\/view\/LRI_Pilots_Guide_Draft_v0_9_4_093011.docx<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Laboratory+Results+Interface+%28LRI%29+Pilots+Guide&rft.aulast=Clarke%2C+Ann&rft.au=Clarke%2C+Ann&rft.date=2011&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%932&rft.edition=v0.9.4.093011&rft.pub=LabLynx%2FmdDigest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140812142427%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwiki.siframework.org%2Ffile%2Fview%2FLRI_Pilots_Guide_Draft_v0_9_4_093011.docx&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140812142106\/http:\/\/wiki.siframework.org\/LabLynx+Pilot+Brief\" target=\"_blank\">\"PROJECT BRIEF: LabLynx\/mdDigest Pilot\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved 26 January 2018<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LiMSForum&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=LabLynx%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.limsforum.com%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170306214123\/http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=35134_0_25_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">\"LiMSuniversity.com, the on-line, Open Access, Virtual Learning Center for Laboratory Informatics users and professionals\"<\/a>. Laboratory Informatics Institute, Inc.. 4 April 2011. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=35134_0_25_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 06 March 2017<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170306214123\/http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=35134_0_25_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170306214123\/http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=35134_0_25_0_C<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 26 January 2018<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LiMSuniversity.com%2C+the+on-line%2C+Open+Access%2C+Virtual+Learning+Center+for+Laboratory+Informatics+users+and+professionals&rft.atitle=&rft.date=4+April+2011&rft.pub=Laboratory+Informatics+Institute%2C+Inc.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170306214123%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.limsfinder.com%2FBlogDetail.aspx%3Fid%3D35134_0_25_0_C&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSwiki_mission\" data-key=\"f825db45101e85c9aa5742997a170785\">\"LIMSwiki mission\"<\/a>. 4 June 2015<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSwiki_mission\" data-key=\"f825db45101e85c9aa5742997a170785\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSwiki_mission<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 26 January 2018<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LIMSwiki+mission&rft.atitle=&rft.date=4+June+2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.limswiki.org%2Findex.php%2FLIMSwiki_mission&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ELabLimsNew-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-0\">31.00<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-1\">31.01<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-2\">31.02<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-3\">31.03<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-4\">31.04<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-5\">31.05<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-6\">31.06<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-7\">31.07<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-8\">31.08<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-9\">31.09<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-10\">31.10<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-11\">31.11<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-12\">31.12<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-13\">31.13<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-14\">31.14<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-15\">31.15<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-16\">31.16<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-17\">31.17<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-18\">31.18<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-19\">31.19<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-20\">31.20<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-21\">31.21<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-22\">31.22<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-23\">31.23<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-24\">31.24<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-25\">31.25<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-26\">31.26<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-27\">31.27<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-28\">31.28<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-29\">31.29<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-30\">31.30<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-31\">31.31<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-32\">31.32<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-33\">31.33<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-34\">31.34<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-35\">31.35<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-36\">31.36<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-37\">31.37<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-38\">31.38<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-39\">31.39<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-40\">31.40<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-41\">31.41<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-42\">31.42<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-43\">31.43<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-44\">31.44<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-45\">31.45<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-46\">31.46<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-47\">31.47<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-48\">31.48<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-49\">31.49<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-50\">31.50<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-51\">31.51<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-52\">31.52<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-53\">31.53<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-54\">31.54<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-55\">31.55<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-56\">31.56<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-57\">31.57<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-58\">31.58<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-59\">31.59<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELabLimsNew_31-60\">31.60<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/weblims\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Management System (LIMS\/LIS\/LES)\"<\/a>. LabLynx, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/weblims\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/weblims\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 26 January 2018<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Laboratory+Management+System+%28LIMS%2FLIS%2FLES%29&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=LabLynx%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lablynx.com%2Fweblims%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LabVia-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LabVia_32-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/eai\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"LabVia\"<\/a>. LabLynx, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/eai\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.lablynx.com\/eai\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 26 January 2018<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LabVia&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=LabLynx%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lablynx.com%2Feai%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LabLynx,_Inc.\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203045\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.833 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.795 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 25849\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 55553\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 276812\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 120458\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 768.879 1 - -total\n 67.60% 519.795 1 - Template:Reflist\n 57.98% 445.817 32 - Template:Citation\/core\n 55.66% 427.966 30 - Template:Cite_web\n 16.30% 125.348 1 - Template:Databox_LIMSfeature\n 15.72% 120.878 1 - Template:Databox\n 12.11% 93.117 80 - Template:Databox\/row\n 11.46% 88.149 1 - Template:Infobox_company\n 11.03% 84.816 1 - Template:Infobox\n 7.68% 59.049 81 - Template:Infobox\/row\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:1769-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403203043 and revision id 35103\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabLynx,_Inc.\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabLynx,_Inc.<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","da3f96536cf2c54de1960f26fe5712a1_images":["https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b3\/LabLynnx-logo.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/c\/c2\/2400_Lake_Park_Drive%2C_Smyrna%2C_Georgia.jpg","https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a5\/2019_LLX_Price_List.PNG"],"da3f96536cf2c54de1960f26fe5712a1_timestamp":1554323443,"fb2aea14f6811852668d37103fd9190b_type":"article","fb2aea14f6811852668d37103fd9190b_title":"Blaze Systems Corporation","fb2aea14f6811852668d37103fd9190b_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blaze_Systems_Corporation","fb2aea14f6811852668d37103fd9190b_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tBlaze Systems Corporation\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tBlaze Systems Corporation\nType\n \nCorporationIndustry\n \nLaboratory informaticsHeadquarters\n \n300 Creek View Road, Suite 204, Newark, Delaware , U.S. Area served\n \nU.S.Products\n \n\n Products list\n BlazeInventory\r\nBlazeLIMS\r\nBlazeLink\r\nBlazeMaintenance\r\nBlazeStability\r\nBlazeStatisticalControl\nWebsite\n \nBlazeSystems.comLinkedIn\n \nhttps:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/company\/112477\n\nBlaze Systems Corporation develops and distributes laboratory informatics software solutions.\n\nContents\n\n1 History \n2 Technology and products \n\n2.1 BlazeLIMS \n\n2.1.1 Features \n2.1.2 Pricing \n2.1.3 Demonstration videos and other media \n2.1.4 Additional information \n\n\n\n\n3 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nBlaze Systems was incorporated as a Deleware type-C corporation in 1991 as a service-based provider of system integration and application support. The company released its first version of BlazeLIMS in 1996. BlazeLIMS was loosely based off of Encompass LIMS, which was purchased from Enviromatix in 1994.[1]\nIn January 2014, the company released a software as a service (SaaS) version of BlazeLIMS.[2]\n\nTechnology and products \nBlazeLIMS \nBlazeLIMS is a laboratory information management system (LIMS) marketed towards \"a wide variety of laboratories.\"[3]\n\nFeatures \n\n\n\n \n The following feature list(s) is\/are derived solely from public, freely-available online information the vendor provides. A lack of a \"Y\" does not necessarily mean that the product doesn't have that feature. The lack of a \"Y\" could mean:\n the vendor chose to not put relevant feature information online despite its existence in the product.\n the vendor chooses to make the feature information available only to those who create an account or call\/e-mail.\n the feature information exists online to the public, but a URL could not be found to cite the existence of the feature.\n the feature does not exist for the product.\nA vendor's product may receive more confirmed features with the addition of more public information to the vendor's site and\/or by providing a URL to a page or document that can act as a citation for the existence of the feature. Prospective buyers are highly recommended to contact the vendor directly to verify features as this list isn't authoritative, and product upgrades and changes happen rapidly in some cases.\r\n \n\n\n\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n Product: BlazeLIMS\n\n\n Sample, inventory, and data managementSample login and management?Y[4]Sample tracking?Y[5]Sample and\/or result batching?Y[6][7]Task and event scheduling?Y[8]Option for manual result entry?Y[9]Multiple data viewing methods?Y[10]Data and trend analysis?Y[10]Data and equipment sharing?Y[11]Customizable fields and\/or interface?Y[12]Query capability?Y[13]Import data?Y[14]Internal file or data linking?Y[15]External file or data linking?Y[15]ELN support or integration?Y[16]Export data to MS Excel?Y[17]Raw data management?Y[15]Data warehouse?Y[18]Deadline control?Y[19]Production control?N[20]Project and\/or task management?Y[21]Inventory management?Y[22]Document creation and\/or management?Y[15]Case management?Y[23]Workflow management?Y[24]Specification management?Y[25]Customer and supplier management?Y[26][6]Billing management?Y[27]Quality, security, and complianceRegulatory compliance?Y[28]QA \/ QC functions?Y[29]Performance evaluation?Y[30]Audit trail?Y[31]Chain of custody?Y[32]Configurable roles and security?Y[33]Data normalization?Y[34]Data validation?Y[34]Data encryption?Y[35]Version control?Y[36]Automatic data backup?Y[37]Environmental monitoring?Y[38]Reporting, barcoding, and printingCustom reporting?Y[39]Report printing?Y[39]Label support?Y[40]Barcode support?Y[40]Export to PDF?Y[39]Export to MS Word?Y[39]Export to HTML and\/or XML?Y[39]Fax integration?Y[39]Email integration?Y[41]Base functionalityAdministrator management?Y[42]Modular?Y[43]Instrument interfacing and management?Y[44]Mobile device integration?Y[45]Alarms and\/or alerts?Y[46]Work-related time tracking?Y[47]Voice recognition system?N[48]External monitoring?Y[49]Messaging?Y[50]Multilingual?Y[51]Network-capable?Y[52]Web client or portal?Y[53]Online or integrated help?Y[54]Software as a service delivery model?Y[55]Usage-based cost?Y[56]Industries servedbiotechnology, clinical, environmental, food and beverage, manufacturing and R&D, pharmaceutical\n\n\n\nPricing \nSource for pricing information is directly from Blaze via the Laboratory Informatics Institute. As prices may change at any time, always contact the vendor directly to obtain a price list or quote.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n BlazeLIMS Price List\n\n\n Description\n\n Price\n\n\n BlazeLIMS for five concurrent users\n\n$16,495\n\n\n BlazeLIMS for ten concurrent users\n\n$32,995\n\n\n BlazeLIMS Inventory Module (for managing reagents)\n\n$8,250\n\n\n BlazeLIMS Stability Module (for shelf life studies)\n\n$8,250\n\n\n BlazeLIMS Web Server (for web portal)\n\n$7,495\n\n\n BlazeLIMS Maintenance Module (for equipment maintenance management)\n\n$8,250\n\n\n BlazeLIMS SAP Module (to run SAP Interface functions)\n\n$16,495\n\n\n BlazeLIMS Statistical Control Module (for unattended automatic control charting)\n\n$4,395\n\n\n BlazeLIMS Control Chart Module (for manual control charting)\n\n$1,315\n\n\n BlazeLink (for instrument interfacing; per instrument licensing)\n\n$745\n\n\n\nPricing examples, including services:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Price example for five-user LIMS-SQL server\n\n\n Item\n\n Price\n\n\n BlazeLIMS for five concurrent users\n\n$17,000\n\n\n Typical project services, including installation, project management, technical lead, training, and first year of software support\n\n$17,000\n\n\n Each subsequent year of software support\n\n$3,000\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Price example for ten-user LIMS-SQL server\n\n\n Item\n\n Price\n\n\n BlazeLIMS for ten concurrent users\n\n$33,000\n\n\n Typical project services, including installation, project management, technical lead, training, and first year of software support\n\n$17,000\n\n\n Each subsequent year of software support\n\n$6,000\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Price example for ten-user LIMS with add-on modules\n\n\n Item\n\n Price\n\n\n BlazeLIMS for five concurrent users, including Inventory and Stability Modules\n\n$50,000\n\n\n Typical project services, including installation, project management, technical lead, training, and first year of software support\n\n$17,000\n\n\n Each subsequent year of software support\n\n$9,000\n\n\n\nDemonstration videos and other media \nThe following public demonstration videos are available for BlazeLIMS:\n\n Hunter for BlazeLIMS - A Quick Tour\nAdditional information \nReferences \n\n\u2191 \"Company Background\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 26 November 2012. \n \n\n\u2191 \"Blaze Systems Releases BlazeLIMS SaaS For a Fast Track, Risk Free LIMS\". Laboratory Informatics Institute. 29 January 2014. http:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/blaze-systems-releases-blazelims-saas-for-a-fast-track-risk-free-lims\/30771\/ . Retrieved 25 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 19 January 2012. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Sample Login\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Sample Tracking\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Sample Batching\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Results Batching\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Event Scheduling\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Data Capture\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 10.0 10.1 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Data Analysis\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Information Access\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Database Tools\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Ad Hoc Query\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Data Import\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Document Management\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - ELN\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Links To General Purpose Tools\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Archiving Results\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Date Due Determination\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Assign Tasks\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Project Management\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Inventory Management\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Case Management\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Workflow\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Specifications\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Customers\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Timecard\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Regulatory Compliance\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Quality Control\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Training\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Audit Trails\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs -Chain Of Custody\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Security\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 34.0 34.1 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Data Normalization\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs -Encryption\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Versioning\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Backup\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Environmental Monitoring\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 39.5 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Reports\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 40.0 40.1 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Labels\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Email\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Configuration\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Program Structure\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Instrument Interfacing\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Hardware\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Alarms\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Timecard\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Voice Recognition\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Results Publishing\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Notifications\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Multilingual\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Networking\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Web Portal\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Online Help\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Delivery Models\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\u2191 \"BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Usage Cost\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013. \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blaze_Systems_Corporation\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blaze_Systems_Corporation<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Biotechnology LIMSClinical research LIMSCloud-based LIMSEnvironmental LIMSFood and beverage LIMSLIMS vendorManufacturing and R&D LIMSPharmaceutical LIMSVendors\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 28 July 2016, at 17:20.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 23,897 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","fb2aea14f6811852668d37103fd9190b_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Blaze_Systems_Corporation skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Blaze Systems Corporation<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\">\n<p><b>Blaze Systems Corporation<\/b> develops and distributes <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> software solutions.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Blaze Systems was incorporated as a Deleware type-C corporation in 1991 as a service-based provider of system integration and application support. The company released its first version of BlazeLIMS in 1996. BlazeLIMS was loosely based off of Encompass LIMS, which was purchased from Enviromatix in 1994.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BlazeAbout_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BlazeAbout-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In January 2014, the company released a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> (SaaS) version of BlazeLIMS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BLSaaS_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BLSaaS-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technology_and_products\">Technology and products<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"BlazeLIMS\">BlazeLIMS<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>BlazeLIMS is a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) marketed towards \"a wide variety of laboratories.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BLIMSHome_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BLIMSHome-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Features\">Features<\/span><\/h4>\n\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" style=\"border-style:none;\" border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\"> Product: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.blazesystems.com\/LIMS.html\" target=\"_blank\">BlazeLIMS<\/a>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; border-style:none;\"> <table class=\"databox collabsible\" cellspacing=\"5\" style=\"width:22em; margin:0 0 0 0; padding:0; float:left; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-collapse:collapse; width:280px;\"><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Sample, inventory, and data management<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_login_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98071177bc94b23b88297692a3a52005\">Sample login and management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Sample_Login_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Sample_Login-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4622d31a3236faeab999eee2d2493313\">Sample tracking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Sample_Tracking_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Sample_Tracking-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_and_result_batching\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4616ac6ee0e19b94e4dbaa51df9c799\">Sample and\/or result batching?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Batching_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Batching-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Results_Batching_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Results_Batching-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f358fd26f821c76edf862b7dee946f8\">Task and event scheduling?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Event_Scheduling_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Event_Scheduling-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Option_for_manual_result_entry\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"621709a9ae6a8b6bb4f2de549e344b5c\">Option for manual result entry?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Manual_Entry_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Manual_Entry-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Multiple_data_viewing_methods\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88041a37ca09479d4858d43199e187b2\">Multiple data viewing methods?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Data_Analysis_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Data_Analysis-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_and_trend_analysis\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1539cd55185863ffbb2284c2b5cc14d5\">Data and trend analysis?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Data_Analysis_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Data_Analysis-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_and_equipment_sharing\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc0f0b1238edddbf7f495d253e27e7c9\">Data and equipment sharing?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Data_Sharing_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Data_Sharing-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customizable_fields_and.2For_interface\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"541386f8b0249149ca54737c459828d0\">Customizable fields and\/or interface?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Custom_Fields_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Custom_Fields-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Query_capability\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0ca33e764fc74bb1de10416b0561a27\">Query capability?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Query_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Query-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Import_data\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50124e3027d3b3bcb1801c0adb042e82\">Import data?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Import_Data_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Import_Data-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Internal_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e535cc310bda347927d684c2b50f959a\">Internal file or data linking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Document_Management_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Document_Management-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#External_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5fe00aac17d418abd170f40c01b923e\">External file or data linking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Document_Management_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Document_Management-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#ELN_support_or_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6a4efca41b1810ae03ddf7ebcffcb25\">ELN support or integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELN_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELN-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_MS_Excel\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85c5b88d0a67d8a91af0fe101dd7f9b4\">Export data to MS Excel?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Excel_Export_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Excel_Export-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Raw_data_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cca7f6e63ef148ca5cf28164361cc503\">Raw data management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Document_Management_15-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Document_Management-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_warehouse\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3082d0bb37d14d6ab62b393bd2834094\">Data warehouse?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Data_Warehouse_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Data_Warehouse-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Deadline_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc8fea028df4821085de3db1d02476a8\">Deadline control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Deadline_Control_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Deadline_Control-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Production_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"add9164269d9ecfd27c163f9c50e2469\">Production control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">N<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Production_Control_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Production_Control-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Project_and.2For_task_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0b65cad4546629d814bd000b0c6836a\">Project and\/or task management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Project_Management_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Project_Management-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"922cb0190a1750c3545849959a860288\">Inventory management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Inventory_Management_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Inventory_Management-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd9e325ecd80a3deb3b4aa2159bc0eda\">Document creation and\/or management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Document_Management_15-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Document_Management-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Case_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91a43f1107cf4cfbf9fb8ea707bead64\">Case management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Case_Management_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Case_Management-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"233ebf71073035e741a5acf410dc8242\">Workflow management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Workflow_Management_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Workflow_Management-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Specification_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2bd724c42ae9a6a8cc382720d399154\">Specification management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Specification_Management_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Specification_Management-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customer_and_supplier_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ee1c9037a1a9e877bca2bb7821de8d\">Customer and supplier management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Customer_.26_Supplier_Management_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Customer_.26_Supplier_Management-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Batching_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Batching-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Billing_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a2e904b24f87cdc1232ce7370774d8c\">Billing management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Billing_Management_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Billing_Management-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Quality, security, and compliance<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e58f73cb3d51704d053508c71fae968\">Regulatory compliance?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Regulatory_Compliance_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Regulatory_Compliance-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#QA.2FQC_functions\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2bf55c170c7429ac892dd177aaa2e2\">QA \/ QC functions?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-QA_QC_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-QA_QC-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Performance_evaluation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba19c1d4cef221fdadce596bafe8bea3\">Performance evaluation?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Performance_Evaluation_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Performance_Evaluation-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d184d528c3d8bec99c88b45a9e026379\">Audit trail?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Audit_Trail_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Audit_Trail-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Chain_of_custody\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57c608855a16e5bdf3db2a1f6abb50db\">Chain of custody?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Chain_Of_Custody_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Chain_Of_Custody-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">Configurable roles and security?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Roles_and_Security_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Roles_and_Security-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_normalization\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df6840ac3ee14b940990e04bfe4fed70\">Data normalization?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Data_Normalization_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Data_Normalization-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148c3f13ce1e0562e2d8b33c7002622e\">Data validation?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Data_Normalization_34-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Data_Normalization-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_encryption\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"075eb206aa07fb4b3f183f50fc547f43\">Data encryption?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Encryption_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Encryption-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Version_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0f243a35540cf60e68f6749ca5ffaac\">Version control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Version_Control_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Version_Control-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Automatic_data_backup\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f865b497bf295ba58d4ee5d9a03b2e6\">Automatic data backup?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Data_Backup_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Data_Backup-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Environmental_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"784f7ba1fb87304630630ab73bb57cc6\">Environmental monitoring?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Environmental_Monitoring_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Environmental_Monitoring-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Reporting, barcoding, and printing<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Custom_reporting\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"739c5efda3365bab28d01299a831e693\">Custom reporting?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Custom_Reporting_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Custom_Reporting-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Report_printing\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebf26bf9e1368b8e9ac1c5ba42a10bb0\">Report printing?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Custom_Reporting_39-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Custom_Reporting-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Label_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c45986a47a971ad2357a50e5d5fd8db0\">Label support?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Labels_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Labels-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">Barcode support?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Labels_40-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Labels-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_PDF\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb88d516821bee6fe453ff0f17572046\">Export to PDF?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Custom_Reporting_39-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Custom_Reporting-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_MS_Word\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3427765ca13832c0c18b4793745e92b1\">Export to MS Word?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Custom_Reporting_39-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Custom_Reporting-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_HTML_or_XML\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"303a1f820db39efe713a7859b62ef834\">Export to HTML and\/or XML?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Custom_Reporting_39-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Custom_Reporting-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Fax_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f5c8fec31f5ee1ab836255b270acfec\">Fax integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Custom_Reporting_39-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Custom_Reporting-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Email_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2de26fc661eeed4a6cb63ef2b35976c2\">Email integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Email_Integration_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Email_Integration-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Base functionality<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Administrator_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f50a63eeb9565f98cb5f9288a37bd9e9\">Administrator management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Administration_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Administration-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Modular\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"126843b63279f958fbb99b221dff0513\">Modular?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Modular_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Modular-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19c828f7d6e33928579d97389a65a675\">Instrument interfacing and management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Instrument_Interfacing_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Instrument_Interfacing-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Mobile_device_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8184312de234dae3fa4c8b1a511bc9fa\">Mobile device integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mobile_Devices_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mobile_Devices-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2851659b2739ded940b9f4bfd6415cf2\">Alarms and\/or alerts?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Alarms_and_Alerts_46-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Alarms_and_Alerts-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Work-related_time_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a1c775a9fc866d0f19372667539beb9\">Work-related time tracking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Time_Tracking_Work_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Time_Tracking_Work-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Voice_recognition_system\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fa989a8a7aeab9d20920e6ebdd2ab12\">Voice recognition system?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">N<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Voice_Recognition_48-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Voice_Recognition-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#External_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00cfd3cdc2831d07936f16a65aa57ffd\">External monitoring?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-External_Monitoring_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-External_Monitoring-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Messaging\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a920d6d387f5c9b40b613451efbd5aab\">Messaging?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Messaging_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Messaging-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Multilingual\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fd0b3665c1c3057e482b85ebea2bab8\">Multilingual?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Multilingual_51-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Multilingual-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Network-capable\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d561bd66353ffdfc0a692e355935ab18\">Network-capable?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Network_Capable_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Network_Capable-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Web_client_or_portal\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b67393b52f03168301d7499fd803c22\">Web client or portal?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Web_Client_53-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Web_Client-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Online_or_integrated_help\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f5054dc326fa1c419635dcfa86d51ea\">Online or integrated help?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Online_Help_54-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Online_Help-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Software_as_a_service_delivery_model\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f46c447d0b14caf739e43e17a9baeba\">Software as a service delivery model?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaaS_Model_55-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaaS_Model-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Usage-based_cost\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e54f0cc036fe25fbe3019764e581d7b\">Usage-based cost?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Usage_Cost_56-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Usage_Cost-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Industries served<\/th><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:8px; text-align:left;\">biotechnology, clinical, environmental, food and beverage, manufacturing and R&D, pharmaceutical<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Pricing\">Pricing<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Source for pricing information is directly from Blaze via the Laboratory Informatics Institute. As prices may change at any time, always contact the vendor directly to obtain a price list or quote.\n<\/p>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\"> BlazeLIMS Price List\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee;\"> Description\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee;\"> Price\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <b>BlazeLIMS<\/b> for five concurrent users\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$16,495\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <b>BlazeLIMS<\/b> for ten concurrent users\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$32,995\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <b>BlazeLIMS Inventory Module<\/b> (for managing reagents)\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$8,250\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <b>BlazeLIMS Stability Module<\/b> (for shelf life studies)\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$8,250\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <b>BlazeLIMS Web Server<\/b> (for web portal)\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$7,495\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <b>BlazeLIMS Maintenance Module<\/b> (for equipment maintenance management)\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$8,250\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <b>BlazeLIMS SAP Module<\/b> (to run SAP Interface functions)\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$16,495\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <b>BlazeLIMS Statistical Control Module<\/b> (for unattended automatic control charting)\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$4,395\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <b>BlazeLIMS Control Chart Module<\/b> (for manual control charting)\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$1,315\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <b>BlazeLink<\/b> (for instrument interfacing; per instrument licensing)\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$745\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<p><b>Pricing examples, including services<\/b>:\n<\/p>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align:left;\"> Price example for five-user LIMS-SQL server\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee;\"> Item\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee;\"> Price\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> BlazeLIMS for five concurrent users\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$17,000\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> Typical project services, including installation, project management, technical lead, training, and first year of software support\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$17,000\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> Each subsequent year of software support\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$3,000\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top; padding-right:10px;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align:left;\"> Price example for ten-user LIMS-SQL server\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee;\"> Item\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee;\"> Price\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> BlazeLIMS for ten concurrent users\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$33,000\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> Typical project services, including installation, project management, technical lead, training, and first year of software support\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$17,000\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> Each subsequent year of software support\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$6,000\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top; padding-right:10px;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align:left;\"> Price example for ten-user LIMS with add-on modules\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee;\"> Item\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee;\"> Price\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> BlazeLIMS for five concurrent users, including Inventory and Stability Modules\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$50,000\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> Typical project services, including installation, project management, technical lead, training, and first year of software support\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$17,000\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> Each subsequent year of software support\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$9,000\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\">Demonstration videos and other media<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The following public demonstration videos are available for BlazeLIMS:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=XYauZs4jB8M\" target=\"_blank\">Hunter for BlazeLIMS - A Quick Tour<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Additional_information\">Additional information<\/span><\/h4>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-BlazeAbout-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BlazeAbout_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.blazesystems.com\/companybackground.html\" target=\"_blank\">Company Background<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 26 November 2012.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BLSaaS-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BLSaaS_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/blaze-systems-releases-blazelims-saas-for-a-fast-track-risk-free-lims\/30771\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blaze Systems Releases BlazeLIMS SaaS For a Fast Track, Risk Free LIMS\"<\/a>. Laboratory Informatics Institute. 29 January 2014<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/blaze-systems-releases-blazelims-saas-for-a-fast-track-risk-free-lims\/30771\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.limsforum.com\/blaze-systems-releases-blazelims-saas-for-a-fast-track-risk-free-lims\/30771\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 25 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Blaze+Systems+Releases+BlazeLIMS+SaaS+For+a+Fast+Track%2C+Risk+Free+LIMS&rft.atitle=&rft.date=29+January+2014&rft.pub=Laboratory+Informatics+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.limsforum.com%2Fblaze-systems-releases-blazelims-saas-for-a-fast-track-risk-free-lims%2F30771%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Blaze_Systems_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BLIMSHome-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BLIMSHome_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.blazesystems.com\/LIMS.html\" target=\"_blank\">BlazeLIMS<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 19 January 2012.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Sample_Login-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Sample_Login_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Samples\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Sample Login<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Sample_Tracking-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Sample_Tracking_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=SampleTracking\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Sample Tracking<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Batching-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Batching_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Batching_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=SampleBatching\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Sample Batching<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Results_Batching-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Results_Batching_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=ResultsBatching\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Results Batching<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Event_Scheduling-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Event_Scheduling_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=EventScheduling\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Event Scheduling<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Manual_Entry-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Manual_Entry_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=ManualResultsEntry\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Data Capture<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Data_Analysis-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Data_Analysis_10-0\">10.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Data_Analysis_10-1\">10.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=DataViewingMethods\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Data Analysis<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Data_Sharing-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Data_Sharing_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=DataSharing\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Information Access<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Custom_Fields-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Custom_Fields_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=CustomizableFields\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Database Tools<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Query-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Query_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=AdHocQuery\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Ad Hoc Query<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Import_Data-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Import_Data_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=ImportData\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Data Import<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Document_Management-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Document_Management_15-0\">15.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Document_Management_15-1\">15.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Document_Management_15-2\">15.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Document_Management_15-3\">15.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=DocumentManagement\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Document Management<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ELN-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELN_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=ELN\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - ELN<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Excel_Export-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Excel_Export_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=ExcelExport\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Links To General Purpose Tools<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Data_Warehouse-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Data_Warehouse_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=DataWarehouse\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Archiving Results<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Deadline_Control-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Deadline_Control_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=DeadlineControl\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Date Due Determination<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Production_Control-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Production_Control_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=ProductionControl\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Assign Tasks<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Project_Management-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Project_Management_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=ProjectManagement\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Project Management<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Inventory_Management-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Inventory_Management_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=InventoryManagement\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Inventory Management<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Case_Management-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Case_Management_23-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=CaseManagement\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Case Management<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Workflow_Management-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Workflow_Management_24-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=WorkflowDiagram\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Workflow<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Specification_Management-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Specification_Management_25-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=SpecificationManagement\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Specifications<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Customer_.26_Supplier_Management-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Customer_.26_Supplier_Management_26-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=CustomerManagement\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Customers<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Billing_Management-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Billing_Management_27-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=BillingManagement\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Timecard<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Regulatory_Compliance-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Regulatory_Compliance_28-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=RegulatoryCompliance\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Regulatory Compliance<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-QA_QC-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-QA_QC_29-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=QualityControl\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Quality Control<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Performance_Evaluation-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Performance_Evaluation_30-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Training\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Training<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Audit_Trail-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Audit_Trail_31-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=AuditTrails\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Audit Trails<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Chain_Of_Custody-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Chain_Of_Custody_32-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=ChainOfCustody\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs -Chain Of Custody<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Roles_and_Security-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Roles_and_Security_33-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Security\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Security<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Data_Normalization-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Data_Normalization_34-0\">34.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Data_Normalization_34-1\">34.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=DataNormalization\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Data Normalization<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Encryption-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Encryption_35-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Encryption\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs -Encryption<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Version_Control-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Version_Control_36-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Versioning\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Versioning<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Data_Backup-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Data_Backup_37-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Backup\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Backup<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Environmental_Monitoring-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Environmental_Monitoring_38-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=EnvironmentalMonitoring\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Environmental Monitoring<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Custom_Reporting-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Custom_Reporting_39-0\">39.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Custom_Reporting_39-1\">39.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Custom_Reporting_39-2\">39.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Custom_Reporting_39-3\">39.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Custom_Reporting_39-4\">39.4<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Custom_Reporting_39-5\">39.5<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Reports\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Reports<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Labels-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Labels_40-0\">40.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Labels_40-1\">40.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Labels\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Labels<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Email_Integration-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Email_Integration_41-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Email\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Email<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Administration-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Administration_42-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Configuration\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Configuration<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Modular-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Modular_43-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=ProgramStructure\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Program Structure<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Instrument_Interfacing-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Instrument_Interfacing_44-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=InstrumentInterfacing\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Instrument Interfacing<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mobile_Devices-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Mobile_Devices_45-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Hardware\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Hardware<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Alarms_and_Alerts-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Alarms_and_Alerts_46-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Alarms\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Alarms<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Time_Tracking_Work-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Time_Tracking_Work_47-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Timecard\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Timecard<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Voice_Recognition-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Voice_Recognition_48-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.blazesystems.com\/Documents\/BlazeLIMS%20Functional%20Specs.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Voice Recognition<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-External_Monitoring-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-External_Monitoring_49-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=ResultsPublish\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Results Publishing<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Messaging-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Messaging_50-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Notifications\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Notifications<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Multilingual-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Multilingual_51-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Multilingual\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Multilingual<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Network_Capable-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Network_Capable_52-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=Networking\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Networking<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Web_Client-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Web_Client_53-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=ResultsPublish\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Web Portal<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Online_Help-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Online_Help_54-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=UserFriendly\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Online Help<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SaaS_Model-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaaS_Model_55-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#nameddest=DeliveryModels\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Delivery Models<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Usage_Cost-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Usage_Cost_56-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.blazesystems.com\/Documents\/BlazeLIMS%20Functional%20Specs.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">BlazeLIMS Functional Specs - Usage Cost<\/a>\" Blaze Systems Corporation. Retrieved 12 December 2013.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203043\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.381 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.416 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 9509\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 49840\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 162554\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 67266\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 10\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 330.224 1 - -total\n 40.16% 132.634 1 - Template:Databox_LIMSfeature\n 38.65% 127.638 1 - Template:Databox\n 30.64% 101.176 80 - Template:Databox\/row\n 21.54% 71.128 1 - Template:Infobox_company\n 20.56% 67.895 1 - Template:Infobox\n 14.44% 47.694 55 - Template:Cite_web_short\n 13.27% 43.811 81 - Template:Infobox\/row\n 13.02% 42.992 1 - Template:Cite_web\n 11.52% 38.036 1 - Template:Citation\/core\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:648-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403203043 and revision id 26689\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blaze_Systems_Corporation\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blaze_Systems_Corporation<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","fb2aea14f6811852668d37103fd9190b_images":["https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/ac\/Vendor244.jpg"],"fb2aea14f6811852668d37103fd9190b_timestamp":1554323442,"a187eaeb93bae7889be44009f869fc9c_type":"article","a187eaeb93bae7889be44009f869fc9c_title":"Autoscribe Informatics, Inc.","a187eaeb93bae7889be44009f869fc9c_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Autoscribe_Informatics,_Inc.","a187eaeb93bae7889be44009f869fc9c_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tAutoscribe Informatics\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t(Redirected from Autoscribe Informatics, Inc.) \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tAutoscribe Informatics\nType\n \nCorporationIndustry\n \nBusiness software\r\nLaboratory informatics\r\nScientific softwareHeadquarters\n \n29 Simpson Lane, Falmouth, Massachusetts , U.S. Number of locations\n \n2Area served\n \nWorldwideProducts\n \n\n Products list\n Matrix Express\r\nMatrix Gemini LIMS\r\nMatrix Tracker\r\nMatrix Study Management\r\nMatrix Gemini Web Portal\r\nMatrix Gemini Field Analytics System\r\nQuality Management Suite\nParent\n \nAutoscribe Ltd.Website\n \nAutoscribeInformatics.comLinkedIn\n \nhttps:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/company\/417914\n\nAutoscribe Informatics develops and distributes business, scientific, and laboratory informatics software solutions.\n\nContents\n\n1 History \n2 Technology and products \n\n2.1 Matrix LIMS product line \n2.2 Matrix BIMS product line \n\n2.2.1 Features \n2.2.2 Pricing \n2.2.3 Demonstration videos and other media \n2.2.4 Additional information \n\n\n\n\n3 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nAutoscribe Informatics is the trading name of Autoscribe Ltd.[1] \u2014 founded in 1981 as a privately-owned company based in the U.K.[2][3] Autoscribe Informatics, Inc. was founded in late 2011[4], giving a direct presence in the US market. Zumatrix, Inc., the North American distribution and support team for Autoscribe's Matrix Gemini product, was transferred into the new U.S. entity, which began operations on January 3, 2012.[5]\nAutoscribe Informatics also has a worldwide distributor network including and Australasia office in South Australia[6], \"PT Agryiya Analitika\" in Indonesia covering SE Asia, \"Da Vinci Laboratory Solutions B.V.\" in Benelux, \"CCV\" in South America and \"RITME\" in France. [7]\n\nTechnology and products \nMatrix LIMS product line \nMatrix Gemini is a configurable laboratory information management system (LIMS) solution that helps laboratories \"to accurately manage large volumes of data to strict standards, while at the same time constantly evolve to improve efficiency, automation and turn-around times.\"[8] One of the main features of this software is a set of configuration tools designed to add greater flexibility to security and workflow applications.[9] The configuration tools are graphical, requiring no software programming or scripting knowledge to use them, making them extremely user friendly. The word \"Gemini\" refers to the dual user interface of desktop or web browser. Any changes in configuration are instantly reflected in both interfaces.[10]\nMatrix Express is a slimmer version of Matrix Gemini, one \"for smaller laboratories or as an introductory LIMS in larger organizations.\"[11]\nMatrix Tracker is a tracking application that \"allow[s] you to setup and modify the workflows, screens and menus to meet detailed requirements.\"[12]\nMatrix Study Management is software that acts as \"a stability management system for complete control of stability studies for a variety of industries\"[13] and features the ability to manage stability storage room operations, inventory, audit trail generation, and protocol design and approval.\n\nMatrix BIMS product line \nAutoscribe Informatics also provides several business information management systems (BIMS) [14] including:\nQuality Management Suite - A suite of quality tools to manage assets, custoemr feedback, staff competency tracking, document management, corrective and preventive action management and audit planning.\nSupport Management System - A configurable system for the complete management of all helpdesk support functions to help companies track support problems and manage them through to resolution.\nMatrix Support Management System (SMS) is designed to help companies track support problems and manage them through to resolution. \nIssue Tracker - designed to allow issues\/problems\/complaints to be logged and actions assigned to yourself or to other people.\n\r\n \n\nFeatures \n\n\n\n \n The following feature list(s) is\/are derived solely from public, freely-available online information the vendor provides. A lack of a \"Y\" does not necessarily mean that the product doesn't have that feature. The lack of a \"Y\" could mean:\n the vendor chose to not put relevant feature information online despite its existence in the product.\n the vendor chooses to make the feature information available only to those who create an account or call\/e-mail.\n the feature information exists online to the public, but a URL could not be found to cite the existence of the feature.\n the feature does not exist for the product.\nA vendor's product may receive more confirmed features with the addition of more public information to the vendor's site and\/or by providing a URL to a page or document that can act as a citation for the existence of the feature. Prospective buyers are highly recommended to contact the vendor directly to verify features as this list isn't authoritative, and product upgrades and changes happen rapidly in some cases.\r\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Product: Matrix Gemini\n\n\n Sample, inventory, and data managementSample login and management?Y[15]Sample tracking?Y[15]Sample and\/or result batching?Y[15]Task and event scheduling?Y[16]Option for manual result entry?Y[15]Multiple data viewing methods?Y[8]Data and trend analysis?Y[15]Data and equipment sharing?Y[15]Customizable fields and\/or interface?Y[8]Query capability?Y[15]Import data?Y[15]Internal file or data linking?External file or data linking?Y[10]ELN support or integration?Export data to MS Excel?Y[10]Raw data management?Data warehouse?Deadline control?Production control?Y[15]Project and\/or task management?Y[15]Inventory management?Document creation and\/or management?Case management?Workflow management?Y[15]Specification management?Y[15]Customer and supplier management?Y[15]Billing management?Quality, security, and complianceRegulatory compliance?Y[16]QA \/ QC functions?Y[15]Performance evaluation?Audit trail?Y[8]Chain of custody?Y[8]Configurable roles and security?Y[15]Data normalization?Data validation?Y[15]Data encryption?Version control?Y[8]Automatic data backup?Environmental monitoring?Reporting, barcoding, and printingCustom reporting?Y[15]Report printing?Y[15]Label support?Barcode support?Export to PDF?Export to MS Word?Export to HTML and\/or XML?Fax integration?Email integration?Base functionalityAdministrator management?Y[8]Modular?Y[8]Instrument interfacing and management?Y[16]Mobile device integration?Alarms and\/or alerts?Y[15]Work-related time tracking?Voice recognition system?External monitoring?Messaging?Multilingual?Y[15]Network-capable?Y[8]Web client or portal?Y[8]Online or integrated help?Software as a service delivery model?Usage-based cost?Industries servedbiobanking, biotechnology, chemical, clinical research, contract services, environmental, food and beverage, general, geology and mining, pathology, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, power and utility, veterinary\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Product: Matrix Express\n\n\n Sample, inventory, and data managementSample login and management?Y[11]Sample tracking?Y[11]Sample and\/or result batching?Task and event scheduling?Y[11]Option for manual result entry?Y[11]Multiple data viewing methods?Data and trend analysis?Data and equipment sharing?Customizable fields and\/or interface?Y[11]Query capability?Import data?Internal file or data linking?External file or data linking?ELN support or integration?Export data to MS Excel?Raw data management?Data warehouse?Deadline control?Production control?Project and\/or task management?Y[11]Inventory management?Document creation and\/or management?Case management?Workflow management?Specification management?Customer and supplier management?Billing management?Quality, security, and complianceRegulatory compliance?Y[11]QA \/ QC functions?Performance evaluation?Y[11]Audit trail?Y[11]Chain of custody?Configurable roles and security?Y[11]Data normalization?Data validation?Y[11]Data encryption?Version control?Automatic data backup?Environmental monitoring?Reporting, barcoding, and printingCustom reporting?Y[11]Report printing?Y[11]Label support?Barcode support?Export to PDF?Export to MS Word?Export to HTML and\/or XML?Fax integration?Email integration?Base functionalityAdministrator management?Modular?Instrument interfacing and management?Mobile device integration?Alarms and\/or alerts?Work-related time tracking?Voice recognition system?External monitoring?Messaging?Multilingual?Network-capable?Web client or portal?Online or integrated help?Software as a service delivery model?Usage-based cost?Industries servedbiobanking, biotechnology, chemical, clinical research, contract services, environmental, food and beverage, general, geology and mining, pathology, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, power and utility, veterinary\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Product: Matrix Tracker\n\n\n Sample, inventory, and data managementSample login and management?Sample tracking?Y[12]Sample and\/or result batching?Task and event scheduling?Y[12]Option for manual result entry?Multiple data viewing methods?Data and trend analysis?Data and equipment sharing?Customizable fields and\/or interface?Y[12]Query capability?Import data?Internal file or data linking?External file or data linking?ELN support or integration?Export data to MS Excel?Raw data management?Data warehouse?Deadline control?Production control?Project and\/or task management?Y[12]Inventory management?Document creation and\/or management?Case management?Workflow management?Specification management?Customer and supplier management?Billing management?Quality, security, and complianceRegulatory compliance?Y[12]QA \/ QC functions?Performance evaluation?Audit trail?Y[12]Chain of custody?Y[12]Configurable roles and security?Data normalization?Data validation?Data encryption?Version control?Automatic data backup?Environmental monitoring?Reporting, barcoding, and printingCustom reporting?Y[12]Report printing?Label support?Barcode support?Y[12]Export to PDF?Export to MS Word?Export to HTML and\/or XML?Fax integration?Email integration?Base functionalityAdministrator management?Modular?Instrument interfacing and management?Mobile device integration?Alarms and\/or alerts?Work-related time tracking?Voice recognition system?External monitoring?Messaging?Multilingual?Network-capable?Web client or portal?Online or integrated help?Software as a service delivery model?Usage-based cost?Industries servedbiobanking, biotechnology, chemical, clinical research, contract services, environmental, food and beverage, general, geology and mining, pathology, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, power and utility, veterinary\n\n\n\n\nPricing \nSource for pricing information is directly from Autoscribe via the Laboratory Informatics Institute. As prices may change at any time, always contact the vendor directly to obtain a price list or quote.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Matrix Gemini Price List\n\n\n Part number\n\n Description\n\n Price\n\n\n ME\n\nMatrix Express license (1-User)\n\n$4,500\n\n\n ME1\n\nAdditional ME Users (each)\n\n$2,640\n\n\n MG\n\nMatrix Gemini License\n\n$14,000\n\n\n MG1\n\nAdditional MG Users - with Config tools (each)\n\n$10,500\n\n\n MG2\n\nAdditional MG Users - without Config tools (each)\n\n$4,500\n\n\nDemonstration videos and other media \nThe following demonstration videos are available for Autoscribe products:\n\n LIMS video for Matrix Gemini Range from Autoscribe\n Matrix Gemini LIMS by Autoscribe Limited\n Matrix Gemini LIMS by Autoscribe Ltd\n Autoscribe - Matrix Veterinary LIMS - Laboratory Information Management System\n Autoscribe - Matrix Gemini LIMS - Laboratory Information Management System\n Matrix Gemini Laboratory Information Management System\n LIMS Configuration Demonstration\n Autoscribe Matrix Gemini LIMS Webinar Session 1, 26th March 2014\n Autoscribe Matrix Gemini LIMS Webinar Session 2, 23rd April 2014\n Autoscribe Matrix Gemini LIMS Webinar Session 3, 4th June 2014\n LIMS for Life - Pittcon 2015 Configuration Challenge\n Autoscribe - Matrix Gemini LIMS - Laboratory Information Management System\n Autoscribe - Matrix Gemini LIMS - Basic Configuration Tasks\n Autoscribe - Matrix Gemini LIMS - Adding DB List Box Demonstration\nAdditional information \n Matrix Gemini information and brochure\n Matrix Express information and brochure\n Matrix Configuration Tools information and brochure\n Matrix Tracker information and brochure\n Stability Study Manager information and brochure\n Quality Management Suite information and brochure\n Support Management System information and brochure\n Issues Tracker information\nReferences \n\n\u2191 \"Autoscribe - About Us\". Autoscribe Informatics. 28 November 2018. http:\/\/autoscribeinformatics.com\/about-us . Retrieved 28 November 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Autoscribe - About Us\". Autoscribe Informatics. Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/about-us . Retrieved 28 November 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Autoscribe Ltd.\". Companies House. Gov.uk. https:\/\/beta.companieshouse.gov.uk\/company\/01539748 . Retrieved 28 November 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Autoscribe Informatics, Inc.\". Corporations Division. Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. http:\/\/corp.sec.state.ma.us\/CorpWeb\/CorpSearch\/CorpSummary.aspx?FEIN=001068673 . Retrieved 28 November 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Autoscribe launches US operation\". PR.com. 12 January 2012. http:\/\/www.pr.com\/press-release\/382474 . Retrieved 28 November 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Autoscribe Start AUS Operation\". Autoscribe Informatics. 28 November 2018. https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/press-releases\/autoscribe-informatics-pty-ltd-australia-now-in-operation . Retrieved 28 November 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Autoscribe - Contact Us\". Autoscribe Informatics. 28 November 2018. http:\/\/autoscribeinformatics.com\/about-us\/contact-us . Retrieved 28 November 2018 .   \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 \"Matrix Gemini\". Autoscribe Informatics. http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-gemini . Retrieved 01 September 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Matrix Configuration Tools\". Autoscribe Informatics. http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/configuration-tools . Retrieved 01 September 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 10.0 10.1 10.2 \"Matrix Gemini LIMS Configuration Tools\" (PDF). Autoscribe Informatics. http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/pdfs\/ConfigToolsUSV5-Matrix-Configuration-Tools-US.pdf . Retrieved 04 October 2016 .   \n\n\u2191 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 \"LIMS Solutions\". Autoscribe Informatics. http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-express . Retrieved 01 September 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 \"Matrix Tracker\". Autoscribe Informatics. http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-tracker . Retrieved 01 September 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Matrix Gemini LIMS for Stability Studies\". Autoscribe Informatics. http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/stability . Retrieved 01 September 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Autoscribe - BIMS\". Autoscribe Informatics. http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/bims . Retrieved 22 October 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15 15.16 15.17 15.18 15.19 \"Matrix Gemini LIMS\" (PDF). Autoscribe Informatics. http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/pdfs\/matrix-gemini-lims-brochure.pdf . Retrieved 01 September 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 16.0 16.1 16.2 \"Additional Matrix Modules\". Autoscribe Informatics. http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/additional-modules . Retrieved 01 September 2015 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Autoscribe_Informatics,_Inc.\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Autoscribe_Informatics,_Inc.<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Biobanking LIMSBiotechnology LIMSCannabis LIMSChemical LIMSClinical research LIMSContract services LIMSEnvironmental LIMSFood and beverage LIMSGeology and mining LIMSLIMS vendorManufacturing and R&D LIMSPathology LIMSPetrochemical LIMSPharmaceutical LIMSPower and utility LIMSVendorsVeterinary LIMS\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 29 November 2018, at 23:34.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 7,658 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","a187eaeb93bae7889be44009f869fc9c_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Autoscribe_Informatics skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Autoscribe Informatics<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\">\n<p><b>Autoscribe Informatics<\/b> develops and distributes business, scientific, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> software solutions.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Autoscribe Informatics is the trading name of Autoscribe Ltd.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TradeName_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TradeName-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> \u2014 founded in 1981 as a privately-owned company based in the U.K.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASHist_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASHist-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CHAuto_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CHAuto-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Autoscribe Informatics, Inc. was founded in late 2011<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MassStateAuto_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MassStateAuto-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>, giving a direct presence in the US market. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Zumatrix,_Inc.\" title=\"Zumatrix, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f45acef05fe5c7eefd6df00e5857f808\">Zumatrix, Inc.<\/a>, the North American distribution and support team for Autoscribe's Matrix Gemini product, was transferred into the new U.S. entity, which began operations on January 3, 2012.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AutoZum_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AutoZum-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Autoscribe Informatics also has a worldwide distributor network including and Australasia office in South Australia<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Oz1_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Oz1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>, \"PT Agryiya Analitika\" in Indonesia covering SE Asia, \"Da Vinci Laboratory Solutions B.V.\" in Benelux, \"CCV\" in South America and \"RITME\" in France. <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Distis_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Distis-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technology_and_products\">Technology and products<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Matrix_LIMS_product_line\">Matrix LIMS product line<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Matrix Gemini is a configurable <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) solution that helps laboratories \"to accurately manage large volumes of data to strict standards, while at the same time constantly evolve to improve efficiency, automation and turn-around times.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGIntro_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGIntro-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> One of the main features of this software is a set of configuration tools designed to add greater flexibility to security and workflow applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGConfig_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGConfig-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> The configuration tools are graphical, requiring no software programming or scripting knowledge to use them, making them extremely user friendly. The word \"Gemini\" refers to the dual user interface of desktop or web browser. Any changes in configuration are instantly reflected in both interfaces.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGConfigBroch_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGConfigBroch-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Matrix Express is a slimmer version of Matrix Gemini, one \"for smaller laboratories or as an introductory LIMS in larger organizations.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MEIntro_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MEIntro-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Matrix Tracker is a tracking application that \"allow[s] you to setup and modify the workflows, screens and menus to meet detailed requirements.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MTIntro_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MTIntro-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Matrix Study Management is software that acts as \"a stability management system for complete control of stability studies for a variety of industries\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MSEIntro_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MSEIntro-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> and features the ability to manage stability storage room operations, inventory, audit trail generation, and protocol design and approval.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Matrix_BIMS_product_line\">Matrix BIMS product line<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Autoscribe Informatics also provides several business information management systems (BIMS) <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGbims_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGbims-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> including:\n<\/p><p>Quality Management Suite - A suite of quality tools to manage assets, custoemr feedback, staff competency tracking, document management, corrective and preventive action management and audit planning.\n<\/p><p>Support Management System - A configurable system for the complete management of all helpdesk support functions to help companies track support problems and manage them through to resolution.\n<\/p><p>Matrix Support Management System (SMS) is designed to help companies track support problems and manage them through to resolution. \n<\/p><p>Issue Tracker - designed to allow issues\/problems\/complaints to be logged and actions assigned to yourself or to other people.\n<\/p><p><br \/> \n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Features\">Features<\/span><\/h4>\n\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" style=\"border-style:none;\" border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\"> Product: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-gemini\" target=\"_blank\">Matrix Gemini<\/a>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; border-style:none;\"> <table class=\"databox collabsible\" cellspacing=\"5\" style=\"width:22em; margin:0 0 0 0; padding:0; float:left; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-collapse:collapse; width:280px;\"><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Sample, inventory, and data management<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_login_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98071177bc94b23b88297692a3a52005\">Sample login and management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4622d31a3236faeab999eee2d2493313\">Sample tracking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_and_result_batching\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4616ac6ee0e19b94e4dbaa51df9c799\">Sample and\/or result batching?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f358fd26f821c76edf862b7dee946f8\">Task and event scheduling?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGSched_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGSched-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Option_for_manual_result_entry\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"621709a9ae6a8b6bb4f2de549e344b5c\">Option for manual result entry?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Multiple_data_viewing_methods\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88041a37ca09479d4858d43199e187b2\">Multiple data viewing methods?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGIntro_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGIntro-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_and_trend_analysis\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1539cd55185863ffbb2284c2b5cc14d5\">Data and trend analysis?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_and_equipment_sharing\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc0f0b1238edddbf7f495d253e27e7c9\">Data and equipment sharing?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customizable_fields_and.2For_interface\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"541386f8b0249149ca54737c459828d0\">Customizable fields and\/or interface?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGIntro_8-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGIntro-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Query_capability\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0ca33e764fc74bb1de10416b0561a27\">Query capability?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Import_data\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50124e3027d3b3bcb1801c0adb042e82\">Import data?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Internal_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e535cc310bda347927d684c2b50f959a\">Internal file or data linking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#External_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5fe00aac17d418abd170f40c01b923e\">External file or data linking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGConfigBroch_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGConfigBroch-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#ELN_support_or_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6a4efca41b1810ae03ddf7ebcffcb25\">ELN support or integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_MS_Excel\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85c5b88d0a67d8a91af0fe101dd7f9b4\">Export data to MS Excel?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGConfigBroch_10-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGConfigBroch-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Raw_data_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cca7f6e63ef148ca5cf28164361cc503\">Raw data management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_warehouse\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3082d0bb37d14d6ab62b393bd2834094\">Data warehouse?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Deadline_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc8fea028df4821085de3db1d02476a8\">Deadline control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Production_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"add9164269d9ecfd27c163f9c50e2469\">Production control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Project_and.2For_task_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0b65cad4546629d814bd000b0c6836a\">Project and\/or task management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"922cb0190a1750c3545849959a860288\">Inventory management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd9e325ecd80a3deb3b4aa2159bc0eda\">Document creation and\/or management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Case_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91a43f1107cf4cfbf9fb8ea707bead64\">Case management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"233ebf71073035e741a5acf410dc8242\">Workflow management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Specification_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2bd724c42ae9a6a8cc382720d399154\">Specification management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customer_and_supplier_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ee1c9037a1a9e877bca2bb7821de8d\">Customer and supplier management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Billing_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a2e904b24f87cdc1232ce7370774d8c\">Billing management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Quality, security, and compliance<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e58f73cb3d51704d053508c71fae968\">Regulatory compliance?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGSched_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGSched-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#QA.2FQC_functions\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2bf55c170c7429ac892dd177aaa2e2\">QA \/ QC functions?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Performance_evaluation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba19c1d4cef221fdadce596bafe8bea3\">Performance evaluation?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d184d528c3d8bec99c88b45a9e026379\">Audit trail?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGIntro_8-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGIntro-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Chain_of_custody\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57c608855a16e5bdf3db2a1f6abb50db\">Chain of custody?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGIntro_8-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGIntro-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">Configurable roles and security?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_normalization\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df6840ac3ee14b940990e04bfe4fed70\">Data normalization?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148c3f13ce1e0562e2d8b33c7002622e\">Data validation?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_encryption\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"075eb206aa07fb4b3f183f50fc547f43\">Data encryption?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Version_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0f243a35540cf60e68f6749ca5ffaac\">Version control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGIntro_8-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGIntro-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Automatic_data_backup\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f865b497bf295ba58d4ee5d9a03b2e6\">Automatic data backup?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Environmental_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"784f7ba1fb87304630630ab73bb57cc6\">Environmental monitoring?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Reporting, barcoding, and printing<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Custom_reporting\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"739c5efda3365bab28d01299a831e693\">Custom reporting?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Report_printing\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebf26bf9e1368b8e9ac1c5ba42a10bb0\">Report printing?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Label_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c45986a47a971ad2357a50e5d5fd8db0\">Label support?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">Barcode support?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_PDF\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb88d516821bee6fe453ff0f17572046\">Export to PDF?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_MS_Word\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3427765ca13832c0c18b4793745e92b1\">Export to MS Word?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_HTML_or_XML\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"303a1f820db39efe713a7859b62ef834\">Export to HTML and\/or XML?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Fax_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f5c8fec31f5ee1ab836255b270acfec\">Fax integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Email_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2de26fc661eeed4a6cb63ef2b35976c2\">Email integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Base functionality<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Administrator_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f50a63eeb9565f98cb5f9288a37bd9e9\">Administrator management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGIntro_8-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGIntro-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Modular\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"126843b63279f958fbb99b221dff0513\">Modular?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGIntro_8-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGIntro-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19c828f7d6e33928579d97389a65a675\">Instrument interfacing and management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGSched_16-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGSched-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Mobile_device_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8184312de234dae3fa4c8b1a511bc9fa\">Mobile device integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2851659b2739ded940b9f4bfd6415cf2\">Alarms and\/or alerts?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Work-related_time_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a1c775a9fc866d0f19372667539beb9\">Work-related time tracking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Voice_recognition_system\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fa989a8a7aeab9d20920e6ebdd2ab12\">Voice recognition system?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#External_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00cfd3cdc2831d07936f16a65aa57ffd\">External monitoring?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Messaging\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a920d6d387f5c9b40b613451efbd5aab\">Messaging?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Multilingual\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fd0b3665c1c3057e482b85ebea2bab8\">Multilingual?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGBroch_15-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Network-capable\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d561bd66353ffdfc0a692e355935ab18\">Network-capable?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGIntro_8-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGIntro-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Web_client_or_portal\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b67393b52f03168301d7499fd803c22\">Web client or portal?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MGIntro_8-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MGIntro-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Online_or_integrated_help\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f5054dc326fa1c419635dcfa86d51ea\">Online or integrated help?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Software_as_a_service_delivery_model\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f46c447d0b14caf739e43e17a9baeba\">Software as a service delivery model?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Usage-based_cost\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e54f0cc036fe25fbe3019764e581d7b\">Usage-based cost?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Industries served<\/th><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:8px; text-align:left;\">biobanking, biotechnology, chemical, clinical research, contract services, environmental, food and beverage, general, geology and mining, pathology, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, power and utility, veterinary<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top; padding-right:10px;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" style=\"border-style:none;\" border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\"> Product: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-express\" target=\"_blank\">Matrix Express<\/a>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; border-style:none;\"> <table class=\"databox collabsible\" cellspacing=\"5\" style=\"width:22em; margin:0 0 0 0; padding:0; float:left; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-collapse:collapse; width:280px;\"><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Sample, inventory, and data management<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_login_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98071177bc94b23b88297692a3a52005\">Sample login and management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MEIntro_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MEIntro-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4622d31a3236faeab999eee2d2493313\">Sample tracking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MEIntro_11-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MEIntro-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_and_result_batching\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4616ac6ee0e19b94e4dbaa51df9c799\">Sample and\/or result batching?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f358fd26f821c76edf862b7dee946f8\">Task and event scheduling?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MEIntro_11-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MEIntro-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Option_for_manual_result_entry\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"621709a9ae6a8b6bb4f2de549e344b5c\">Option for manual result entry?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MEIntro_11-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MEIntro-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Multiple_data_viewing_methods\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88041a37ca09479d4858d43199e187b2\">Multiple data viewing methods?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_and_trend_analysis\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1539cd55185863ffbb2284c2b5cc14d5\">Data and trend analysis?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_and_equipment_sharing\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc0f0b1238edddbf7f495d253e27e7c9\">Data and equipment sharing?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customizable_fields_and.2For_interface\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"541386f8b0249149ca54737c459828d0\">Customizable fields and\/or interface?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MEIntro_11-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MEIntro-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Query_capability\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0ca33e764fc74bb1de10416b0561a27\">Query capability?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Import_data\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50124e3027d3b3bcb1801c0adb042e82\">Import data?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Internal_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e535cc310bda347927d684c2b50f959a\">Internal file or data linking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#External_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5fe00aac17d418abd170f40c01b923e\">External file or data linking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#ELN_support_or_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6a4efca41b1810ae03ddf7ebcffcb25\">ELN support or integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_MS_Excel\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85c5b88d0a67d8a91af0fe101dd7f9b4\">Export data to MS Excel?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Raw_data_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cca7f6e63ef148ca5cf28164361cc503\">Raw data management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_warehouse\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3082d0bb37d14d6ab62b393bd2834094\">Data warehouse?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Deadline_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc8fea028df4821085de3db1d02476a8\">Deadline control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Production_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"add9164269d9ecfd27c163f9c50e2469\">Production control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Project_and.2For_task_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0b65cad4546629d814bd000b0c6836a\">Project and\/or task management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MEIntro_11-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MEIntro-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"922cb0190a1750c3545849959a860288\">Inventory management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd9e325ecd80a3deb3b4aa2159bc0eda\">Document creation and\/or management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Case_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91a43f1107cf4cfbf9fb8ea707bead64\">Case management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"233ebf71073035e741a5acf410dc8242\">Workflow management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Specification_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2bd724c42ae9a6a8cc382720d399154\">Specification management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customer_and_supplier_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ee1c9037a1a9e877bca2bb7821de8d\">Customer and supplier management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Billing_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a2e904b24f87cdc1232ce7370774d8c\">Billing management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Quality, security, and compliance<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e58f73cb3d51704d053508c71fae968\">Regulatory compliance?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MEIntro_11-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MEIntro-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#QA.2FQC_functions\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2bf55c170c7429ac892dd177aaa2e2\">QA \/ QC functions?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Performance_evaluation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba19c1d4cef221fdadce596bafe8bea3\">Performance evaluation?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MEIntro_11-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MEIntro-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d184d528c3d8bec99c88b45a9e026379\">Audit trail?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MEIntro_11-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MEIntro-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Chain_of_custody\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57c608855a16e5bdf3db2a1f6abb50db\">Chain of custody?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">Configurable roles and security?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MEIntro_11-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MEIntro-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_normalization\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df6840ac3ee14b940990e04bfe4fed70\">Data normalization?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148c3f13ce1e0562e2d8b33c7002622e\">Data validation?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MEIntro_11-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MEIntro-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_encryption\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"075eb206aa07fb4b3f183f50fc547f43\">Data encryption?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Version_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0f243a35540cf60e68f6749ca5ffaac\">Version control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Automatic_data_backup\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f865b497bf295ba58d4ee5d9a03b2e6\">Automatic data backup?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Environmental_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"784f7ba1fb87304630630ab73bb57cc6\">Environmental monitoring?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Reporting, barcoding, and printing<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Custom_reporting\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"739c5efda3365bab28d01299a831e693\">Custom reporting?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MEIntro_11-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MEIntro-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Report_printing\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebf26bf9e1368b8e9ac1c5ba42a10bb0\">Report printing?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MEIntro_11-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MEIntro-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Label_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c45986a47a971ad2357a50e5d5fd8db0\">Label support?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">Barcode support?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_PDF\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb88d516821bee6fe453ff0f17572046\">Export to PDF?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_MS_Word\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3427765ca13832c0c18b4793745e92b1\">Export to MS Word?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_HTML_or_XML\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"303a1f820db39efe713a7859b62ef834\">Export to HTML and\/or XML?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Fax_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f5c8fec31f5ee1ab836255b270acfec\">Fax integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Email_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2de26fc661eeed4a6cb63ef2b35976c2\">Email integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Base functionality<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Administrator_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f50a63eeb9565f98cb5f9288a37bd9e9\">Administrator management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Modular\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"126843b63279f958fbb99b221dff0513\">Modular?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19c828f7d6e33928579d97389a65a675\">Instrument interfacing and management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Mobile_device_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8184312de234dae3fa4c8b1a511bc9fa\">Mobile device integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2851659b2739ded940b9f4bfd6415cf2\">Alarms and\/or alerts?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Work-related_time_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a1c775a9fc866d0f19372667539beb9\">Work-related time tracking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Voice_recognition_system\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fa989a8a7aeab9d20920e6ebdd2ab12\">Voice recognition system?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#External_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00cfd3cdc2831d07936f16a65aa57ffd\">External monitoring?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Messaging\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a920d6d387f5c9b40b613451efbd5aab\">Messaging?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Multilingual\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fd0b3665c1c3057e482b85ebea2bab8\">Multilingual?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Network-capable\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d561bd66353ffdfc0a692e355935ab18\">Network-capable?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Web_client_or_portal\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b67393b52f03168301d7499fd803c22\">Web client or portal?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Online_or_integrated_help\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f5054dc326fa1c419635dcfa86d51ea\">Online or integrated help?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Software_as_a_service_delivery_model\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f46c447d0b14caf739e43e17a9baeba\">Software as a service delivery model?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Usage-based_cost\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e54f0cc036fe25fbe3019764e581d7b\">Usage-based cost?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Industries served<\/th><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:8px; text-align:left;\">biobanking, biotechnology, chemical, clinical research, contract services, environmental, food and beverage, general, geology and mining, pathology, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, power and utility, veterinary<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top; padding-right:10px;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" style=\"border-style:none;\" border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\"> Product: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-tracker\" target=\"_blank\">Matrix Tracker<\/a>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; border-style:none;\"> <table class=\"databox collabsible\" cellspacing=\"5\" style=\"width:22em; margin:0 0 0 0; padding:0; float:left; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-collapse:collapse; width:280px;\"><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Sample, inventory, and data management<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_login_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98071177bc94b23b88297692a3a52005\">Sample login and management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4622d31a3236faeab999eee2d2493313\">Sample tracking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MTIntro_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MTIntro-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_and_result_batching\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4616ac6ee0e19b94e4dbaa51df9c799\">Sample and\/or result batching?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f358fd26f821c76edf862b7dee946f8\">Task and event scheduling?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MTIntro_12-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MTIntro-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Option_for_manual_result_entry\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"621709a9ae6a8b6bb4f2de549e344b5c\">Option for manual result entry?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Multiple_data_viewing_methods\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88041a37ca09479d4858d43199e187b2\">Multiple data viewing methods?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_and_trend_analysis\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1539cd55185863ffbb2284c2b5cc14d5\">Data and trend analysis?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_and_equipment_sharing\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc0f0b1238edddbf7f495d253e27e7c9\">Data and equipment sharing?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customizable_fields_and.2For_interface\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"541386f8b0249149ca54737c459828d0\">Customizable fields and\/or interface?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MTIntro_12-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MTIntro-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Query_capability\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0ca33e764fc74bb1de10416b0561a27\">Query capability?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Import_data\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50124e3027d3b3bcb1801c0adb042e82\">Import data?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Internal_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e535cc310bda347927d684c2b50f959a\">Internal file or data linking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#External_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5fe00aac17d418abd170f40c01b923e\">External file or data linking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#ELN_support_or_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6a4efca41b1810ae03ddf7ebcffcb25\">ELN support or integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_MS_Excel\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85c5b88d0a67d8a91af0fe101dd7f9b4\">Export data to MS Excel?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Raw_data_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cca7f6e63ef148ca5cf28164361cc503\">Raw data management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_warehouse\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3082d0bb37d14d6ab62b393bd2834094\">Data warehouse?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Deadline_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc8fea028df4821085de3db1d02476a8\">Deadline control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Production_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"add9164269d9ecfd27c163f9c50e2469\">Production control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Project_and.2For_task_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0b65cad4546629d814bd000b0c6836a\">Project and\/or task management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MTIntro_12-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MTIntro-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"922cb0190a1750c3545849959a860288\">Inventory management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd9e325ecd80a3deb3b4aa2159bc0eda\">Document creation and\/or management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Case_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91a43f1107cf4cfbf9fb8ea707bead64\">Case management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"233ebf71073035e741a5acf410dc8242\">Workflow management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Specification_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2bd724c42ae9a6a8cc382720d399154\">Specification management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customer_and_supplier_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ee1c9037a1a9e877bca2bb7821de8d\">Customer and supplier management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Billing_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a2e904b24f87cdc1232ce7370774d8c\">Billing management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Quality, security, and compliance<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e58f73cb3d51704d053508c71fae968\">Regulatory compliance?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MTIntro_12-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MTIntro-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#QA.2FQC_functions\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2bf55c170c7429ac892dd177aaa2e2\">QA \/ QC functions?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Performance_evaluation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba19c1d4cef221fdadce596bafe8bea3\">Performance evaluation?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d184d528c3d8bec99c88b45a9e026379\">Audit trail?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MTIntro_12-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MTIntro-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Chain_of_custody\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57c608855a16e5bdf3db2a1f6abb50db\">Chain of custody?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MTIntro_12-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MTIntro-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">Configurable roles and security?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_normalization\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df6840ac3ee14b940990e04bfe4fed70\">Data normalization?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148c3f13ce1e0562e2d8b33c7002622e\">Data validation?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_encryption\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"075eb206aa07fb4b3f183f50fc547f43\">Data encryption?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Version_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0f243a35540cf60e68f6749ca5ffaac\">Version control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Automatic_data_backup\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f865b497bf295ba58d4ee5d9a03b2e6\">Automatic data backup?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Environmental_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"784f7ba1fb87304630630ab73bb57cc6\">Environmental monitoring?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Reporting, barcoding, and printing<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Custom_reporting\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"739c5efda3365bab28d01299a831e693\">Custom reporting?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MTIntro_12-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MTIntro-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Report_printing\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebf26bf9e1368b8e9ac1c5ba42a10bb0\">Report printing?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Label_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c45986a47a971ad2357a50e5d5fd8db0\">Label support?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">Barcode support?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MTIntro_12-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MTIntro-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_PDF\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb88d516821bee6fe453ff0f17572046\">Export to PDF?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_MS_Word\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3427765ca13832c0c18b4793745e92b1\">Export to MS Word?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_HTML_or_XML\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"303a1f820db39efe713a7859b62ef834\">Export to HTML and\/or XML?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Fax_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f5c8fec31f5ee1ab836255b270acfec\">Fax integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Email_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2de26fc661eeed4a6cb63ef2b35976c2\">Email integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Base functionality<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Administrator_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f50a63eeb9565f98cb5f9288a37bd9e9\">Administrator management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Modular\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"126843b63279f958fbb99b221dff0513\">Modular?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19c828f7d6e33928579d97389a65a675\">Instrument interfacing and management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Mobile_device_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8184312de234dae3fa4c8b1a511bc9fa\">Mobile device integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2851659b2739ded940b9f4bfd6415cf2\">Alarms and\/or alerts?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Work-related_time_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a1c775a9fc866d0f19372667539beb9\">Work-related time tracking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Voice_recognition_system\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fa989a8a7aeab9d20920e6ebdd2ab12\">Voice recognition system?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#External_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00cfd3cdc2831d07936f16a65aa57ffd\">External monitoring?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Messaging\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a920d6d387f5c9b40b613451efbd5aab\">Messaging?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Multilingual\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fd0b3665c1c3057e482b85ebea2bab8\">Multilingual?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Network-capable\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d561bd66353ffdfc0a692e355935ab18\">Network-capable?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Web_client_or_portal\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b67393b52f03168301d7499fd803c22\">Web client or portal?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Online_or_integrated_help\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f5054dc326fa1c419635dcfa86d51ea\">Online or integrated help?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Software_as_a_service_delivery_model\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f46c447d0b14caf739e43e17a9baeba\">Software as a service delivery model?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Usage-based_cost\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e54f0cc036fe25fbe3019764e581d7b\">Usage-based cost?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Industries served<\/th><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:8px; text-align:left;\">biobanking, biotechnology, chemical, clinical research, contract services, environmental, food and beverage, general, geology and mining, pathology, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, power and utility, veterinary<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Pricing\">Pricing<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Source for pricing information is directly from Autoscribe via the Laboratory Informatics Institute. As prices may change at any time, always contact the vendor directly to obtain a price list or quote.\n<\/p>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible collapsed\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"4\"> Matrix Gemini Price List\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee;\"> Part number\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee;\"> Description\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee;\"> Price\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <b>ME<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">Matrix Express license (1-User)\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$4,500\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <b>ME1<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">Additional ME Users (each)\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$2,640\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <b>MG<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">Matrix Gemini License\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$14,000\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <b>MG1<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">Additional MG Users - with Config tools (each)\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$10,500\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <b>MG2<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">Additional MG Users - without Config tools (each)\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">$4,500\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\">Demonstration videos and other media<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The following demonstration videos are available for Autoscribe products:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=q4nw29T6C0M\" target=\"_blank\">LIMS video for Matrix Gemini Range from Autoscribe<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=WbhJwSwbjXE\" target=\"_blank\">Matrix Gemini LIMS by Autoscribe Limited<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=f6wlyVcpK8E\" target=\"_blank\">Matrix Gemini LIMS by Autoscribe Ltd<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=i5CQmyO8FWo\" target=\"_blank\">Autoscribe - Matrix Veterinary LIMS - Laboratory Information Management System<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=zrQxLMUZ9NM\" target=\"_blank\">Autoscribe - Matrix Gemini LIMS - Laboratory Information Management System<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Y29sf53w_YA\" target=\"_blank\">Matrix Gemini Laboratory Information Management System<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gRsRp3O0y4o\" target=\"_blank\">LIMS Configuration Demonstration<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=N2y4CfU6zSI\" target=\"_blank\">Autoscribe Matrix Gemini LIMS Webinar Session 1, 26th March 2014<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Kd3Hscyd87s\" target=\"_blank\">Autoscribe Matrix Gemini LIMS Webinar Session 2, 23rd April 2014<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RQn6-5NLulg\" target=\"_blank\">Autoscribe Matrix Gemini LIMS Webinar Session 3, 4th June 2014<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Df3vTO6NTNM\" target=\"_blank\">LIMS for Life - Pittcon 2015 Configuration Challenge<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=8NJZ9reWYwA\" target=\"_blank\">Autoscribe - Matrix Gemini LIMS - Laboratory Information Management System<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9Vy4QHob7sM\" target=\"_blank\">Autoscribe - Matrix Gemini LIMS - Basic Configuration Tasks<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=YN2GkgZ2_E0\" target=\"_blank\">Autoscribe - Matrix Gemini LIMS - Adding DB List Box Demonstration<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Additional_information\">Additional information<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-gemini\" target=\"_blank\">Matrix Gemini information and brochure<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-express\" target=\"_blank\">Matrix Express information and brochure<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/configuration-tools\" target=\"_blank\">Matrix Configuration Tools information and brochure<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-tracker\" target=\"_blank\">Matrix Tracker information and brochure<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/stability\" target=\"_blank\">Stability Study Manager information and brochure<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/bims\/quality-management-suite\" target=\"_blank\">Quality Management Suite information and brochure<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/bims\/support-management\" target=\"_blank\">Support Management System information and brochure<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/bims\/issue-tracker\" target=\"_blank\">Issues Tracker information<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-TradeName-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TradeName_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/autoscribeinformatics.com\/about-us\" target=\"_blank\">\"Autoscribe - About Us\"<\/a>. Autoscribe Informatics. 28 November 2018<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/autoscribeinformatics.com\/about-us\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/autoscribeinformatics.com\/about-us<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 November 2018<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Autoscribe+-+About+Us&rft.atitle=&rft.date=28+November+2018&rft.pub=Autoscribe+Informatics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fautoscribeinformatics.com%2Fabout-us&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASHist-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASHist_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/about-us\" target=\"_blank\">\"Autoscribe - About Us\"<\/a>. Autoscribe Informatics. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141030005443\/http:\/\/autoscribeinformatics.com\/about-us\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 30 October 2014<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/about-us\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/about-us<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 November 2018<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Autoscribe+-+About+Us&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Autoscribe+Informatics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.autoscribeinformatics.com%2Fabout-us&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CHAuto-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CHAuto_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/beta.companieshouse.gov.uk\/company\/01539748\" target=\"_blank\">\"Autoscribe Ltd.\"<\/a>. <i>Companies House<\/i>. Gov.uk<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/beta.companieshouse.gov.uk\/company\/01539748\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/beta.companieshouse.gov.uk\/company\/01539748<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 November 2018<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Autoscribe+Ltd.&rft.atitle=Companies+House&rft.pub=Gov.uk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbeta.companieshouse.gov.uk%2Fcompany%2F01539748&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MassStateAuto-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MassStateAuto_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/corp.sec.state.ma.us\/CorpWeb\/CorpSearch\/CorpSummary.aspx?FEIN=001068673\" target=\"_blank\">\"Autoscribe Informatics, Inc.\"<\/a>. <i>Corporations Division<\/i>. Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/corp.sec.state.ma.us\/CorpWeb\/CorpSearch\/CorpSummary.aspx?FEIN=001068673\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/corp.sec.state.ma.us\/CorpWeb\/CorpSearch\/CorpSummary.aspx?FEIN=001068673<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 November 2018<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Autoscribe+Informatics%2C+Inc.&rft.atitle=Corporations+Division&rft.pub=Secretary+of+the+Commonwealth+of+Massachusetts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcorp.sec.state.ma.us%2FCorpWeb%2FCorpSearch%2FCorpSummary.aspx%3FFEIN%3D001068673&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AutoZum-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AutoZum_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pr.com\/press-release\/382474\" target=\"_blank\">\"Autoscribe launches US operation\"<\/a>. PR.com. 12 January 2012<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pr.com\/press-release\/382474\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pr.com\/press-release\/382474<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 November 2018<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Autoscribe+launches+US+operation&rft.atitle=&rft.date=12+January+2012&rft.pub=PR.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pr.com%2Fpress-release%2F382474&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Oz1-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Oz1_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/press-releases\/autoscribe-informatics-pty-ltd-australia-now-in-operation\" target=\"_blank\">\"Autoscribe Start AUS Operation\"<\/a>. Autoscribe Informatics. 28 November 2018<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/press-releases\/autoscribe-informatics-pty-ltd-australia-now-in-operation\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/resources\/press-releases\/autoscribe-informatics-pty-ltd-australia-now-in-operation<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 November 2018<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Autoscribe+Start+AUS+Operation&rft.atitle=&rft.date=28+November+2018&rft.pub=Autoscribe+Informatics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.autoscribeinformatics.com%2Fresources%2Fpress-releases%2Fautoscribe-informatics-pty-ltd-australia-now-in-operation&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Distis-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Distis_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/autoscribeinformatics.com\/about-us\/contact-us\" target=\"_blank\">\"Autoscribe - Contact Us\"<\/a>. Autoscribe Informatics. 28 November 2018<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/autoscribeinformatics.com\/about-us\/contact-us\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/autoscribeinformatics.com\/about-us\/contact-us<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 November 2018<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Autoscribe+-+Contact+Us&rft.atitle=&rft.date=28+November+2018&rft.pub=Autoscribe+Informatics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fautoscribeinformatics.com%2Fabout-us%2Fcontact-us&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MGIntro-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGIntro_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGIntro_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGIntro_8-2\">8.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGIntro_8-3\">8.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGIntro_8-4\">8.4<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGIntro_8-5\">8.5<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGIntro_8-6\">8.6<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGIntro_8-7\">8.7<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGIntro_8-8\">8.8<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGIntro_8-9\">8.9<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-gemini\" target=\"_blank\">\"Matrix Gemini\"<\/a>. Autoscribe Informatics<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-gemini\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-gemini<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 01 September 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Matrix+Gemini&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Autoscribe+Informatics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.autoscribeinformatics.com%2Flims%2Fmatrix-gemini&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MGConfig-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGConfig_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/configuration-tools\" target=\"_blank\">\"Matrix Configuration Tools\"<\/a>. Autoscribe Informatics<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/configuration-tools\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/configuration-tools<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 01 September 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Matrix+Configuration+Tools&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Autoscribe+Informatics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.autoscribeinformatics.com%2Flims%2Fconfiguration-tools&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MGConfigBroch-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGConfigBroch_10-0\">10.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGConfigBroch_10-1\">10.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGConfigBroch_10-2\">10.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/pdfs\/ConfigToolsUSV5-Matrix-Configuration-Tools-US.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Matrix Gemini LIMS Configuration Tools\"<\/a> (PDF). Autoscribe Informatics<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/pdfs\/ConfigToolsUSV5-Matrix-Configuration-Tools-US.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/pdfs\/ConfigToolsUSV5-Matrix-Configuration-Tools-US.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 04 October 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Matrix+Gemini+LIMS+Configuration+Tools&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Autoscribe+Informatics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.autoscribeinformatics.com%2Fpdfs%2FConfigToolsUSV5-Matrix-Configuration-Tools-US.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MEIntro-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MEIntro_11-0\">11.00<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MEIntro_11-1\">11.01<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MEIntro_11-2\">11.02<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MEIntro_11-3\">11.03<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MEIntro_11-4\">11.04<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MEIntro_11-5\">11.05<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MEIntro_11-6\">11.06<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MEIntro_11-7\">11.07<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MEIntro_11-8\">11.08<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MEIntro_11-9\">11.09<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MEIntro_11-10\">11.10<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MEIntro_11-11\">11.11<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MEIntro_11-12\">11.12<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MEIntro_11-13\">11.13<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-express\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS Solutions\"<\/a>. Autoscribe Informatics<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-express\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-express<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 01 September 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LIMS+Solutions&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Autoscribe+Informatics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.autoscribeinformatics.com%2Flims%2Fmatrix-express&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MTIntro-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MTIntro_12-0\">12.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MTIntro_12-1\">12.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MTIntro_12-2\">12.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MTIntro_12-3\">12.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MTIntro_12-4\">12.4<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MTIntro_12-5\">12.5<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MTIntro_12-6\">12.6<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MTIntro_12-7\">12.7<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MTIntro_12-8\">12.8<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MTIntro_12-9\">12.9<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-tracker\" target=\"_blank\">\"Matrix Tracker\"<\/a>. Autoscribe Informatics<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-tracker\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/matrix-tracker<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 01 September 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Matrix+Tracker&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Autoscribe+Informatics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.autoscribeinformatics.com%2Flims%2Fmatrix-tracker&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MSEIntro-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MSEIntro_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/stability\" target=\"_blank\">\"Matrix Gemini LIMS for Stability Studies\"<\/a>. Autoscribe Informatics<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/stability\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/stability<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 01 September 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Matrix+Gemini+LIMS+for+Stability+Studies&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Autoscribe+Informatics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.autoscribeinformatics.com%2Flims%2Fstability&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MGbims-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGbims_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/bims\" target=\"_blank\">\"Autoscribe - BIMS\"<\/a>. Autoscribe Informatics<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/bims\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/bims<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 22 October 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Autoscribe+-+BIMS&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Autoscribe+Informatics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.autoscribeinformatics.com%2Fbims&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MGBroch-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-0\">15.00<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-1\">15.01<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-2\">15.02<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-3\">15.03<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-4\">15.04<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-5\">15.05<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-6\">15.06<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-7\">15.07<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-8\">15.08<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-9\">15.09<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-10\">15.10<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-11\">15.11<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-12\">15.12<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-13\">15.13<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-14\">15.14<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-15\">15.15<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-16\">15.16<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-17\">15.17<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-18\">15.18<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGBroch_15-19\">15.19<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/pdfs\/matrix-gemini-lims-brochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Matrix Gemini LIMS\"<\/a> (PDF). Autoscribe Informatics<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/pdfs\/matrix-gemini-lims-brochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/pdfs\/matrix-gemini-lims-brochure.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 01 September 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Matrix+Gemini+LIMS&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Autoscribe+Informatics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.autoscribeinformatics.com%2Fpdfs%2Fmatrix-gemini-lims-brochure.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MGSched-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGSched_16-0\">16.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGSched_16-1\">16.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MGSched_16-2\">16.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/additional-modules\" target=\"_blank\">\"Additional Matrix Modules\"<\/a>. Autoscribe Informatics<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/additional-modules\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.autoscribeinformatics.com\/lims\/additional-modules<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 01 September 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Additional+Matrix+Modules&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Autoscribe+Informatics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.autoscribeinformatics.com%2Flims%2Fadditional-modules&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Autoscribe_Informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203042\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.659 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.685 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 22282\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 49021\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 429114\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 154885\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 11\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 581.078 1 - -total\n 42.86% 249.057 3 - Template:Databox_LIMSfeature\n 41.53% 241.344 3 - Template:Databox\n 39.48% 229.395 16 - Template:Cite_web\n 37.27% 216.540 16 - Template:Citation\/core\n 31.59% 183.570 240 - Template:Databox\/row\n 12.15% 70.612 1 - Template:Infobox_company\n 11.56% 67.187 1 - Template:Infobox\n 7.39% 42.918 81 - Template:Infobox\/row\n 2.16% 12.565 19 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:9531-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403203041 and revision id 34296\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Autoscribe_Informatics,_Inc.\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Autoscribe_Informatics,_Inc.<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","a187eaeb93bae7889be44009f869fc9c_images":["https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a8\/Vendor667.jpg"],"a187eaeb93bae7889be44009f869fc9c_timestamp":1554323441,"90479bab12020c96864541696a62156f_type":"article","90479bab12020c96864541696a62156f_title":"Abbott Informatics Corporation","90479bab12020c96864541696a62156f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Abbott_Informatics_Corporation","90479bab12020c96864541696a62156f_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tAbbott Informatics Corporation\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tAbbott Informatics Corporation\nType\n \nCorporationIndustry\n \nLaboratory informaticsHeadquarters\n \nPresidential Building\r\n4000 Hollywood Boulevard\r\nSuite 333\r\nSouth Hollywood, Florida , U.S. Number of locations\n \n50+Area served\n \nWorldwideProducts\n \n\n Products list\n Abbot Informatics Electronic Laboratory Notebook\r\nAbbot Informatics Scientific Data Management System\r\nSTARLIMS\nParent\n \nAbbott Laboratories, Inc.Website\n \nAbbottInformatics.com\n\nAbbott Informatics Corporation develops and distributes laboratory informatics software solutions.\n\nContents\n\n1 History \n2 Technology and products \n\n2.1 Abbott Informatics ELN, SDMS, and STARLIMS \n\n2.1.1 Features \n2.1.2 Pricing \n2.1.3 Demonstration videos and other media \n2.1.4 Additional information \n\n\n\n\n3 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nAbbott Informatics was originally founded as STARLIMS Technologies Ltd. by Itschak Friedman, incorporated under the laws of the State of Israel in May 1986. In November 1993, STARLIMS completed an initial public offering of its ordinary shares, which traded on the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange.[1] The company made a public offering in the United States in May 2007 and was introduced to the NASDAQ under the Stock Market under the symbol LIMS.[1][2] \nIn August 2008, the Company announced the establishment of STARLIMS Europe as a result of the May 2008 acquisition of its United Kingdom partner Lab Data Management Ltd., based in Bolton, Greater Manchester.[3] \nIn late 2009 it was revealed Abbott Laboratories, Inc. would acquire all outstanding equity of STARLIMS Technologies.[4]The deal was finalized on March 22, 2010 for a published cost of $123 million.[5] STARLIMS Corporation continued to act as a subsidiary of Abbot Labotatories.\nOn May 30, 2014, STARLIMS Corporation officially changed the name of its Florida-based headquarters to Abbot Informatics Corporation.[6] However, it wasn't until October 2015 that the company shifted its web presence, dropping the STARLIMS Corporation name in full.[7][8]\n\nTechnology and products \nAbbott Informatics ELN, SDMS, and STARLIMS \nAbbot Informatics Electronic Laboratory Notebook is an ELN \"that maximizes your lab\u2019s efficiency and ensures compliance by allowing execution of test workflows without interruption.\"[9]\nAbbot Informatics Scientific Data Management System is an SDMS that \"makes it easy for users to access and share information across the organization.\"[10] Features include data extraction, support for multiple file types, data archiving, and 21 CFR Part 11 compliance as well as automated creation, review, and approval tasks.[11]\nSTARLIMS is a web-based laboratory information management system (LIMS) \"that improves quality and safety throughout the entire product lifecycle.\"[12] The LIMS is also available as a SaaS offering under \"Abbot Informatics Cloud Services.\"[13]\n\nFeatures \n\n\n\n \n The following feature list(s) is\/are derived solely from public, freely-available online information the vendor provides. A lack of a \"Y\" does not necessarily mean that the product doesn't have that feature. The lack of a \"Y\" could mean:\n the vendor chose to not put relevant feature information online despite its existence in the product.\n the vendor chooses to make the feature information available only to those who create an account or call\/e-mail.\n the feature information exists online to the public, but a URL could not be found to cite the existence of the feature.\n the feature does not exist for the product.\nA vendor's product may receive more confirmed features with the addition of more public information to the vendor's site and\/or by providing a URL to a page or document that can act as a citation for the existence of the feature. Prospective buyers are highly recommended to contact the vendor directly to verify features as this list isn't authoritative, and product upgrades and changes happen rapidly in some cases.\r\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Product: STARLIMS\n\n\n Sample, inventory, and data managementSample login and management?Y[14]Sample tracking?Y[14]Sample and\/or result batching?Y[14]Task and event scheduling?Y[14]Option for manual result entry?Y[14]Multiple data viewing methods?Data and trend analysis?Y[14]Data and equipment sharing?Customizable fields and\/or interface?Query capability?Y[14]Import data?Internal file or data linking?External file or data linking?ELN support or integration?Export data to MS Excel?Raw data management?Data warehouse?Deadline control?Production control?Project and\/or task management?Y[14]Inventory management?Y[14]Document creation and\/or management?Y[14]Case management?Workflow management?Y[14]Specification management?Customer and supplier management?Billing management?Y[14]Quality, security, and complianceRegulatory compliance?Y[14]QA \/ QC functions?Y[14]Performance evaluation?Audit trail?Y[14]Chain of custody?Y[14]Configurable roles and security?Y[14]Data normalization?Data validation?Y[14]Data encryption?Version control?Y[14]Automatic data backup?Environmental monitoring?Reporting, barcoding, and printingCustom reporting?Y[14]Report printing?Y[14]Label support?Y[14]Barcode support?Y[14]Export to PDF?Export to MS Word?Export to HTML and\/or XML?Fax integration?Y[14]Email integration?Y[14]Base functionalityAdministrator management?Y[14]Modular?Y[14]Instrument interfacing and management?Y[14]Mobile device integration?Y[14]Alarms and\/or alerts?Y[14]Work-related time tracking?Voice recognition system?External monitoring?Messaging?Multilingual?Network-capable?Web client or portal?Y[14]Online or integrated help?Y[14]Software as a service delivery model?Y[13]Usage-based cost?Industries servedchemical, contract services, cosmetic, environmental, food and beverage, general, law enforcement and forensic, manufacturing and R&D, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, power and utility, public health and service\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Product: Abbott Informatics\r\nElectronic\r\nLaboratory Notebook\n\n\n Experiment, collaboration,\r\nand data managementChemical and\/or mathematical drawing and calculation?Y[15]Chemical and\/or spectrum file support?Task and event scheduling?Option for manual result entry?Y[15]Multiple data viewing methods?Y[15]Data and trend analysis?Data and equipment sharing?Customizable fields and\/or interface?Configurable templates and forms?Query capability?Y[15]Import data?Internal file or data linking?External file or data linking?Export data to MS Excel?Raw data management?Data warehouse?Project and\/or task management?Inventory management?Document creation and\/or management?Y[15]Lab and\/or group management?Experiment management?Workflow management?Customer and supplier management?Quality, security, and complianceRegulatory compliance?Y[15]QA \/ QC functions?Y[15]Performance evaluation?Audit trail?Y[15]Chain of custody?Y[15]Configurable roles and security?Data normalization?Data validation?Y[15]Data encryption?Electronic signatures?Y[15]Version control?Automatic data backup?Reporting, barcoding, and printingCustom reporting?Report printing?Label support?Barcode support?Export to PDF?Export to MS Word?Export to HTML and\/or XML?Email integration?Base functionalityAdministrator management?Y[15]Modular?Instrument interfacing and management?Y[15]Mobile device integration?Y[15]Third-party software integration?Y[15]Alarms and\/or alerts?External monitoring?Messaging?Bookmarking?Commenting?Y[15]Multilingual?Network-capable?Web client or portal?Y[15]Online or integrated help?Software as a service delivery model?Usage-based cost?Industries servedindustry-neutral\n\n\n\n\nPricing \nSource for pricing information is GSA Avantage. As prices may change at any time, always contact the vendor directly to obtain a price list or quote.\nNote: These are U.S. General Services Administration (GSA) prices, and as such they represent the lowest possible negotiated price. These prices aren't available to any entity outside of the Federal Government, and thus prices for non-government entities will be higher. If anything, they represent the lowest possible negotiated price.\n\r\nProducts:\nSTARLIMS Public Health concurrent full user license: $5,042.82\n\n provides an individual user (single session) full access to all STARLIMS functions and wizards at the same time as a permitted number of other user sessions in the customer's organization\nSTARLIMS Public Health concurrent data user license: $2,780.86\n\n allows an individual lab data user (single session) to view analytical services provided by the lab, view sample status, and print COAs or invoices at the same time as the permitted number of other user sessions in the licensee's organization\nSTARLIMS Forensics concurrent full user license: $5,042.82\n\n provides an individual user (single session) full access to all STARLIMS functions and wizards at the same time as a permitted number of other user sessions in the customer's organization\nSTARLIMS Forensics concurrent data user license: $2,780.86\n\n allows an individual lab data user (single session) to view analytical services provided by the lab, view sample status, and print COAs or invoices at the same time as the permitted number of other user sessions in the licensee's organization\nSTARLIMS Named Standard Designer license: $7,741.06\n\n allows authorized users to intuitively configure and make appropriate enhancements and modifications as business requirements change\n\r\nServices:\nSTARLIMS Annual Gold support plan: $14,682.92\n\n provides unlimited telephone, e-mail, and website operational support for up to two named customer points-of-contact; phone support hours are 24x7, with a response within four business hours\nSTARLIMS Annual Update Plan: no charge for the one-year period following the date of purchase of the first license; annual price for each of the following years is calculated as 18% of the aggregate price for licenses purchased to date\n\n provides licensee the right to receive upgrades and updates that are issued by the company during the applicable twelve-month period\nDemonstration videos and other media \nThe following demonstration videos are available for STARLIMS:\n\n STARLIMS: The Benefits of a LIMS that Complies with ISO 17025\n STARLIMS: Adding Management to Your LIS\n STARLIMS: One Partner, One Powerful Solution\n STARLIMS: Quality Manufacturing LIMS Solution\n STARLIMS: Customer Testimonials\nAdditional information \nAbbott doesn't have a brochure to describe just the LIMS; rather, they have a LIMS brochure based on your industry:\n\n Various STARLIMS brochures\n Cloud-hosted STARLIMS brochure\nOther brochures:\n\n Abbott Informatics ELN brochure\n Abbott Informatics SDMS brochure\nSTARLIMS industry-based LIMS specification documents:\n\n STARLIMS LIMS Specification for Biorepositories\n STARLIMS LIMS Specification for Chemical, Petrochemical, and Refining\n STARLIMS LIMS Specification for Contract Services\n STARLIMS LIMS Specification for Food and Beverage\n STARLIMS LIMS Specification for Manufacturing\n STARLIMS LIMS Specification for Pharmaceutical\nReferences \n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 STARLIMS Technologies Ltd (25 March 2009). \"Securities and Exchange Commission file number: 001-33487\". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. http:\/\/www.sec.gov\/Archives\/edgar\/data\/1396278\/000117891309000676\/zk96493.htm . Retrieved 26 November 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Gelsi, Steve (04 May 2007). \"Starlims Tech files $37 mln IPO\". MarketWatch. http:\/\/www.marketwatch.com\/story\/starlims-tech-files-37-mln-ipo . Retrieved 26 November 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"STARLIMS Consolidates Direct Presence in Europe; Hires LIMS Veteran Joe Peden to Head STARLIMS Europe\". iStockAnalyst. 14 August 2008. http:\/\/www.istockanalyst.com\/article\/viewiStockNews\/articleid\/2512919 . Retrieved 26 November 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Weinreb, Gali (15 December 2009). \"Abbott Labs buys StarLIMS\". GLOBES. http:\/\/www.globes.co.il\/serveen\/globes\/docview.asp?did=1000522537&fid=1725 . Retrieved 26 November 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Abbott Takes Over Starlims Technologies\". CBR. 22 March 2010. http:\/\/www.cbronline.com\/news\/abbott_takes_over_starlims_technologies_100323 . Retrieved 26 November 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Articles of Amendment to Articles of Incorporation of Starlims Corporation\" (PDF). Florida Department of State. 30 May 2014. http:\/\/search.sunbiz.org\/Inquiry\/CorporationSearch\/ConvertTiffToPDF?storagePath=COR%5C2014%5C0604%5C00126887.Tif&documentNumber=S15157 . Retrieved 24 March 2016 .   \n\n\u2191 \"STARLIMS: Creating Smarter Labs\". Archived from the original on 17 September 2015. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150917024509\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/home . Retrieved 24 March 2016 .   \n\n\u2191 \"STARLIMS.com is now AbbottInformatics.com\". Archived from the original on 23 October 2015. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151023002054\/https:\/\/www.abbottinformatics.com\/us\/home . Retrieved 24 March 2016 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Electronic Laboratory Notebook\". Abbott Informatics Corporation. https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/eln . Retrieved 18 October 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Scientific Data Management System\". Abbott Informatics Corporation. https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/sdms . Retrieved 18 October 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Abbott Informatics STARLIMS Scientific Data Management System (SDMS)\" (PDF). Abbott Informatics Corporation. 2015. https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/sdms-brochure.pdf . Retrieved 18 October 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 \"STARLIMS Laboratory Information Management System\". Abbott Informatics Corporation. https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/lims . Retrieved 18 October 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 13.0 13.1 \"Cloud Services\". Abbott Informatics Corporation. https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/cloud-services . Retrieved 18 October 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 14.00 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13 14.14 14.15 14.16 14.17 14.18 14.19 14.20 14.21 14.22 14.23 14.24 14.25 14.26 14.27 14.28 14.29 14.30 14.31 \"STARLIMS\" (PDF). Abbott Informatics Corporation. 2015. https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/clinical-lims-brochure.pdf . Retrieved 18 October 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 15.15 15.16 \"Abbott Informatics STARLIMS Electronic Lab Notebook\" (PDF). Abbott Informatics Corporation. 2015. https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/eln-brochure.pdf . Retrieved 18 October 2017 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Abbott_Informatics_Corporation<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Chemical LIMSCloud-based LIMSContract services LIMSCosmetic LIMSELN vendorEnvironmental LIMSFood and beverage LIMSGeneral ELNGeneral LIMSGeneral SDMSLaw enforcement and forensic LIMSLIMS vendorManufacturing and R&D LIMSPetrochemical LIMSPharmaceutical LIMSPower and utility LIMSPublic health and service LIMSSDMS vendorVendors\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 26 January 2018, at 00:33.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 13,978 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","90479bab12020c96864541696a62156f_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Abbott_Informatics_Corporation skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Abbott Informatics Corporation<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\">\n<p><b>Abbott Informatics Corporation<\/b> develops and distributes <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> software solutions.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Abbott Informatics was originally founded as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/STARLIMS_Corporation\" title=\"STARLIMS Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9564e6e2ab70cd1ad0ae68d1ca215524\">STARLIMS Technologies Ltd.<\/a> by Itschak Friedman, incorporated under the laws of the State of Israel in May 1986. In November 1993, STARLIMS completed an initial public offering of its ordinary shares, which traded on the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SL20F_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SL20F-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The company made a public offering in the United States in May 2007 and was introduced to the NASDAQ under the Stock Market under the symbol LIMS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SL20F_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SL20F-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SLMWStock_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SLMWStock-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>In August 2008, the Company announced the establishment of STARLIMS Europe as a result of the May 2008 acquisition of its United Kingdom partner Lab Data Management Ltd., based in Bolton, Greater Manchester.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SLEurope_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SLEurope-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>In late 2009 it was revealed <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Abbott_Laboratories,_Inc.\" title=\"Abbott Laboratories, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5cd8d86a4e2bc791843521890fe3aab\">Abbott Laboratories, Inc.<\/a> would acquire all outstanding equity of STARLIMS Technologies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AbbottAqGlobe_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AbbottAqGlobe-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>The deal was finalized on March 22, 2010 for a published cost of $123 million.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AbbottAqCBR_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AbbottAqCBR-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> STARLIMS Corporation continued to act as a subsidiary of Abbot Labotatories.\n<\/p><p>On May 30, 2014, STARLIMS Corporation officially changed the name of its Florida-based headquarters to Abbot Informatics Corporation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDSNameChange_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDSNameChange-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> However, it wasn't until October 2015 that the company shifted its web presence, dropping the STARLIMS Corporation name in full.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARSep15Arch_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARSep15Arch-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIOct15Arch_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIOct15Arch-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technology_and_products\">Technology and products<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Abbott_Informatics_ELN.2C_SDMS.2C_and_STARLIMS\">Abbott Informatics ELN, SDMS, and STARLIMS<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Abbot Informatics Electronic Laboratory Notebook is an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">ELN<\/a> \"that maximizes your lab\u2019s efficiency and ensures compliance by allowing execution of test workflows without interruption.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNAbout_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNAbout-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Abbot Informatics Scientific Data Management System is an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">SDMS<\/a> that \"makes it easy for users to access and share information across the organization.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AISDMSAbout_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AISDMSAbout-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> Features include data extraction, support for multiple file types, data archiving, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> compliance as well as automated creation, review, and approval tasks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AISDMSBroch_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AISDMSBroch-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>STARLIMS is a web-based <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) \"that improves quality and safety throughout the entire product lifecycle.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARAbout_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARAbout-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> The LIMS is also available as a SaaS offering under \"Abbot Informatics Cloud Services.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AICloud_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AICloud-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Features\">Features<\/span><\/h4>\n\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" style=\"border-style:none;\" border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\"> Product: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/lims\" target=\"_blank\">STARLIMS<\/a>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; border-style:none;\"> <table class=\"databox collabsible\" cellspacing=\"5\" style=\"width:22em; margin:0 0 0 0; padding:0; float:left; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-collapse:collapse; width:280px;\"><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Sample, inventory, and data management<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_login_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98071177bc94b23b88297692a3a52005\">Sample login and management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4622d31a3236faeab999eee2d2493313\">Sample tracking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_and_result_batching\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4616ac6ee0e19b94e4dbaa51df9c799\">Sample and\/or result batching?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f358fd26f821c76edf862b7dee946f8\">Task and event scheduling?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Option_for_manual_result_entry\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"621709a9ae6a8b6bb4f2de549e344b5c\">Option for manual result entry?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Multiple_data_viewing_methods\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88041a37ca09479d4858d43199e187b2\">Multiple data viewing methods?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_and_trend_analysis\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1539cd55185863ffbb2284c2b5cc14d5\">Data and trend analysis?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_and_equipment_sharing\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc0f0b1238edddbf7f495d253e27e7c9\">Data and equipment sharing?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customizable_fields_and.2For_interface\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"541386f8b0249149ca54737c459828d0\">Customizable fields and\/or interface?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Query_capability\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0ca33e764fc74bb1de10416b0561a27\">Query capability?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Import_data\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50124e3027d3b3bcb1801c0adb042e82\">Import data?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Internal_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e535cc310bda347927d684c2b50f959a\">Internal file or data linking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#External_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5fe00aac17d418abd170f40c01b923e\">External file or data linking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#ELN_support_or_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6a4efca41b1810ae03ddf7ebcffcb25\">ELN support or integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_MS_Excel\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85c5b88d0a67d8a91af0fe101dd7f9b4\">Export data to MS Excel?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Raw_data_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cca7f6e63ef148ca5cf28164361cc503\">Raw data management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_warehouse\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3082d0bb37d14d6ab62b393bd2834094\">Data warehouse?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Deadline_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc8fea028df4821085de3db1d02476a8\">Deadline control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Production_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"add9164269d9ecfd27c163f9c50e2469\">Production control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Project_and.2For_task_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0b65cad4546629d814bd000b0c6836a\">Project and\/or task management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"922cb0190a1750c3545849959a860288\">Inventory management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd9e325ecd80a3deb3b4aa2159bc0eda\">Document creation and\/or management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Case_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91a43f1107cf4cfbf9fb8ea707bead64\">Case management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"233ebf71073035e741a5acf410dc8242\">Workflow management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Specification_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2bd724c42ae9a6a8cc382720d399154\">Specification management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customer_and_supplier_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ee1c9037a1a9e877bca2bb7821de8d\">Customer and supplier management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Billing_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a2e904b24f87cdc1232ce7370774d8c\">Billing management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Quality, security, and compliance<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e58f73cb3d51704d053508c71fae968\">Regulatory compliance?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#QA.2FQC_functions\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2bf55c170c7429ac892dd177aaa2e2\">QA \/ QC functions?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Performance_evaluation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba19c1d4cef221fdadce596bafe8bea3\">Performance evaluation?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d184d528c3d8bec99c88b45a9e026379\">Audit trail?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Chain_of_custody\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57c608855a16e5bdf3db2a1f6abb50db\">Chain of custody?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">Configurable roles and security?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_normalization\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df6840ac3ee14b940990e04bfe4fed70\">Data normalization?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148c3f13ce1e0562e2d8b33c7002622e\">Data validation?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_encryption\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"075eb206aa07fb4b3f183f50fc547f43\">Data encryption?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Version_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0f243a35540cf60e68f6749ca5ffaac\">Version control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Automatic_data_backup\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f865b497bf295ba58d4ee5d9a03b2e6\">Automatic data backup?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Environmental_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"784f7ba1fb87304630630ab73bb57cc6\">Environmental monitoring?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Reporting, barcoding, and printing<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Custom_reporting\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"739c5efda3365bab28d01299a831e693\">Custom reporting?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Report_printing\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebf26bf9e1368b8e9ac1c5ba42a10bb0\">Report printing?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Label_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c45986a47a971ad2357a50e5d5fd8db0\">Label support?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">Barcode support?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_PDF\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb88d516821bee6fe453ff0f17572046\">Export to PDF?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_MS_Word\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3427765ca13832c0c18b4793745e92b1\">Export to MS Word?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Export_to_HTML_or_XML\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"303a1f820db39efe713a7859b62ef834\">Export to HTML and\/or XML?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Fax_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f5c8fec31f5ee1ab836255b270acfec\">Fax integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Email_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2de26fc661eeed4a6cb63ef2b35976c2\">Email integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Base functionality<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Administrator_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f50a63eeb9565f98cb5f9288a37bd9e9\">Administrator management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Modular\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"126843b63279f958fbb99b221dff0513\">Modular?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19c828f7d6e33928579d97389a65a675\">Instrument interfacing and management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Mobile_device_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8184312de234dae3fa4c8b1a511bc9fa\">Mobile device integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2851659b2739ded940b9f4bfd6415cf2\">Alarms and\/or alerts?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Work-related_time_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a1c775a9fc866d0f19372667539beb9\">Work-related time tracking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Voice_recognition_system\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fa989a8a7aeab9d20920e6ebdd2ab12\">Voice recognition system?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#External_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00cfd3cdc2831d07936f16a65aa57ffd\">External monitoring?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Messaging\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a920d6d387f5c9b40b613451efbd5aab\">Messaging?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Multilingual\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fd0b3665c1c3057e482b85ebea2bab8\">Multilingual?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Network-capable\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d561bd66353ffdfc0a692e355935ab18\">Network-capable?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Web_client_or_portal\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b67393b52f03168301d7499fd803c22\">Web client or portal?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Online_or_integrated_help\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f5054dc326fa1c419635dcfa86d51ea\">Online or integrated help?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-STARBroch_14-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-STARBroch-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Software_as_a_service_delivery_model\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f46c447d0b14caf739e43e17a9baeba\">Software as a service delivery model?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AICloud_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AICloud-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Usage-based_cost\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e54f0cc036fe25fbe3019764e581d7b\">Usage-based cost?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Industries served<\/th><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:8px; text-align:left;\">chemical, contract services, cosmetic, environmental, food and beverage, general, law enforcement and forensic, manufacturing and R&D, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, power and utility, public health and service<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top; padding-right:10px;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" style=\"border-style:none;\" border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\"> Product: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/eln\" target=\"_blank\">Abbott Informatics<br \/>Electronic<br \/>Laboratory Notebook<\/a>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; border-style:none;\"> <table class=\"databox collabsible\" cellspacing=\"5\" style=\"width:22em; margin:0 0 0 0; padding:0; float:left; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-collapse:collapse; width:280px;\"><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Experiment, collaboration,<br \/>and data management<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Chemical_and_math_drawing_and_calculation\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63e7408f2c1fc6dfe5265c8083bd1b05\">Chemical and\/or mathematical drawing and calculation?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Chemical_and_spectrum_file_support\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34854659692e4c48e635e574e59a1da3\">Chemical and\/or spectrum file support?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2fab8a4f95dbe97a3be9cb5fa920e3db\">Task and event scheduling?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Option_for_manual_result_entry\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fa7474625632409643de382d2d8d145\">Option for manual result entry?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Multiple_data_viewing_methods\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8697b14bd765825e1bb404c25a4e09b8\">Multiple data viewing methods?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Data_and_trend_analysis\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9432eb54a7e404193b9e118b6627b29d\">Data and trend analysis?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Data_and_equipment_sharing\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dcd3750995f38f59359d140f49ee2c0b\">Data and equipment sharing?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Customizable_fields_and.2For_interface\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49d407a3fcaed9d581e8602863ce9fcb\">Customizable fields and\/or interface?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Configurable_templates_and_forms\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"311d529e320dabf745a3741c923401ad\">Configurable templates and forms?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Query_capability\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2005f1d5eafdbebd0a6c5e08223930b8\">Query capability?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Import_data\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b220293ac0f39deedd5ef73be7a9a7e\">Import data?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Internal_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51874bf4633d9ed5a0818e93d4489d7c\">Internal file or data linking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#External_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f90f53c928ca5b166c1b0e5b1bebf652\">External file or data linking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Export_to_MS_Excel\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ca449985a7250f43064460c62dd3223\">Export data to MS Excel?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Raw_data_management\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f3c7c033e225578e215a6bbb1ed38821\">Raw data management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Data_warehouse\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ed326cd120759ffe6cb65ad763d6ac\">Data warehouse?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Project_and_task_management\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57c093b0e98523e81c2d9948946c4515\">Project and\/or task management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0390addc2f3c011f198e9b004bd66145\">Inventory management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2909f2cc80162cb272d378860b58d2d\">Document creation and\/or management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Lab_and_group_management\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b6214500899a6f6d64e8028f137b33c\">Lab and\/or group management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Experiment_management\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e056d47ec99c49a0058da99418e1cb2f\">Experiment management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a50ce228d1f78b0e117b7919c4e442b\">Workflow management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Customer_and_supplier_management\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a606bbe77a382426d942d7075083a389\">Customer and supplier management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Quality, security, and compliance<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c95b35fe948fda389853c72e029235d\">Regulatory compliance?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#QA.2FQC_functions\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"784450301f550cabe199da19c369beb9\">QA \/ QC functions?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Performance_evaluation\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ead2aae5b32ca04bc7d3b933fc3938d\">Performance evaluation?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a454af3c5ff8ea3daf3bba97b7929f6\">Audit trail?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Chain_of_custody\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17332e5152afecf3130e9f09430a905f\">Chain of custody?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b611be44c734e1d585e1c47835dd445a\">Configurable roles and security?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Data_normalization\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082d4b0f059e8a02284fc7b09768bd1b\">Data normalization?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb1d25abb25a208598dab9c4a54ac20d\">Data validation?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Data_encryption\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"406918d471ea6b320dca347b1c2259d6\">Data encryption?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Electronic_signatures\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9945a3e63d7bf8ac8c205e5205dae953\">Electronic signatures?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Version_control\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5732917bc4e7e29b2679f6b6e4ac8b26\">Version control?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Automatic_data_backup\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe7b10c119f3577bda244086e8f54f81\">Automatic data backup?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Reporting, barcoding, and printing<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Custom_reporting\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac2f2bd5a053f2f3ea71034756e933e9\">Custom reporting?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Report_printing\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13159abe6725658f2ab5f840ab93603c\">Report printing?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Label_support\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca0b39bae009797fe0b5600557171f11\">Label support?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d076717563b9e66c3933c184e524939f\">Barcode support?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Export_to_PDF\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8e164983bbc583259b68215f149dc1e\">Export to PDF?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Export_to_MS_Word\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05e07374e2edbf4e1012343e72fe5f76\">Export to MS Word?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Export_to_HTML_or_XML\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ac4a6d51ff785247bd3a55a13149788\">Export to HTML and\/or XML?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Email_integration\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0db7a9fb105049e26553e5417753224\">Email integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Base functionality<\/th><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Administrator_management\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9de10f0306d77476b04f0abcc1e2665\">Administrator management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Modular\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e20ce5c3b788e685426c01836e308732\">Modular?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b4f643a21b9275dee07aa45dda128f8\">Instrument interfacing and management?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Mobile_device_integration\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"daa1969a9fcc89c558721592d1acd5b7\">Mobile device integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Third-party_software_integration\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25fb33371b8ddf7acfbe05ba5d2940a2\">Third-party software integration?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dba30a22a0da3baea8c87b8cee0a8848\">Alarms and\/or alerts?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#External_monitoring\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"721f231fffeb5d4df321722bc02ee336\">External monitoring?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Messaging\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c0a07053cd66e7ee383d82218af6888\">Messaging?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Bookmarking\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92b2f56cd94e01bb1f8787621e2a6a5a\">Bookmarking?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Commenting\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bf2d6a9055c57b61ab104497a60aeaa\">Commenting?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Multilingual\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2013c2e45cfdf9d193d78fef133d3ff3\">Multilingual?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Network-capable\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"accf193da2826daa1ec4a94bcc291b5d\">Network-capable?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Web_client_or_portal\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a107eea806a7f4408f99071d0707d632\">Web client or portal?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Y<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Online_or_integrated_help\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b95b88b231353c6fab3938959924bfa2\">Online or integrated help?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Software_as_a_service_delivery_model\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1f0c1542cb86eda7dabaca41f37decd\">Software as a service delivery model?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr class=\"\"><td style=\"text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:normal; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Usage-based_cost\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d65e73ec5b4c90f4e14c0720be35dcc6\">Usage-based cost?<\/a><\/td><td class=\"\" style=\"background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\"><\/td><\/tr><tr><th colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:3px;\">Industries served<\/th><\/tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\" class=\"\" style=\"text-align:center; background-color:#ffffff; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:darkgray; padding:8px; text-align:left;\">industry-neutral<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Pricing\">Pricing<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Source for pricing information is <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gsaadvantage.gov\/ref_text\/GS35F138DA\/0SJMDB.3LAPM3_GS-35F-138DA_GS35F138DAGS35F138DA.PDF\" target=\"_blank\">GSA Avantage<\/a>. As prices may change at any time, always contact the vendor directly to obtain a price list or quote.\n<\/p><p><i>Note<\/i>: These are <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gsaadvantage.gov\/\" target=\"_blank\">U.S. General Services Administration<\/a> (GSA) prices, and as such they represent the lowest possible negotiated price. These prices aren't available to any entity outside of the Federal Government, and thus prices for non-government entities will be higher. If anything, they represent the lowest possible negotiated price.\n<\/p><p><br \/><u><b>Products<\/b><\/u>:\n<\/p><p><b>STARLIMS Public Health<\/b> concurrent full user license: $5,042.82\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> provides an individual user (single session) full access to all STARLIMS functions and wizards at the same time as a permitted number of other user sessions in the customer's organization<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>STARLIMS Public Health<\/b> concurrent data user license: $2,780.86\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> allows an individual lab data user (single session) to view analytical services provided by the lab, view sample status, and print COAs or invoices at the same time as the permitted number of other user sessions in the licensee's organization<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>STARLIMS Forensics<\/b> concurrent full user license: $5,042.82\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> provides an individual user (single session) full access to all STARLIMS functions and wizards at the same time as a permitted number of other user sessions in the customer's organization<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>STARLIMS Forensics<\/b> concurrent data user license: $2,780.86\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> allows an individual lab data user (single session) to view analytical services provided by the lab, view sample status, and print COAs or invoices at the same time as the permitted number of other user sessions in the licensee's organization<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>STARLIMS Named Standard Designer<\/b> license: $7,741.06\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> allows authorized users to intuitively configure and make appropriate enhancements and modifications as business requirements change<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/><u><b>Services<\/b><\/u>:\n<\/p><p><b>STARLIMS Annual Gold<\/b> support plan: $14,682.92\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> provides unlimited telephone, e-mail, and website operational support for up to two named customer points-of-contact; phone support hours are 24x7, with a response within four business hours<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>STARLIMS Annual Update Plan<\/b>: no charge for the one-year period following the date of purchase of the first license; annual price for each of the following years is calculated as 18% of the aggregate price for licenses purchased to date\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> provides licensee the right to receive upgrades and updates that are issued by the company during the applicable twelve-month period<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Demonstration_videos_and_other_media\">Demonstration videos and other media<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The following demonstration videos are available for STARLIMS:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=w48_gvII6YA\" target=\"_blank\">STARLIMS: The Benefits of a LIMS that Complies with ISO 17025<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=x7TND_5o6jY\" target=\"_blank\">STARLIMS: Adding Management to Your LIS<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=DMkh0xz_7os\" target=\"_blank\">STARLIMS: One Partner, One Powerful Solution<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=D0IXTFgx1E8\" target=\"_blank\">STARLIMS: Quality Manufacturing LIMS Solution<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VOE0vMyYv8s\" target=\"_blank\">STARLIMS: Customer Testimonials<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Additional_information\">Additional information<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Abbott doesn't have a brochure to describe just the LIMS; rather, they have a LIMS brochure based on your industry:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/resources?resourceType=brochures\" target=\"_blank\">Various STARLIMS brochures<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/cloud-subscription-brochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Cloud-hosted STARLIMS brochure<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Other brochures:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/eln-brochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Abbott Informatics ELN brochure<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/sdms-brochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Abbott Informatics SDMS brochure<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>STARLIMS industry-based LIMS specification documents:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/biorepository-lims-spec-document.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">STARLIMS LIMS Specification for Biorepositories<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/petro-and-refining-lims-spec-document.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">STARLIMS LIMS Specification for Chemical, Petrochemical, and Refining<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/contract-services-lims-spec-document.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">STARLIMS LIMS Specification for Contract Services<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/food-and-bev-lims-spec-document.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">STARLIMS LIMS Specification for Food and Beverage<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/general-manufacturing-lims-spec-document.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">STARLIMS LIMS Specification for Manufacturing<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/pharmaceutical-lims-spec-document.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">STARLIMS LIMS Specification for Pharmaceutical<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-SL20F-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SL20F_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SL20F_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">STARLIMS Technologies Ltd (25 March 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sec.gov\/Archives\/edgar\/data\/1396278\/000117891309000676\/zk96493.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Securities and Exchange Commission file number: 001-33487\"<\/a>. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sec.gov\/Archives\/edgar\/data\/1396278\/000117891309000676\/zk96493.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.sec.gov\/Archives\/edgar\/data\/1396278\/000117891309000676\/zk96493.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 26 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Securities+and+Exchange+Commission+file+number%3A+001-33487&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=STARLIMS+Technologies+Ltd&rft.au=STARLIMS+Technologies+Ltd&rft.date=25+March+2009&rft.pub=U.S.+Securities+and+Exchange+Commission&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sec.gov%2FArchives%2Fedgar%2Fdata%2F1396278%2F000117891309000676%2Fzk96493.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SLMWStock-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SLMWStock_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Gelsi, Steve (04 May 2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.marketwatch.com\/story\/starlims-tech-files-37-mln-ipo\" target=\"_blank\">\"Starlims Tech files $37 mln IPO\"<\/a>. MarketWatch<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.marketwatch.com\/story\/starlims-tech-files-37-mln-ipo\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.marketwatch.com\/story\/starlims-tech-files-37-mln-ipo<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 26 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Starlims+Tech+files+%2437+mln+IPO&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Gelsi%2C+Steve&rft.au=Gelsi%2C+Steve&rft.date=04+May+2007&rft.pub=MarketWatch&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marketwatch.com%2Fstory%2Fstarlims-tech-files-37-mln-ipo&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SLEurope-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SLEurope_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.istockanalyst.com\/article\/viewiStockNews\/articleid\/2512919\" target=\"_blank\">\"STARLIMS Consolidates Direct Presence in Europe; Hires LIMS Veteran Joe Peden to Head STARLIMS Europe\"<\/a>. iStockAnalyst. 14 August 2008<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.istockanalyst.com\/article\/viewiStockNews\/articleid\/2512919\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.istockanalyst.com\/article\/viewiStockNews\/articleid\/2512919<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 26 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=STARLIMS+Consolidates+Direct+Presence+in+Europe%3B+Hires+LIMS+Veteran+Joe+Peden+to+Head+STARLIMS+Europe&rft.atitle=&rft.date=14+August+2008&rft.pub=iStockAnalyst&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.istockanalyst.com%2Farticle%2FviewiStockNews%2Farticleid%2F2512919&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AbbottAqGlobe-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AbbottAqGlobe_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Weinreb, Gali (15 December 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.globes.co.il\/serveen\/globes\/docview.asp?did=1000522537&fid=1725\" target=\"_blank\">\"Abbott Labs buys StarLIMS\"<\/a>. GLOBES<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.globes.co.il\/serveen\/globes\/docview.asp?did=1000522537&fid=1725\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.globes.co.il\/serveen\/globes\/docview.asp?did=1000522537&fid=1725<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 26 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Abbott+Labs+buys+StarLIMS&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Weinreb%2C+Gali&rft.au=Weinreb%2C+Gali&rft.date=15+December+2009&rft.pub=GLOBES&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.globes.co.il%2Fserveen%2Fglobes%2Fdocview.asp%3Fdid%3D1000522537%26fid%3D1725&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AbbottAqCBR-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AbbottAqCBR_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cbronline.com\/news\/abbott_takes_over_starlims_technologies_100323\" target=\"_blank\">\"Abbott Takes Over Starlims Technologies\"<\/a>. CBR. 22 March 2010<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cbronline.com\/news\/abbott_takes_over_starlims_technologies_100323\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.cbronline.com\/news\/abbott_takes_over_starlims_technologies_100323<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 26 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Abbott+Takes+Over+Starlims+Technologies&rft.atitle=&rft.date=22+March+2010&rft.pub=CBR&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbronline.com%2Fnews%2Fabbott_takes_over_starlims_technologies_100323&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDSNameChange-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDSNameChange_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/search.sunbiz.org\/Inquiry\/CorporationSearch\/ConvertTiffToPDF?storagePath=COR%5C2014%5C0604%5C00126887.Tif&documentNumber=S15157\" target=\"_blank\">\"Articles of Amendment to Articles of Incorporation of Starlims Corporation\"<\/a> (PDF). Florida Department of State. 30 May 2014<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/search.sunbiz.org\/Inquiry\/CorporationSearch\/ConvertTiffToPDF?storagePath=COR%5C2014%5C0604%5C00126887.Tif&documentNumber=S15157\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/search.sunbiz.org\/Inquiry\/CorporationSearch\/ConvertTiffToPDF?storagePath=COR%5C2014%5C0604%5C00126887.Tif&documentNumber=S15157<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 24 March 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Articles+of+Amendment+to+Articles+of+Incorporation+of+Starlims+Corporation&rft.atitle=&rft.date=30+May+2014&rft.pub=Florida+Department+of+State&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.sunbiz.org%2FInquiry%2FCorporationSearch%2FConvertTiffToPDF%3FstoragePath%3DCOR%255C2014%255C0604%255C00126887.Tif%26documentNumber%3DS15157&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-STARSep15Arch-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARSep15Arch_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150917024509\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/home\" target=\"_blank\">\"STARLIMS: Creating Smarter Labs\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/home\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 17 September 2015<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150917024509\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/home\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150917024509\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/home<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 24 March 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=STARLIMS%3A+Creating+Smarter+Labs&rft.atitle=&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150917024509%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.starlims.com%2Fen-us%2Fhome&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AIOct15Arch-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIOct15Arch_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151023002054\/https:\/\/www.abbottinformatics.com\/us\/home\" target=\"_blank\">\"STARLIMS.com is now AbbottInformatics.com\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.abbottinformatics.com\/us\/home\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 23 October 2015<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151023002054\/https:\/\/www.abbottinformatics.com\/us\/home\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151023002054\/https:\/\/www.abbottinformatics.com\/us\/home<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 24 March 2016<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=STARLIMS.com+is+now+AbbottInformatics.com&rft.atitle=&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20151023002054%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.abbottinformatics.com%2Fus%2Fhome&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AIELNAbout-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNAbout_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/eln\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Laboratory Notebook\"<\/a>. Abbott Informatics Corporation<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/eln\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/eln<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 October 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Electronic+Laboratory+Notebook&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Abbott+Informatics+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informatics.abbott%2Fus%2Fen%2Fofferings%2Feln&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AISDMSAbout-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AISDMSAbout_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/sdms\" target=\"_blank\">\"Scientific Data Management System\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved 18 October 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Scientific+Data+Management+System&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Abbott+Informatics+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informatics.abbott%2Fus%2Fen%2Fofferings%2Fsdms&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AISDMSBroch-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AISDMSBroch_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/sdms-brochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Abbott Informatics STARLIMS Scientific Data Management System (SDMS)\"<\/a> (PDF). Abbott Informatics Corporation. 2015<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/sdms-brochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/sdms-brochure.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 October 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Abbott+Informatics+STARLIMS+Scientific+Data+Management+System+%28SDMS%29&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2015&rft.pub=Abbott+Informatics+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informatics.abbott%2Fshared%2Fsdms-brochure.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-STARAbout-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARAbout_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/lims\" target=\"_blank\">\"STARLIMS Laboratory Information Management System\"<\/a>. Abbott Informatics Corporation<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/lims\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/lims<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 October 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=STARLIMS+Laboratory+Information+Management+System&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Abbott+Informatics+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informatics.abbott%2Fus%2Fen%2Fofferings%2Flims&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AICloud-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AICloud_13-0\">13.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AICloud_13-1\">13.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/cloud-services\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cloud Services\"<\/a>. Abbott Informatics Corporation<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/cloud-services\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/us\/en\/offerings\/cloud-services<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 October 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Cloud+Services&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Abbott+Informatics+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informatics.abbott%2Fus%2Fen%2Fofferings%2Fcloud-services&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-STARBroch-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-0\">14.00<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-1\">14.01<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-2\">14.02<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-3\">14.03<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-4\">14.04<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-5\">14.05<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-6\">14.06<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-7\">14.07<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-8\">14.08<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-9\">14.09<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-10\">14.10<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-11\">14.11<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-12\">14.12<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-13\">14.13<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-14\">14.14<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-15\">14.15<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-16\">14.16<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-17\">14.17<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-18\">14.18<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-19\">14.19<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-20\">14.20<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-21\">14.21<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-22\">14.22<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-23\">14.23<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-24\">14.24<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-25\">14.25<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-26\">14.26<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-27\">14.27<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-28\">14.28<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-29\">14.29<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-30\">14.30<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-STARBroch_14-31\">14.31<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/clinical-lims-brochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"STARLIMS\"<\/a> (PDF). Abbott Informatics Corporation. 2015<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/clinical-lims-brochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/clinical-lims-brochure.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 October 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=STARLIMS&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2015&rft.pub=Abbott+Informatics+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informatics.abbott%2Fshared%2Fclinical-lims-brochure.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AIELNBroch-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-0\">15.00<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-1\">15.01<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-2\">15.02<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-3\">15.03<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-4\">15.04<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-5\">15.05<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-6\">15.06<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-7\">15.07<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-8\">15.08<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-9\">15.09<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-10\">15.10<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-11\">15.11<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-12\">15.12<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-13\">15.13<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-14\">15.14<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-15\">15.15<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AIELNBroch_15-16\">15.16<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/eln-brochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Abbott Informatics STARLIMS Electronic Lab Notebook\"<\/a> (PDF). Abbott Informatics Corporation. 2015<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/eln-brochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/eln-brochure.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 October 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Abbott+Informatics+STARLIMS+Electronic+Lab+Notebook&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2015&rft.pub=Abbott+Informatics+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informatics.abbott%2Fshared%2Feln-brochure.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203041\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.554 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.582 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 18218\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 48735\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 304505\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 112690\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 11\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 495.882 1 - -total\n 42.64% 211.421 15 - Template:Cite_web\n 40.23% 199.515 15 - Template:Citation\/core\n 35.13% 174.180 2 - Template:Databox\n 27.17% 134.743 160 - Template:Databox\/row\n 21.55% 106.859 1 - Template:Databox_LIMSfeature\n 15.36% 76.164 1 - Template:Databox_ELNfeature\n 13.91% 68.984 1 - Template:Infobox_company\n 13.25% 65.690 1 - Template:Infobox\n 8.41% 41.706 81 - Template:Infobox\/row\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:8486-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403203040 and revision id 32410\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Abbott_Informatics_Corporation<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","90479bab12020c96864541696a62156f_images":["https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/e\/e3\/Vendor284.jpg"],"90479bab12020c96864541696a62156f_timestamp":1554323440,"adbb24bfe40214cfc6c7453319ba0f11_type":"article","adbb24bfe40214cfc6c7453319ba0f11_title":"Laboratory informatics consultants","adbb24bfe40214cfc6c7453319ba0f11_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSWiki:Resources\/Consultants","adbb24bfe40214cfc6c7453319ba0f11_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tLIMSWiki:Resources\/Consultants\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t< LIMSWiki:Resources \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\n\n \n Click here to return to the LIMSWiki:Resources page for all available informatics resources. \n\n\n\nContents\n\n1 About this list \n\n1.1 LIMS, LIS, and laboratory \n1.2 General laboratory \n1.3 Laboratory design \n\n\n\n\n\nAbout this list \nWhile this arguably may not be an authoritative list of consultancies relating to laboratory and scientific informatics, an attempt has been made to make it thorough.\n\r\n\n\nLIMS, LIS, and laboratory \nThese consultancies seem to focus primarily on helping others plan, choose, and implement an informatics system for the laboratory, though they may offer other services to laboratories such as computer system validation (CSV). (The location represents the entity's headquarters.):\n\n\n\n\n Vendor\n\n Headquarters\n\n Key services\n\n Services page\n\n\n A Byte of Advice, Inc.\n\n Fairfield, IL, U.S.\n\n \"We provide project management, system development, code modification, support and training\"; experience with\r\nLabVantage and PerkinElmer products\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n ABB Ltd.\n\n Zurich, Switzerland\n\n Provides an expansive set of services.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n American-Sino Environmental Engineering\n\n Beijing, China\n\n \"AEE provides energy and environmental consulting, engineering, and technical field services related to assessment,\r\nremediation, and compliance for all environmental media.\"\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\nAstrix, Inc. \n\n Edison, NJ, U.S.\n\n \"Astrix\u2019s core competency is to assist organizations in the development and implementation of data management\r\nstrategies to enhance the collection, processing, analysis and reporting of scientific data.\"\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Atlanta Consultant\n\n Atlanta, GA, U.S.\n\n Provides a wide range of services, particularly with SCC and Cerner products\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Avellana Learning Oy\n\n Vantaa, Finland\n\n LIMS, LIS, and ELN implementation; open-source software implementation; software validation; quality control\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n BC Solutions, LLC\n\n Phoenix, AZ, U.S.\n\n LIS implementation, interface testing and validation, project management and consulting, data conversion\/migration\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n BGASoft, Inc. dba LIMS ABC\n\n Fort Lauderdale, FL, U.S.\n\n Business analysis, lab process improvement, enterprise and cloud architecture, LIMS implementation, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Bika Lab Systems (Pty) Ltd.\n\n Western Cape, South Africa\n\n LIMS requirement analysis, design, customization, configuration, and testing; training; project management, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Bottom Line Consulting, LLC\n\n Endwell, NY, U.S.\n\n Labware products, user requirements specifications, vendor selection, project management\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Brevitas Consulting, Inc.\n\n Sacramento, CA, U.S.\n\n Labware products, LIMS implementation; project management; quality assurance, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Chemtech Servicos de Engenharia e Software Ltda.\n\n Rio de Janeiro, Brazil\n\n Manufacturing execution systems, SCADA, automation, cyber security, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Clarity Compliance Solutions Limited\n\n Chepstow, Wales\n\n LIMS, system validation, data integrity, process mapping, vendor selection, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Clevr\n\n Australia\n\n Laboratory process and technology consultations, custom LIMS development\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Clinical Lab Consulting, LLC\n\n Carmel, IN, U.S.\n\n Provides a wide range of services \"to all types of clinical laboratories including governmental, academia,\r\nhospital, reference and physician office laboratories.\"\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Clinical Laboratory Consultants dba Medical Source\n\n Marietta, GA, U.S.\n\n \"Medical Source offers experience, guidance, and unmatched expertise in the physician office and independent\r\nreference laboratory.\"\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Cosine Consultants Ltd.\n\n Strovolos, Cyprus\n\n Software customization, data management system consulting, Fission LIMS, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Covex, LLC\n\n Wayne, PA, U.S.\n\n Computer system validation, FDA compliance, LIMS, system and network management, engineering, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\nCSols, Inc. \n\n Newark, DE, U.S.\n\n Laboratory informatics strategic services, ELN and LIMS implementation, computer system validation, and\r\nlaboratory vendor-specific technologies\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n e-Science Solutions Ltd\n\n Whittington, U.K.\n\n Information technology, business case development, requirements definition, vendor selection, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Edelway AG\n\n Zurich, Switzerland\n\n Information technology, engineering, clinical data management, regulatory affairs and compliance, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Entiovi Technologies Pvt. Ltd.\n\n Kolkata, India\n\n Laboratory informatics, productivity analysis, instrument integration, LIMS support, testing and validation, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Feltham Associates, Ltd.\n\n Kibworth Harcourt, U.K.\n\n \"We deliver the knowledge and expertise regarding information needs, laboratory and radiology computer\r\nsystems applications and the supporting infrastructure.\"\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n ForwardPhase Technologies, LLC\n\n Chicago, IL, U.S.\n\n Laboratory informatics, Open-LIMS\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Fructeam SARL\n\n Paris, France\n\n eLearning tools, clinical trial management systems, LIMS, ELN, SDMS, SAP\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n GeoMetrick Enterprises\n\n Ann Arbor, MI, U.S.\n\n \"GeoMetrick Enterprises has solved LIMS problems for large and small companies in wide array of industries.\"\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n HPFM, Inc.\n\n Pacifica, CA, U.S.\n\n LIMS selection, implementation, and change management; computer system validation; quality\r\nmanagement systems, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n iConnect Consulting, Inc.\n\n San Francisco, CA, U.S.\n\n LIMS implementation and validation; computer system validation; HL7 electronic communication, training\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n IMCOR GmbH\n\n Filderstadt, Germany\n\n LIMS selection and implementation, computer system validation, business process analysis and optimization\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n J & R Consulting, Inc.\n\n Swedesboro, NJ, U.S.\n\n Laboratory informatics, LIMS, validation, environmental monitoring, implementation, customization, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n KPMG LLP\r\n(formerly Beacon Partners, Inc.)\n\n Weymouth, MA, U.S.\n\n Healthcare management, LIS pre-implementation assessment and planning, system optimization, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n LabAnswer, Inc.\n\n Sugar Land, TX, U.S.\n\n Laboratory informatics, LIMS, LIS, ELN, data analytics, managed services, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n LabCentrix, LLC\n\n Cambridge, MA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory informatics, LIMS, LIS, ELN, project management, data migration, computer system validation, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n LabMetrics, LLC\n\n Ishpeming, MI, U.S.\n\n Laboratory informatics, automation, instrumentation, compliance and auditing, quality assurance, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Laboratory Advisory Bureau, LLC\n\n McAllen, TX, U.S.\n\n Clinical laboratory informatics, LIS, quality assurance, compliance and auditing, workflow management, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Laboratory Systems Consulting\n\n Celbridge, Ireland\n\n Laboratory and scientific informatics, 21 CFR Part 11, project management, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n LisWalter Consulting\n\n New York, NY, U.S.\n\n Laboratory informatics, compliance management, quality management, procedure development, training, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n LIMS Consultant Engineers Ltd.\n\n La Paz, Bolivia\n\n Laboratory informatics, geological and geotechnical engineering, data validation, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n LIMSCON\n\n Vienna, Austria\n\n Laboratory informatics, LIMS, ELN, CDMS, document management, training, project management,\r\ncomputer system validation, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n LUFC LabConsultants\n\n Mierlo, The Netherlands\n\n Laboratory informatics, LIMS, ELN, CDMS, SDMS, vendor selection, computer system validation,\r\nworkflows, project management, lab management, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n NARALABS, S.L.\n\n Barcelona, Spain\n\n Laboratory informatics, LIMS, data migration, laboratory workflow, system evaluation and\r\nimplementation, quality assurance, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Nichols Management Group Ltd.\n\n York Harbor, ME, U.S.\n\n Clinical laboratory informatics, system assessment, implementation, and integration;\r\nproject management; workflow management, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n NXG Group, Inc.\n\n Chennai, India\n\n Laboratory informatics, LIMS, testing and validation, system integration management, business consulting, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Orbis Labsystems Ltd.\n\n Dublin, Ireland\n\n Laboratory informatics, LIMS, quality assurance, system integration management, automation, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n prime4services GmbH\n\n Karlsruhe, Germany\n\n LIMS, project management, vendor selection, quality management and validation, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n RevereIT, LLC\n\n Sterling, VA, U.S.\n\n LIMS, system integration management, system validation, method development and validation,\r\ndata migration, vendor selection, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Sagit Solutions Ltd.\n\n Wan Chai, Hong Kong\n\n LIMS, implementation management, cloud management, vendor selection, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Segalstad Consulting AS\n\n Oslo, Norway\n\n Laboratory informatics, LIMS, CDMS, 21 CFR Part 11, computer system validation, quality management, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Semaphore Solutions, Inc.\n\n Victoria, B.C., Canada\n\n Laboratory informatics, LIMS, BaseSpace Clarity LIMS, workflow development, genomics\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Sequence, Inc.\n\n Morrisville, NC, U.S.\n\n Laboratory informatics, LIMS, ELN, CDS, SDMS, data architecture analysis, data analytics\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Shaw Informatics Ltd.\n\n Horsham, U.K.\n\n Laboratory informatics, LIMS, LES, ELN, process mapping, requirements analysis, project management,\r\n vendor selection, deployment strategy, knowledge management solutions, training\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Solution4Labs Sp. z o.o.\n\n Bia\u0142ystok, Poland\n\n Laboratory informatics, LIMS, ELN, custom development, Thermo Scientific products, Agaram Technologies products, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n up to data professional services GmbH\n\n W\u00f6rrstadt, Germany\n\n Laboratory informatics, LIMS, custom development, Thermo Scientific products, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Validation Systems, Inc.\n\n Palo Alto, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory informatics, microbiological and chemistry services, quality management systems,\r\ncomputer system validation, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n wega Informatik AG\n\n Basel, Switzerland\n\n Data management systems design and implementation, clinical trial management systems, and electronic\r\ndata capture for life and chemical sciences\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n WynnIT Ltd.\n\n Suffolk, U.K.\n\n Laboratory informatics, automation, system integration, user requirement specifications,\r\ncustom development, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\nGeneral laboratory \nThese consultancies offer general help to laboratories, including management and quality control among other things (location represents headquarters):\n\n\n\n\n Vendor\n\n Headquarters\n\n Key services\n\n Services page\n\n\n A & J Laboratory Consultants\n\n Aubrey, TX, U.S.\n\n Laboratory start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction, workflow improvement, training, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n AMS Medical Laboratories\n\n St. Louis, MO, U.S.\n\n Laboratory start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction, workflow improvement,\r\nprofitability analysis, procedure development, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Ancillary Medical Solutions\n\n San Diego, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction, workflow improvement,\r\nstaffing, procedure development, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n \n\n\n Applied Management Systems, Inc.\n\n Burlington, MA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory start-up and consolidation, LIS, automation, workflow improvement, hospital productivity and management,\r\nquality assessment, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Becton, Dickinson and Company\n\n Franklin Lakes, NJ, U.S.\n\n Laboratory start-up and consolidation, preanalytical best practices training, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Black & Veatch Corporation\n\n Kansas City, MO, U.S.\n\n Laboratory design and development\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n BP Laboratory Consulting, LLC\n\n Arvada, CO, U.S.\n\n Laboratory start-up, workflow improvement, procedure development, training, regulatory compliance, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n C&C Clinical Laboratory Consulting, LLC\n\n Dallas, TX, U.S.\n\n Laboratory start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction, workflow improvement,\r\nquality management, procedure development, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Catalyst Consulting\n\n Austin, TX, U.S.\n\n Laboratory start-up, regulatory compliance, workflow improvement, profitability analysis\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Chi Solutions, Inc.\n\n Ann Arbor, MI, U.S.\n\n Laboratory design and start-up, laboratory implementation and management planning, anatomical pathology services,\r\nquality assessment, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Colaborate, LLC\n\n Tampa, FL, U.S.\n\n Laboratory design and start-up, laboratory implementation and management planning, laboratory informatics,\r\nperformance analysis, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Crime Lab Design\n\n Southfield, MI, U.S.\n\n Emphasis on forensic science, laboratory design and planning, feasibility studies, civil and mechanical\r\nengineering, workflow management, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n CT POL Consultants\n\n South Windsor, CT, U.S.\n\n Laboratory start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction, workflow improvement, LIS, EHR,\r\nlab billing, procedure development, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Diversified Laboratory Sciences, Inc.\n\n Newnan, GA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory design and start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction, workflow improvement,\r\nrisk assessments, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n DoctorsManagement\n\n Knoxville, TN, U.S.\n\n Laboratory and physician practice accounting, compliance, development, and operation improvement\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n ELITech Group SAS\n\n Puteaux, France\n\n Laboratory operations, billing and reimbursement, regulatory assistance, profitability analysis\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n GD Animal Health\n\n Deventer, Netherlands\n\n Veterinary diagnostic laboratory start-up, laboratory operations, regulatory assistance, project management, and training\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Gnosis International, LLC\n\n Garden Grove, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory start-up, laboratory operations, regulatory assistance\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Harrison Consultant\n\n Cleveland, TX, U.S.\n\n Pre-inspection evaluation, quality management, regulatory compliance,\r\nprocedure development, technical writing, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n K&K Consultant Group, Inc.\n\n Torrence, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction, workflow improvement,\r\ntraining, procedure development, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Ketchmark & Associates, Inc.\n\n Burr Ridge, IL, U.S.\n\n Laboratory, science, and research building design and renovation\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Lab Advisory Bureau\n\n Abilene, TX, U.S.\n\n Data management, quality managementm, regulatory guidance, training, accreditation prep\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Lab IQ, LLC\n\n Calabasas, CA, U.S.\n\n Compliance management, workflow improvement, training, procedure development, feasibility studies, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Laboratory by Design, Inc.\n\n Napa, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory, science, and research building design and renovation; project management and administration\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Laboratory Start-Up Consultants\n\n Raleigh, NC, U.S.\n\n Laboratory start-up, consulting, and staffing; systems selection and validation; feasibility studies, standard\r\noperating procedure development, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Labtopia, Inc.\n\n Houston, TX, U.S.\n\n Laboratory audit preparation, corrective and preventative action programs, quality assurance,\r\nproject management, regulatory requirements, technical writing, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n LDC, Inc.\n\n Carlsbad, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory audit preparation, DoD accreditation, litigation support, data validation, training\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Narayan Laboratory Consulting Services, Inc.\n\n Philadelphia, PA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory start-up, regulatory requirements, training, process development, pre- and post-inspection guidance,\r\nquality management, inspection readiness\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Nath Healthcare Business Solutions, LLC\n\n Stafford, TX, U.S.\n\n Regulatory requirements, training and support, custom reporting and analytics, trend analysis\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Nous Labautomation Support\n\n Mariaheide, Netherlands\n\n Laboratory processes, automation, and regulation assistance\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n OnTarget Consulting Services, LLC\n\n Atlanta, GA, U.S.\n\n Accreditation prep, operational and risk assessment, training, process management\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Medical Lab Consulting\n\n Oklahoma City, OK, U.S.\n\n Application processing, staffing, training, workflow management, inspection preparation\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Lab Solutions, Inc.\n\n Conshohocken, PA, U.S.\n\n Pathology laboratory design, start-up, and management; systems selection and validation;\r\ninspection preparation; technical writing; staff evaluation and competency development; etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Physicians Office Consulting, LLC\n\n Jackson, TN, U.S.\n\n Laboratory CLIA compliance, regulatory review, and inspection services; laboratory start-up and development\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n POC Consultants, LLC \n\n FL and NJ, U.S.\n\n Regulatory compliance, review, and inspection services; training\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Polestar Labs\n\n Escondido, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory design and start-up, corrective action management, profitability analysis, instrument management\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Quality Systems and Compliance, Inc.\n\n Beverly, MA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory program development, laboratory design and start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction,\r\nworkflow improvement, quality assurance, point-of-care testing assistance, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Rodric Consulting, LLC\n\n Basalt, CO, U.S.\n\n Laboratory program assessment and enhancement, laboratory restructuring and consolidation, compliance assessment,\r\nLIS implementation, CLIA and accreditation assistance, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n rpl Laboratory Solutions, Inc.\n\n Corona, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory compliance, maintenance, and benchmarking programs; feasibility analysis; technical writing;\r\nlaboratory informatics project management; LIS; EHR; safety services; etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n South Shore Laboratory Consultants, Inc.\n\n Scituate, MA, U.S.\n\n Genetic testing laboratory experience; laboratory licensing, compliance, and accreditation; quality assurance;\r\nlaboratory start-up and management; equipment evaluation and validation; etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Strategic Directions International, Inc.\n\n Los Angeles, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory program assessment and enhancement, instrument implementation, situation and opportunity analysis\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n The Microbiology Network, Inc.\n\n N. Chili, NY, U.S.\n\n Microbiology and pharmacology laboratory experience, laboratory regulation and auditing, laboratory process improvement,\r\nquality assurance, contamination control, aseptic processing, etc.\n\n Services page\n\n\n\nLaboratory design \nThese consultancies offer specific help to laboratories in the field of design and organization of a laboratory (location represents headquarters):\n\n\n\n\n Vendor\n\n Headquarters\n\n Key services\n\n Services page\n\n\n Design for Science, LLC\n\n Carlsbad, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory design\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n GL Planning & Design, Inc.\n\n San Francisco, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory design, laboratory renovation\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Gold Oak Technology, LLC\n\n Carlsbad, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory design, instrumentation sourcing and selection, chromatography assay method management and validation\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n In Office Labs\n\n Medina, OH, U.S.\n\n Laboratory design, laboratory renovation\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Jacobs Consultancy, Inc.\n\n Pasadena, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory design, benchmarking, and workflow; vivarium design\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n jsAnalytical Laboratory Consultants Ltd.\n\n British Columbia, Canada\n\n Laboratory design, refinery design, software system evaluation, training\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Knapp-Frazer Consulting\n\n Santa Rosa, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory design, feasibility studies, test menu development, instrument evaluation,\r\nlicensing and accreditation, technical writing\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Komoly Associates\n\n Cheshire, U.K.\n\n Laboratory design, feasibility studies, project management\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Laboratory Design and Supply, Inc.\n\n Budford, GA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory design, renovation, and relocation\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n LCS Constructors, Inc.\n\n Irvine, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory design, renovation, relocation, and construction\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Longo, Inc. dba Longo Lab Design\n\n Ramsey, NJ, U.S.\n\n Laboratory design and renovation\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Research Facilities Design\n\n San Diego, CA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory assessment, benchmarking, and design\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n SGS S.A.\n\n Geneva, Switzerland\n\n Wide array of services, including laboratory assessment and design for the petrochemical industry\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Strategic Science & Technology Planners, Inc.\n\n Arlington, VA, U.S.\n\n Laboratory assessment, benchmarking, and design\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n Superior Laboratory Services, Inc.\n\n Pasadena, TX, U.S.\n\n Laboratory design, construction, and certification; instrument evaluation; training\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n The Bode Technology Group, Inc.\n\n Lorton, VA, U.S.\n\n Forensic laboratory design, construction, and certification; instrument and software\r\nsystem evaluation; workflow development; quality assessment; training\n\n Services page\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSWiki:Resources\/Consultants\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSWiki:Resources\/Consultants<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tProject page\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 1 April 2019, at 16:32.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 6,409 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","adbb24bfe40214cfc6c7453319ba0f11_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-4 ns-subject page-LIMSWiki_Resources_Consultants skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LIMSWiki:Resources\/Consultants<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div align=\"center\">\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"About_this_list\">About this list<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>While this arguably may not be an authoritative list of consultancies relating to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory<\/a> and scientific <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics\" title=\"Informatics\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea0ff624ac3a644c35d2b51d39047bdf\">informatics<\/a>, an attempt has been made to make it thorough.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMS.2C_LIS.2C_and_laboratory\">LIMS, LIS, and laboratory<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>These consultancies seem to focus primarily on helping others plan, choose, and implement an informatics system for the laboratory, though they may offer other services to laboratories such as computer system validation (CSV). (The location represents the entity's headquarters.):\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"text-align: left;\">\n<table id=\"rdp-ebb-LIMSvendor\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" align=\"center\" style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<th> Vendor\n<\/th>\n<th> Headquarters\n<\/th>\n<th> Key services\n<\/th>\n<th> Services page\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.888byteinc.com\/html\/html.html\" target=\"_blank\">A Byte of Advice, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Fairfield, IL, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> \"We provide project management, system development, code modification, support and training\"; experience with<br \/><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LABVANTAGE_Solutions,_Inc.\" title=\"LABVANTAGE Solutions, Inc.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"0220767e0fd8cb7b9e78e3e8d3b7691d\">LabVantage<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/PerkinElmer_Inc.\" title=\"PerkinElmer Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dabda40785b60866d056709e611512f8\">PerkinElmer<\/a> products\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.888byteinc.com\/html\/html.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ABB_Ltd.\" title=\"ABB Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b39f205310adb7bb028a4f0a6960f088\">ABB Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Zurich, Switzerland\n<\/td>\n<td> Provides an expansive set of services.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/new.abb.com\/service\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aseeei.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">American-Sino Environmental Engineering<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Beijing, China\n<\/td>\n<td> \"AEE provides energy and environmental consulting, engineering, and technical field services related to assessment,<br \/>remediation, and compliance for all environmental media.\"\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aseeei.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td style=\"line-height: 50px; vertical-align: middle;\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.astrixsoftware.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Astrix, Inc.<\/a> <div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Astrix_145.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bad1f08a76c6872ac53925adbe87863\"><img alt=\"Astrix 145.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/e\/e2\/Astrix_145.jpg\" width=\"120\" height=\"52\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td> Edison, NJ, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> \"Astrix\u2019s core competency is to assist organizations in the development and implementation of data management<br \/>strategies to enhance the collection, processing, analysis and reporting of scientific data.\"\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/astrixinc.com\/professional-services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cernerconsultant.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Atlanta Consultant<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Atlanta, GA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Provides a wide range of services, particularly with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Soft_Computer_Consultants,_Inc.\" title=\"Soft Computer Consultants, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d43b43c0cbd8d15ecd440869b7c4f93\">SCC<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cerner_Corporation\" title=\"Cerner Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44b952d5fb439af88c84f5ad453fee3f\">Cerner<\/a> products\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.astrixsoftware.com\/consulting\/consulting-services\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.avellana.fi\/\" target=\"_blank\">Avellana Learning Oy<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Vantaa, Finland\n<\/td>\n<td> LIMS, LIS, and ELN implementation; open-source software implementation; software validation; quality control\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.avellana.fi\/yrityksille\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bcsolutionsrfn.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">BC Solutions, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Phoenix, AZ, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> LIS implementation, interface testing and validation, project management and consulting, data conversion\/migration\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bcsolutionsrfn.com\/services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/BGASoft,_Inc.\" title=\"BGASoft, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccea591e377b4c7f4680f27c773e9c8a\">BGASoft, Inc. dba LIMS ABC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Fort Lauderdale, FL, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Business analysis, lab process improvement, enterprise and cloud architecture, LIMS implementation, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsabc.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bika_Lab_Systems_(Pty)_Ltd.\" title=\"Bika Lab Systems (Pty) Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a39862cc41349265a37eb87242d3a628\">Bika Lab Systems (Pty) Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Western Cape, South Africa\n<\/td>\n<td> LIMS requirement analysis, design, customization, configuration, and testing; training; project management, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bikalabs.com\/services\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.blcllc.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Bottom Line Consulting, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Endwell, NY, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabWare,_Inc.\" title=\"LabWare, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34254ba2e2bbcd4ce616eba66db7d2f6\">Labware<\/a> products, user requirements specifications, vendor selection, project management\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.blcllc.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.brevitasconsulting.com\/index.php\" target=\"_blank\">Brevitas Consulting, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Sacramento, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabWare,_Inc.\" title=\"LabWare, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34254ba2e2bbcd4ce616eba66db7d2f6\">Labware<\/a> products, LIMS implementation; project management; quality assurance, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.brevitasconsulting.com\/index.php\/what-we-do\/it-and-information-solutions\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.chemtech.com.br\/en\/\" target=\"_blank\">Chemtech Servicos de Engenharia e Software Ltda.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Rio de Janeiro, Brazil\n<\/td>\n<td> Manufacturing execution systems, SCADA, automation, cyber security, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.chemtech.com.br\/en\/industrial-it\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.clarity-compliance.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Clarity Compliance Solutions Limited<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Chepstow, Wales\n<\/td>\n<td> LIMS, system validation, data integrity, process mapping, vendor selection, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.clarity-compliance.com\/services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clevr.com.au\/\" target=\"_blank\">Clevr<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Australia\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory process and technology consultations, custom LIMS development\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clevr.com.au\/services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clinicallabconsulting.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Clinical Lab Consulting, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Carmel, IN, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Provides a wide range of services \"to all types of clinical laboratories including governmental, academia,<br \/>hospital, reference and physician office laboratories.\"\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clinicallabconsulting.com\/general-consulting\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.consultants-lab.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Clinical Laboratory Consultants dba Medical Source<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Marietta, GA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> \"Medical Source offers experience, guidance, and unmatched expertise in the physician office and independent<br \/>reference laboratory.\"\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/consultants-lab.com\/lab-consulting\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cosine_Consultants_Ltd.\" title=\"Cosine Consultants Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"419e894798ea982e9446353344c9b558\">Cosine Consultants Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Strovolos, Cyprus\n<\/td>\n<td> Software customization, data management system consulting, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cosine_Consultants_Ltd.#Fission_LIMS\" title=\"Cosine Consultants Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1b2cdeeb9baee4f98da0e95aa3dc5b4\">Fission LIMS<\/a>, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cosine.com.cy\/index.php\/services\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.covexllc.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Covex, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Wayne, PA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Computer system validation, FDA compliance, LIMS, system and network management, engineering, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.covexllc.com\/services.php\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td style=\"line-height: 60px; vertical-align: middle;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/CSols,_Inc.\" title=\"CSols, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2fdccdc0381a8bfdfaa0f256f28c3ee\">CSols, Inc.<\/a> <div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Vendor449.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"b58b63cd05e9d805c6033990956d3ae5\"><img alt=\"Vendor449.jpg\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/cf\/Vendor449.jpg\" width=\"120\" height=\"76\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td> Newark, DE, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics strategic services, ELN and LIMS implementation, computer system validation, and<br \/>laboratory vendor-specific technologies\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.csolsinc.com\/services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.e-sciencesolutions.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">e-Science Solutions Ltd<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Whittington, U.K.\n<\/td>\n<td> Information technology, business case development, requirements definition, vendor selection, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.e-sciencesolutions.com\/services\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.edelway.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Edelway AG<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Zurich, Switzerland\n<\/td>\n<td> Information technology, engineering, clinical data management, regulatory affairs and compliance, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.edelway.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.entiovi.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Entiovi Technologies Pvt. Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Kolkata, India\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, productivity analysis, instrument integration, LIMS support, testing and validation, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.entiovi.com\/Laboratory_Informatics.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fal.org.uk\/\" target=\"_blank\">Feltham Associates, Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Kibworth Harcourt, U.K.\n<\/td>\n<td> \"We deliver the knowledge and expertise regarding information needs, laboratory and radiology computer<br \/>systems applications and the supporting infrastructure.\"\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.feltham-associates.org\/falinfo.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/forwardphase.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">ForwardPhase Technologies, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Chicago, IL, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Open-LIMS\" title=\"Open-LIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a32e943ce983cd067b7f6208fa9dc3f5\">Open-LIMS<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/forwardphase.com\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/fructeam.com\/welcome\/\" target=\"_blank\">Fructeam SARL<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Paris, France\n<\/td>\n<td> eLearning tools, clinical trial management systems, LIMS, ELN, SDMS, SAP\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/fructeam.com\/welcome\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.geometrick.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">GeoMetrick Enterprises<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Ann Arbor, MI, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> \"GeoMetrick Enterprises has solved LIMS problems for large and small companies in wide array of industries.\"\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.geometrick.com\/what-we-do.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hpfm.net\/\" target=\"_blank\">HPFM, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Pacifica, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> LIMS selection, implementation, and change management; computer system validation; quality<br \/>management systems, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hpfm.net\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iconnectconsulting.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">iConnect Consulting, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> San Francisco, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> LIMS implementation and validation; computer system validation; HL7 electronic communication, training\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iconnectconsulting.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.imcor.de\/en\/lims-consulting\/index.php\" target=\"_blank\">IMCOR GmbH<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Filderstadt, Germany\n<\/td>\n<td> LIMS selection and implementation, computer system validation, business process analysis and optimization\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.imcor.de\/en\/lims-consulting\/consulting.php?pageid=2\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jandrconsult.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">J & R Consulting, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Swedesboro, NJ, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, LIMS, validation, environmental monitoring, implementation, customization, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jandrconsult.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.beaconpartners.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">KPMG LLP<\/a><br \/>(formerly Beacon Partners, Inc.)\n<\/td>\n<td> Weymouth, MA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Healthcare management, LIS pre-implementation assessment and planning, system optimization, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.beaconpartners.com\/information-technology\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labanswer.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">LabAnswer, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Sugar Land, TX, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, LIMS, LIS, ELN, data analytics, managed services, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labanswer.com\/scientific-informatics-strategic-services.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labcentrix.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">LabCentrix, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Cambridge, MA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, LIMS, LIS, ELN, project management, data migration, computer system validation, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labcentrix.com\/services\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/labmetrics.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">LabMetrics, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Ishpeming, MI, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, automation, instrumentation, compliance and auditing, quality assurance, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/labmetrics.com\/core-services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labadvisory.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Laboratory Advisory Bureau, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> McAllen, TX, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Clinical laboratory informatics, LIS, quality assurance, compliance and auditing, workflow management, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labadvisory.com\/Our-Services\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lims.ie\/\" target=\"_blank\">Laboratory Systems Consulting<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Celbridge, Ireland\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory and scientific informatics, 21 CFR Part 11, project management, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lims.ie\/services.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.liswalter.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">LisWalter Consulting<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> New York, NY, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, compliance management, quality management, procedure development, training, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.liswalter.com\/services.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limstope.com\/present-eng.html\" target=\"_blank\">LIMS Consultant Engineers Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> La Paz, Bolivia\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, geological and geotechnical engineering, data validation, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limstope.com\/labotec-eng.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/limscon.eu\/\" target=\"_blank\">LIMSCON<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Vienna, Austria\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, LIMS, ELN, CDMS, document management, training, project management,<br \/>computer system validation, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/limscon.eu\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lufc-labconsultants.com\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">LUFC LabConsultants<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Mierlo, The Netherlands\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, LIMS, ELN, CDMS, SDMS, vendor selection, computer system validation,<br \/>workflows, project management, lab management, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.lufc-labconsultants.com\/laboratory-lims-consultant.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/naralabs.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">NARALABS, S.L.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Barcelona, Spain\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, LIMS, data migration, laboratory workflow, system evaluation and<br \/>implementation, quality assurance, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/naralabs.com\/services\/consulting\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nicholsmanagementgroup.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Nichols Management Group Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> York Harbor, ME, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Clinical laboratory informatics, system assessment, implementation, and integration;<br \/>project management; workflow management, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nicholsmanagementgroup.com\/key-services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nxggroup.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">NXG Group, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Chennai, India\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, LIMS, testing and validation, system integration management, business consulting, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nxggroup.com\/consulting.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.orbislabsystems.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Orbis Labsystems Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Dublin, Ireland\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, LIMS, quality assurance, system integration management, automation, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.orbislabsystems.com\/services\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.prime4services.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">prime4services GmbH<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Karlsruhe, Germany\n<\/td>\n<td> LIMS, project management, vendor selection, quality management and validation, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.prime4services.com\/services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.revereit.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">RevereIT, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Sterling, VA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> LIMS, system integration management, system validation, method development and validation,<br \/>data migration, vendor selection, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.revereit.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sagit-solutions.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Sagit Solutions Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Wan Chai, Hong Kong\n<\/td>\n<td> LIMS, implementation management, cloud management, vendor selection, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sagit-solutions.com\/lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsconsultant.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Segalstad Consulting AS<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Oslo, Norway\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, LIMS, CDMS, 21 CFR Part 11, computer system validation, quality management, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsconsultant.com\/consulting_services\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/semaphoresolutions.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Semaphore Solutions, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Victoria, B.C., Canada\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, LIMS, BaseSpace Clarity LIMS, workflow development, genomics\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/semaphoresolutions.com\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sequenceqcs.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Sequence, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Morrisville, NC, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, LIMS, ELN, CDS, SDMS, data architecture analysis, data analytics\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sequenceqcs.com\/software-data-management-services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.shawinformatics.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Shaw Informatics Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Horsham, U.K.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, LIMS, LES, ELN, process mapping, requirements analysis, project management,<br \/> vendor selection, deployment strategy, knowledge management solutions, training\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.shawinformatics.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/solution4labs.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Solution4Labs Sp. z o.o.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Bia\u0142ystok, Poland\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, LIMS, ELN, custom development, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Thermo_Scientific\" title=\"Thermo Scientific\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e914753f99d483d4577b35fed71b3c94\">Thermo Scientific<\/a> products, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Agaram_Technologies_Pvt._Ltd.\" title=\"Agaram Technologies Pvt. Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da3a4846bd90a4735bd580b830ffdade\">Agaram Technologies<\/a> products, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/solution4labs.com\/services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.uptodata.com\/home-en\/\" target=\"_blank\">up to data professional services GmbH<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> W\u00f6rrstadt, Germany\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, LIMS, custom development, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Thermo_Scientific\" title=\"Thermo Scientific\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e914753f99d483d4577b35fed71b3c94\">Thermo Scientific<\/a> products, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.uptodata.com\/home-en\/about-us-en.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.validationsystems.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Validation Systems, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Palo Alto, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, microbiological and chemistry services, quality management systems,<br \/>computer system validation, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.validationsystems.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wega-it.com\/en\/\" target=\"_blank\">wega Informatik AG<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Basel, Switzerland\n<\/td>\n<td> Data management systems design and implementation, clinical trial management systems, and electronic<br \/>data capture for life and chemical sciences\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wega-it.com\/en\/clinical-development-it\/clinical-development\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wynnit.co.uk\/\" target=\"_blank\">WynnIT Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Suffolk, U.K.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory informatics, automation, system integration, user requirement specifications,<br \/>custom development, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wynnit.co.uk\/services.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"General_laboratory\">General laboratory<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>These consultancies offer general help to laboratories, including management and quality control among other things (location represents headquarters):\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"text-align: left;\">\n<table id=\"rdp-ebb-LIMSvendor\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" align=\"center\" style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<th> Vendor\n<\/th>\n<th> Headquarters\n<\/th>\n<th> Key services\n<\/th>\n<th> Services page\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.thelaboratoryconsultants.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">A & J Laboratory Consultants<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Aubrey, TX, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction, workflow improvement, training, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.thelaboratoryconsultants.com\/ourservices.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ams-labs.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">AMS Medical Laboratories<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> St. Louis, MO, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction, workflow improvement,<br \/>profitability analysis, procedure development, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ams-labs.com\/consulting-services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ancillarymedsolutions.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Ancillary Medical Solutions<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> San Diego, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction, workflow improvement,<br \/>staffing, procedure development, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ancillarymedsolutions.com\/in-house-lab.php\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n \n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aboutams.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Applied Management Systems, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Burlington, MA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory start-up and consolidation, LIS, automation, workflow improvement, hospital productivity and management,<br \/>quality assessment, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aboutams.com\/services\/laboratory\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bd.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Becton, Dickinson and Company<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Franklin Lakes, NJ, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory start-up and consolidation, preanalytical best practices training, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bd.com\/vacutainer\/consulting_services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/bv.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Black & Veatch Corporation<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Kansas City, MO, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design and development\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/bv.com\/home\/capabilities\/market\/management-consulting\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/bplaboratoryconsulting.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">BP Laboratory Consulting, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Arvada, CO, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory start-up, workflow improvement, procedure development, training, regulatory compliance, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/bplaboratoryconsulting.com\/services\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clinicallaboratoryconsulting.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">C&C Clinical Laboratory Consulting, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Dallas, TX, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction, workflow improvement,<br \/>quality management, procedure development, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clinicallaboratoryconsulting.com\/services.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.catalyst-consultants.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Catalyst Consulting<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Austin, TX, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory start-up, regulatory compliance, workflow improvement, profitability analysis\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.catalyst-consultants.com\/#!services\/ca4p\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.chisolutionsinc.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Chi Solutions, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Ann Arbor, MI, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design and start-up, laboratory implementation and management planning, anatomical pathology services,<br \/>quality assessment, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.chisolutionsinc.com\/services\/laboratory-consulting\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.colaborate.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Colaborate, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Tampa, FL, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design and start-up, laboratory implementation and management planning, laboratory informatics,<br \/>performance analysis, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.colaborate.com\/services\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.crimelabdesign.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Crime Lab Design<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Southfield, MI, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Emphasis on forensic science, laboratory design and planning, feasibility studies, civil and mechanical<br \/>engineering, workflow management, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.crimelabdesign.com\/services.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ctpolconsultants.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">CT POL Consultants<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> South Windsor, CT, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction, workflow improvement, LIS, EHR,<br \/>lab billing, procedure development, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ctpolconsultants.com\/services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dlsconsultants.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Diversified Laboratory Sciences, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Newnan, GA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design and start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction, workflow improvement,<br \/>risk assessments, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dlsconsultants.com\/services.php\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.doctors-management.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">DoctorsManagement<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Knoxville, TN, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory and physician practice accounting, compliance, development, and operation improvement\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.doctors-management.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.elitechgroup.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">ELITech Group SAS<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Puteaux, France\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory operations, billing and reimbursement, regulatory assistance, profitability analysis\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.elitechgroup.com\/north-america\/products\/market-segment\/total-lab-care\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gdanimalhealth.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">GD Animal Health<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Deventer, Netherlands\n<\/td>\n<td> Veterinary diagnostic laboratory start-up, laboratory operations, regulatory assistance, project management, and training\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gdanimalhealth.com\/consultancy\/setting-up-lab-units\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/gnosisint.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Gnosis International, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Garden Grove, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory start-up, laboratory operations, regulatory assistance\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/gnosisint.com\/service\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.harrisonconsultant.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Harrison Consultant<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Cleveland, TX, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Pre-inspection evaluation, quality management, regulatory compliance,<br \/>procedure development, technical writing, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.harrisonconsultant.com\/laboratory_consulting\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.knkconsult.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">K&K Consultant Group, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Torrence, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction, workflow improvement,<br \/>training, procedure development, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.knkconsult.com\/services\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ketchmark.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Ketchmark & Associates, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Burr Ridge, IL, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory, science, and research building design and renovation\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ketchmark.com\/laboratory.php\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/labadvisory.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Lab Advisory Bureau<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Abilene, TX, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Data management, quality managementm, regulatory guidance, training, accreditation prep\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/labadvisory.com\/Our-Services\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labiqllc.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Lab IQ, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Calabasas, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Compliance management, workflow improvement, training, procedure development, feasibility studies, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labiqllc.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.laboratorybydesign.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Laboratory by Design, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Napa, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory, science, and research building design and renovation; project management and administration\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.laboratorybydesign.com\/services.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.laboratorystartupconsultants.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Laboratory Start-Up Consultants<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Raleigh, NC, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory start-up, consulting, and staffing; systems selection and validation; feasibility studies, standard<br \/>operating procedure development, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.laboratorystartupconsultants.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labtopiainc.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Labtopia, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Houston, TX, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory audit preparation, corrective and preventative action programs, quality assurance,<br \/>project management, regulatory requirements, technical writing, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labtopiainc.com\/services-solutions\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lab-data.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">LDC, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Carlsbad, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory audit preparation, DoD accreditation, litigation support, data validation, training\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lab-data.com\/Consulting.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.narayanconsultinginc.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Narayan Laboratory Consulting Services, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Philadelphia, PA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory start-up, regulatory requirements, training, process development, pre- and post-inspection guidance,<br \/>quality management, inspection readiness\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.narayanconsultinginc.com\/#!services\/c1pna\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/nath-mds.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Nath Healthcare Business Solutions, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Stafford, TX, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Regulatory requirements, training and support, custom reporting and analytics, trend analysis\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/nath-mds.com\/specialty\/specialty-labs\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labautomationsupport.nl\/\" target=\"_blank\">Nous Labautomation Support<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Mariaheide, Netherlands\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory processes, automation, and regulation assistance\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labautomationsupport.nl\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ontargetconsulting.biz\/\" target=\"_blank\">OnTarget Consulting Services, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Atlanta, GA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Accreditation prep, operational and risk assessment, training, process management\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ontargetconsulting.biz\/laboratory-consulting\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.medicallab.consulting\/\" target=\"_blank\">Medical Lab Consulting<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Oklahoma City, OK, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Application processing, staffing, training, workflow management, inspection preparation\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.medicallab.consulting\/pricing\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pathlabsolutions.com\/Pathology\" target=\"_blank\">Lab Solutions, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Conshohocken, PA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Pathology laboratory design, start-up, and management; systems selection and validation;<br \/>inspection preparation; technical writing; staff evaluation and competency development; etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pathlabsolutions.com\/Laboratory-Management-ExtraPages.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/polconsultant.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Physicians Office Consulting, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Jackson, TN, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory CLIA compliance, regulatory review, and inspection services; laboratory start-up and development\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/polconsultant.com\/labservices.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pocconsults.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">POC Consultants, LLC <\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> FL and NJ, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Regulatory compliance, review, and inspection services; training\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pocconsults.com\/services.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.polestarlabs.com\/consultsmart\/\" target=\"_blank\">Polestar Labs<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Escondido, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design and start-up, corrective action management, profitability analysis, instrument management\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.polestarlabs.com\/consultsmart\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.qualitysystemsandcompliance.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Quality Systems and Compliance, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Beverly, MA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory program development, laboratory design and start-up, pre-inspection evaluation, post-inspection correction,<br \/>workflow improvement, quality assurance, point-of-care testing assistance, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.qualitysystemsandcompliance.com\/services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/clinical-laboratory-consulting.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Rodric Consulting, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Basalt, CO, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory program assessment and enhancement, laboratory restructuring and consolidation, compliance assessment,<br \/>LIS implementation, CLIA and accreditation assistance, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/clinical-laboratory-consulting.com\/?page_id=5\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/rpllaboratorysolutions.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">rpl Laboratory Solutions, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Corona, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory compliance, maintenance, and benchmarking programs; feasibility analysis; technical writing;<br \/>laboratory informatics project management; LIS; EHR; safety services; etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/rpllaboratorysolutions.com\/index.php\/services\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sslabconsultants.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">South Shore Laboratory Consultants, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Scituate, MA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Genetic testing laboratory experience; laboratory licensing, compliance, and accreditation; quality assurance;<br \/>laboratory start-up and management; equipment evaluation and validation; etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sslabconsultants.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.strategic-directions.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Strategic Directions International, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Los Angeles, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory program assessment and enhancement, instrument implementation, situation and opportunity analysis\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.strategic-directions.com\/_a\/consulting-services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.microbiologynetwork.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">The Microbiology Network, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> N. Chili, NY, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Microbiology and pharmacology laboratory experience, laboratory regulation and auditing, laboratory process improvement,<br \/>quality assurance, contamination control, aseptic processing, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sslabconsultants.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laboratory_design\">Laboratory design<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>These consultancies offer specific help to laboratories in the field of design and organization of a laboratory (location represents headquarters):\n<\/p>\n<div style=\"text-align: left;\">\n<table id=\"rdp-ebb-LIMSvendor\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" align=\"center\" style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<th> Vendor\n<\/th>\n<th> Headquarters\n<\/th>\n<th> Key services\n<\/th>\n<th> Services page\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.designforscience.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Design for Science, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Carlsbad, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.designforscience.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.glpsf.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">GL Planning & Design, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> San Francisco, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design, laboratory renovation\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.glpsf.com\/services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/goldoaktech.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Gold Oak Technology, LLC<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Carlsbad, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design, instrumentation sourcing and selection, chromatography assay method management and validation\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/goldoaktech.com\/services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/inofficelabs.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">In Office Labs<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Medina, OH, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design, laboratory renovation\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/inofficelabs.com\/about-us\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jacobsconsultancy.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Jacobs Consultancy, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Pasadena, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design, benchmarking, and workflow; vivarium design\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jacobsconsultancy.com\/consultancy.asp?id=5764\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/jsanalytical.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">jsAnalytical Laboratory Consultants Ltd.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> British Columbia, Canada\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design, refinery design, software system evaluation, training\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/jsanalytical.com\/about.php\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.knapp-frazer.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Knapp-Frazer Consulting<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Santa Rosa, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design, feasibility studies, test menu development, instrument evaluation,<br \/>licensing and accreditation, technical writing\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.knapp-frazer.com\/services_design.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labconsultant.co.uk\/\" target=\"_blank\">Komoly Associates<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Cheshire, U.K.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design, feasibility studies, project management\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labconsultant.co.uk\/services.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/labds.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Laboratory Design and Supply, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Budford, GA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design, renovation, and relocation\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/labds.com\/services.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lcslab.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">LCS Constructors, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Irvine, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design, renovation, relocation, and construction\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lcslab.com\/services\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.longolabs.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Longo, Inc. dba Longo Lab Design<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Ramsey, NJ, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design and renovation\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.longolabs.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rfd.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Research Facilities Design<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> San Diego, CA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory assessment, benchmarking, and design\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rfd.com\/services\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sgs.com\/en\/\" target=\"_blank\">SGS S.A.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Geneva, Switzerland\n<\/td>\n<td> Wide array of services, including laboratory assessment and design for the petrochemical industry\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sgs.com\/en\/Oil-Gas\/Downstream\/Logistics\/Consultancy-and-Optimization\/Laboratory-Design.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sstplanners.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Strategic Science & Technology Planners, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Arlington, VA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory assessment, benchmarking, and design\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sstplanners.com\/sstservices.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.slsi.net\/\" target=\"_blank\">Superior Laboratory Services, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Pasadena, TX, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Laboratory design, construction, and certification; instrument evaluation; training\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.slsi.net\/services.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n\n<tr>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bodetech.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">The Bode Technology Group, Inc.<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td> Lorton, VA, U.S.\n<\/td>\n<td> Forensic laboratory design, construction, and certification; instrument and software<br \/>system evaluation; workflow development; quality assessment; training\n<\/td>\n<td> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.slsi.net\/services.html\" target=\"_blank\">Services page<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table><\/div>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203040\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.038 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.051 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 146\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 853\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 1186\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 318\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 7\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 6.653 1 - -total\n100.00% 6.653 1 - Template:Ombox\n 58.34% 3.881 1 - Template:Ombox\/core\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:7881-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403203040 and revision id 35338\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSWiki:Resources\/Consultants\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSWiki:Resources\/Consultants<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","adbb24bfe40214cfc6c7453319ba0f11_images":["https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/e\/e2\/Astrix_145.jpg","https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/c\/cf\/Vendor449.jpg"],"adbb24bfe40214cfc6c7453319ba0f11_timestamp":1554323440,"696695ca2ef0d0aa853c4e3efba250c4_type":"article","696695ca2ef0d0aa853c4e3efba250c4_title":"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act: Audit guidelines and checklist","696695ca2ef0d0aa853c4e3efba250c4_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist","696695ca2ef0d0aa853c4e3efba250c4_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tHealth Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\/Audit guidelines and checklist\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThe following guidelines and checklist items provide a frame of reference for vendors and auditors to better determine potential compliance issues with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act and a variety of other regulatory guidelines.\nThe following checklist is focused largely on computerized systems that house Protected Health Information (PHI) under the HIPAA regulations. However, since the computerized system exists as part of a complete operation, even when it is hosted by a Cloud provider, the checklist covers the majority of the regulation. This notion of the requirements of the entire regulation applying even to Cloud companies is particularly underscored with the HITECH modifications to the HIPAA regulations where Business Associates are now entirely responsible with adherence to the HIPAA privacy regulations and not merely on a contractual basis.\n\nContents\n\n1 Administrative safeguards \n\n1.1 Security Management Process \n1.2 Assigned security responsibility \n1.3 Workforce security and Information Access Management \n1.4 Security Awareness and Training \n1.5 Security Incident Procedures \n1.6 Contingency Plan \n1.7 Evaluation \n1.8 Business Associate Agreements \n\n\n2 Physical safeguards \n\n2.1 Facility Access Controls \n2.2 Workstation Use \n2.3 Workstation Security \n2.4 Device and Media Controls \n\n\n3 Technical safeguards \n\n3.1 Access Control \n3.2 Audit Controls \n3.3 Integrity \n\n\n4 Organizational requirements \n\n4.1 Business associate contracts \n\n\n5 Documentation requirements \n\n5.1 Documentation \n\n\n\n\n\nAdministrative safeguards \nSecurity Management Process \nDoes a detailed risk assessment exist regarding potential vulnerabilities to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of PHI?\nDoes the assessment identify actions to mitigate certain risks? Have these actions been taken, or have plans been generated to take these actions? \nDoes a policy exist specifying sanctions to be taken against employees who fail to comply with security policies and procedures?\nIs there a system in place for regular review of system activity, including things such as audit logs and incident reports?\nAssigned security responsibility \nIs there a formally identified individual who is responsible for developing and implementing security policies?\nHas this individual, or the individual's direct reports, developed and implemented security policies?\nCollect evidence of security policies being implemented (group policy reports for the AD server, for instance)\nWorkforce security and Information Access Management \nDo procedures exist governing access to PHI by employees?\nAre employees who should not have access to PHI prevented from accessing it?\nIf employees are permitted to access systems that contain PHI, but are not permitted to access PHI, does the system have suitable controls to prevent that access?\nView system accesses by both individuals who have access to PHI and those who don't, and evaluate potential areas of weakness in the security measures.\nDo processes exist for authorizing access to PHI? Do these processes seem reasonable. \nAre employees who have access to PHI supervised appropriately? Do their supervisors have adequate training and understanding regarding the treatment of PHI?\nAre adequate procedures in place governing the termination of employees with access to PHI?\nDo these procedures include appropriately times termination of accounts (i.e., in the case of involuntary termination, is the account terminated before the employee might have the opportunity to cause harm?).\nFor voluntary terminations, are procedures in place that require the supervisor to evaluate the need for continued access to PHI prior to the departure of the employee in question?\nIs there a clear requirement for communication with system administrators and IT staff regarding affected accounts?\nIf a health clearinghouse is part of a larger organization, confirm that adequate controls exist that prevent the larger organization from accessing PHI.\nDo the PHI access procedures apply to the IT\/IS organization? That is, is access to PHI only allowed for IT\/IS employees with a legitimate business reason to access that data? Are IT\/IS employees adequately trained in the HIPAA regulations, internal policies and procedures regarding PHI?\nSecurity Awareness and Training \nIs there a formal and documented training program for employees who deal with PHI?\nAre employees provided training on principles of security?\nAre there procedures in place for addressing malicious software, including it's detection and reporting? Are employees prevented from accessing remote sites that are at high risk for containing malicious software?\nIs there a system for ensuring that security protection software (in particular anti-virus programs, and firewalls) are updated periodically?\nFor outward facing applications, is there a process by which security flaws in components (such as Java) are identified and fixed.\nFor systems that provide access to PHI, do they track log-ins, and in particular failed logins? \nDoes the system lock out users after a specified number of failed logins? \nAre system administrators notified if such an event occurs?\nIs there evidence that administrators respond to such events in an appropriate manner? \nAre there policies governing password complexity, change and reuse frequency? Are the policies consistent with current \"standards\" within the industry?\nAre employees trained to maintain strict secrecy regarding their passwords?\nAre there procedures mandating that IT may not request passwords from users?\nSecurity Incident Procedures \nAre procedures in place for responding to security incidents?\nIs there evidence that these procedures are being followed (review any logs\/files regarding actions taken in response to security incidents).\nContingency Plan \nDoes the organization have a comprehensive disaster preparedness\/business continuity plan?\nDoes the plan included a backup and recovery procedure for all system data?\nDoes the plan adequately address how operations can be continued under various scenarios?\nDoes the plan include procedures for testing the various elements of the plan to ensure they are still valid?\nDoes the plan address the criticality of the various systems in its design?\nEvaluation \nIs a periodic re-evaluation of security standards undertaken?\nDoes the re-evaluation take into account changes in the current state of IT security and the environment of threats facing secured systems, as well as the current state of the regulations?\nBusiness Associate Agreements \nIf components of the system are held outside the direct control of the company, such that PHI will be outside of the direct control of the company, do sufficient agreements exist to guarantee that the party responsible for handling the PHI will adhere to the requirements of the regulation?\nAre these agreements in such a form that they qualify as a contract or equivalent?\nPhysical safeguards \nFacility Access Controls \nIs the facility containing the system (this includes electronic access points that connect to the system in a \"non-secure\" manner) sufficiently protected from unauthorized access?\nIs access to application and database servers further restricted to only those personnel who are authorized to directly interact with those elements of the system (i.e., system administrators).\nIs there a system that limits access to facilities and areas within facilities to authorized personnel? Does this system implement a mechanism for confirming the identify of individuals accessing the facility (e.g., through a electronic key access system)\nDoes this system apply to visitors as well?\nIs access to systems used for testing and revision of software similarly restricted? Evaluate the access restrictions to tools that could be used to modify and deploy the software. Ensure that these access restrictions are addressed via SOP.\nWorkstation Use \nDo procedures exist which govern the class of workstation that can be used to access PHI?\nWorkstation Security \nAre workstations that are used to access PHI appropriately restricted?\nIf workstations can directly interact with PHI without additional controls, are the workstations secured in appropriately restricted areas?\nDevice and Media Controls \nAre procedures in place governing the use and removal of hardware and storage media used to house PHI?\nDo the procedures seem reasonable?\nDo procedures exist regarding the disposal of media and devices used to store PHI?\nAre records maintained that account for the movement of such media, and who moved it?\nTechnical safeguards \nAccess Control \nDo systems with access to PHI have a robust authentication process for gaining access?\nDo these system require that all users have a unique id?\nAre password assignment, change, recovery, and related processes designed in such a way so as to ensure that the user gaining access to PHI is who they say they are?\nIs there a mechanism for gaining access to necessary PHI in the event of an emergency? Is this mechanism designed such that it's invocation during non-emergencies would not be achievable in a non-obvious way?\nDoes this system automatically log off users after a defined period of inactivity?\nDoes the system maintain PHI in an encrypted state?\nAudit Controls \nDo systems used for PHI maintain audit trails which record, in a secure manner, all activities within the system. Are the audit trails reviewed periodically?\nIntegrity \nAre policies and procedures in place to ensure that PHI has not been altered or destroyed in an unauthorized manner?\nAre electronic mechanisms employed to corroborate that PHI has not been altered or destroyed in an unauthorized manner?*\nIf PHI is transmitted outside of the responsible entity (i.e., via the internet), is the data transmitted in such a way so as to prevent unauthorized access (via ssl or similar protocols?)\nAre security certificates on servers involved in managing PHI current, and authenticated by a recognized third party certifying organization?\n\r\n\n\nOrganizational requirements \nBusiness associate contracts \nAre business associates required contractually to adhere to the regulations with regard to PHI they maintain?\nDo business associate agreements exist with third party data\/application hosting services?\nDo business associate agreements extend, contractually, to agents\/subcontractors?\nIs it clear within the terms of the business associate agreements that the business associate must immediately report any breaches or incidents?\nIs it clear within the terms of the business associate agreements that the relationship can be terminated if the associate fails to comply with the requirements of the regulations?\nDo records exist of audits and other reviews of business associates? If breeches or violations of the regulation have occurred, have appropriate actions been taken, up to and including termination of the agreement?\n\r\n\n\nDocumentation requirements \nDocumentation \nAre the procedures required by the regulations maintained in written (or alternatively electronic, but signed) form?\nAre actions and activities which are required to be documented maintained in written form (or electronic alternatives)?\nIs there a retention policy regarding the policies and procedures? Does the policy require that such documents be maintained for at least 6 years after either the date of its creation or of its effective date (whichever is later)?\nDoes a review system exist for these policies and procedures to ensure that they are current?\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 22 May 2013, at 03:08.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 5,677 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","696695ca2ef0d0aa853c4e3efba250c4_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act_Audit_guidelines_and_checklist skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\/Audit guidelines and checklist<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><p>The following guidelines and checklist items provide a frame of reference for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Category:Vendors\" title=\"Category:Vendors\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8cfb65763011b9bc454f7b22f586995\">vendors<\/a> and auditors to better determine potential compliance issues with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153\">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act<\/a> and a variety of other regulatory guidelines.\n<\/p><p>The following checklist is focused largely on computerized systems that house Protected Health Information (PHI) under the HIPAA regulations. However, since the computerized system exists as part of a complete operation, even when it is hosted by a Cloud provider, the checklist covers the majority of the regulation. This notion of the requirements of the entire regulation applying even to Cloud companies is particularly underscored with the HITECH modifications to the HIPAA regulations where Business Associates are now entirely responsible with adherence to the HIPAA privacy regulations and not merely on a contractual basis.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Administrative_safeguards\">Administrative safeguards<\/span><\/h2>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_Management_Process\">Security Management Process<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Does a detailed risk assessment exist regarding potential vulnerabilities to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of PHI?<\/li>\n<li>Does the assessment identify actions to mitigate certain risks? Have these actions been taken, or have plans been generated to take these actions? <\/li>\n<li>Does a policy exist specifying sanctions to be taken against employees who fail to comply with security policies and procedures?<\/li>\n<li>Is there a system in place for regular review of system activity, including things such as audit logs and incident reports?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Assigned_security_responsibility\">Assigned security responsibility<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Is there a formally identified individual who is responsible for developing and implementing security policies?<\/li>\n<li>Has this individual, or the individual's direct reports, developed and implemented security policies?<\/li>\n<li>Collect evidence of security policies being implemented (group policy reports for the AD server, for instance)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Workforce_security_and_Information_Access_Management\">Workforce security and Information Access Management<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Do procedures exist governing access to PHI by employees?<\/li>\n<li>Are employees who should not have access to PHI prevented from accessing it?<\/li>\n<li>If employees are permitted to access systems that contain PHI, but are not permitted to access PHI, does the system have suitable controls to prevent that access?<\/li>\n<li>View system accesses by both individuals who have access to PHI and those who don't, and evaluate potential areas of weakness in the security measures.<\/li>\n<li>Do processes exist for authorizing access to PHI? Do these processes seem reasonable. <\/li>\n<li>Are employees who have access to PHI supervised appropriately? Do their supervisors have adequate training and understanding regarding the treatment of PHI?<\/li>\n<li>Are adequate procedures in place governing the termination of employees with access to PHI?<\/li>\n<li>Do these procedures include appropriately times termination of accounts (i.e., in the case of involuntary termination, is the account terminated before the employee might have the opportunity to cause harm?).<\/li>\n<li>For voluntary terminations, are procedures in place that require the supervisor to evaluate the need for continued access to PHI prior to the departure of the employee in question?<\/li>\n<li>Is there a clear requirement for communication with system administrators and IT staff regarding affected accounts?<\/li>\n<li>If a health clearinghouse is part of a larger organization, confirm that adequate controls exist that prevent the larger organization from accessing PHI.<\/li>\n<li>Do the PHI access procedures apply to the IT\/IS organization? That is, is access to PHI only allowed for IT\/IS employees with a legitimate business reason to access that data? Are IT\/IS employees adequately trained in the HIPAA regulations, internal policies and procedures regarding PHI?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_Awareness_and_Training\">Security Awareness and Training<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Is there a formal and documented training program for employees who deal with PHI?<\/li>\n<li>Are employees provided training on principles of security?<\/li>\n<li>Are there procedures in place for addressing malicious software, including it's detection and reporting? Are employees prevented from accessing remote sites that are at high risk for containing malicious software?<\/li>\n<li>Is there a system for ensuring that security protection software (in particular anti-virus programs, and firewalls) are updated periodically?<\/li>\n<li>For outward facing applications, is there a process by which security flaws in components (such as Java) are identified and fixed.<\/li>\n<li>For systems that provide access to PHI, do they track log-ins, and in particular failed logins? <\/li>\n<li>Does the system lock out users after a specified number of failed logins? <\/li>\n<li>Are system administrators notified if such an event occurs?<\/li>\n<li>Is there evidence that administrators respond to such events in an appropriate manner? <\/li>\n<li>Are there policies governing password complexity, change and reuse frequency? Are the policies consistent with current \"standards\" within the industry?<\/li>\n<li>Are employees trained to maintain strict secrecy regarding their passwords?<\/li>\n<li>Are there procedures mandating that IT may not request passwords from users?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_Incident_Procedures\">Security Incident Procedures<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Are procedures in place for responding to security incidents?<\/li>\n<li>Is there evidence that these procedures are being followed (review any logs\/files regarding actions taken in response to security incidents).<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Contingency_Plan\">Contingency Plan<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Does the organization have a comprehensive disaster preparedness\/business continuity plan?<\/li>\n<li>Does the plan included a backup and recovery procedure for all system data?<\/li>\n<li>Does the plan adequately address how operations can be continued under various scenarios?<\/li>\n<li>Does the plan include procedures for testing the various elements of the plan to ensure they are still valid?<\/li>\n<li>Does the plan address the criticality of the various systems in its design?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Evaluation\">Evaluation<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Is a periodic re-evaluation of security standards undertaken?<\/li>\n<li>Does the re-evaluation take into account changes in the current state of IT security and the environment of threats facing secured systems, as well as the current state of the regulations?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Business_Associate_Agreements\">Business Associate Agreements<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>If components of the system are held outside the direct control of the company, such that PHI will be outside of the direct control of the company, do sufficient agreements exist to guarantee that the party responsible for handling the PHI will adhere to the requirements of the regulation?<\/li>\n<li>Are these agreements in such a form that they qualify as a contract or equivalent?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Physical_safeguards\">Physical safeguards<\/span><\/h2>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Facility_Access_Controls\">Facility Access Controls<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Is the facility containing the system (this includes electronic access points that connect to the system in a \"non-secure\" manner) sufficiently protected from unauthorized access?<\/li>\n<li>Is access to application and database servers further restricted to only those personnel who are authorized to directly interact with those elements of the system (i.e., system administrators).<\/li>\n<li>Is there a system that limits access to facilities and areas within facilities to authorized personnel? Does this system implement a mechanism for confirming the identify of individuals accessing the facility (e.g., through a electronic key access system)<\/li>\n<li>Does this system apply to visitors as well?<\/li>\n<li>Is access to systems used for testing and revision of software similarly restricted? Evaluate the access restrictions to tools that could be used to modify and deploy the software. Ensure that these access restrictions are addressed via SOP.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Workstation_Use\">Workstation Use<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Do procedures exist which govern the class of workstation that can be used to access PHI?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Workstation_Security\">Workstation Security<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Are workstations that are used to access PHI appropriately restricted?<\/li>\n<li>If workstations can directly interact with PHI without additional controls, are the workstations secured in appropriately restricted areas?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Device_and_Media_Controls\">Device and Media Controls<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Are procedures in place governing the use and removal of hardware and storage media used to house PHI?<\/li>\n<li>Do the procedures seem reasonable?<\/li>\n<li>Do procedures exist regarding the disposal of media and devices used to store PHI?<\/li>\n<li>Are records maintained that account for the movement of such media, and who moved it?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technical_safeguards\">Technical safeguards<\/span><\/h2>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Access_Control\">Access Control<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Do systems with access to PHI have a robust authentication process for gaining access?<\/li>\n<li>Do these system require that all users have a unique id?<\/li>\n<li>Are password assignment, change, recovery, and related processes designed in such a way so as to ensure that the user gaining access to PHI is who they say they are?<\/li>\n<li>Is there a mechanism for gaining access to necessary PHI in the event of an emergency? Is this mechanism designed such that it's invocation during non-emergencies would not be achievable in a non-obvious way?<\/li>\n<li>Does this system automatically log off users after a defined period of inactivity?<\/li>\n<li>Does the system maintain PHI in an encrypted state?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Audit_Controls\">Audit Controls<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Do systems used for PHI maintain audit trails which record, in a secure manner, all activities within the system. Are the audit trails reviewed periodically?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Integrity\">Integrity<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Are policies and procedures in place to ensure that PHI has not been altered or destroyed in an unauthorized manner?<\/li>\n<li>Are electronic mechanisms employed to corroborate that PHI has not been altered or destroyed in an unauthorized manner?*<\/li>\n<li>If PHI is transmitted outside of the responsible entity (i.e., via the internet), is the data transmitted in such a way so as to prevent unauthorized access (via ssl or similar protocols?)<\/li>\n<li>Are security certificates on servers involved in managing PHI current, and authenticated by a recognized third party certifying organization?<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Organizational_requirements\">Organizational requirements<\/span><\/h2>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Business_associate_contracts\">Business associate contracts<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Are business associates required contractually to adhere to the regulations with regard to PHI they maintain?<\/li>\n<li>Do business associate agreements exist with third party data\/application hosting services?<\/li>\n<li>Do business associate agreements extend, contractually, to agents\/subcontractors?<\/li>\n<li>Is it clear within the terms of the business associate agreements that the business associate must immediately report any breaches or incidents?<\/li>\n<li>Is it clear within the terms of the business associate agreements that the relationship can be terminated if the associate fails to comply with the requirements of the regulations?<\/li>\n<li>Do records exist of audits and other reviews of business associates? If breeches or violations of the regulation have occurred, have appropriate actions been taken, up to and including termination of the agreement?<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Documentation_requirements\">Documentation requirements<\/span><\/h2>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Documentation\">Documentation<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Are the procedures required by the regulations maintained in written (or alternatively electronic, but signed) form?<\/li>\n<li>Are actions and activities which are required to be documented maintained in written form (or electronic alternatives)?<\/li>\n<li>Is there a retention policy regarding the policies and procedures? Does the policy require that such documents be maintained for at least 6 years after either the date of its creation or of its effective date (whichever is later)?<\/li>\n<li>Does a review system exist for these policies and procedures to ensure that they are current?<\/li><\/ul>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203040\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.006 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.009 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 87\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 92\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:4269-0!*!0!!en!*!* and timestamp 20190403203040 and revision id 10947\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","696695ca2ef0d0aa853c4e3efba250c4_images":[],"696695ca2ef0d0aa853c4e3efba250c4_timestamp":1554323440,"fe02b08755967e133508d460928f12c2_type":"article","fe02b08755967e133508d460928f12c2_title":"21 CFR Part 11: Audit guidelines and checklist","fe02b08755967e133508d460928f12c2_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist","fe02b08755967e133508d460928f12c2_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t21 CFR Part 11\/Audit guidelines and checklist\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThe following guidelines and checklist items provide a frame of reference for vendors and auditors to better determine potential compliance issues with Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations Part 11 and a variety of other regulatory guidelines.\nAll items in the checklist for general IT controls should also be checked for individual systems, especially where those systems use different control measures (e.g., they have an independent authentication system).\nIf this checklist is used by software vendors, then certain elements may or may not apply depending on the circumstances. For instance, validation is technically the responsibility of the entity acquiring the software. However, in the case of SaaS, a greater practical responsibility to validate the system may lie with the vendor. In all cases, the vendor should assume responsibility for ensuring that their software operates as intended within the targeted environments. Failure to do so may result in a lack of willingness of potential customers to obtain the system.\nReferences will be provided for each checklist item to indicate where the requirement comes from. These references are either to the regulation itself, Agency responses in the Final Rule, or from the guidance document \"General Principles of Software Validation; Final Guidance for Industry and FDA Staff\" (GPSV).\n\nContents\n\n1 General IT \n\n1.1 Computer Systems Validation - 21 CFR 11.10(a) \n1.2 Identity Management Systems \n1.3 Access Controls \n1.4 Cloud Computing Policies[3] \n1.5 Training and Personnel \n1.6 Change Control Systems \n1.7 Electronic Signature Certification \n1.8 Records Retention Policy \n\n\n2 System Specific \n\n2.1 Fraud Detection \n2.2 Audit Trails \n2.3 Access Controls \n2.4 Open Systems Controls[4] \n2.5 Electronic Signatures \n2.6 Export of Records for Agency Review \n2.7 Records Retention Support \n2.8 Process Controls \n\n\n3 Reference material \n\n3.1 21 CFR Part 11 \n3.2 General Principles of Software Validation \n3.3 Others \n\n\n4 References and footnotes \n\n\n\nGeneral IT \nFollowing is a list of questions that either apply to the larger IT environment, or to both the larger environment and to individual systems. The auditor must be sure to evaluate both where necessary. For instance, an organization may have a robust password policy which is managed by a centralized identity management tool. This is important evaluate in terms of general security around the systems in scope. At the same time, the specific system may or may not leverage the corporate IDM and thus it\u2019s identity management should be evaluated on its own merits.\n\nComputer Systems Validation - 21 CFR 11.10(a) \nDoes a defined computer system validation policy exist? - 21 CFR 11.10(a)\nAre all computer systems involved in activities covered by predicate regulations validated? - 21 CFR 11.10(a), 21 CFR 211.68(b), 21 CFR 820.30(g)\nDoes the computer system validation cover the current deployed version of the system? - GPSV 4.7\nValidation Assessment\nDoes the software developer have a defined systems development life-cycle (SDLC)? - GPSV 4.4\nDoes the SDLC reflect a generally recognized life cycle approach? [1]\nIs the SDLC followed? - GPSV 4.4\nIs the software well documented from a design\/development\/implementation perspective? - GPSV 3.3\nIs there evidence of design review activities (what this entails will depend on the nature of the SDLC - for instance, Agile methodologies will involve daily standup meetings,while a waterfall approach may reflect formal design review steps)? - GPSV 3.5\nDoes the level of validation coverage reflect the risk from system failure? - GPSV 6.1\nIs there sufficient level of independence in the validation\/verification activities? - GPSV 4.9\nAre sufficient resources and personnel provided for software development and validation? - 21 CFR 211.25(c), 21 CFR 820.25(a)\nAre records maintained of defects and failures identified in the development process? - GPSV 5.2.6\nFor any software system, is there a set of approved requirements which drove the design (note: the name can vary based on the SDLC in use). - GPSV 6.1\nFor iterative development approaches, are previous versions of deliverables (such as requirements lists) archived in some fashion? - GPSV 5.2.1\nIs there an audit trail for modifications to system documentation? - 21 CFR 11.10(k)(2)\nFor commercial off-the-shelf (COTS), has the vendor been evaluated for its quality systems? - GPSV 6.3\nIs there some form of traceability that permits tracking of test results and verification activities to specific requirements? - GPSV 5.2.2\nAre adequate change control systems in place during the development and implementation processes? GPSV 3.3\nFor each of the other elements of this checklist that apply directly to an electronic record system, has appropriate validation work been undertaken to establish that the system complies with the checklist item?\nIdentity Management Systems \nDo any identity management systems have minimum password complexity\/strength requirements? Do these minimums seem reasonable? - 21 CFR Part 11 Final Rule Section 130\nDo these id systems have policies regarding password change frequency? - 21 CFR 11.300(b)\nDo identity management systems prevent the creation of duplicate user ID\u2019s? [2]\nAccess Controls \nDo formal procedures exist governing user account creation for electronic records systems.\nDo formal procedures exist governing access to network and server resources that are used to operate electronic records systems?\nCloud Computing Policies[3] \nAre policies in place governing the selection and use of cloud vendors for electronic record systems?\nDo these policies include Service Level Agreements(SLA's) regarding such things as up time, and support responsiveness?\nAre cloud vendors evaluated for security and compliance with appropriate regulations?\nDo policies governing record retention specifically apply to cloud vendors?\nAre systems for transmitting electronic records configured to do so in a secure manner? 21 CFR 11.30\nTraining and Personnel \nIs an organizational chart available covering personnel involved in the design, development, administration or use of electronic records systems?\nAre job descriptions available for these individuals, indicating their specific responsibilities regarding electronic record systems?\nIs there a defined training program around authentication practices? Electronic signatures?21 CFR 11.10(i)\nAre system administrators and developers trained in Part 11 and related regulations? 21 CFR 11.10(i)\nAre users trained on the use of electronic records systems? 21 CFR 11.10(i)\nChange Control Systems \nIs there a formal change control system for modifications to the production electronic records system? GPSV 5.2.7\nDoes the change control system require an assessment of impact, risk, and require authorization before proceeding? GPSV 6.1\nIs there a configuration management system in place such that the contents of each version of released software is archived and readily identifiable? GPSV 5.2.1\nIs there a formal change control system for changes to requirements and design elements of the system during the development process? GPSV 3.3\nDo change control systems in use require appropriate approvals as governed by the SDLC model in use?\nElectronic Signature Certification \nIf the organization is using electronic signatures, have they filed a certification with the FDA indicating so? 21 CFR 11.100(c)\nRecords Retention Policy \n Does the organization have a records retention policy covering records per the predicate regulations? 21 CFR 11.10(c)\nSystem Specific \nFraud Detection \n Is the system designed to either prevent record alteration or make such alteration apparent? 21 CFR 11.10(a)\nAudit Trails \nDoes the system maintain an audit trail that tracks changes to electronic records? 21 CFR 11.10(e)\nAre the audit trail records time stamped? 21 CFR 11.10(e)\nAre the audit trail records system generated, such that human intervention is not required? 21 CFR 11.10(e)\nAre audit trail records secured such that they cannot be modified by users of the system? 21 CFR 11.10(e)\nIs the audit trail data available for export (printing or electronic) to support agency review? 21 CFR 11.10(e)\nAccess Controls \nDoes the identity management systems have minimum password complexity\/strength requirements? Do these minimums seem reasonable? 21 CFR Part 11 Final Rule Section 130\nDo these id systems have policies regarding password change frequency? 21 CFR 11.300(b)\nDo identity management systems prevent the creation of duplicate user ID\u2019s?\nOpen Systems Controls[4] \nAre records transmitted by the system sent in a secure manner, such that their authenticity, integrity and confidentiality are ensured? 21 CFR 11.30\nIs access to the system appropriately managed to prevent unauthorized external access?\nHas the system been evaluated for susceptibility to intrusion?\nIs there a system in place to evaluate current IT security threats that have been identified (by the National Cyber Awareness System via NIST, or other appropriate organization)?\nElectronic Signatures \nIs the electronic signature system engineered in such a way as to ensure that the signatures cannot be attached to other records, or cannot be removed from the records they are attached to? - 21 CFR 11.70\nIs the system engineered such that in order to apply someone else\u2019s signature to a file that collaboration is required between two or more individuals? (this is largely covered by the identity management controls). - 21 CFR 11.200(a)(3)\nIf a signature event only requires one signature element, is it only in the case of being part of a continuous period of system access? - 21 CFR 11.200(a)(1)(i)\nAre their suitable loss management procedures in place to address compromised passwords, or lost\/stolen authentication devices (such as RSA ID tokens)? - 21 CFR 11.300(c)\nIs the system designed to alert security and\/or management in the event of an apparent attempt at unauthorized use of electronic signatures? Does the system automatically take steps to lock out users associated with these attempts? - 21 CFR 11.300(d)\nIs there a system for the periodic testing of tokens and cards to ensure that they are still operating as expected and have not been altered? If not, is there something in the nature of the tokens\/cards that would render them unusable should alteration be attempted? - 21 CFR 11.300(e)\nIs there a password reset method that does not require system administrators to know a user\u2019s password? - 21 CFR Part 11 Final Rule Section 123\nAre user passwords suitably encrypted in any persistent data store, such that elucidating the original password would require extraordinary means?\nAre controls in place to ensure that password reset instructions are sent to the correct individual?\nExport of Records for Agency Review \nDoes the system support exporting records in a format that is readable by the agency? - 21 CFR 11.10(b)\nIf the agency hasn\u2019t been specifically consulted with regard to acceptable formats, does the system support export into common formats such as XML or JSON?\nRecords Retention Support \n Does the system have sufficient controls to ensure that the records stored within it will be available throughout the period specified in the records retention policy? - 21 CFR 11.10(c)\nProcess Controls \nDoes the system have a mechanism to establish differing levels of authority to perform tasks in the system? - 21 CFR 11.10(g)\nDoes the system have a mechanism for preventing steps being taken out of sequence (e.g., signing a record before data has been entered, or releasing a record before the review step was completed)? - 21 CFR 11.10(f)\nReference material \n21 CFR Part 11 \nSubpart A \u2014 General Provisions\n\n\u00a7 11.1 Scope\n\u00a7 11.2 Implementation\n\u00a7 11.3 Definitions\nSubpart B \u2014 Electronic Records\n\n\u00a7 11.10 Controls for closed systems\n\u00a7 11.30 Controls for open systems\n\u00a7 11.50 Signature manifestations\n\u00a7 11.70 Signature\/record linking\nSubpart C \u2014 Electronic Signatures\n\n\u00a7 11.100 General requirements\n\u00a7 11.200 Electronic signature components and controls\n\u00a7 11.300 Controls for identification codes\/passwords\nGeneral Principles of Software Validation \nThe full name of this FDA guidance document is \"General Principles of Software Validation; Final Guidance for Industry and FDA Staff,\" referenced on here as \"GPSV.\"\nSection 1. Purpose\nSection 2. Scope\n\n2.1. Applicability\n2.2. Audience\n2.3. The Least Burdensome Approach\n2.4. Regulatory Requirements for Software Validation\n2.4. Quality System Regulation vs Pre-Market Submissions\nSection 3. Context for Software Validation\n\n3.1. Definitions and Terminology\n3.1.1 Requirements and Specifications\n3.1.2 Verification and Validation\n3.1.3 IQ\/OQ\/PQ<\/dd>\n3.2. Software Development as Part of System Design\n3.3. Software is Different from Hardware\n3.4. Benefits of Software Validation\n3.5 Design Review\nSection 4. Principles of Software Validation\n\n4.1. Requirements\n4.2. Defect Prevention\n4.3. Time and Effort\n4.4. Software Life Cycle\n4.5. Plans\n4.6. Procedures\n4.7. Software Validation After a Change\n4.8. Validation Coverage\n4.9. Independence of Review\n4.10. Flexibility and Responsibility\nSection 5. Activities and Tasks\n\n5.1. Software Life Cycle Activities\n5.2. Typical Tasks Supporting Validation\n5.2.1. Quality Planning\n5.2.2. Requirements\n5.2.3. Design\n5.2.4. Construction or Coding\n5.2.5. Testing by the Software Developer\n5.2.6. User Site Testing\n5.2.7. Maintenance and Software Changes<\/dd>\nSection 6. Validation of Automated Process Equipment and Quality System Software\n\n6.1. How Much Validation Evidence Is Needed?\n6.2. Defined User Requirements\n6.3. Validation of Off-the-Shelf Software and Automated Equipment\nOthers \n 21 CFR Part 211: Current Good Manufacturing Practice for Finished Pharmaceuticals\n 21 CFR Part 820: Quality System Regulation\nReferences and footnotes \n\n\u2191 While the Agency specifically does not recommend an SDLC, and rightfully so, established SDLC approaches become established typically due to the quality of product that comes from them. An SDLC that is either unique or a blend of disparate approaches may merit additional attention on the part of the auditor \n\n\u2191 Although the regulation only specifies that identification codes in combination with passwords must be unique, since passwords are typically stored in encrypted format, there is no practical way to do this outside of ensuring that user ID's are unique \n\n\u2191 In general there was little anticipation when Part 11 was drafted that such a thing as the cloud would come to exist. These checklist items, therefore, are reasonable extensions of requirements for in house systems. \n\n\u2191 The field of IT security has exploded in recent years with a number of high profile breaches. At the time of the writing of Part 11, the internet was much safer in this regard than it is today. The auditor should focus significant effort on security around all systems, but especially open systems. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: LIMSwiki tools\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 22 August 2014, at 16:58.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 37,920 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","fe02b08755967e133508d460928f12c2_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-21_CFR_Part_11_Audit_guidelines_and_checklist skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">21 CFR Part 11\/Audit guidelines and checklist<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><p>The following guidelines and checklist items provide a frame of reference for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Category:Vendors\" title=\"Category:Vendors\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8cfb65763011b9bc454f7b22f586995\">vendors<\/a> and auditors to better determine potential compliance issues with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations Part 11<\/a> and a variety of other regulatory guidelines.\n<\/p><p>All items in the checklist for general IT controls should also be checked for individual systems, especially where those systems use different control measures (e.g., they have an independent authentication system).\n<\/p><p>If this checklist is used by software vendors, then certain elements may or may not apply depending on the circumstances. For instance, validation is technically the responsibility of the entity acquiring the software. However, in the case of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">SaaS<\/a>, a greater practical responsibility to validate the system may lie with the vendor. In all cases, the vendor should assume responsibility for ensuring that their software operates as intended within the targeted environments. Failure to do so may result in a lack of willingness of potential customers to obtain the system.\n<\/p><p>References will be provided for each checklist item to indicate where the requirement comes from. These references are either to the regulation itself, Agency responses in the Final Rule, or from the guidance document \"General Principles of Software Validation; Final Guidance for Industry and FDA Staff\" (GPSV).\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"General_IT\">General IT<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Following is a list of questions that either apply to the larger IT environment, or to both the larger environment and to individual systems. The auditor must be sure to evaluate both where necessary. For instance, an organization may have a robust password policy which is managed by a centralized identity management tool. This is important evaluate in terms of general security around the systems in scope. At the same time, the specific system may or may not leverage the corporate IDM and thus it\u2019s identity management should be evaluated on its own merits.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Computer_Systems_Validation_-_21_CFR_11.10.28a.29\">Computer Systems Validation - 21 CFR 11.10(a)<\/span><\/h4>\n<ul><li>Does a defined computer system validation policy exist? - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(a)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Are all computer systems involved in activities covered by predicate regulations validated? - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(a)<\/a>, <a href=\"#Others\">21 CFR 211.68(b)<\/a>, <a href=\"#Others\">21 CFR 820.30(g)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Does the computer system validation cover the current deployed version of the system? - <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 4.7<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Validation Assessment\n<ul><li>Does the software developer have a defined systems development life-cycle (SDLC)? - <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 4.4<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Does the SDLC reflect a generally recognized life cycle approach? <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Is the SDLC followed? - <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 4.4<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Is the software well documented from a design\/development\/implementation perspective? - <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 3.3<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Is there evidence of design review activities (what this entails will depend on the nature of the SDLC - for instance, Agile methodologies will involve daily standup meetings,while a waterfall approach may reflect formal design review steps)? - <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 3.5<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Does the level of validation coverage reflect the risk from system failure? - <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 6.1<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Is there sufficient level of independence in the validation\/verification activities? - <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 4.9<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Are sufficient resources and personnel provided for software development and validation? - <a href=\"#Others\">21 CFR 211.25(c)<\/a>, <a href=\"#Others\">21 CFR 820.25(a)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Are records maintained of defects and failures identified in the development process? - <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 5.2.6<\/a><\/li>\n<li>For any software system, is there a set of approved requirements which drove the design (note: the name can vary based on the SDLC in use). - <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 6.1<\/a><\/li>\n<li>For iterative development approaches, are previous versions of deliverables (such as requirements lists) archived in some fashion? - <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 5.2.1<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Is there an audit trail for modifications to system documentation? - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(k)(2)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>For commercial off-the-shelf (COTS), has the vendor been evaluated for its quality systems? - <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 6.3<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Is there some form of traceability that permits tracking of test results and verification activities to specific requirements? - <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 5.2.2<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Are adequate change control systems in place during the development and implementation processes? <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 3.3<\/a><\/li>\n<li>For each of the other elements of this checklist that apply directly to an electronic record system, has appropriate validation work been undertaken to establish that the system complies with the checklist item?<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Identity_Management_Systems\">Identity Management Systems<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Do any identity management systems have minimum password complexity\/strength requirements? Do these minimums seem reasonable? - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR Part 11 Final Rule Section 130<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Do these id systems have policies regarding password change frequency? - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.300(b)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Do identity management systems prevent the creation of duplicate user ID\u2019s? <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Access_Controls\">Access Controls<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Do formal procedures exist governing user account creation for electronic records systems.<\/li>\n<li>Do formal procedures exist governing access to network and server resources that are used to operate electronic records systems?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cloud_Computing_Policies.5B3.5D\">Cloud Computing Policies<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Are policies in place governing the selection and use of cloud vendors for electronic record systems?<\/li>\n<li>Do these policies include Service Level Agreements(SLA's) regarding such things as up time, and support responsiveness?<\/li>\n<li>Are cloud vendors evaluated for security and compliance with appropriate regulations?<\/li>\n<li>Do policies governing record retention specifically apply to cloud vendors?<\/li>\n<li>Are systems for transmitting electronic records configured to do so in a secure manner? <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.30<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Training_and_Personnel\">Training and Personnel<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Is an organizational chart available covering personnel involved in the design, development, administration or use of electronic records systems?<\/li>\n<li>Are job descriptions available for these individuals, indicating their specific responsibilities regarding electronic record systems?<\/li>\n<li>Is there a defined training program around authentication practices? Electronic signatures?<a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(i)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Are system administrators and developers trained in Part 11 and related regulations? <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(i)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Are users trained on the use of electronic records systems? <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(i)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Change_Control_Systems\">Change Control Systems<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Is there a formal change control system for modifications to the production electronic records system? <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 5.2.7<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Does the change control system require an assessment of impact, risk, and require authorization before proceeding? <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 6.1<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Is there a configuration management system in place such that the contents of each version of released software is archived and readily identifiable? <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 5.2.1<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Is there a formal change control system for changes to requirements and design elements of the system during the development process? <a href=\"#General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">GPSV 3.3<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Do change control systems in use require appropriate approvals as governed by the SDLC model in use?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Electronic_Signature_Certification\">Electronic Signature Certification<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>If the organization is using electronic signatures, have they filed a certification with the FDA indicating so? <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.100(c)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Records_Retention_Policy\">Records Retention Policy<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li> Does the organization have a records retention policy covering records per the predicate regulations? <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(c)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"System_Specific\">System Specific<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Fraud_Detection\">Fraud Detection<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li> Is the system designed to either prevent record alteration or make such alteration apparent? <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(a)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Audit_Trails\">Audit Trails<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Does the system maintain an audit trail that tracks changes to electronic records? <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(e)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Are the audit trail records time stamped? <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(e)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Are the audit trail records system generated, such that human intervention is not required? <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(e)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Are audit trail records secured such that they cannot be modified by users of the system? <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(e)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Is the audit trail data available for export (printing or electronic) to support agency review? <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(e)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Access_Controls_2\">Access Controls<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Does the identity management systems have minimum password complexity\/strength requirements? Do these minimums seem reasonable? <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR Part 11 Final Rule Section 130<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Do these id systems have policies regarding password change frequency? <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.300(b)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Do identity management systems prevent the creation of duplicate user ID\u2019s?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Open_Systems_Controls.5B4.5D\">Open Systems Controls<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Are records transmitted by the system sent in a secure manner, such that their authenticity, integrity and confidentiality are ensured? <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.30<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Is access to the system appropriately managed to prevent unauthorized external access?<\/li>\n<li>Has the system been evaluated for susceptibility to intrusion?<\/li>\n<li>Is there a system in place to evaluate current IT security threats that have been identified (by the National Cyber Awareness System via NIST, or other appropriate organization)?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Electronic_Signatures\">Electronic Signatures<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Is the electronic signature system engineered in such a way as to ensure that the signatures cannot be attached to other records, or cannot be removed from the records they are attached to? - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.70<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Is the system engineered such that in order to apply someone else\u2019s signature to a file that collaboration is required between two or more individuals? (this is largely covered by the identity management controls). - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.200(a)(3)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>If a signature event only requires one signature element, is it only in the case of being part of a continuous period of system access? - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.200(a)(1)(i)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Are their suitable loss management procedures in place to address compromised passwords, or lost\/stolen authentication devices (such as RSA ID tokens)? - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.300(c)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Is the system designed to alert security and\/or management in the event of an apparent attempt at unauthorized use of electronic signatures? Does the system automatically take steps to lock out users associated with these attempts? - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.300(d)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Is there a system for the periodic testing of tokens and cards to ensure that they are still operating as expected and have not been altered? If not, is there something in the nature of the tokens\/cards that would render them unusable should alteration be attempted? - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.300(e)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Is there a password reset method that does not require system administrators to know a user\u2019s password? - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR Part 11 Final Rule Section 123<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Are user passwords suitably encrypted in any persistent data store, such that elucidating the original password would require extraordinary means?<\/li>\n<li>Are controls in place to ensure that password reset instructions are sent to the correct individual?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_of_Records_for_Agency_Review\">Export of Records for Agency Review<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Does the system support exporting records in a format that is readable by the agency? - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(b)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>If the agency hasn\u2019t been specifically consulted with regard to acceptable formats, does the system support export into common formats such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"fda82e3b4db7e4b2856b016933a1d2d1\">XML<\/a> or ?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Records_Retention_Support\">Records Retention Support<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li> Does the system have sufficient controls to ensure that the records stored within it will be available throughout the period specified in the records retention policy? - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(c)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Process_Controls\">Process Controls<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Does the system have a mechanism to establish differing levels of authority to perform tasks in the system? - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(g)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Does the system have a mechanism for preventing steps being taken out of sequence (e.g., signing a record before data has been entered, or releasing a record before the review step was completed)? - <a href=\"#21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR 11.10(f)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reference_material\">Reference material<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"21_CFR_Part_11\">21 CFR Part 11<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><b>Subpart A \u2014 General Provisions<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 11.1 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.1\" target=\"_blank\">Scope<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.2 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.2\" target=\"_blank\">Implementation<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.3 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.3\" target=\"_blank\">Definitions<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Subpart B \u2014 Electronic Records<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 11.10 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.10\" target=\"_blank\">Controls for closed systems<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.30 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.30\" target=\"_blank\">Controls for open systems<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.50 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.50\" target=\"_blank\">Signature manifestations<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.70 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.70\" target=\"_blank\">Signature\/record linking<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Subpart C \u2014 Electronic Signatures<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 11.100 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.100\" target=\"_blank\">General requirements<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.200 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.200\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic signature components and controls<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.300 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.300\" target=\"_blank\">Controls for identification codes\/passwords<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"General_Principles_of_Software_Validation\">General Principles of Software Validation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The full name of this FDA guidance document is \"General Principles of Software Validation; Final Guidance for Industry and FDA Staff,\" referenced on here as \"GPSV.\"\n<\/p><p><b><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/guidancedocuments\/ucm085281.htm#_Toc517237928\" target=\"_blank\">Section 1. Purpose<\/a><\/b>\n<\/p><p><b><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/guidancedocuments\/ucm085281.htm#_Toc517237929\" target=\"_blank\">Section 2. Scope<\/a><\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>2.1. Applicability<\/dd>\n<dd>2.2. Audience<\/dd>\n<dd>2.3. The Least Burdensome Approach<\/dd>\n<dd>2.4. Regulatory Requirements for Software Validation<\/dd>\n<dd>2.4. Quality System Regulation vs Pre-Market Submissions<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/guidancedocuments\/ucm085281.htm#_Toc517237935\" target=\"_blank\">Section 3. Context for Software Validation<\/a><\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>3.1. Definitions and Terminology\n<dl><dd>3.1.1 Requirements and Specifications<\/dd>\n<dd>3.1.2 Verification and Validation<\/dd>\n<dd>3.1.3 IQ\/OQ\/PQ<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd>\n<dd>3.2. Software Development as Part of System Design<\/dd>\n<dd>3.3. Software is Different from Hardware<\/dd>\n<dd>3.4. Benefits of Software Validation<\/dd>\n<dd>3.5 Design Review<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/guidancedocuments\/ucm085281.htm#_Toc517237944\" target=\"_blank\">Section 4. Principles of Software Validation<\/a><\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>4.1. Requirements<\/dd>\n<dd>4.2. Defect Prevention<\/dd>\n<dd>4.3. Time and Effort<\/dd>\n<dd>4.4. Software Life Cycle<\/dd>\n<dd>4.5. Plans<\/dd>\n<dd>4.6. Procedures<\/dd>\n<dd>4.7. Software Validation After a Change<\/dd>\n<dd>4.8. Validation Coverage<\/dd>\n<dd>4.9. Independence of Review<\/dd>\n<dd>4.10. Flexibility and Responsibility<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/guidancedocuments\/ucm085281.htm#_Toc517237955\" target=\"_blank\">Section 5. Activities and Tasks<\/a><\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>5.1. Software Life Cycle Activities<\/dd>\n<dd>5.2. Typical Tasks Supporting Validation\n<dl><dd>5.2.1. Quality Planning<\/dd>\n<dd>5.2.2. Requirements<\/dd>\n<dd>5.2.3. Design<\/dd>\n<dd>5.2.4. Construction or Coding<\/dd>\n<dd>5.2.5. Testing by the Software Developer<\/dd>\n<dd>5.2.6. User Site Testing<\/dd>\n<dd>5.2.7. Maintenance and Software Changes<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/guidancedocuments\/ucm085281.htm#_Toc517237965\" target=\"_blank\">Section 6. Validation of Automated Process Equipment and Quality System Software<\/a><\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>6.1. How Much Validation Evidence Is Needed?<\/dd>\n<dd>6.2. Defined User Requirements<\/dd>\n<dd>6.3. Validation of Off-the-Shelf Software and Automated Equipment<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Others\">Others<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/cfrsearch.cfm?cfrpart=211\" target=\"_blank\">21 CFR Part 211<\/a>: Current Good Manufacturing Practice for Finished Pharmaceuticals<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/cfrsearch.cfm?cfrpart=820\" target=\"_blank\">21 CFR Part 820<\/a>: Quality System Regulation<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References_and_footnotes\">References and footnotes<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">While the Agency specifically does not recommend an SDLC, and rightfully so, established SDLC approaches become established typically due to the quality of product that comes from them. An SDLC that is either unique or a blend of disparate approaches may merit additional attention on the part of the auditor <\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Although the regulation only specifies that identification codes in combination with passwords must be unique, since passwords are typically stored in encrypted format, there is no practical way to do this outside of ensuring that user ID's are unique<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">In general there was little anticipation when Part 11 was drafted that such a thing as the cloud would come to exist. These checklist items, therefore, are reasonable extensions of requirements for in house systems.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">The field of IT security has exploded in recent years with a number of high profile breaches. At the time of the writing of Part 11, the internet was much safer in this regard than it is today. The auditor should focus significant effort on security around all systems, but especially open systems.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203039\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.027 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.034 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 171\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 402\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 4\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:4183-0!*!0!!en!*!* and timestamp 20190403203039 and revision id 15552\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","fe02b08755967e133508d460928f12c2_images":[],"fe02b08755967e133508d460928f12c2_timestamp":1554323439,"b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_type":"article","b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_title":"Open-source laboratory informatics software","b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)","b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tLaboratory informatics software (open source)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThis page exists as a complement to the category page Category:Laboratory informatics software (open source). Because category pages do not render in the book creator plug-in for this wiki, a separate page has been created to list the contents of the category page. \nLast updated September 1, 2016.\n#\n\n 3D Slicer\n\nA\n\n AdLIMS\n\nB\n\n BASE\n Bika LIMS\n BonsaiLIMS\n\nC\n\n C4G BLIS\n Caisis\n Care2X\n ClearHealth\n ClinCapture\n CyNote\n\nD\n\n Dcm4che2\n Dicoogle\n\nE\n\n ELabFTW\n Electronic Laboratory Notebook (PNNL software)\n Eln\n\nF\n\n Free D Path\n\nG\n\n Galaxy (biomedical software)\n GNomEx\n GNU Health\n GNU LIMS\n\nI\n\n Indigo ELN\n IPath\n ITK\n\nJ\n\n JuliaBase\n Jupyter Notebook\n\nK\n\n KNIME\n\nL\n\n LabKey Server\n LabStoRe\n LabTrove\n LabWiki\n LAMA\n LIIS\n\nM\n\n Mirth Connect\n MISO\n MolabIS\n Ms-lims\n\nO\n\n Open enventory\n Open-LIMS\n OpenBIS\n OpenCDMS\n OpenChrom\n OpenClinic GA\n OpenClinica\n OpenCryobank\n OpenELIS\n OpenEpi\n OpenFreezer\n OpenLabFramework\n OpenMEDIS\n OpenMRS\n OpenSpecimen\n OpenVista\n OsiriX\n\nP\n\n PHYAURA EHR\n PiMS\n ProtLIMS\n\nS\n\n Sample Inventory Program\n SciNote\n SciTran\n Screensaver HTS LIMS\n SeqWare\n Sesame LIMS\n SIGLa\n SMITH\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Open-source software\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 1 September 2016, at 18:57.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 1,543 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Laboratory_informatics_software_open_source skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Laboratory informatics software (open source)<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><p>This page exists as a complement to the category page <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Category:Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)\" title=\"Category:Laboratory informatics software (open source)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f24d9fe179ea3b951d9408c9871baee1\">Category:Laboratory informatics software (open source)<\/a>. Because category pages do not render in the book creator plug-in for this wiki, a separate page has been created to list the contents of the category page. \n<\/p><p><i>Last updated September 1, 2016.<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>#<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/3D_Slicer\" title=\"3D Slicer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43b64a4aa0f08300218472505e53703c\">3D Slicer<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<p><b>A<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/AdLIMS\" title=\"AdLIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c30a0b84ccd0b6928353c5468fb33afb\">AdLIMS<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<p><b>B<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/BASE\" title=\"BASE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36231d20d7206b3d9d0ca18dff0aac02\">BASE<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bika_LIMS\" title=\"Bika LIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"daf3e2e28f594ad55c814ae802d43fcb\">Bika LIMS<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/BonsaiLIMS\" title=\"BonsaiLIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e477f6b8a042bd8703a30ef83dbcd0c9\">BonsaiLIMS<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<p><b>C<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/C4G_BLIS\" title=\"C4G BLIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfa1af20f4a68dc928bd873f549e440e\">C4G BLIS<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Caisis\" title=\"Caisis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1597c89e610cb842765bbe1344aede3\">Caisis<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Care2X\" title=\"Care2X\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ddadc10e3b4b9108af55969fd50561b4\">Care2X<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ClearHealth\" title=\"ClearHealth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e170c2235c416ee8fa82d4976e7094a6\">ClearHealth<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ClinCapture\" title=\"ClinCapture\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"d166929e35cd85f775be9be8add5bd91\">ClinCapture<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/CyNote\" title=\"CyNote\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f072ac75b92c39a6ac301d47def5c236\">CyNote<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<p><b>D<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dcm4che2\" title=\"Dcm4che2\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"093b4f6b4053a3d7cf3def632d84a8b1\">Dcm4che2<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dicoogle\" title=\"Dicoogle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1066cc100606f420708c8df3d05753ef\">Dicoogle<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<p><b>E<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELabFTW\" title=\"ELabFTW\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"155590ac366985a7ee3cf74ade1df84a\">ELabFTW<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_Laboratory_Notebook_(PNNL_software)\" title=\"Electronic Laboratory Notebook (PNNL software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb9abcfcc98ebb44ec11dbbc06df5ffc\">Electronic Laboratory Notebook (PNNL software)<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Eln\" title=\"Eln\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"604b393ff5a85892db8e616d460555b8\">Eln<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<p><b>F<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Free_D_Path\" title=\"Free D Path\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"688214f35c81a5abeeae67334f040544\">Free D Path<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<p><b>G<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Galaxy_(biomedical_software)\" title=\"Galaxy (biomedical software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ead5d6ebaa8d67744d2f68d454d89ce6\">Galaxy (biomedical software)<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/GNomEx\" title=\"GNomEx\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ffe2672873462be87660d574029bf8b2\">GNomEx<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/GNU_Health\" title=\"GNU Health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f7172a563b254c7b34c3805b4a845e7\">GNU Health<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/GNU_LIMS\" title=\"GNU LIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98c7163d23fcaef02b49ee28e8fc27c6\">GNU LIMS<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<p><b>I<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Indigo_ELN\" title=\"Indigo ELN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d95c86e43cf8c5a9596375526b635fa4\">Indigo ELN<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/IPath\" title=\"IPath\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8175744e54125ba35b7a4e55b5d88e12\">IPath<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ITK\" title=\"ITK\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8287ad289a65c7f1c8c70694639f0688\">ITK<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<p><b>J<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/JuliaBase\" title=\"JuliaBase\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"614d5a2fe0ad270b2728d542b247d1f9\">JuliaBase<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Jupyter_Notebook\" title=\"Jupyter Notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26fd35430c10e009a142bbab5dbf617a\">Jupyter Notebook<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<p><b>K<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/KNIME\" title=\"KNIME\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18360a3b4b22798e231d7b26365dff87\">KNIME<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<p><b>L<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabKey_Server\" title=\"LabKey Server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"856c6fe009646beaaed7ecd21dda4932\">LabKey Server<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabStoRe\" title=\"LabStoRe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ba8165ff73389f2ea3bbdd241ec0f8d\">LabStoRe<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabTrove\" title=\"LabTrove\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96314c6a72468722216b9af430141606\">LabTrove<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabWiki\" title=\"LabWiki\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf7948f993e7d91807ac9322f2079362\">LabWiki<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LAMA\" title=\"LAMA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e753d33ba23e297ab58d2850fda7f25\">LAMA<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIIS\" title=\"LIIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19c9307c147cfbdab10d293bc878dc45\">LIIS<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<p><b>M<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Mirth_Connect\" title=\"Mirth Connect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b821e3f4be0fa4d0a8240bfd3c677064\">Mirth Connect<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/MISO\" title=\"MISO\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"427c89f41b1bfd4c94e97cb1e4edee6f\">MISO<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/MolabIS\" title=\"MolabIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0682d032afdc26164020c6053144327b\">MolabIS<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Ms-lims\" title=\"Ms-lims\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26754bec3bfbd7c355f969783dfcf33b\">Ms-lims<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<p><b>O<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Open_enventory\" title=\"Open enventory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b3fe1fa2243591293cacf8ab2374f0d\">Open enventory<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Open-LIMS\" title=\"Open-LIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a32e943ce983cd067b7f6208fa9dc3f5\">Open-LIMS<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenBIS\" title=\"OpenBIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bbca2b6be0c273677fc99a9474e49ec\">OpenBIS<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenCDMS\" title=\"OpenCDMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b73c283d36822d1384330623f3cbbeaa\">OpenCDMS<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenChrom\" title=\"OpenChrom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"586c3f92f680ab8c89b40007151a28e7\">OpenChrom<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenClinic_GA\" title=\"OpenClinic GA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3dba47138f97f4a956e9216f3f34b1b1\">OpenClinic GA<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenClinica\" title=\"OpenClinica\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de671e2b0ad26a1a28dcaad120e3fbb4\">OpenClinica<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenCryobank\" title=\"OpenCryobank\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"669b15108d12597d439e4f2edf8b082d\">OpenCryobank<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenELIS\" title=\"OpenELIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b11b00d1e7409d55b58e9f82204cc2a3\">OpenELIS<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenEpi\" title=\"OpenEpi\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be3c1d39780208621bfc6371659c1a49\">OpenEpi<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenFreezer\" title=\"OpenFreezer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5550630a7a7dace565f3debdde1d842a\">OpenFreezer<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenLabFramework\" title=\"OpenLabFramework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1144498854bca66b3ac289f2e0bc51b\">OpenLabFramework<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenMEDIS\" title=\"OpenMEDIS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f9646b13cdb3eca4083e79862955bc8\">OpenMEDIS<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenMRS\" title=\"OpenMRS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bdb797cd304c9ac66336f395c2bb6dbd\">OpenMRS<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenSpecimen\" title=\"OpenSpecimen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ede30d8d1185cde6f70bb12423d3d496\">OpenSpecimen<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OpenVista\" title=\"OpenVista\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"29e262cb8bdfe114e4659cc5b085a16c\">OpenVista<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/OsiriX\" title=\"OsiriX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfde47f22774a57ce8c0c36c5dfabdb8\">OsiriX<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<p><b>P<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/PHYAURA_EHR\" title=\"PHYAURA EHR\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd6f09d228e127e444a276630c8bdd01\">PHYAURA EHR<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/PiMS\" title=\"PiMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa61d8159c6d0a8f4cdeca09d397701f\">PiMS<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ProtLIMS\" title=\"ProtLIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"641860890750f279c3f9e4d7e21a2814\">ProtLIMS<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<p><b>S<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<pre> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Sample_Inventory_Program\" title=\"Sample Inventory Program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ed3e6f3a372108c201a4f634507bb7d\">Sample Inventory Program<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SciNote\" title=\"SciNote\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcafe5e3de96d8ba319b70f089a53ea0\">SciNote<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SciTran\" title=\"SciTran\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8804a105e99334303940aa785c4cd5ea\">SciTran<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Screensaver_HTS_LIMS\" title=\"Screensaver HTS LIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a128655ba7b671764c16eef4beef635e\">Screensaver HTS LIMS<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SeqWare\" title=\"SeqWare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da4ce5a823f703b673f1ef4b38860d9a\">SeqWare<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Sesame_LIMS\" title=\"Sesame LIMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e834d2f189dbbb034ac9aaace88e5190\">Sesame LIMS<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SIGLa\" title=\"SIGLa\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79f61f131c17669ec4b1f7e0e7547e92\">SIGLa<\/a>\n <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SMITH\" title=\"SMITH\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de4e2a9e63484e867d5d844c95afdedf\">SMITH<\/a>\n<\/pre>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203039\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.006 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.009 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 8\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 1\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:7918-0!*!0!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203039 and revision id 27483\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics_software_(open_source)<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_images":[],"b2ae5c9d1c1fbc17f89cfd4c92c2fb6e_timestamp":1554323439,"3c58712bf0810063a7dc09a5a14efc0f_type":"article","3c58712bf0810063a7dc09a5a14efc0f_title":"Laboratory information system (LIS) questionnaire","3c58712bf0810063a7dc09a5a14efc0f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system_(LIS)_questionnaire","3c58712bf0810063a7dc09a5a14efc0f_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tLaboratory information system (LIS) questionnaire\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThe intention of this document is 1. to assist clinical and public health laboratories searching for a laboratory information system (LIS) with identifying their system needs and 2. to help labs better determine if a specific vendor\/product meets their requirements in the form of a request for information (RFI). The idea is to allow users to incorporate a standardized specifications sheet in their comparison of various LIS products.\nThis questionnaire lists the extensive requirements of an LIS. (For a laboratory information management system (LIMS, see the LIMS questionnaire.) The questionnaire is organized such that sections 1.0 through 1.4 the requirements of most any LIS, including special requirements for facilities managing public health, corrections facility, or blood bank data. \nThis questionnaire attempts to be comprehensive and includes many items that do not apply to every lab. Additionally, some laboratories' requirements include a functionality item not common to other labs. The last section, 1.5 \"Custom functions,\" is designed for the vendor to insert any additional functionality that doesn't fall under the categories provided. \nWhen referencing a particular item for someone else, use the section number followed by the requirement letter, e.g. 1.4.2.f for \"The system allows the administrator to create custom screens, applications, and reports.\" \n\nContents\n\n1 Requirement code and notes \n2 Printing or saving \n3 1.0 Vendor information \n4 1.1 Vendor services \n5 1.2 Information technology \n\n5.1 1.2.1 General IT \n5.2 1.2.2 Hardware environment \n5.3 1.2.3 Software environment \n\n\n6 1.3 Regulatory compliance and security \n\n6.1 1.3.1 Regulatory compliance \n6.2 1.3.2 Security \n\n\n7 1.4 General system functions \n\n7.1 1.4.1 General functions \n7.2 1.4.2 Configuration and customization \n7.3 1.4.3 Receiving and scheduling \n7.4 1.4.4 Analysis and data entry \n7.5 1.4.5 Post-analysis and validation \n7.6 1.4.6 Instruments \n7.7 1.4.7 External system interfaces \n7.8 1.4.8 Reporting \n7.9 1.4.9 Laboratory management \n\n\n8 1.5 Custom requirements \n\n\n\nRequirement code and notes \nIn responding to each requirement, the vendor must select a requirement code from the following:\n\n Y: Meets requirement in commercial off-the-shelf solution as delivered\/configured (or vendor provides service)\n YC: Meets requirement only with customization (additional code, using a third-party application, etc.)\n N: Does not meet requirement\n I: Informational response only, N\/A\nThe vendor should ideally enter a requirement code and a response for each functionality question.\n\nPrinting or saving \nThe print\/export options in the navigation on the far left give you a few options for saving this and other pages, printing them for later.\nNote: Tables are currently not being rendered in PDFs as we like through the MediaWiki Collection extension. While we sure would love for you to make a PDF of this document, be warned: the tables don't format as intended, using either the \"Create a book\" or \"Download as PDF\" processes. For now you're best off selecting \"Printable version\" and printing that instead.\n\n1.0 Vendor information \n\n\n\n\n\n\n 1.0 Vendor information\n\n\nCompany name\n\n\n\n\nPhysical address\n\n\n\n\nWebsite\n\n\n\n\nLIMSwiki web page\n\n\n\n\nContact name and title\n\n\n\n\nContact e-mail\n\n\n\n\nContact phone and fax\n\n\n\n\nYears in business\n\n\n\n\n\n1.1 Vendor services \n\n\n\n\n\n\n 1.1 Vendor services\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The vendor offers an online and\/or on-site demonstration.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The vendor provides a detailed project plan that includes the project team, timeline, deliverables, and risk and issue management procedures.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The vendor explains their overall project approach, deliverables, time constraints, and any other criteria for the project.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The vendor provides reliable cost estimates and pricing schedules, including all products and services in the scope of work.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The vendor details the amount of time and staff that the purchaser will have to provide for the implementation process.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The vendor can explain the maintenance and support offered during and after implementation, including times and methods of availability, issue escalation and management, etc.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The vendor provides a support schedule for the implementation process, including optional support levels, their function, and availability.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The vendor provides support during the \"go-live\" period between system validation\/operational deployment and final acceptance\/beginning of maintenance and support agreements.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The vendor provides a gap analysis after initial system installation, identifying the deliverables or tasks remaining.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The vendor provides a table linking each deliverable to the corresponding user requirement specification it fulfills.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The vendor uses a consistent training methodology for educating new users.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The vendor supplies LIS-specific training program curricula.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The vendor provides user, administrator, developer, installation, and reference manuals.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The vendor provides design qualification documentation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The vendor provides installation qualification documentation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The vendor provides operation qualification documentation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The vendor provides performance qualification documentation during implementation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The vendor provides well-documented system upgrades that authorized users can independently install.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The vendor provides source code for the system.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The vendor provides an optional comprehensive set of test codes suitable for use by the purchaser.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.2 Information technology \n\n\n\n1.2.1 General IT \n\n\n\n 1.2.1 General IT\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system operates with a traditional client-server architecture, with software installed on each machine that needs to access the system.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system operates with a web-based interface, hosted on a server and accessed via a web browser on most any machine.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system contains a single, centralized database that supports multiple sites and departments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system's database conforms to the Open Database Connectivity Standard (ODBC).\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system is designed so upgrades to the back-end database do not require extensive reconfiguration or effectively cripple the system.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system is designed to not be impacted by multiple users or failover processes.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system applies security features to all system files.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system applies log-in security to all servers and workstations accessing it.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system provides a workstation and server authentication mechanism.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system applies Secured Socket Layer (SSL) encryption on the web client interface.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system encrypts client passwords in a database, with support for multi-case and special characters.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system uses TCP\/IP as its network transport.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system provides data archiving functionality, including a configurable scheduled archive, for all contained data, without requiring an off-line mode or human interaction with the data to be archived.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system allows automated backup and restore capability without support intervention, as well as manual backups.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system maintains the transactional history of system administrators.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system maintains an analyst communication log, accessible by the administrator.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.2.2 Hardware environment \n\n\n\n 1.2.2 Hardware environment\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system proves compatible with a variety of hardware environments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system can be utilized with a touch-screen.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.2.3 Software environment \n\n\n\n 1.2.3 Software environment\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system proves compatible with a variety of software environments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system utilizes a non-proprietary database such as Oracle or Microsoft SQL Server.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.3 Regulatory compliance and security \n\n\n\n1.3.1 Regulatory compliance \n\n\n\n 1.3.1 Regulatory compliance\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system supports 21 CFR Part 11 and 40 CFR Part 3 requirements, including login security, settable automatic logouts, periodic requirements for mandatory password changes, limits on reusability of passwords, and full electronic signature.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system supports ISO\/IEC 17025 requirements.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system supports HIPAA requirements.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system supports GALP and\/or GAMP standards.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system supports the standards of The NELAC Institute.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system supports AABB (American Association of Blood Banks), College of American Pathologists, (CAP), The Joint Commission (TJC), and\/or any additional requirements or standards.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system meets government requirements for handling classified information and documents.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system can create reports for and route samples to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Food and Drug Administrations (FDA), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and other contract laboratories.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system maintains audit and specification violation trails of all data manipulation \u2014 such as result and header information changes \u2014 as consistent with all applicable regulations and standards.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system maintains audit trails at least as long as the records to which they pertain.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system's audit log retains all data, prohibits any deletions, allows user comments, and allows reporting of contained information.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system provides additional persistent auditing capabilities, such as the audit of cancelled tests and scheduled system functions.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system provides user-selectable NELAP-compliant internal chain of custody that tracks all specimens and associated containers from the time they are collected until disposed of.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system provides the ability to insert\/manage secure electronic and\/or digital signatures.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system incorporates automatic date and time stamping of additions, changes, etc.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system can automatically validate and approve data prior to being moved to the main database.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.3.2 Security \n\n\n\n 1.3.2 Security\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system allows administrators and other authorized users to configure multiple levels of user rights and security by site location, department, group, role, and\/or specific function.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system allows administrators and users to reset user passwords.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system features and enforces adjustable rules concerning password complexity, reuse, and expiration.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system can lock a user out after a specified number of consecutive failed log-in attempts.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system provides the option for automatic user logout based on keyboard or mouse inactivity.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system makes authority checks to ensure only authorized individuals can use the system to perform an operation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system allows authorized users to modify records, while also maintaining an audit trail of such actions.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system allows authorized users to manually delete records, while also maintaining an audit trail of such actions.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system prompts users to declare a reason for making changes to or deleting data in the system.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system provides email notification of lockout, security access, and improper workstation access.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system provides a mechanism to allow a user read-only access to stored data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system allows authorized users to generate a detailed user access record.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system allows authorized users to review audit logs at will.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system allows authorized users to query and print chain of custody for items, cases, projects, and batches.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system allows supervisors to override chain of custody.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system automatically tracks when supervisors review critical result values.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system allows automatic and\/or manual holds or locks to be placed on data to ensure it goes unaltered or remains retrievable during a retention period.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system can first feed data from connected non-CFR-compliant instruments through a virtual environment that is compliant (audit trailed, secure, versioned, etc.) before being stored.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The system can control whether users are able to export data to portable long-term storage media like a USB flash drive or recordable DVD.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The system employs automatic file encryption on stored data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu. The system employs checks to enforce permitted sequencing of steps and events.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nv. The system allows multiple users to connect simultaneously to a contract lab.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nw. The system provides read-only access to contract laboratory results.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx. The system prohibits issuing reports outside of qualified areas while also allowing reports to be viewed locally or remotely based on security application limits and\/or specimen ownership.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4 General system functions \n\n\n\n1.4.1 General functions \n\n\n\n 1.4.1 General functions\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system offers non-LIS trained personnel the ability to easily access system data via an intuitive, user-friendly Windows-type graphical user interface (GUI) which permits the display of data from specimen points, projects, and user-defined queries, and can be configured to language, character set, and time zone needs.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system allows authorized users to configure their GUI to a specific language, character set, and time zone.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system permits remote access for users, system admins, and support agents.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system allows for the use of navigation keys to freely move from field to field.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system allows tabular data to be sorted and filtered.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system can send on-screen output to a printer or file without contradicting view-only statuses.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system provides single data entry, automatically populates other data fields, and remembers pertinent and relevant data so it doesn't need to be re-entered, selected, or searched for.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system eliminates (or significantly reduces) redundant data entry and paper trails.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system contains one or more spell-check dictionaries that allow authorized users to add, edit, or remove entries.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system provides full database keyword and field search capability, including the use of multiple search criteria.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system includes the ability to search multiple databases, including those containing legacy data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system allows users to build, save, and edit queries for future use.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system can automate the search for and extraction of pertinent data, including the export of that data to external applications for additional processing and calculation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system cleanly converts migrated data to allow for reporting of historical specimen collections.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system allows for the specification of a retention period for captured data and can enact it based on date-based fields or a future event.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system can manage and store both sample- and non-sample-related data, including images from microscopes, GCMS scans of peaks, PDF files, spreadsheets, or even raw data files from instrument runs for later processing.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system can manage and store media objects like digital photos, bitmaps, movies, and audio files.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system issues sequential numbers for chain of custody.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The system's numbering scheme allows for sub-numbering while maintaining parent-child relationships.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The system efficiently utilizes standardized data input points and enhanced individual workload tracking.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu. The system captures data from all laboratory processes, ensuring uniformity of statistical reporting and other electronic data shared with designated users of the data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nv. The system can link objects to other objects, e.g. linking a standard operating procedure (SOP) to a test result.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nw. The system notifies users of events like the scheduling, receipt, and completion of tasks.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx. The system includes the ability to set up alerts via email.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ny. The system has real-time messaging capabilities, including instant messaging to one or more users.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nz. The system supports the use of a voice recognition system (for navigation or transcription) or has that functionality.\n\n\n\n\n\n\naa. The system offers integrated or online user help screens.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nab. The system includes clinical trial management tools.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nac. The system can handle patient case management and assignment.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nad. The system provides physician, clinic, and contract lab management tools.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nae. The system provides outreach and call list management tools.\n\n\n\n\n\n\naf. The system supports multi-site, multi-lab, or multi-physician groups.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nag. The system provides disease tracking functionality.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nah. The system monitors turnaround time, from test request to clinician review.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nai. The system is veterinary-compatible.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.2 Configuration and customization \n\n\n\n 1.4.2 Configuration and customization\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system can be configured to meet the workflow of a laboratory without additional programming.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system architecture is modular or extensible and can easily and efficiently be modified to facilitate the addition of new functionality as business needs change.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system has an application programming interface (API) or a similar software development toolkit (SDK). If web-based, the API should support Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP), representational state transfer (REST), or both.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system can expand to accommodate a new discipline.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system supports customized screens with user-definable information specific to a customer, department, analysis, etc.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system allows the administrator to create custom screens, applications, and reports.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system permits users to create templates and worksheets for standardizing analysis pages, patient pages, test ordering pages, and\/or the reporting processes.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system allows a user to independently add fields without requiring reconfiguration of the system, even after routine upgrades and maintenance.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system allows a user to independently add universal fields on all specimens logged into the system at any time during or after implementation, while neither voiding the warranty nor requiring vendor review at a later date.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system provides flexible and customizable mapping dictionaries for interconversion of different standards and more.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system supports the definition and maintenance of edit tables and lists.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system supports customizable test, panel, and profile libraries.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system supports customization of test pick lists based on specialty utilization.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system dynamically changes captions (labels) on system fields.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system has dynamically configurable limit periods and notification hierarchy.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system provides optional configuration choices for correctional facilities.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system provides optional configuration choices for biobanks and blood banks.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system allows for the integration of additional printers and scanners both locally and externally.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.3 Receiving and scheduling \n\n\n\n 1.4.3 Receiving and scheduling\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system tracks status and workflow of the accession throughout the laboratory lifecycle, from submission to final analysis, including receiving, diagnostic testing, diagnostic test result reporting, and billing.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system supports barcoded specimen labeling and tracking.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system allows users to create, manage, and track viewable specimen container schemata.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system creates and maintains a unique electronic accession record for each accession received.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system supports standard-format digital picture and document upload and attachment to electronic accession records.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system supports a user-configurable, spreadsheet-style, templated multi-specimen (batch) login without requiring additional programming.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system features order entry rules for better managing duplicate orders, rejecting inappropriate tests, identifying inappropriate containers, rerouting tests to outside labs, etc.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system supports the modification of specimen or specimen batch information prior to actual multi-specimen (batch) login.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system supports ad-hoc specimens not predefined in the specimen point list during multi-specimen (batch) login.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system creates, saves, and recalls pre-login groups for routine specimens to simplify recurring logins.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system streamlines the login of recurring specimen projects.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system allows standing orders and test schedules to be defined for future orders.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system automatically generates labels for recurring specimens and specimen groups.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system can automatically split and manage orders requiring multiple testing locations.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system can differentiate \"investigation use only\" and \"research use only\" tests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system can automatically generate and manage administrative documents for genetics tests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system allows authorized users to generate user-definable or rules-based chain of custodies, worksheets, routing sheets, and custom labels upon specimen login.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system provides a comprehensive view of all specimens and projects in the system using a color-coded status view of the current and scheduled specimens via user-configurable templates, all without requiring additional programming.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The system includes environmental monitoring (EM) functionality or integrates with an external EM product.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The system prevents a specimen from being placed in a report queue until approved.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu. The system includes comprehensive scheduling, tracking, and flow management of specimens, including across multiple sites.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nv. The system is capable of geographically organizing specimen records and their associated tests for special analysis and reporting.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nw. The system allows authorized users to accept, cancel, re-run, and override attributes of one or multiple tests for a given patient.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx. The system allows authorized users to review the available test types in the system, including their reference range and units of measure.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ny. The system allows multiple diagnosis codes to be attached to an ordered test.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nz. The system has a \"miscellaneous\" test code to allow a test undefined in the system to be ordered and billed.\n\n\n\n\n\n\naa. The system automatically runs medical necessity checks (based on diagnosis codes) on a requested test.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nab. The system automatically makes duplicate order checks and notifies applicable users upon detection.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nac. The system can import and utilize the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services' (CMS') National and Local Coverage Determinations files.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nad. The system can track and manage advance beneficiary notices (ABNs) from CMS as needed.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nae. The system allows authorized users to schedule routine specimens on an hourly, daily, weekly, or monthly basis, allowing them to be enabled and disabled as a group.\n\n\n\n\n\n\naf. The system generates an hourly, daily, weekly, or monthly specimen collection schedule from a scheduling database.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nag. The system schedules and assign tasks based on available inventory and personnel.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nah. The system supports automatic assignment and scheduling of analysis requests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nai. The system receives accession\/analysis request information from web-enabled forms.\n\n\n\n\n\n\naj. The system electronically receives and processes collection and analysis request information and schedules from third parties.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nak. The system can capture and store patient demographics, risk factors, and epidemiology data such as exposure data from third-party test requests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nal. The system has an inter-lab transfer function.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nam. The system processes automated uploading of field-derived specimen collection data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nan. The system allows users to handle billable and non-billable tests on the same accession.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nao. The system supports tracking of shipping and receiving.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.4 Analysis and data entry \n\n\n\n 1.4.4 Analysis and data entry\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system supports a variety of test protocols, each capable of storing test comments, test required, and special information like GCMS conditions or special objects associated with the test.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system provides and enforces normal data range values for diagnostic tests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system includes default input values for diagnostic tests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system provides for a single test code requiring multiple analytes as targets.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system allows authorized users to make a test code inactive across one or more sites while retaining it for audit and reporting purposes.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system limits test code authorization to only qualified personnel and maintains their certification(s) to run assigned tests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system supports and qualifies text-based tests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system supports single-component tests such as pH, BOD, CD, etc.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system allows users to specify a single-component, multi-component, or narrative text test or group of tests, which represent all tests required.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system can effectively manage complex molecular testing protocols.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system can effectively manage genetic testing protocols.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system can effectively manage histology and cytology testing protocols.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system allows for user-definable and procedure-specific protocols for HIV specimens.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system permits user-generated and modifiable calculations (based on a formulaic language) to be applied to all tests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system distinguishes between routine and duplicate analysis.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system provides an overview of all outstanding tests\/analyses for better coordination of work schedules.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system notifies analysts of applicable safety hazards associated with a specimen, reagent, or test before testing begins.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system electronically transfers an item during testing from one functional area to another.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The system's user interface displays visual indicators such as status icons to indicate a specimen's status in the workflow.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The system allows file transfer of data from instruments via intelligent interfaces or multi-specimen\/multi-test ASCII files, with full on-screen review prior to database commitment.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu. The system permits manual data entry into an electronic worksheet of test measurements and results.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nv. The system allows incorrectly inputted data to be manually corrected.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nw. The system prevents out-of-range and other critical results from being posted as final.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx. The system provides colored visual indication of previously entered data as well as new data associated with a single specimen when a result is entered, with the indicator changing color if the value is out of specification.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ny. The system allows automated or semi-automated data insertion.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nz. The system stores non-narrative textual results in searchable fields.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.5 Post-analysis and validation \n\n\n\n 1.4.5 Post-analysis and validation\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system updates specimen\/item status when tests are completed.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system automatically reorders a test or orders additional tests if results don't meet lab-defined criteria, especially when the original specimen is still available.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system can record test results in or map them to the Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine Clinical Terms (SNOMED CT) and\/or Logical Observation Identifiers Names and Codes (LOINC) standards.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system reads results from previously entered tests to calculate a final result and immediately displays the calculated result.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system allows authorized users to review all analytical results, including pricing, spec violations, history or trend analysis by analyte, and comments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system graphically displays the results of one or more tests in a graph (normalized or otherwise) for the purpose of visualizing data or searching for possible trends.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system provides tools for graphical patient and analyte trend plotting.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system allows on-screen review of the stored test result, diluted result with corrected method detection limits (MDLs), and qualifiers after running specimens for multiple dilutions as in gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry (GC-MS).\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system includes data mining tools for model learning, evaluation, and usage.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system displays the standard operating procedure (SOP) associated with each test result to ensure proper techniques were used.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system stores test-related analysis comments with the test.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system provides auto-commenting for common laboratory result comments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system is capable of displaying entered order and test comments as an onscreen alert for testing and other personnel.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system provides for high-volume multi-component transfers of test results, with the ability to automatically match specimens to data files in either a backlog mode or a designated file mode, to parse the data, and to review and commit the specimen data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system's results validation process accesses all information about a specimen or group of specimens, including comments or special information about the specimen.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system's results validation process checks each result against its individual specimen location specifications (both warning and specification limits).\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system supports validation at the analysis and specimen level, while also prohibiting specimen validation when analysis validation is incomplete.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system uses a menu-driven process for results validation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The system provides secure electronic peer review of results.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The system clearly differentiates released preliminary data from fully validated results.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu. The system validates\/approves data prior to being moved to the main database.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nv. The system can hold all test results on a specimen with multiple tests ordered on it until all work is completed and a final report is issued.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nw. The system fully manages all aspects of laboratory quality control, including the reporting and charting of all quality control data captured in the lab.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx. The system provides a base for a quality assurance program, including proficiency testing, scheduled maintenance of equipment, etc.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ny. The system distinguishes QA\/QC duplicates from normal specimens.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nz. The system allows QA\/QC tests to be easily created and associated with the primary analytical test.\n\n\n\n\n\n\naa. The system allows manual entry of QA and QC data not captured as part of the system's regular processes.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nab. The system calculates monthly QA\/QC percentages for testing.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nac. The system automatically flags out-of-range quality control limits.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nad. The system is able to flag results for aspects other than being out-of-range, including testing location, patient age, etc.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nae. The system is able to automatically report any diagnostic test results deemed \"suspect\" or \"positive\" for reportable diseases.\n\n\n\n\n\n\naf. The system checks data files for specification and corrects them for specific reporting and analyte limits and qualifiers like dilution factor, automatically assigning qualifiers based on project analyte limiting.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.6 Instruments \n\n\n\n 1.4.6 Instruments\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system bilaterally interfaces with instruments and related software.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system downloads data directly from laboratory instruments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system permits the defining and exporting of sequences to instruments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system tracks and reports on the usage of attached laboratory instruments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system allows automatic or manual reservation\/scheduling of laboratory instruments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system automatically (or manually allow an authorized user to) removes an instrument from potential use when it falls out of tolerance limit or requires scheduled calibration.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system provides a database of preventative maintenance, calibration, and repair records for laboratory equipment, preferably supported by standardized reporting.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system schedules calibration, verification, and maintenance tasks in the worksheets or work flow process and make that schedule available for viewing.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system allows users to create and edit instrument maintenance profiles.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.7 External system interfaces \n\n\n\n 1.4.7 External system interfaces\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system supports a library of common electronic data deliverable (EDD) formats.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system transfers data to and from another record management system.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system integrates with Microsoft Exchange services.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system imports data from and exports data to Microsoft Word, Excel, and\/or Access.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system can interface with non-Microsoft programs.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system interfaces with external billing systems.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system interfaces with electronic medical record or electronic health record systems.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system interfaces with hospital information systems.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system interfaces with enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system interfaces with external contract or reference laboratories to electronically send or retrieve datasheets, analysis reports, and other related information.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system exchanges data with National Identification System (NAIS) tracking systems.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system generates and exchanges data with other systems using Health Level 7 (HL7) standards.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system leverages the application programming interface (API) of other systems to establish integration between systems.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system provides a real-time interface for viewing live and stored data transactions and errors generated by interfaced instruments and systems.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system transmits status changes of specimens, inventory, equipment, etc. to an external system.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system directs output from ad-hoc queries to a computer file for subsequent analysis by other software.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system supports the manual retransmission of data to interfaced systems.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system supports dockable mobile devices and handle information exchange between them and the system.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The system supports the use of optical character recognition (OCR) software.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.8 Reporting \n\n\n\n 1.4.8 Reporting\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system includes a versatile report writer and forms generator that can generate reports from any data in tables.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system includes a custom graphic generator for forms.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system interfaces with a third-party reporting application.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system allows the development of custom templates for different types of reports.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system maintains template versions and renditions, allowing management and tracking of the template over time.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system generates template letters for semi-annual reports.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system supports report queries by fields\/keys, status, completion, or other variables.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system use Microsoft Office tools for formatting reports.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system supports multiple web browsers for viewing online reports.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system generates, stores, reproduces, and displays laboratory, statistical, and inventory reports on demand, including narrative.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system includes several standard reports and query routines to access all specimens with the pending status through a backlog report that includes the following criteria: all laboratory, department, analysis, submission date, collection date, prep test complete, location, project, specimen delivery group, and other user-selectable options.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system indicates whether a report is preliminary, amended, corrected, or final while retaining revision history.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system supports both structured and synoptic reporting.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system generates management and turn-around time reports and graphs.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system generates customized final reports.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system automatically generates laboratory reports of findings and other written documents.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system automatically generates individual and aggregate workload and productivity reports on all operational and administrative activities.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system automatically generates and transmits exception trails and exception reports for all entered and\/or stored out-of-specification data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The system generates a read-only progress report that allows for printed reports of specimen status and data collected to date.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The system provides an ad-hoc web reporting interface to report on user-selected criteria.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu. The system automatically generates and updates control charts.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nv. The system generates QA\/QC charts for all recovery, precision, and lab control specimens via a full statistics package, including Levy-Jennings plots and Westgard multi-rule.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nw. The system displays history of previous results for an analyte's specimen point in a tabular report, graphic trend chart, and statistical summary.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx. The system automatically generates and posts periodic static summary reports on an internal web server.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ny. The system transmits results in a variety of ways including fax, e-mail, print, and website in formats like RTF, PDF, HTML, XML, DOC, XLS, and TXT.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nz. The system electronically transmits results via final report only when all case reviews have been completed by the case coordinator.\n\n\n\n\n\n\naa. The system includes a rules engine to determine the recipients of reports and other documents based on definable parameters.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nab. The system allows database access using user-friendly report writing and inquiry tools.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nac. The system supports automatic reporting to the state based on state-level health department rules.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nad. The system reports molecular results in both clinical and anatomical pathology environments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nae. The system can produce specialized reports for microbiology, hematology, assay trend, and\/or cardiac risk.\n\n\n\n\n\n\naf. The system can produce epidemiology and antibiogram reports.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nag. The system provides the tools for creating and maintaining licensing, proficiency testing, inspection, and regulatory records and reports.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.9 Laboratory management \n\n\n\n 1.4.9 Laboratory management\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system allows the creation, modification, and duplication of user profiles.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system allows entry, maintenance, and administration of patient records and is able to track multiple patient encounters.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system allows entry, maintenance, and administration of customers, suppliers, and other outside entities.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system allows patients, customers, suppliers, physicians, and other such entities to be flagged as either active or inactive.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system allows the creation, modification, and maintenance of user training records and associated training materials.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system supports the ability to set up separate security, inventory, reporting, etc. profiles across multiple facilities.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system allows the management of information workflow, including notifications for requests and exigencies.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system allows the management of documents like SOPs, MSDS, etc. to better ensure they are current and traceable.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system allows the management and monitoring of resources by analyst, priority, analysis, and instrument.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system allows authorized persons to select and assign tasks by analysts, work group, instrument, test, specimen, and priority.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system allows authorized persons to review unassigned work by discipline and by lab.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system allows authorized persons to review pending work by analyst prior to assigning additional work.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system manages and reports on reference specimens, reagents, and other inventory, including by department.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system automatically warns specified users when inventory counts reach a definable threshold and either prompt for or process a reorder.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system allows authorized users to monitor and report on reference and reagent creation, use, and expiration.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system allows authorized users to search invoice information by invoice number, account number, accession, payment types, client, or requested diagnostic test(s).\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system includes performance assessment tracking.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system receives, records, and maintains customer and employee feedback and applies tools to track the investigation, resolution, and success of any necessary corrective action.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The system includes an incident tracking system for recording, investigating, and managing safety and accident violations in the laboratory.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The system monitors proficiency test assignment, completion, and casework qualification for analytical staff.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu. The system includes revenue management functionality, including medical necessity checks and profitability analysis.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nv. The system provides analysis tools to better support laboratory functions like resource planning, productivity projections, workload distribution, and work scheduling, and those tools display information in a consolidated view, with the ability to drill down to more detailed data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nw. The system calculates administrative and lab costs.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx. The system captures and maintains patient, submitter, supplier, and other client demographics and billing information for costing, invoicing, collecting, reporting, and other billing activities.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ny. The system supports multiple customer payment sources (e.g. grants).\n\n\n\n\n\n\nz. The system supports multi-tiered pricing based on patient type and location.\n\n\n\n\n\n\naa. The system tracks number of visits per specific industry.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.5 Custom requirements \n\n\n\n\n\n\n 1.7 Custom requirements\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system_(LIS)_questionnaire\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system_(LIS)_questionnaire<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 8 January 2016, at 15:44.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 4,976 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","3c58712bf0810063a7dc09a5a14efc0f_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Laboratory_information_system_LIS_questionnaire skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Laboratory information system (LIS) questionnaire<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><p>The intention of this document is 1. to assist clinical and public health laboratories searching for a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information system<\/a> (LIS) with identifying their system needs and 2. to help labs better determine if a specific vendor\/product meets their requirements in the form of a request for information (RFI). The idea is to allow users to incorporate a standardized specifications sheet in their comparison of various LIS products.\n<\/p><p>This questionnaire lists the extensive requirements of an LIS. (For a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS, see the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_and_laboratory_informatics_questionnaire\" title=\"LIMS and laboratory informatics questionnaire\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92ea35489b5bec7b99a0ee92e2071d9f\">LIMS questionnaire<\/a>.) The questionnaire is organized such that sections 1.0 through 1.4 the requirements of most any LIS, including special requirements for facilities managing public health, corrections facility, or blood bank data. \n<\/p><p>This questionnaire attempts to be comprehensive and includes many items that do not apply to every lab. Additionally, some laboratories' requirements include a functionality item not common to other labs. The last section, 1.5 \"Custom functions,\" is designed for the vendor to insert any additional functionality that doesn't fall under the categories provided. \n<\/p><p>When referencing a particular item for someone else, use the section number followed by the requirement letter, e.g. 1.4.2.f for \"The system allows the administrator to create custom screens, applications, and reports.\" \n<\/p>\n\n\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Requirement_code_and_notes\">Requirement code and notes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In responding to each requirement, the vendor must select a requirement code from the following:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> <b>Y<\/b>: Meets requirement in commercial off-the-shelf solution as delivered\/configured (or vendor provides service)<\/li>\n<li> <b>YC<\/b>: Meets requirement only with customization (additional code, using a third-party application, etc.)<\/li>\n<li> <b>N<\/b>: Does not meet requirement<\/li>\n<li> <b>I<\/b>: Informational response only, N\/A<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The vendor should ideally enter a requirement code and a response for each functionality question.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Printing_or_saving\">Printing or saving<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The print\/export options in the navigation on the far left give you a few options for saving this and other pages, printing them for later.\n<\/p><p><b>Note<\/b>: Tables are currently not being rendered in PDFs as we like through the MediaWiki <a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mediawiki.org\/wiki\/Extension:Collection\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">Collection extension<\/a>. While we sure would love for you to make a PDF of this document, be warned: the tables don't format as intended, using either the \"Create a book\" or \"Download as PDF\" processes. For now you're best off selecting \"Printable version\" and printing that instead.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.0_Vendor_information\">1.0 Vendor information<\/span><\/h2>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align:left; padding-left:20px; padding-top:10px; padding-bottom:10px; width:800px;\"> 1.0 <b>Vendor information<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>Company name<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>Physical address<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>Website<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>LIMSwiki web page<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>Contact name and title<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>Contact e-mail<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>Contact phone and fax<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>Years in business<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.1_Vendor_services\">1.1 Vendor services<\/span><\/h2>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"text-align:left; padding-left:20px; padding-top:10px; padding-bottom:10px;\"> 1.1 <b>Vendor services<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The vendor offers an online and\/or on-site demonstration.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The vendor provides a detailed project plan that includes the project team, timeline, deliverables, and risk and issue management procedures.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The vendor explains their overall project approach, deliverables, time constraints, and any other criteria for the project.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The vendor provides reliable cost estimates and pricing schedules, including all products and services in the scope of work.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The vendor details the amount of time and staff that the purchaser will have to provide for the implementation process.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The vendor can explain the maintenance and support offered during and after implementation, including times and methods of availability, issue escalation and management, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The vendor provides a support schedule for the implementation process, including optional support levels, their function, and availability.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The vendor provides support during the \"go-live\" period between system validation\/operational deployment and final acceptance\/beginning of maintenance and support agreements.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The vendor provides a gap analysis after initial system installation, identifying the deliverables or tasks remaining.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The vendor provides a table linking each deliverable to the corresponding user requirement specification it fulfills.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The vendor uses a consistent training methodology for educating new users.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The vendor supplies <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">LIS<\/a>-specific training program curricula.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The vendor provides user, administrator, developer, installation, and reference manuals.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The vendor provides design qualification documentation.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The vendor provides installation qualification documentation.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The vendor provides operation qualification documentation.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The vendor provides performance qualification documentation during implementation.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The vendor provides well-documented system upgrades that authorized users can independently install.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The vendor provides source code for the system.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The vendor provides an optional comprehensive set of test codes suitable for use by the purchaser.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.2_Information_technology\">1.2 Information technology<\/span><\/h2>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.2.1_General_IT\">1.2.1 General IT<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray; text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.2.1 <b>General IT<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system operates with a traditional client-server architecture, with software installed on each machine that needs to access the system.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system operates with a web-based interface, hosted on a server and accessed via a web browser on most any machine.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system contains a single, centralized database that supports multiple sites and departments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system's database conforms to the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ODBC\" title=\"ODBC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58229ca4974143c9d42736a040160be\">Open Database Connectivity Standard<\/a> (ODBC).\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system is designed so upgrades to the back-end database do not require extensive reconfiguration or effectively cripple the system.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system is designed to not be impacted by multiple users or failover processes.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system applies security features to all system files.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system applies log-in security to all servers and workstations accessing it.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system provides a workstation and server authentication mechanism.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system applies Secured Socket Layer (SSL) encryption on the web client interface.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system encrypts client passwords in a database, with support for multi-case and special characters.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system uses TCP\/IP as its network transport.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system provides data archiving functionality, including a configurable scheduled archive, for all contained data, without requiring an off-line mode or human interaction with the data to be archived.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system allows automated backup and restore capability without support intervention, as well as manual backups.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system maintains the transactional history of system administrators.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system maintains an analyst communication log, accessible by the administrator.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.2.2_Hardware_environment\">1.2.2 Hardware environment<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.2.2 <b>Hardware environment<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system proves compatible with a variety of hardware environments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system can be utilized with a touch-screen.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.2.3_Software_environment\">1.2.3 Software environment<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.2.3 <b>Software environment<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system proves compatible with a variety of software environments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system utilizes a non-proprietary database such as Oracle or Microsoft SQL Server.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.3_Regulatory_compliance_and_security\">1.3 Regulatory compliance and security<\/span><\/h2>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.3.1_Regulatory_compliance\">1.3.1 Regulatory compliance<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray; text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.3.1 <b>Regulatory compliance<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system supports <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3\" title=\"40 CFR Part 3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef\">40 CFR Part 3<\/a> requirements, including login security, settable automatic logouts, periodic requirements for mandatory password changes, limits on reusability of passwords, and full electronic signature.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system supports <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a> requirements.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system supports <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/HIPAA\" title=\"HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"70050974d1eda9ff8cf9ecf7e4fcd015\">HIPAA<\/a> requirements.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system supports <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/GALP\" title=\"GALP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"3cf7ba73719b8cde4fd3aab941ab4ec4\">GALP<\/a> and\/or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/GAMP\" title=\"GAMP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"40723aa47b5883d3b009197cc9405ebe\">GAMP<\/a> standards.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system supports the standards of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute\" title=\"The NELAC Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991\">The NELAC Institute<\/a>.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system supports AABB (American Association of Blood Banks), College of American Pathologists, (CAP), The Joint Commission (TJC), and\/or any additional requirements or standards.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system meets government requirements for handling classified information and documents.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system can create reports for and route samples to the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention\" title=\"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"176aa9c9513251c328d864d1e724e814\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<\/a> (CDC), Food and Drug Administrations (FDA), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and other contract laboratories.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system maintains <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0\">audit<\/a> and specification violation trails of all data manipulation \u2014 such as result and header information changes \u2014 as consistent with all applicable regulations and standards.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system maintains audit trails at least as long as the records to which they pertain.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system's audit log retains all data, prohibits any deletions, allows user comments, and allows reporting of contained information.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system provides additional persistent auditing capabilities, such as the audit of cancelled tests and scheduled system functions.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system provides user-selectable <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute\" title=\"The NELAC Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991\">NELAP<\/a>-compliant internal <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chain_of_custody\" title=\"Chain of custody\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ba04fe2bb1c8375e133455821aa3894\">chain of custody<\/a> that tracks all specimens and associated containers from the time they are collected until disposed of.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system provides the ability to insert\/manage secure <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Electronic_signatures\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9945a3e63d7bf8ac8c205e5205dae953\">electronic<\/a> and\/or digital signatures.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system incorporates automatic date and time stamping of additions, changes, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system can automatically validate and approve data prior to being moved to the main database.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.3.2_Security\">1.3.2 Security<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.3.2 <b>Security<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system allows administrators and other authorized users to configure multiple levels of user rights and security by site location, department, group, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">role<\/a>, and\/or specific function.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system allows administrators and users to reset user passwords.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system features and enforces adjustable rules concerning password complexity, reuse, and expiration.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system can lock a user out after a specified number of consecutive failed log-in attempts.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system provides the option for automatic user logout based on keyboard or mouse inactivity.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system makes authority checks to ensure only authorized individuals can use the system to perform an operation.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to modify records, while also maintaining an audit trail of such actions.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to manually delete records, while also maintaining an audit trail of such actions.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system prompts users to declare a reason for making changes to or deleting data in the system.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system provides email notification of lockout, security access, and improper workstation access.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system provides a mechanism to allow a user read-only access to stored data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to generate a detailed user access record.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to review audit logs at will.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to query and print chain of custody for items, cases, projects, and batches.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system allows supervisors to override chain of custody.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system automatically tracks when supervisors review critical result values.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system allows automatic and\/or manual holds or locks to be placed on data to ensure it goes unaltered or remains retrievable during a retention period.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system can first feed data from connected non-CFR-compliant instruments through a virtual environment that is compliant (audit trailed, secure, versioned, etc.) before being stored.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The system can control whether users are able to export data to portable long-term storage media like a USB flash drive or recordable DVD.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The system employs automatic file encryption on stored data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>u.<\/b> The system employs checks to enforce permitted sequencing of steps and events.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>v.<\/b> The system allows multiple users to connect simultaneously to a contract lab.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>w.<\/b> The system provides read-only access to contract laboratory results.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>x.<\/b> The system prohibits issuing reports outside of qualified areas while also allowing reports to be viewed locally or remotely based on security application limits and\/or specimen ownership.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4_General_system_functions\">1.4 General system functions<\/span><\/h2>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.1_General_functions\">1.4.1 General functions<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray; text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.1 <b>General functions<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system offers non-LIS trained personnel the ability to easily access system data via an intuitive, user-friendly Windows-type graphical user interface (GUI) which permits the display of data from specimen points, projects, and user-defined queries, and can be configured to language, character set, and time zone needs.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to configure their GUI to a specific language, character set, and time zone.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system permits remote access for users, system admins, and support agents.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system allows for the use of navigation keys to freely move from field to field.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system allows tabular data to be sorted and filtered.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system can send on-screen output to a printer or file without contradicting view-only statuses.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system provides single data entry, automatically populates other data fields, and remembers pertinent and relevant data so it doesn't need to be re-entered, selected, or searched for.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system eliminates (or significantly reduces) redundant data entry and paper trails.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system contains one or more spell-check dictionaries that allow authorized users to add, edit, or remove entries.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system provides full database keyword and field <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Query_capability\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb1a38e0cbbd5e5711f462bb0fae2226\">search capability<\/a>, including the use of multiple search criteria.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system includes the ability to search multiple databases, including those containing legacy data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system allows users to build, save, and edit queries for future use.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system can automate the search for and extraction of pertinent data, including the export of that data to external applications for additional processing and calculation.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system cleanly converts migrated data to allow for reporting of historical specimen collections.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system allows for the specification of a retention period for captured data and can enact it based on date-based fields or a future event.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system can manage and store both sample- and non-sample-related data, including images from microscopes, GCMS scans of peaks, PDF files, spreadsheets, or even raw data files from instrument runs for later processing.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system can manage and store media objects like digital photos, bitmaps, movies, and audio files.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system issues sequential numbers for chain of custody.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The system's numbering scheme allows for sub-numbering while maintaining parent-child relationships.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The system efficiently utilizes standardized data input points and enhanced individual workload tracking.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>u.<\/b> The system captures data from all laboratory processes, ensuring uniformity of statistical reporting and other electronic data shared with designated users of the data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>v.<\/b> The system can link objects to other objects, e.g. linking a standard operating procedure (SOP) to a test result.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>w.<\/b> The system <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7e85e4aa70013668fcee5950de3afbbb\">notifies users<\/a> of events like the scheduling, receipt, and completion of tasks.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>x.<\/b> The system includes the ability to set up alerts via email.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>y.<\/b> The system has real-time messaging capabilities, including instant messaging to one or more users.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>z.<\/b> The system supports the use of a voice recognition system (for navigation or transcription) or has that functionality.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>aa.<\/b> The system offers integrated or online user help screens.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ab.<\/b> The system includes clinical trial management tools.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ac.<\/b> The system can handle <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Patient_and_case_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f42818d5e7b03ceb7b8662bd6b136dca\">patient case management<\/a> and assignment.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ad.<\/b> The system provides physician, clinic, and contract lab management tools.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ae.<\/b> The system provides outreach and call list management tools.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>af.<\/b> The system supports multi-site, multi-lab, or multi-physician groups.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ag.<\/b> The system provides disease tracking functionality.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ah.<\/b> The system monitors turnaround time, from test request to clinician review.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ai.<\/b> The system is veterinary-compatible.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.2_Configuration_and_customization\">1.4.2 Configuration and customization<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.2 <b>Configuration and customization<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system can be configured to meet the workflow of a laboratory without additional programming.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system architecture is modular or extensible and can easily and efficiently be modified to facilitate the addition of new functionality as business needs change.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system has an application programming interface (API) or a similar software development toolkit (SDK). If web-based, the API should support Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP), representational state transfer (REST), or both.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system can expand to accommodate a new discipline.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system supports <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Customizable_fields_and.2For_interface\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5397760e40a83a6f0597c7850a5838d8\">customized screens<\/a> with user-definable information specific to a customer, department, analysis, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system allows the administrator to create custom screens, applications, and reports.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system permits users to create templates and worksheets for standardizing analysis pages, patient pages, test ordering pages, and\/or the reporting processes.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system allows a user to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Customizable_fields_and.2For_interface\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5397760e40a83a6f0597c7850a5838d8\">independently add fields<\/a> without requiring reconfiguration of the system, even after routine upgrades and maintenance.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system allows a user to independently add universal fields on all specimens logged into the system at any time during or after implementation, while neither voiding the warranty nor requiring vendor review at a later date.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system provides flexible and customizable mapping dictionaries for interconversion of different standards and more.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system supports the definition and maintenance of edit tables and lists.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system supports customizable test, panel, and profile libraries.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system supports customization of test pick lists based on specialty utilization.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system dynamically changes captions (labels) on system fields.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system has dynamically configurable limit periods and notification hierarchy.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system provides optional configuration choices for correctional facilities.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system provides optional configuration choices for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biobank\" title=\"Biobank\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e5f94a2b2036266701220c1fd724bd2\">biobanks<\/a> and blood banks.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system allows for the integration of additional printers and scanners both locally and externally.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.3_Receiving_and_scheduling\">1.4.3 Receiving and scheduling<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.3 <b>Receiving and scheduling<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system tracks status and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflow<\/a> of the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Accessioning_(medical)\" title=\"Accessioning (medical)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3a1f1a5d35fd9152d82893878bf9aa1\">accession<\/a> throughout the laboratory lifecycle, from submission to final analysis, including receiving, diagnostic testing, diagnostic test result reporting, and billing.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system supports <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18070de9d8004d989632cb309a165182\">barcoded specimen<\/a> labeling and tracking.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system allows users to create, manage, and track viewable specimen container schemata.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system creates and maintains a unique electronic accession record for each accession received.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system supports standard-format digital picture and document upload and attachment to electronic accession records.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system supports a user-configurable, spreadsheet-style, templated <i>multi-specimen<\/i> (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Sample_and_result_batching\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91cf0b892718de6ed877053f9441e92f\">batch<\/a>) login without requiring additional programming.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system features order entry rules for better managing duplicate orders, rejecting inappropriate tests, identifying inappropriate containers, rerouting tests to outside labs, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system supports the modification of specimen or specimen batch information prior to actual <i>multi-specimen<\/i> (batch) login.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system supports ad-hoc specimens not predefined in the specimen point list during <i>multi-specimen<\/i> (batch) login.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system creates, saves, and recalls pre-login groups for routine specimens to simplify recurring logins.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system streamlines the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Sample_login_and_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3acb1e2120792bd6073f0b9e2c2b97bb\">login<\/a> of recurring specimen projects.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system allows standing orders and test schedules to be defined for future orders.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system automatically <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Label_support\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f84abbfec738e043e233ba70f9867e75\">generates labels<\/a> for recurring specimens and specimen groups.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system can automatically split and manage orders requiring multiple testing locations.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system can differentiate \"investigation use only\" and \"research use only\" tests.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system can automatically generate and manage administrative documents for genetics tests.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to generate user-definable or rules-based chain of custodies, worksheets, routing sheets, and custom labels upon specimen login.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system provides a comprehensive view of all specimens and projects in the system using a color-coded status view of the current and scheduled specimens via user-configurable templates, all without requiring additional programming.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The system includes <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Environmental_monitoring\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"883e8a5bb181159ff9a63fb769913d26\">environmental monitoring<\/a> (EM) functionality or integrates with an external EM product.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The system prevents a specimen from being placed in a report queue until approved.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>u.<\/b> The system includes comprehensive <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c25ec5bd3625a184d1f2accde264bef\">scheduling<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Sample_tracking\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a520a375d9f36e63b6671710af5d928\">tracking<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e5a749677e03c808d551148f8a56ca8\">flow management<\/a> of specimens, including across multiple sites.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>v.<\/b> The system is capable of geographically organizing specimen records and their associated tests for special analysis and reporting.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>w.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to accept, cancel, re-run, and override attributes of one or multiple tests for a given patient.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>x.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to review the available test types in the system, including their reference range and units of measure.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>y.<\/b> The system allows multiple diagnosis codes to be attached to an ordered test.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>z.<\/b> The system has a \"miscellaneous\" test code to allow a test undefined in the system to be ordered and billed.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>aa.<\/b> The system automatically runs medical necessity checks (based on diagnosis codes) on a requested test.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ab.<\/b> The system automatically makes duplicate order checks and notifies applicable users upon detection.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ac.<\/b> The system can import and utilize the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Medicare_and_Medicaid_Services\" title=\"Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"654b4449e4816e190325b420c264df1a\">Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services<\/a>' (CMS') National and Local Coverage Determinations files.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ad.<\/b> The system can track and manage advance beneficiary notices (ABNs) from CMS as needed.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ae.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to schedule routine specimens on an hourly, daily, weekly, or monthly basis, allowing them to be enabled and disabled as a group.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>af.<\/b> The system generates an hourly, daily, weekly, or monthly specimen collection schedule from a scheduling database.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ag.<\/b> The system schedules and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Project_and.2For_task_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3b9ead965ab8f26163cb562b43e3494\">assign tasks<\/a> based on available inventory and personnel.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ah.<\/b> The system supports automatic assignment and scheduling of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Data_and_trend_analysis\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b53cd61b96525d390e8e857f55feaf59\">analysis requests<\/a>.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ai.<\/b> The system receives accession\/analysis request information from web-enabled forms.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>aj.<\/b> The system electronically receives and processes collection and analysis request information and schedules from third parties.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ak.<\/b> The system can capture and store patient demographics, risk factors, and epidemiology data such as exposure data from third-party test requests.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>al.<\/b> The system has an inter-lab transfer function.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>am.<\/b> The system processes automated uploading of field-derived specimen collection data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>an.<\/b> The system allows users to handle billable and non-billable tests on the same accession.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ao.<\/b> The system supports tracking of shipping and receiving.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.4_Analysis_and_data_entry\">1.4.4 Analysis and data entry<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.4 <b>Analysis and data entry<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system supports a variety of test protocols, each capable of storing test comments, test required, and special information like GCMS conditions or special objects associated with the test.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system provides and enforces normal data range values for diagnostic tests.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system includes default input values for diagnostic tests.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system provides for a single test code requiring multiple analytes as targets.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to make a test code inactive across one or more sites while retaining it for audit and reporting purposes.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system limits test code authorization to only qualified personnel and maintains their certification(s) to run assigned tests.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system supports and qualifies text-based tests.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system supports single-component tests such as pH, BOD, CD, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system allows users to specify a single-component, multi-component, or narrative text test or group of tests, which represent all tests required.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system can effectively manage complex molecular testing protocols.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system can effectively manage genetic testing protocols.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system can effectively manage histology and cytology testing protocols.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system allows for user-definable and procedure-specific protocols for HIV specimens.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system permits user-generated and modifiable calculations (based on a formulaic language) to be applied to all tests.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system distinguishes between routine and duplicate analysis.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system provides an overview of all outstanding tests\/analyses for better coordination of work schedules.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system notifies analysts of applicable safety hazards associated with a specimen, reagent, or test before testing begins.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system electronically transfers an item during testing from one functional area to another.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The system's user interface displays visual indicators such as status icons to indicate a specimen's status in the workflow.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The system allows file transfer of data from instruments via intelligent interfaces or multi-specimen\/multi-test ASCII files, with full on-screen review prior to database commitment.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>u.<\/b> The system permits <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Option_for_manual_result_entry\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a7f5aee53261bcf98c61dbeec72c12\">manual data entry<\/a> into an electronic worksheet of test measurements and results.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>v.<\/b> The system allows incorrectly inputted data to be manually corrected.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>w.<\/b> The system prevents out-of-range and other critical results from being posted as final.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>x.<\/b> The system provides colored visual indication of previously entered data as well as new data associated with a single specimen when a result is entered, with the indicator changing color if the value is out of specification.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>y.<\/b> The system allows automated or semi-automated data insertion.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>z.<\/b> The system stores non-narrative textual results in searchable fields.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.5_Post-analysis_and_validation\">1.4.5 Post-analysis and validation<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.5 <b>Post-analysis and validation<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system updates specimen\/item status when tests are completed.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system automatically reorders a test or orders additional tests if results don't meet lab-defined criteria, especially when the original specimen is still available.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system can record test results in or map them to the Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine Clinical Terms (SNOMED CT) and\/or Logical Observation Identifiers Names and Codes (LOINC) standards.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system reads results from previously entered tests to calculate a final result and immediately displays the calculated result.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to review all analytical results, including pricing, spec violations, history or trend analysis by analyte, and comments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system graphically displays the results of one or more tests in a graph (normalized or otherwise) for the purpose of visualizing data or searching for possible trends.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system provides tools for graphical patient and analyte trend plotting.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system allows on-screen review of the stored test result, diluted result with corrected method detection limits (MDLs), and qualifiers after running specimens for multiple dilutions as in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Gas_chromatography%E2%80%93mass_spectrometry\" title=\"Gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7fe02050f81fca3ad7a5845b1879ae2\">gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry<\/a> (GC-MS).\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system includes data mining tools for model learning, evaluation, and usage.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system displays the standard operating procedure (SOP) associated with each test result to ensure proper techniques were used.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system stores test-related analysis comments with the test.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system provides auto-commenting for common laboratory result comments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system is capable of displaying entered order and test comments as an onscreen alert for testing and other personnel.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system provides for high-volume multi-component transfers of test results, with the ability to automatically match specimens to data files in either a backlog mode or a designated file mode, to parse the data, and to review and commit the specimen data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system's results <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3fc44e00d7686bffee4879207d83579\">validation process<\/a> accesses all information about a specimen or group of specimens, including comments or special information about the specimen.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system's results validation process checks each result against its individual specimen location specifications (both warning and specification limits).\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system supports validation at the analysis and specimen level, while also prohibiting specimen validation when analysis validation is incomplete.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system uses a menu-driven process for results validation.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The system provides secure electronic peer review of results.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The system clearly differentiates released preliminary data from fully validated results.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>u.<\/b> The system validates\/approves data prior to being moved to the main database.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>v.<\/b> The system can hold all test results on a specimen with multiple tests ordered on it until all work is completed and a final report is issued.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>w.<\/b> The system fully manages all aspects of laboratory <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#QA.2FQC_functions\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47bc2def1727b39e330a321323ca99d0\">quality control<\/a>, including the reporting and charting of all quality control data captured in the lab.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>x.<\/b> The system provides a base for a quality assurance program, including proficiency testing, scheduled maintenance of equipment, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>y.<\/b> The system distinguishes QA\/QC duplicates from normal specimens.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>z.<\/b> The system allows QA\/QC tests to be easily created and associated with the primary analytical test.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>aa.<\/b> The system allows manual entry of QA and QC data not captured as part of the system's regular processes.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ab.<\/b> The system calculates monthly QA\/QC percentages for testing.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ac.<\/b> The system automatically flags out-of-range quality control limits.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ad.<\/b> The system is able to flag results for aspects other than being out-of-range, including testing location, patient age, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ae.<\/b> The system is able to automatically report any diagnostic test results deemed \"suspect\" or \"positive\" for reportable diseases.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>af.<\/b> The system checks data files for specification and corrects them for specific reporting and analyte limits and qualifiers like dilution factor, automatically assigning qualifiers based on project analyte limiting.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.6_Instruments\">1.4.6 Instruments<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.6 <b>Instruments<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system bilaterally <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f2d7a1f94d82fdd1d60f467fb261e9e\">interfaces with instruments<\/a> and related software.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system downloads data directly from laboratory instruments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system permits the defining and exporting of sequences to instruments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system tracks and reports on the usage of attached laboratory instruments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system allows automatic or manual reservation\/scheduling of laboratory instruments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system automatically (or manually allow an authorized user to) removes an instrument from potential use when it falls out of tolerance limit or requires scheduled calibration.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system provides a database of preventative maintenance, calibration, and repair records for laboratory equipment, preferably supported by standardized reporting.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system schedules calibration, verification, and maintenance tasks in the worksheets or work flow process and make that schedule available for viewing.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system allows users to create and edit instrument maintenance profiles.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.7_External_system_interfaces\">1.4.7 External system interfaces<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.7 <b>External system interfaces<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system supports a library of common electronic data deliverable (EDD) formats.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system transfers data to and from another record management system.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Third-party_software_integration\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb1dc74d9133152d97b03713b2bd820f\">integrates<\/a> with Microsoft Exchange services.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Import_data\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"535f0cf2ceda9549666f9dd6b802150e\">imports data<\/a> from and exports data to Microsoft Word, Excel, and\/or Access.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system can interface with non-Microsoft programs.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system interfaces with external billing systems.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system interfaces with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_medical_record\" title=\"Electronic medical record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99a695d2af23397807da0537d29d0be7\">electronic medical record<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_health_record\" title=\"Electronic health record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2e31a73217185bb01389404c1fd5255\">electronic health record<\/a> systems.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system interfaces with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital_information_system\" title=\"Hospital information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8385de7b1f39a39d793f8ce349b448d\">hospital information systems<\/a>.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system interfaces with enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system interfaces with external contract or reference laboratories to electronically send or retrieve datasheets, analysis reports, and other related information.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system exchanges data with National Identification System (NAIS) tracking systems.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system generates and exchanges data with other systems using <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level 7<\/a> (HL7) standards.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system leverages the application programming interface (API) of other systems to establish integration between systems.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system provides a real-time interface for viewing live and stored data transactions and errors generated by interfaced instruments and systems.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system transmits status changes of specimens, inventory, equipment, etc. to an external system.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system directs output from ad-hoc queries to a computer file for subsequent analysis by other software.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system supports the manual retransmission of data to interfaced systems.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system supports <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Mobile_device_integration\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d93d435451df0ad6a0a8acafb14b2fd5\">dockable mobile devices<\/a> and handle information exchange between them and the system.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The system supports the use of optical character recognition (OCR) software.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.8_Reporting\">1.4.8 Reporting<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.8 <b>Reporting<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system includes a versatile report writer and forms generator that can generate reports from any data in tables.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system includes a custom graphic generator for forms.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system interfaces with a third-party reporting application.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system allows the development of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Configurable_templates_and_forms\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb8c6c803e604a9ab62ba09c7f545a8e\">custom templates<\/a> for different types of reports.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system maintains template versions and renditions, allowing management and tracking of the template over time.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system generates template letters for semi-annual reports.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system supports report queries by fields\/keys, status, completion, or other variables.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system use Microsoft Office tools for formatting reports.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system supports multiple web browsers for viewing online reports.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system generates, stores, reproduces, and displays laboratory, statistical, and inventory reports on demand, including narrative.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system includes several standard reports and query routines to access all specimens with the pending status through a backlog report that includes the following criteria: all laboratory, department, analysis, submission date, collection date, prep test complete, location, project, specimen delivery group, and other user-selectable options.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system indicates whether a report is preliminary, amended, corrected, or final while retaining revision history.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system supports both structured and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Synoptic_reporting\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae461418eb0b8cde555298c3c2e74860\">synoptic reporting<\/a>.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system generates management and turn-around time reports and graphs.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system generates customized final reports.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system automatically generates laboratory reports of findings and other written documents.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system automatically generates individual and aggregate workload and productivity reports on all operational and administrative activities.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system automatically generates and transmits exception trails and exception reports for all entered and\/or stored out-of-specification data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The system generates a read-only progress report that allows for printed reports of specimen status and data collected to date.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The system provides an ad-hoc web reporting interface to report on user-selected criteria.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>u.<\/b> The system automatically generates and updates control charts.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>v.<\/b> The system generates QA\/QC charts for all recovery, precision, and lab control specimens via a full statistics package, including Levy-Jennings plots and Westgard multi-rule.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>w.<\/b> The system displays history of previous results for an analyte's specimen point in a tabular report, graphic trend chart, and statistical summary.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>x.<\/b> The system automatically generates and posts periodic static summary reports on an internal web server.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>y.<\/b> The system transmits results in a variety of ways including fax, e-mail, print, and website in formats like RTF, PDF, HTML, XML, DOC, XLS, and TXT.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>z.<\/b> The system electronically transmits results via final report only when all case reviews have been completed by the case coordinator.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>aa.<\/b> The system includes a rules engine to determine the recipients of reports and other documents based on definable parameters.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ab.<\/b> The system allows database access using user-friendly report writing and inquiry tools.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ac.<\/b> The system supports automatic reporting to the state based on state-level health department rules.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ad.<\/b> The system reports molecular results in both clinical and anatomical pathology environments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ae.<\/b> The system can produce specialized reports for microbiology, hematology, assay trend, and\/or cardiac risk.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>af.<\/b> The system can produce epidemiology and antibiogram reports.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ag.<\/b> The system provides the tools for creating and maintaining licensing, proficiency testing, inspection, and regulatory records and reports.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.9_Laboratory_management\">1.4.9 Laboratory management<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.9 <b>Laboratory management<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system allows the creation, modification, and duplication of user profiles.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system allows entry, maintenance, and administration of patient records and is able to track multiple patient encounters.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system allows entry, maintenance, and administration of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Customer.2C_supplier.2C_and_physician_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f7b5291d8f10b9b928c5265886afe1e\">customers<\/a>, suppliers, and other outside entities.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system allows patients, customers, suppliers, physicians, and other such entities to be flagged as either active or inactive.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system allows the creation, modification, and maintenance of user <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Performance_evaluation\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3988e7ddc05a0390f541439565a5cffa\">training records<\/a> and associated training materials.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system supports the ability to set up separate security, inventory, reporting, etc. profiles across multiple facilities.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system allows the management of information workflow, including notifications for requests and exigencies.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system allows the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b1d04112bbc7ff839617189de2a11ea\">management of documents<\/a> like SOPs, MSDS, etc. to better ensure they are current and traceable.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system allows the management and monitoring of resources by analyst, priority, analysis, and instrument.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system allows authorized persons to select and assign tasks by analysts, work group, instrument, test, specimen, and priority.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system allows authorized persons to review unassigned work by discipline and by lab.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system allows authorized persons to review pending work by analyst prior to assigning additional work.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system manages and reports on reference specimens, reagents, and other inventory, including by department.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system automatically warns specified users when <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26e788179e056c8553e0070eff323cb5\">inventory counts<\/a> reach a definable threshold and either prompt for or process a reorder.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to monitor and report on reference and reagent creation, use, and expiration.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to search <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Billing_and_revenue_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85476dde92ee1785c887d20bc9e0f304\">invoice information<\/a> by invoice number, account number, accession, payment types, client, or requested diagnostic test(s).\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system includes <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Performance_evaluation\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3988e7ddc05a0390f541439565a5cffa\">performance assessment<\/a> tracking.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system receives, records, and maintains customer and employee feedback and applies tools to track the investigation, resolution, and success of any necessary corrective action.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The system includes an incident tracking system for recording, investigating, and managing safety and accident violations in the laboratory.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The system monitors proficiency test assignment, completion, and casework qualification for analytical staff.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>u.<\/b> The system includes revenue management functionality, including medical necessity checks and profitability analysis.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>v.<\/b> The system provides analysis tools to better support laboratory functions like resource planning, productivity projections, workload distribution, and work scheduling, and those tools display information in a consolidated view, with the ability to drill down to more detailed data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>w.<\/b> The system calculates administrative and lab costs.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>x.<\/b> The system captures and maintains patient, submitter, supplier, and other client demographics and billing information for costing, invoicing, collecting, reporting, and other billing activities.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>y.<\/b> The system supports multiple customer <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Billing_and_revenue_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85476dde92ee1785c887d20bc9e0f304\">payment sources<\/a> (e.g. grants).\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>z.<\/b> The system supports multi-tiered pricing based on patient type and location.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>aa.<\/b> The system tracks number of visits per specific industry.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.5_Custom_requirements\">1.5 Custom requirements<\/span><\/h2>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"text-align:left; padding-left:20px; padding-top:10px; padding-bottom:10px; width:1300px;\"> 1.7 <b>Custom requirements<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:470px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>a.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>b.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>c.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>d.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>e.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>f.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>g.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>h.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>i.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>h.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>i.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>j.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/table>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203039\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.074 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.078 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 87\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 92\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:7685-0!*!0!!en!*!* and timestamp 20190403203038 and revision id 23597\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system_(LIS)_questionnaire\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system_(LIS)_questionnaire<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","3c58712bf0810063a7dc09a5a14efc0f_images":[],"3c58712bf0810063a7dc09a5a14efc0f_timestamp":1554323438,"92ea35489b5bec7b99a0ee92e2071d9f_type":"article","92ea35489b5bec7b99a0ee92e2071d9f_title":"Laboratory information management system (LIMS) questionnaire","92ea35489b5bec7b99a0ee92e2071d9f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_and_laboratory_informatics_questionnaire","92ea35489b5bec7b99a0ee92e2071d9f_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tLIMS and laboratory informatics questionnaire\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThe intention of this document is 1. to assist labs searching for a laboratory informatics product with identifying their system needs and 2. to help labs better determine if a specific vendor\/product meets their requirements in the form of a request for information (RFI). The idea is to allow users to incorporate a standardized specifications sheet in their comparison of various LIMS and other laboratory informatics products.\nThis questionnaire lists the extensive requirements of a LIMS as well as other laboratory informatics systems. (See below for more about this.) The questionnaire is organized such that sections 1.0 through 1.4 offer questions applicable to most any laboratory informatics system, be it a LIMS or an ELN. Section 1.5 covers functionality found specifically in software systems other than LIMS. \nThis questionnaire is comprehensive and includes many items that do not apply to every lab. Additionally, some laboratories' requirements include a functionality item not common to other labs. Section 1.6 \"Industry-specific\" contains a selection of those industry-specific requirements and will continue to be amended over time. The last section, 1.7 \"Custom functions,\" is designed for the vendor to insert any additional functionality that doesn't fall under the categories provided.\nWhen referencing a particular item for someone else, use the section number followed by the requirement letter, e.g. 1.4.2.f for \"Does your system allow the administrator to create custom screens, applications, and reports? Please give details.\" \n\nContents\n\n1 More about this questionnaire \n\n1.1 Requirement code and notes \n1.2 Printing or saving \n\n\n2 1.0 Vendor information \n3 1.1 Vendor services \n4 1.2 Information technology \n\n4.1 1.2.1 General IT \n4.2 1.2.2 Hardware environment \n4.3 1.2.3 Software environment \n\n\n5 1.3 Regulatory compliance and security \n\n5.1 1.3.1 Regulatory compliance \n5.2 1.3.2 Security \n\n\n6 1.4 General system functions \n\n6.1 1.4.1 General functions \n6.2 1.4.2 Configuration and customization \n6.3 1.4.3 Receiving and scheduling \n6.4 1.4.4 Analysis and data entry \n6.5 1.4.5 Post-analysis and validation \n6.6 1.4.6 Instruments \n6.7 1.4.7 External system interfaces \n6.8 1.4.8 Reporting \n6.9 1.4.9 Laboratory management \n\n\n7 1.5 System-specific \n8 1.6 Industry-specific \n9 1.7 Custom requirements \n\n\n\nMore about this questionnaire \nAs noted above, this questionnaire was originally designed to cover aspects of a laboratory information management system (LIMS). However, a significant portion of this page if not most of it could easily apply to other laboratory informatics systems like ELNs. As such, we took the approach of adding addenda (as seen in section 1.5 and 1.6) that provide additional requirements unique to other systems and industries. If you're evaluating several industry-neutral LIMS, you likely don't need 1.5 and 1.6.\n\nRequirement code and notes \nIn responding to each requirement, the vendor must select a requirement code from the following:\n\n Y: Meets requirement in commercial off-the-shelf solution as delivered\/configured (or vendor provides service)\n YC: Meets requirement only with customization (additional code, using a third-party application, etc.)\n N: Does not meet requirement\n I: Informational response only, N\/A\nThe vendor should ideally enter a requirement code and a response for each functionality question.\n\nPrinting or saving \nThe print\/export options in the navigation on the far left give you a few options for saving this and other pages, printing them for later.\nNotice you'll have to open 1.5 and 1.6 in separate pages to view, print, and save them.\nNote: Tables are currently not being rendered in PDFs as we like through the MediaWiki Collection extension. While we sure would love for you to make a PDF of this document, be warned: the tables don't format as intended, using either the \"Create a book\" or \"Download as PDF\" processes. For now you're best off selecting \"Printable version\" and printing that instead.\n\n1.0 Vendor information \n\n\n\n\n\n\n 1.0 Vendor information\n\n\nCompany name\n\n\n\n\nPhysical address\n\n\n\n\nWebsite\n\n\n\n\nLIMSwiki web page\n\n\n\n\nContact name and title\n\n\n\n\nContact e-mail\n\n\n\n\nContact phone and fax\n\n\n\n\nYears in business\n\n\n\n\n\n1.1 Vendor services \n\n\n\n\n\n\n 1.1 Vendor services\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The vendor offers an online and\/or on-site demonstration.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The vendor provides a detailed project plan that includes the project team, timeline, deliverables, and risk and issue management procedures.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The vendor explains their overall project approach, deliverables, time constraints, and any other criteria for the project.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The vendor provides reliable cost estimates and pricing schedules, including all products and services in the scope of work.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The vendor details the amount of time and staff that the purchaser will have to provide for the implementation process.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The vendor can explain the maintenance and support offered during and after implementation, including times and methods of availability, issue escalation and management, etc.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The vendor provides a support schedule for the implementation process, including optional support levels, their function, and availability.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The vendor provides support during the \"go-live\" period between system validation\/operational deployment and final acceptance\/beginning of maintenance and support agreements.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The vendor provides a gap analysis after initial system installation, identifying the deliverables or tasks remaining.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The vendor provides a table linking each deliverable to the corresponding user requirement specification it fulfills.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The vendor uses a consistent training methodology for educating new users.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The vendor supplies LIS-specific training program curricula.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The vendor provides user, administrator, developer, installation, and reference manuals.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The vendor provides design qualification documentation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The vendor provides installation qualification documentation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The vendor provides operation qualification documentation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The vendor provides performance qualification documentation during implementation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The vendor provides well-documented system upgrades that authorized users can independently install.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The vendor provides source code for the system.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The vendor provides an optional comprehensive set of test codes suitable for use by the purchaser.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.2 Information technology \n\n\n\n1.2.1 General IT \n\n\n\n 1.2.1 General IT\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system operates with a traditional client-server architecture, with software installed on each machine that needs to access the system.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system operates with a web-based interface, hosted on a server and accessed via a web browser on most any machine.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system contains a single, centralized database that supports multiple sites and departments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system's database conforms to the Open Database Connectivity Standard (ODBC).\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system is designed so upgrades to the back-end database do not require extensive reconfiguration or effectively cripple the system.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system is designed to not be impacted by multiple users or failover processes.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system applies security features to all system files.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system applies log-in security to all servers and workstations accessing it.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system provides a workstation and server authentication mechanism.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system applies Secured Socket Layer (SSL) encryption on the web client interface.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system encrypts client passwords in a database, with support for multi-case and special characters.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system uses TCP\/IP as its network transport.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system provides data archiving functionality, including a configurable scheduled archive, for all contained data, without requiring an off-line mode or human interaction with the data to be archived.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system allows automated backup and restore capability without support intervention, as well as manual backups.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system maintains the transactional history of system administrators.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system maintains an analyst communication log, accessible by the administrator.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.2.2 Hardware environment \n\n\n\n 1.2.2 Hardware environment\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system proves compatible with a variety of hardware environments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system can be utilized with a touch-screen.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.2.3 Software environment \n\n\n\n 1.2.3 Software environment\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system proves compatible with a variety of software environments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system utilizes a non-proprietary database such as Oracle or Microsoft SQL Server.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.3 Regulatory compliance and security \n\n\n\n1.3.1 Regulatory compliance \n\n\n\n 1.3.1 Regulatory compliance\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system supports 21 CFR Part 11 and 40 CFR Part 3 requirements, including login security, settable automatic logouts, periodic requirements for mandatory password changes, limits on reusability of passwords, and full electronic signature.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system supports ISO\/IEC 17025 requirements.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system supports HIPAA requirements.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system supports GALP and\/or GAMP standards.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system supports the standards of The NELAC Institute.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system meets government requirements for handling classified information and documents.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system maintains audit and specification violation trails of all data manipulation \u2014 such as result and header information changes \u2014 as consistent with all applicable regulations and standards.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system maintains audit trails at least as long as the records to which they pertain.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system's audit log retains all data, prohibits any deletions, allows user comments, and allows reporting of contained information.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system provides additional persistent auditing capabilities, such as the audit of cancelled tests and scheduled system functions.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system provides user-selectable NELAP-compliant internal chain of custody that tracks all specimens and associated containers from the time they are collected until disposed of.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system provides the ability to insert\/manage secure electronic and\/or digital signatures.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system incorporates automatic date and time stamping of additions, changes, etc.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system can automatically validate and approve data prior to being moved to the main database.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.3.2 Security \n\n\n\n 1.3.2 Security\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system allows administrators and other authorized users to configure multiple levels of user rights and security by site location, department, group, role, and\/or specific function.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system allows administrators and users to reset user passwords.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system features and enforces adjustable rules concerning password complexity, reuse, and expiration.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system can lock a user out after a specified number of consecutive failed log-in attempts.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. Does your system provide automatic logout based on keyboard or mouse inactivity?\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system provides the option for automatic user logout based on keyboard or mouse inactivity.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system makes authority checks to ensure only authorized individuals can use the system to perform an operation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system allows authorized users to modify records, while also maintaining an audit trail of such actions.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system allows authorized users to manually delete records, while also maintaining an audit trail of such actions.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system prompts users to declare a reason for making changes to or deleting data in the system.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system provides email notification of lockout, security access, and improper workstation access.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system provides a mechanism to allow a user read-only access to stored data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system allows authorized users to generate a detailed user access record.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system allows authorized users to review audit logs at will.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system allows authorized users to query and print chain of custody for items, cases, projects, and batches.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system allows supervisors to override chain of custody.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system automatically tracks when supervisors review critical result values.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system allows automatic and\/or manual holds or locks to be placed on data to ensure it goes unaltered or remains retrievable during a retention period.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system can first feed data from connected non-CFR-compliant instruments through a virtual environment that is compliant (audit trailed, secure, versioned, etc.) before being stored.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The system can control whether users are able to export data to portable long-term storage media like a USB flash drive or recordable DVD.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The system employs automatic file encryption on stored data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu. The system employs checks to enforce permitted sequencing of steps and events.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nv. The system allows multiple users to connect simultaneously to a contract lab.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nw. The system provides read-only access to contract laboratory results.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx. The system prohibits issuing reports outside of qualified areas while also allowing reports to be viewed locally or remotely based on security application limits and\/or specimen ownership.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4 General system functions \n\n\n\n1.4.1 General functions \n\n\n\n 1.4.1 General functions\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system offers non-LIMS trained personnel the ability to easily access system data via an intuitive, user-friendly Windows-type graphical user interface (GUI) which permits the display of data from specimen points, projects, and user-defined queries, and can be configured to language, character set, and time zone needs.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system allows authorized users to configure their GUI to a specific language, character set, and time zone.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system permits remote access for users, system admins, and support agents.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system allows for the use of navigation keys to freely move from field to field.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system allows tabular data to be sorted and filtered.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system can send on-screen output to a printer or file without contradicting view-only statuses.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system provides single data entry, automatically populates other data fields, and remembers pertinent and relevant data so it doesn't need to be re-entered, selected, or searched for.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system eliminates (or significantly reduces) redundant data entry and paper trails.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system contains one or more spell-check dictionaries that allow authorized users to add, edit, or remove entries.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system provides full database keyword and field search capability, including the use of multiple search criteria.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system includes the ability to search multiple databases, including those containing legacy data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system allows users to build, save, and edit queries for future use.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system can automate the search for and extraction of pertinent data, including the export of that data to external applications for additional processing and calculation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system cleanly converts migrated data to allow for reporting of historical specimen collections.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system allows for the specification of a retention period for captured data and can enact it based on date-based fields or a future event.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system can manage and store both sample- and non-sample-related data, including images from microscopes, GCMS scans of peaks, PDF files, spreadsheets, or even raw data files from instrument runs for later processing.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system can manage and store media objects like digital photos, bitmaps, movies, and audio files.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system issues sequential numbers for chain of custody.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The system's numbering scheme allows for sub-numbering while maintaining parent-child relationships.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The system efficiently utilizes standardized data input points and enhanced individual workload tracking.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu. The system captures data from all laboratory processes, ensuring uniformity of statistical reporting and other electronic data shared with designated users of the data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nv. The system can link objects to other objects, e.g. linking a standard operating procedure (SOP) to a test result.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nw. The system notifies users of events like the scheduling, receipt, and completion of tasks.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx. The system includes the ability to set up alerts via email.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ny. The system has real-time messaging capabilities, including instant messaging to one or more users.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nz. The system supports the use of a voice recognition system (for navigation or transcription) or has that functionality.\n\n\n\n\n\n\naa. The system offers integrated or online user help screens.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.2 Configuration and customization \n\n\n\n 1.4.2 Configuration and customization\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system can be configured to meet the workflow of a laboratory without additional programming.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system architecture is modular or extensible and can easily and efficiently be modified to facilitate the addition of new functionality as business needs change.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system has an application programming interface (API) or a similar software development toolkit (SDK). If web-based, the API should support Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP), representational state transfer (REST), or both.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system can expand to accommodate a new discipline.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system supports customized screens with user-definable information specific to a customer, department, analysis, etc.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system allows the administrator to create custom screens, applications, and reports.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system allows a user to independently add fields without requiring reconfiguration of the system, even after routine upgrades and maintenance.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system allows a user to independently add universal fields on all samples logged into the system at any time during or after implementation, while neither voiding the warranty nor requiring vendor review at a later date.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system supports the definition and maintenance of edit tables and lists.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system dynamically changes captions (labels) on system fields.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system has dynamically configurable limit periods and notification hierarchy.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system allows for the integration of additional printers and scanners both locally and externally.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.3 Receiving and scheduling \n\n\n\n 1.4.3 Receiving and scheduling\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system tracks status and workflow of the accession throughout the laboratory lifecycle, from submission to final analysis, including receiving, diagnostic testing, diagnostic test result reporting, and billing.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system supports barcoded specimen labeling and tracking.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system allows users to create, manage, and track viewable sample container schemata.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system creates and maintains a unique electronic accession record for each accession received.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system supports standard-format digital picture and document upload and attachment to electronic accession records.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system supports a user-configurable, spreadsheet-style, templated multi-specimen (batch) login without requiring additional programming.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system supports the modification of specimen or specimen batch information prior to actual multi-sample (batch) login.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system supports ad-hoc specimens not predefined in the specimen point list during multi-sample (batch) login.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system creates, saves, and recalls pre-login groups for routine samples to simplify recurring logins.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system streamlines the login of recurring sample projects.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system automatically generates labels for recurring samples and sample groups.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system allows authorized users to generate user-definable or rules-based chain of custodies, worksheets, routing sheets, and custom labels upon sample login.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system provides a comprehensive view of all samples and projects in the system using a color-coded status view of the current and scheduled samples via user-configurable templates, all without requiring additional programming.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system includes environmental monitoring (EM) functionality or integrates with an external EM product.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system prevents a sample from being placed in a report queue until approved.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system includes comprehensive scheduling, tracking, and flow management of samples, including across multiple sites.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system is capable of geographically organizing sample records and their associated tests for special analysis and reporting.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system allows authorized users to accept, cancel, re-run, and override attributes of one or multiple tests for a given sample.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The system allows authorized users to review the available test types in the system, including their reference range and units of measure.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The system has a \"miscellaneous\" test code to allow a test undefined in the system to be ordered and billed.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu. The system allows authorized users to schedule routine samples on an hourly, daily, weekly, or monthly basis, allowing them to be enabled and disabled as a group.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nv. The system generates an hourly, daily, weekly, or monthly sample collection schedule from a scheduling database.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nw. The system schedules and assign tasks based on available inventory and personnel.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx. The system supports automatic assignment and scheduling of analysis requests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ny. The system receives accession\/analysis request information from web-enabled forms.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nz. The system electronically receives and processes collection and analysis request information and schedules from third parties.\n\n\n\n\n\n\naa. The system has an inter-lab transfer function.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nab. The system processes automated uploading of field-derived sample collection data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nac. The system allows users to handle billable and non-billable tests on the same accession.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nad. The system supports tracking of shipping and receiving.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.4 Analysis and data entry \n\n\n\n 1.4.4 Analysis and data entry\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system supports a variety of test protocols, each capable of storing test comments, test required, and special information like GCMS conditions or special objects associated with the test.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system provides and enforces normal data range values for diagnostic tests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system includes default input values for diagnostic tests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system provides for a single test code requiring multiple analytes as targets.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system allows authorized users to make a test code inactive across one or more sites while retaining it for audit and reporting purposes.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system limits test code authorization to only qualified personnel and maintains their certification(s) to run assigned tests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system supports and qualifies text-based tests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system supports single-component tests such as pH, BOD, CD, etc.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system allows users to specify a single-component, multi-component, or narrative text test or group of tests, which represent all tests required.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system can effectively manage complex molecular testing protocols.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system can effectively manage genetic testing protocols.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system permits user-generated and modifiable calculations (based on a formulaic language) to be applied to all tests.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system distinguishes between routine and duplicate analysis.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system provides an overview of all outstanding tests\/analyses for better coordination of work schedules.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system notifies analysts of applicable safety hazards associated with a sample, reagent, or test before testing begins.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system electronically transfers an item during testing from one functional area to another.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system's user interface displays visual indicators such as status icons to indicate a sample's status in the workflow.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system allows file transfer of data from instruments via intelligent interfaces or multi-specimen\/multi-test ASCII files, with full on-screen review prior to database commitment.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The system permits manual data entry into an electronic worksheet of test measurements and results.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The system allows incorrectly inputted data to be manually corrected.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu. The system prevents out-of-range and other critical results from being posted as final.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nv. The system provides colored visual indication of previously entered data as well as new data associated with a single sample when a result is entered, with the indicator changing color if the value is out of specification.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nw. The system allows automated or semi-automated data insertion.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx. The system stores non-narrative textual results in searchable fields.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.5 Post-analysis and validation \n\n\n\n 1.4.5 Post-analysis and validation\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system updates sample\/item status when tests are completed.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system automatically reorders a test or orders additional tests if results don't meet lab-defined criteria, especially when the original sample is still available.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system reads results from previously entered tests to calculate a final result and immediately displays the calculated result.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system allows authorized users to review all analytical results, including pricing, spec violations, history or trend analysis by analyte, and comments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system graphically displays the results of one or more tests in a graph (normalized or otherwise) for the purpose of visualizing data or searching for possible trends.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system allows on-screen review of the stored test result, diluted result with corrected method detection limits (MDLs), and qualifiers after running samples for multiple dilutions as in gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry (GC-MS).\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system includes data mining tools for model learning, evaluation, and usage.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system displays the standard operating procedure (SOP) associated with each test result to ensure proper techniques were used.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system stores test-related analysis comments with the test.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system provides auto-commenting for common laboratory result comments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system is capable of displaying entered order and test comments as an onscreen alert for testing and other personnel.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system provides for high-volume multi-component transfers of test results, with the ability to automatically match samples to data files in either a backlog mode or a designated file mode, to parse the data, and to review and commit the sample data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system's results validation process accesses all information about a sample or group of samples, including comments or special information about the sample.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system's results validation process checks each result against its individual sample location specifications (both warning and specification limits).\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system supports validation at the analysis and sample level, while also prohibiting sample validation when analysis validation is incomplete.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system uses a menu-driven process for results validation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system provides secure electronic peer review of results.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system clearly differentiates released preliminary data from fully validated results.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The system validates\/approves data prior to being moved to the main database.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The system can hold all test results on a sample with multiple tests ordered on it until all work is completed and a final report is issued.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu. The system fully manages all aspects of laboratory quality control, including the reporting and charting of all quality control data captured in the lab.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nv. The system provides a base for a quality assurance program, including proficiency testing, scheduled maintenance of equipment, etc.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nw. The system distinguishes QA\/QC duplicates from normal samples.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx. The system allows QA\/QC tests to be easily created and associated with the primary analytical test.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ny. The system allows manual entry of QA and QC data not captured as part of the system's regular processes.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nz. The system calculates monthly QA\/QC percentages for testing.\n\n\n\n\n\n\naa. The system automatically flags out-of-range quality control limits.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nab. The system is able to flag results for aspects other than being out-of-range, including testing location, test subject age, etc.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nac. The system checks data files for specification and corrects them for specific reporting and analyte limits and qualifiers like dilution factor, automatically assigning qualifiers based on project analyte limiting.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.6 Instruments \n\n\n\n 1.4.6 Instruments\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system bilaterally interfaces with instruments and related software.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system downloads data directly from laboratory instruments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system permits the defining and exporting of sequences to instruments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system tracks and reports on the usage of attached laboratory instruments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system allows automatic or manual reservation\/scheduling of laboratory instruments.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system automatically (or manually allow an authorized user to) removes an instrument from potential use when it falls out of tolerance limit or requires scheduled calibration.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system provides a database of preventative maintenance, calibration, and repair records for laboratory equipment, preferably supported by standardized reporting.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system schedules calibration, verification, and maintenance tasks in the worksheets or work flow process and make that schedule available for viewing.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system allows users to create and edit instrument maintenance profiles.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.7 External system interfaces \n\n\n\n 1.4.7 External system interfaces\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system supports a library of common electronic data deliverable (EDD) formats.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system transfers data to and from another record management system.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system integrates with Microsoft Exchange services.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system imports data from and exports data to Microsoft Word, Excel, and\/or Access.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system can interface with non-Microsoft programs.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system interfaces with external billing systems.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system interfaces with enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system interfaces with external contract or reference laboratories to electronically send or retrieve datasheets, analysis reports, and other related information.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system exchanges data with National Identification System (NAIS) tracking systems.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system generates and exchanges data with other systems using Health Level 7 (HL7) standards.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system leverages the application programming interface (API) of other systems to establish integration between systems.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system provides a real-time interface for viewing live and stored data transactions and errors generated by interfaced instruments and systems.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system transmits status changes of specimens, inventory, equipment, etc. to an external system.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system directs output from ad-hoc queries to a computer file for subsequent analysis by other software.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system supports the manual retransmission of data to interfaced systems.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system supports dockable mobile devices and handle information exchange between them and the system.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system supports the use of optical character recognition (OCR) software.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.8 Reporting \n\n\n\n 1.4.8 Reporting\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system includes a versatile report writer and forms generator that can generate reports from any data in tables.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system includes a custom graphic generator for forms.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system interfaces with a third-party reporting application.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system allows the development of custom templates for different types of reports.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system maintains template versions and renditions, allowing management and tracking of the template over time.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system generates template letters for semi-annual reports.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system supports report queries by fields\/keys, status, completion, or other variables.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system use Microsoft Office tools for formatting reports.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system supports multiple web browsers for viewing online reports.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system generates, stores, reproduces, and displays laboratory, statistical, and inventory reports on demand, including narrative.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system includes several standard reports and query routines to access all specimens with the pending status through a backlog report that includes the following criteria: all laboratory, department, analysis, submission date, collection date, prep test complete, location, project, specimen delivery group, and other user-selectable options.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system indicates whether a report is preliminary, amended, corrected, or final while retaining revision history.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system supports both structured and synoptic reporting.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system generates management and turn-around time reports and graphs.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system generates customized final reports.\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system automatically generates laboratory reports of findings and other written documents.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system automatically generates individual and aggregate workload and productivity reports on all operational and administrative activities.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system automatically generates and transmits exception trails and exception reports for all entered and\/or stored out-of-specification data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The system generates a read-only progress report that allows for printed reports of specimen status and data collected to date.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The system provides an ad-hoc web reporting interface to report on user-selected criteria.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu. The system automatically generates and updates control charts.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nv. The system generates QA\/QC charts for all recovery, precision, and lab control specimens via a full statistics package, including Levy-Jennings plots and Westgard multi-rule.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nw. The system displays history of previous results for an analyte's specimen point in a tabular report, graphic trend chart, and statistical summary.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx. The system automatically generates and posts periodic static summary reports on an internal web server.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ny. The system transmits results in a variety of ways including fax, e-mail, print, and website in formats like RTF, PDF, HTML, XML, DOC, XLS, and TXT.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nz. The system electronically transmits results via final report only when all case reviews have been completed by the case coordinator.\n\n\n\n\n\n\naa. The system includes a rules engine to determine the recipients of reports and other documents based on definable parameters.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nab. The system allows database access using user-friendly report writing and inquiry tools.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.4.9 Laboratory management \n\n\n\n 1.4.9 Laboratory management\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na. The system allows the creation, modification, and duplication of user profiles.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb. The system allows entry, maintenance, and administration of customers, suppliers, and other outside entities.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc. The system allows customers, suppliers, and other such entities to be flagged as either active or inactive.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd. The system allows the creation, modification, and maintenance of user training records and associated training materials.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne. The system supports the ability to set up separate security, inventory, reporting, etc. profiles across multiple facilities.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf. The system allows the management of information workflow, including notifications for requests and exigencies.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng. The system allows the management of documents like SOPs, MSDS, etc. to better ensure they are current and traceable.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh. The system allows the management and monitoring of resources by analyst, priority, analysis, and instrument.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni. The system allows authorized persons to select and assign tasks by analysts, work group, instrument, test, sample, and priority.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj. The system allows authorized persons to review unassigned work by discipline and by lab.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nk. The system allows authorized persons to review pending work by analyst prior to assigning additional work.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nl. The system manages and reports on reference samples, reagents, and other inventory, including by department.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nm. The system automatically warns specified users when inventory counts reach a definable threshold and either prompt for or process a reorder.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nn. The system allows authorized users to monitor and report on reference and reagent creation, use, and expiration.\n\n\n\n\n\n\no. The system allows authorized users to search invoice information by invoice number, account number, accession, payment types, client, or requested diagnostic test(s).\n\n\n\n\n\n\np. The system includes performance assessment tracking.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nq. The system receives, records, and maintains customer and employee feedback and applies tools to track the investigation, resolution, and success of any necessary corrective action.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nr. The system includes an incident tracking system for recording, investigating, and managing safety and accident violations in the laboratory.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ns. The system monitors proficiency test assignment, completion, and casework qualification for analytical staff.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nt. The system includes revenue management functionality, including profitability analysis.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nu. The system provides analysis tools to better support laboratory functions like resource planning, productivity projections, workload distribution, and work scheduling, and those tools display information in a consolidated view, with the ability to drill down to more detailed data.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nv. The system calculates administrative and lab costs.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nw. The system captures and maintains patient, submitter, supplier, and other client demographics and billing information for costing, invoicing, collecting, reporting, and other billing activities.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx. The system supports multiple customer payment sources (e.g. grants).\n\n\n\n\n\n\ny. The system tracks number of visits per specific industry.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1.5 System-specific \nThe system-specific addendum can be found here.\n\n1.6 Industry-specific \nThe industry-specific addendum can be found here.\n\n1.7 Custom requirements \n\n\n\n\n\n\n 1.7 Custom requirements\n\n\n Request for information\n\n Requirement code\n\n Vendor response\n\n\na.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nb.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nc.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nd.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ne.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nf.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ng.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nh.\n\n\n\n\n\n\ni.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nj.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_and_laboratory_informatics_questionnaire\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_and_laboratory_informatics_questionnaire<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 8 January 2016, at 15:43.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 19,099 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","92ea35489b5bec7b99a0ee92e2071d9f_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-LIMS_and_laboratory_informatics_questionnaire skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LIMS and laboratory informatics questionnaire<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><p>The intention of this document is 1. to assist labs searching for a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> product with identifying their system needs and 2. to help labs better determine if a specific vendor\/product meets their requirements in the form of a request for information (RFI). The idea is to allow users to incorporate a standardized specifications sheet in their comparison of various LIMS and other laboratory informatics products.\n<\/p><p>This questionnaire lists the extensive requirements of a LIMS as well as other <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> systems. (See below for more about this.) The questionnaire is organized such that sections 1.0 through 1.4 offer questions applicable to most any laboratory informatics system, be it a LIMS or an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">ELN<\/a>. Section 1.5 covers functionality found specifically in software systems other than LIMS. \n<\/p><p>This questionnaire is comprehensive and includes many items that do not apply to every lab. Additionally, some laboratories' requirements include a functionality item not common to other labs. Section 1.6 \"Industry-specific\" contains a selection of those industry-specific requirements and will continue to be amended over time. The last section, 1.7 \"Custom functions,\" is designed for the vendor to insert any additional functionality that doesn't fall under the categories provided.\n<\/p><p>When referencing a particular item for someone else, use the section number followed by the requirement letter, e.g. 1.4.2.f for \"Does your system allow the administrator to create custom screens, applications, and reports? Please give details.\" \n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"More_about_this_questionnaire\">More about this questionnaire<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>As noted above, this questionnaire was originally designed to cover aspects of a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS). However, a significant portion of this page if not most of it could easily apply to other laboratory informatics systems like ELNs. As such, we took the approach of adding addenda (as seen in section 1.5 and 1.6) that provide additional requirements unique to other systems and industries. If you're evaluating several industry-neutral LIMS, you likely don't need 1.5 and 1.6.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Requirement_code_and_notes\">Requirement code and notes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In responding to each requirement, the vendor must select a requirement code from the following:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> <b>Y<\/b>: Meets requirement in commercial off-the-shelf solution as delivered\/configured (or vendor provides service)<\/li>\n<li> <b>YC<\/b>: Meets requirement only with customization (additional code, using a third-party application, etc.)<\/li>\n<li> <b>N<\/b>: Does not meet requirement<\/li>\n<li> <b>I<\/b>: Informational response only, N\/A<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The vendor should ideally enter a requirement code and a response for each functionality question.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Printing_or_saving\">Printing or saving<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The print\/export options in the navigation on the far left give you a few options for saving this and other pages, printing them for later.\n<\/p><p>Notice you'll have to open 1.5 and 1.6 in separate pages to view, print, and save them.\n<\/p><p><b>Note<\/b>: Tables are currently not being rendered in PDFs as we like through the MediaWiki <a class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mediawiki.org\/wiki\/Extension:Collection\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">Collection extension<\/a>. While we sure would love for you to make a PDF of this document, be warned: the tables don't format as intended, using either the \"Create a book\" or \"Download as PDF\" processes. For now you're best off selecting \"Printable version\" and printing that instead.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.0_Vendor_information\">1.0 Vendor information<\/span><\/h2>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align:left; padding-left:20px; padding-top:10px; padding-bottom:10px; width:800px;\"> 1.0 <b>Vendor information<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>Company name<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>Physical address<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>Website<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>LIMSwiki web page<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>Contact name and title<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>Contact e-mail<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>Contact phone and fax<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:200px;\"><b>Years in business<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px; width:600px;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.1_Vendor_services\">1.1 Vendor services<\/span><\/h2>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"text-align:left; padding-left:20px; padding-top:10px; padding-bottom:10px;\"> 1.1 <b>Vendor services<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The vendor offers an online and\/or on-site demonstration.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The vendor provides a detailed project plan that includes the project team, timeline, deliverables, and risk and issue management procedures.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The vendor explains their overall project approach, deliverables, time constraints, and any other criteria for the project.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The vendor provides reliable cost estimates and pricing schedules, including all products and services in the scope of work.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The vendor details the amount of time and staff that the purchaser will have to provide for the implementation process.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The vendor can explain the maintenance and support offered during and after implementation, including times and methods of availability, issue escalation and management, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The vendor provides a support schedule for the implementation process, including optional support levels, their function, and availability.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The vendor provides support during the \"go-live\" period between system validation\/operational deployment and final acceptance\/beginning of maintenance and support agreements.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The vendor provides a gap analysis after initial system installation, identifying the deliverables or tasks remaining.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The vendor provides a table linking each deliverable to the corresponding user requirement specification it fulfills.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The vendor uses a consistent training methodology for educating new users.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The vendor supplies <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">LIS<\/a>-specific training program curricula.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The vendor provides user, administrator, developer, installation, and reference manuals.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The vendor provides design qualification documentation.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The vendor provides installation qualification documentation.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The vendor provides operation qualification documentation.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The vendor provides performance qualification documentation during implementation.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The vendor provides well-documented system upgrades that authorized users can independently install.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The vendor provides source code for the system.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The vendor provides an optional comprehensive set of test codes suitable for use by the purchaser.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.2_Information_technology\">1.2 Information technology<\/span><\/h2>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.2.1_General_IT\">1.2.1 General IT<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray; text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.2.1 <b>General IT<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system operates with a traditional client-server architecture, with software installed on each machine that needs to access the system.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system operates with a web-based interface, hosted on a server and accessed via a web browser on most any machine.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system contains a single, centralized database that supports multiple sites and departments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system's database conforms to the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ODBC\" title=\"ODBC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58229ca4974143c9d42736a040160be\">Open Database Connectivity Standard<\/a> (ODBC).\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system is designed so upgrades to the back-end database do not require extensive reconfiguration or effectively cripple the system.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system is designed to not be impacted by multiple users or failover processes.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system applies security features to all system files.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system applies log-in security to all servers and workstations accessing it.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system provides a workstation and server authentication mechanism.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system applies Secured Socket Layer (SSL) encryption on the web client interface.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system encrypts client passwords in a database, with support for multi-case and special characters.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system uses TCP\/IP as its network transport.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system provides data archiving functionality, including a configurable scheduled archive, for all contained data, without requiring an off-line mode or human interaction with the data to be archived.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system allows automated backup and restore capability without support intervention, as well as manual backups.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system maintains the transactional history of system administrators.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system maintains an analyst communication log, accessible by the administrator.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.2.2_Hardware_environment\">1.2.2 Hardware environment<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.2.2 <b>Hardware environment<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system proves compatible with a variety of hardware environments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system can be utilized with a touch-screen.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.2.3_Software_environment\">1.2.3 Software environment<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.2.3 <b>Software environment<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system proves compatible with a variety of software environments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system utilizes a non-proprietary database such as Oracle or Microsoft SQL Server.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.3_Regulatory_compliance_and_security\">1.3 Regulatory compliance and security<\/span><\/h2>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.3.1_Regulatory_compliance\">1.3.1 Regulatory compliance<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray; text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.3.1 <b>Regulatory compliance<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system supports <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3\" title=\"40 CFR Part 3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef\">40 CFR Part 3<\/a> requirements, including login security, settable automatic logouts, periodic requirements for mandatory password changes, limits on reusability of passwords, and full electronic signature.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system supports <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a> requirements.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system supports <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/HIPAA\" title=\"HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"70050974d1eda9ff8cf9ecf7e4fcd015\">HIPAA<\/a> requirements.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system supports <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/GALP\" title=\"GALP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"3cf7ba73719b8cde4fd3aab941ab4ec4\">GALP<\/a> and\/or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/GAMP\" title=\"GAMP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"40723aa47b5883d3b009197cc9405ebe\">GAMP<\/a> standards.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system supports the standards of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute\" title=\"The NELAC Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991\">The NELAC Institute<\/a>.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system meets government requirements for handling classified information and documents.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system maintains <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0\">audit<\/a> and specification violation trails of all data manipulation \u2014 such as result and header information changes \u2014 as consistent with all applicable regulations and standards.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system maintains audit trails at least as long as the records to which they pertain.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system's audit log retains all data, prohibits any deletions, allows user comments, and allows reporting of contained information.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system provides additional persistent auditing capabilities, such as the audit of cancelled tests and scheduled system functions.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system provides user-selectable <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute\" title=\"The NELAC Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991\">NELAP<\/a>-compliant internal <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chain_of_custody\" title=\"Chain of custody\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ba04fe2bb1c8375e133455821aa3894\">chain of custody<\/a> that tracks all specimens and associated containers from the time they are collected until disposed of.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system provides the ability to insert\/manage secure <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Electronic_signatures\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9945a3e63d7bf8ac8c205e5205dae953\">electronic<\/a> and\/or digital signatures.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system incorporates automatic date and time stamping of additions, changes, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system can automatically validate and approve data prior to being moved to the main database.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.3.2_Security\">1.3.2 Security<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.3.2 <b>Security<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system allows administrators and other authorized users to configure multiple levels of user rights and security by site location, department, group, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">role<\/a>, and\/or specific function.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system allows administrators and users to reset user passwords.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system features and enforces adjustable rules concerning password complexity, reuse, and expiration.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system can lock a user out after a specified number of consecutive failed log-in attempts.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> Does your system provide automatic logout based on keyboard or mouse inactivity?\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system provides the option for automatic user logout based on keyboard or mouse inactivity.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system makes authority checks to ensure only authorized individuals can use the system to perform an operation.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to modify records, while also maintaining an audit trail of such actions.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to manually delete records, while also maintaining an audit trail of such actions.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system prompts users to declare a reason for making changes to or deleting data in the system.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system provides email notification of lockout, security access, and improper workstation access.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system provides a mechanism to allow a user read-only access to stored data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to generate a detailed user access record.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to review audit logs at will.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to query and print chain of custody for items, cases, projects, and batches.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system allows supervisors to override chain of custody.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system automatically tracks when supervisors review critical result values.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system allows automatic and\/or manual holds or locks to be placed on data to ensure it goes unaltered or remains retrievable during a retention period.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system can first feed data from connected non-CFR-compliant instruments through a virtual environment that is compliant (audit trailed, secure, versioned, etc.) before being stored.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The system can control whether users are able to export data to portable long-term storage media like a USB flash drive or recordable DVD.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The system employs automatic file encryption on stored data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>u.<\/b> The system employs checks to enforce permitted sequencing of steps and events.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>v.<\/b> The system allows multiple users to connect simultaneously to a contract lab.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>w.<\/b> The system provides read-only access to contract laboratory results.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>x.<\/b> The system prohibits issuing reports outside of qualified areas while also allowing reports to be viewed locally or remotely based on security application limits and\/or specimen ownership.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4_General_system_functions\">1.4 General system functions<\/span><\/h2>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.1_General_functions\">1.4.1 General functions<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray; text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.1 <b>General functions<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system offers non-LIMS trained personnel the ability to easily access system data via an intuitive, user-friendly Windows-type graphical user interface (GUI) which permits the display of data from specimen points, projects, and user-defined queries, and can be configured to language, character set, and time zone needs.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to configure their GUI to a specific language, character set, and time zone.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system permits remote access for users, system admins, and support agents.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system allows for the use of navigation keys to freely move from field to field.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system allows tabular data to be sorted and filtered.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system can send on-screen output to a printer or file without contradicting view-only statuses.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system provides single data entry, automatically populates other data fields, and remembers pertinent and relevant data so it doesn't need to be re-entered, selected, or searched for.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system eliminates (or significantly reduces) redundant data entry and paper trails.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system contains one or more spell-check dictionaries that allow authorized users to add, edit, or remove entries.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system provides full database keyword and field <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Query_capability\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb1a38e0cbbd5e5711f462bb0fae2226\">search capability<\/a>, including the use of multiple search criteria.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system includes the ability to search multiple databases, including those containing legacy data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system allows users to build, save, and edit queries for future use.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system can automate the search for and extraction of pertinent data, including the export of that data to external applications for additional processing and calculation.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system cleanly converts migrated data to allow for reporting of historical specimen collections.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system allows for the specification of a retention period for captured data and can enact it based on date-based fields or a future event.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system can manage and store both sample- and non-sample-related data, including images from microscopes, GCMS scans of peaks, PDF files, spreadsheets, or even raw data files from instrument runs for later processing.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system can manage and store media objects like digital photos, bitmaps, movies, and audio files.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system issues sequential numbers for chain of custody.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The system's numbering scheme allows for sub-numbering while maintaining parent-child relationships.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The system efficiently utilizes standardized data input points and enhanced individual workload tracking.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>u.<\/b> The system captures data from all laboratory processes, ensuring uniformity of statistical reporting and other electronic data shared with designated users of the data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>v.<\/b> The system can link objects to other objects, e.g. linking a standard operating procedure (SOP) to a test result.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>w.<\/b> The system <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2851659b2739ded940b9f4bfd6415cf2\">notifies users<\/a> of events like the scheduling, receipt, and completion of tasks.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>x.<\/b> The system includes the ability to set up alerts via email.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>y.<\/b> The system has real-time messaging capabilities, including instant messaging to one or more users.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>z.<\/b> The system supports the use of a voice recognition system (for navigation or transcription) or has that functionality.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>aa.<\/b> The system offers integrated or online user help screens.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.2_Configuration_and_customization\">1.4.2 Configuration and customization<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.2 <b>Configuration and customization<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system can be configured to meet the workflow of a laboratory without additional programming.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system architecture is modular or extensible and can easily and efficiently be modified to facilitate the addition of new functionality as business needs change.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system has an application programming interface (API) or a similar software development toolkit (SDK). If web-based, the API should support Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP), representational state transfer (REST), or both.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system can expand to accommodate a new discipline.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system supports <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customizable_fields_and.2For_interface\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"541386f8b0249149ca54737c459828d0\">customized screens<\/a> with user-definable information specific to a customer, department, analysis, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system allows the administrator to create custom screens, applications, and reports.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system allows a user to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customizable_fields_and.2For_interface\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"541386f8b0249149ca54737c459828d0\">independently add fields<\/a> without requiring reconfiguration of the system, even after routine upgrades and maintenance.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system allows a user to independently add universal fields on all samples logged into the system at any time during or after implementation, while neither voiding the warranty nor requiring vendor review at a later date.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system supports the definition and maintenance of edit tables and lists.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system dynamically changes captions (labels) on system fields.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system has dynamically configurable limit periods and notification hierarchy.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system allows for the integration of additional printers and scanners both locally and externally.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.3_Receiving_and_scheduling\">1.4.3 Receiving and scheduling<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.3 <b>Receiving and scheduling<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system tracks status and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflow<\/a> of the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Accessioning_(medical)\" title=\"Accessioning (medical)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3a1f1a5d35fd9152d82893878bf9aa1\">accession<\/a> throughout the laboratory lifecycle, from submission to final analysis, including receiving, diagnostic testing, diagnostic test result reporting, and billing.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system supports <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">barcoded specimen<\/a> labeling and tracking.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system allows users to create, manage, and track viewable sample container schemata.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system creates and maintains a unique electronic accession record for each accession received.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system supports standard-format digital picture and document upload and attachment to electronic accession records.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system supports a user-configurable, spreadsheet-style, templated <i>multi-specimen<\/i> (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_and_result_batching\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4616ac6ee0e19b94e4dbaa51df9c799\">batch<\/a>) login without requiring additional programming.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system supports the modification of specimen or specimen batch information prior to actual <i>multi-sample<\/i> (batch) login.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system supports ad-hoc specimens not predefined in the specimen point list during <i>multi-sample<\/i> (batch) login.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system creates, saves, and recalls pre-login groups for routine samples to simplify recurring logins.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system streamlines the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_login_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98071177bc94b23b88297692a3a52005\">login<\/a> of recurring sample projects.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system automatically <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Label_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c45986a47a971ad2357a50e5d5fd8db0\">generates labels<\/a> for recurring samples and sample groups.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to generate user-definable or rules-based chain of custodies, worksheets, routing sheets, and custom labels upon sample login.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system provides a comprehensive view of all samples and projects in the system using a color-coded status view of the current and scheduled samples via user-configurable templates, all without requiring additional programming.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system includes <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Environmental_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"784f7ba1fb87304630630ab73bb57cc6\">environmental monitoring<\/a> (EM) functionality or integrates with an external EM product.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system prevents a sample from being placed in a report queue until approved.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system includes comprehensive <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f358fd26f821c76edf862b7dee946f8\">scheduling<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4622d31a3236faeab999eee2d2493313\">tracking<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"233ebf71073035e741a5acf410dc8242\">flow management<\/a> of samples, including across multiple sites.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system is capable of geographically organizing sample records and their associated tests for special analysis and reporting.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to accept, cancel, re-run, and override attributes of one or multiple tests for a given sample.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to review the available test types in the system, including their reference range and units of measure.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The system has a \"miscellaneous\" test code to allow a test undefined in the system to be ordered and billed.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>u.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to schedule routine samples on an hourly, daily, weekly, or monthly basis, allowing them to be enabled and disabled as a group.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>v.<\/b> The system generates an hourly, daily, weekly, or monthly sample collection schedule from a scheduling database.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>w.<\/b> The system schedules and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Project_and.2For_task_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0b65cad4546629d814bd000b0c6836a\">assign tasks<\/a> based on available inventory and personnel.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>x.<\/b> The system supports automatic assignment and scheduling of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_and_trend_analysis\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1539cd55185863ffbb2284c2b5cc14d5\">analysis requests<\/a>.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>y.<\/b> The system receives accession\/analysis request information from web-enabled forms.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>z.<\/b> The system electronically receives and processes collection and analysis request information and schedules from third parties.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>aa.<\/b> The system has an inter-lab transfer function.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ab.<\/b> The system processes automated uploading of field-derived sample collection data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ac.<\/b> The system allows users to handle billable and non-billable tests on the same accession.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ad.<\/b> The system supports tracking of shipping and receiving.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.4_Analysis_and_data_entry\">1.4.4 Analysis and data entry<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.4 <b>Analysis and data entry<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system supports a variety of test protocols, each capable of storing test comments, test required, and special information like GCMS conditions or special objects associated with the test.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system provides and enforces normal data range values for diagnostic tests.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system includes default input values for diagnostic tests.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system provides for a single test code requiring multiple analytes as targets.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to make a test code inactive across one or more sites while retaining it for audit and reporting purposes.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system limits test code authorization to only qualified personnel and maintains their certification(s) to run assigned tests.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system supports and qualifies text-based tests.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system supports single-component tests such as pH, BOD, CD, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system allows users to specify a single-component, multi-component, or narrative text test or group of tests, which represent all tests required.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system can effectively manage complex molecular testing protocols.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system can effectively manage genetic testing protocols.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system permits user-generated and modifiable calculations (based on a formulaic language) to be applied to all tests.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system distinguishes between routine and duplicate analysis.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system provides an overview of all outstanding tests\/analyses for better coordination of work schedules.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system notifies analysts of applicable safety hazards associated with a sample, reagent, or test before testing begins.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system electronically transfers an item during testing from one functional area to another.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system's user interface displays visual indicators such as status icons to indicate a sample's status in the workflow.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system allows file transfer of data from instruments via intelligent interfaces or multi-specimen\/multi-test ASCII files, with full on-screen review prior to database commitment.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The system permits <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Option_for_manual_result_entry\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"621709a9ae6a8b6bb4f2de549e344b5c\">manual data entry<\/a> into an electronic worksheet of test measurements and results.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The system allows incorrectly inputted data to be manually corrected.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>u.<\/b> The system prevents out-of-range and other critical results from being posted as final.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>v.<\/b> The system provides colored visual indication of previously entered data as well as new data associated with a single sample when a result is entered, with the indicator changing color if the value is out of specification.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>w.<\/b> The system allows automated or semi-automated data insertion.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>x.<\/b> The system stores non-narrative textual results in searchable fields.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.5_Post-analysis_and_validation\">1.4.5 Post-analysis and validation<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.5 <b>Post-analysis and validation<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system updates sample\/item status when tests are completed.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system automatically reorders a test or orders additional tests if results don't meet lab-defined criteria, especially when the original sample is still available.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system reads results from previously entered tests to calculate a final result and immediately displays the calculated result.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to review all analytical results, including pricing, spec violations, history or trend analysis by analyte, and comments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system graphically displays the results of one or more tests in a graph (normalized or otherwise) for the purpose of visualizing data or searching for possible trends.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system allows on-screen review of the stored test result, diluted result with corrected method detection limits (MDLs), and qualifiers after running samples for multiple dilutions as in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Gas_chromatography%E2%80%93mass_spectrometry\" title=\"Gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7fe02050f81fca3ad7a5845b1879ae2\">gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry<\/a> (GC-MS).\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system includes data mining tools for model learning, evaluation, and usage.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system displays the standard operating procedure (SOP) associated with each test result to ensure proper techniques were used.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system stores test-related analysis comments with the test.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system provides auto-commenting for common laboratory result comments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system is capable of displaying entered order and test comments as an onscreen alert for testing and other personnel.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system provides for high-volume multi-component transfers of test results, with the ability to automatically match samples to data files in either a backlog mode or a designated file mode, to parse the data, and to review and commit the sample data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system's results <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148c3f13ce1e0562e2d8b33c7002622e\">validation process<\/a> accesses all information about a sample or group of samples, including comments or special information about the sample.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system's results validation process checks each result against its individual sample location specifications (both warning and specification limits).\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system supports validation at the analysis and sample level, while also prohibiting sample validation when analysis validation is incomplete.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system uses a menu-driven process for results validation.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system provides secure electronic peer review of results.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system clearly differentiates released preliminary data from fully validated results.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The system validates\/approves data prior to being moved to the main database.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The system can hold all test results on a sample with multiple tests ordered on it until all work is completed and a final report is issued.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>u.<\/b> The system fully manages all aspects of laboratory <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#QA.2FQC_functions\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2bf55c170c7429ac892dd177aaa2e2\">quality control<\/a>, including the reporting and charting of all quality control data captured in the lab.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>v.<\/b> The system provides a base for a quality assurance program, including proficiency testing, scheduled maintenance of equipment, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>w.<\/b> The system distinguishes QA\/QC duplicates from normal samples.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>x.<\/b> The system allows QA\/QC tests to be easily created and associated with the primary analytical test.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>y.<\/b> The system allows manual entry of QA and QC data not captured as part of the system's regular processes.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>z.<\/b> The system calculates monthly QA\/QC percentages for testing.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>aa.<\/b> The system automatically flags out-of-range quality control limits.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ab.<\/b> The system is able to flag results for aspects other than being out-of-range, including testing location, test subject age, etc.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ac.<\/b> The system checks data files for specification and corrects them for specific reporting and analyte limits and qualifiers like dilution factor, automatically assigning qualifiers based on project analyte limiting.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.6_Instruments\">1.4.6 Instruments<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.6 <b>Instruments<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system bilaterally <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19c828f7d6e33928579d97389a65a675\">interfaces with instruments<\/a> and related software.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system downloads data directly from laboratory instruments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system permits the defining and exporting of sequences to instruments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system tracks and reports on the usage of attached laboratory instruments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system allows automatic or manual reservation\/scheduling of laboratory instruments.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system automatically (or manually allow an authorized user to) removes an instrument from potential use when it falls out of tolerance limit or requires scheduled calibration.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system provides a database of preventative maintenance, calibration, and repair records for laboratory equipment, preferably supported by standardized reporting.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system schedules calibration, verification, and maintenance tasks in the worksheets or work flow process and make that schedule available for viewing.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system allows users to create and edit instrument maintenance profiles.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.7_External_system_interfaces\">1.4.7 External system interfaces<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.7 <b>External system interfaces<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system supports a library of common electronic data deliverable (EDD) formats.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system transfers data to and from another record management system.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Third-party_software_integration\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb1dc74d9133152d97b03713b2bd820f\">integrates<\/a> with Microsoft Exchange services.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Import_data\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50124e3027d3b3bcb1801c0adb042e82\">imports data<\/a> from and exports data to Microsoft Word, Excel, and\/or Access.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system can interface with non-Microsoft programs.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system interfaces with external billing systems.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system interfaces with enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system interfaces with external contract or reference laboratories to electronically send or retrieve datasheets, analysis reports, and other related information.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system exchanges data with National Identification System (NAIS) tracking systems.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system generates and exchanges data with other systems using <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level 7<\/a> (HL7) standards.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system leverages the application programming interface (API) of other systems to establish integration between systems.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system provides a real-time interface for viewing live and stored data transactions and errors generated by interfaced instruments and systems.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system transmits status changes of specimens, inventory, equipment, etc. to an external system.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system directs output from ad-hoc queries to a computer file for subsequent analysis by other software.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system supports the manual retransmission of data to interfaced systems.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system supports <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Mobile_device_integration\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8184312de234dae3fa4c8b1a511bc9fa\">dockable mobile devices<\/a> and handle information exchange between them and the system.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system supports the use of optical character recognition (OCR) software.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.8_Reporting\">1.4.8 Reporting<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.8 <b>Reporting<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system includes a versatile report writer and forms generator that can generate reports from any data in tables.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system includes a custom graphic generator for forms.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system interfaces with a third-party reporting application.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system allows the development of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Custom_reporting\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"739c5efda3365bab28d01299a831e693\">custom templates<\/a> for different types of reports.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system maintains template versions and renditions, allowing management and tracking of the template over time.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system generates template letters for semi-annual reports.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system supports report queries by fields\/keys, status, completion, or other variables.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system use Microsoft Office tools for formatting reports.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system supports multiple web browsers for viewing online reports.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system generates, stores, reproduces, and displays laboratory, statistical, and inventory reports on demand, including narrative.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system includes several standard reports and query routines to access all specimens with the pending status through a backlog report that includes the following criteria: all laboratory, department, analysis, submission date, collection date, prep test complete, location, project, specimen delivery group, and other user-selectable options.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system indicates whether a report is preliminary, amended, corrected, or final while retaining revision history.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system supports both structured and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Synoptic_reporting\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae461418eb0b8cde555298c3c2e74860\">synoptic reporting<\/a>.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system generates management and turn-around time reports and graphs.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system generates customized final reports.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system automatically generates laboratory reports of findings and other written documents.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system automatically generates individual and aggregate workload and productivity reports on all operational and administrative activities.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system automatically generates and transmits exception trails and exception reports for all entered and\/or stored out-of-specification data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The system generates a read-only progress report that allows for printed reports of specimen status and data collected to date.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The system provides an ad-hoc web reporting interface to report on user-selected criteria.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>u.<\/b> The system automatically generates and updates control charts.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>v.<\/b> The system generates QA\/QC charts for all recovery, precision, and lab control specimens via a full statistics package, including Levy-Jennings plots and Westgard multi-rule.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>w.<\/b> The system displays history of previous results for an analyte's specimen point in a tabular report, graphic trend chart, and statistical summary.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>x.<\/b> The system automatically generates and posts periodic static summary reports on an internal web server.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>y.<\/b> The system transmits results in a variety of ways including fax, e-mail, print, and website in formats like RTF, PDF, HTML, XML, DOC, XLS, and TXT.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>z.<\/b> The system electronically transmits results via final report only when all case reviews have been completed by the case coordinator.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>aa.<\/b> The system includes a rules engine to determine the recipients of reports and other documents based on definable parameters.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>ab.<\/b> The system allows database access using user-friendly report writing and inquiry tools.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.4.9_Laboratory_management\">1.4.9 Laboratory management<\/span><\/h3>\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"color:DarkSlateGray;text-align:left; padding-left:40px;\"> 1.4.9 <b>Laboratory management<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:500px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>a.<\/b> The system allows the creation, modification, and duplication of user profiles.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>b.<\/b> The system allows entry, maintenance, and administration of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Customer.2C_supplier.2C_and_physician_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"944ac2fa5a65bf61b06a711b84a51008\">customers<\/a>, suppliers, and other outside entities.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>c.<\/b> The system allows customers, suppliers, and other such entities to be flagged as either active or inactive.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>d.<\/b> The system allows the creation, modification, and maintenance of user <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Performance_evaluation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba19c1d4cef221fdadce596bafe8bea3\">training records<\/a> and associated training materials.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>e.<\/b> The system supports the ability to set up separate security, inventory, reporting, etc. profiles across multiple facilities.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>f.<\/b> The system allows the management of information workflow, including notifications for requests and exigencies.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>g.<\/b> The system allows the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd9e325ecd80a3deb3b4aa2159bc0eda\">management of documents<\/a> like SOPs, MSDS, etc. to better ensure they are current and traceable.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>h.<\/b> The system allows the management and monitoring of resources by analyst, priority, analysis, and instrument.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>i.<\/b> The system allows authorized persons to select and assign tasks by analysts, work group, instrument, test, sample, and priority.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>j.<\/b> The system allows authorized persons to review unassigned work by discipline and by lab.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>k.<\/b> The system allows authorized persons to review pending work by analyst prior to assigning additional work.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>l.<\/b> The system manages and reports on reference samples, reagents, and other inventory, including by department.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>m.<\/b> The system automatically warns specified users when <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"922cb0190a1750c3545849959a860288\">inventory counts<\/a> reach a definable threshold and either prompt for or process a reorder.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>n.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to monitor and report on reference and reagent creation, use, and expiration.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>o.<\/b> The system allows authorized users to search <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Billing_and_revenue_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b8c929482179468adfd9b05b0db13a9\">invoice information<\/a> by invoice number, account number, accession, payment types, client, or requested diagnostic test(s).\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>p.<\/b> The system includes <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Performance_evaluation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba19c1d4cef221fdadce596bafe8bea3\">performance assessment<\/a> tracking.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>q.<\/b> The system receives, records, and maintains customer and employee feedback and applies tools to track the investigation, resolution, and success of any necessary corrective action.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>r.<\/b> The system includes an incident tracking system for recording, investigating, and managing safety and accident violations in the laboratory.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>s.<\/b> The system monitors proficiency test assignment, completion, and casework qualification for analytical staff.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>t.<\/b> The system includes revenue management functionality, including profitability analysis.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>u.<\/b> The system provides analysis tools to better support laboratory functions like resource planning, productivity projections, workload distribution, and work scheduling, and those tools display information in a consolidated view, with the ability to drill down to more detailed data.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>v.<\/b> The system calculates administrative and lab costs.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>w.<\/b> The system captures and maintains patient, submitter, supplier, and other client demographics and billing information for costing, invoicing, collecting, reporting, and other billing activities.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>x.<\/b> The system supports multiple customer <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Billing_and_revenue_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85476dde92ee1785c887d20bc9e0f304\">payment sources<\/a> (e.g. grants).\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:5px; width:500px;\"><b>y.<\/b> The system tracks number of visits per specific industry.\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:5px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.5_System-specific\">1.5 System-specific<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The system-specific addendum <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_and_laboratory_informatics_questionnaire\/1.5_System-specific\" title=\"LIMS and laboratory informatics questionnaire\/1.5 System-specific\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c5d127cf6e1a7cc77a00d6b770a6fe6\">can be found here<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.6_Industry-specific\">1.6 Industry-specific<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The industry-specific addendum <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_and_laboratory_informatics_questionnaire\/1.6_Industry-specific\" title=\"LIMS and laboratory informatics questionnaire\/1.6 Industry-specific\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d7706224874aa9a17ec43103761d8bd\">can be found here<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"1.7_Custom_requirements\">1.7 Custom requirements<\/span><\/h2>\n<table style=\"\">\n<tr>\n<td style=\"vertical-align:top;\">\n<table class=\"wikitable collapsible\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"10\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"\">\n\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"3\" style=\"text-align:left; padding-left:20px; padding-top:10px; padding-bottom:10px; width:1300px;\"> 1.7 <b>Custom requirements<\/b>\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:470px;\"> Request for information\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:100px;\"> Requirement code\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"color:brown; background-color:#ffffee; width:700px;\"> Vendor response\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>a.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>b.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>c.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>d.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>e.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>f.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>g.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>h.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>i.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>h.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>i.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"padding:15px; width:470px;\"><b>j.<\/b>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white; padding:15px;\">\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background-color:white;\">\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/table>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/table>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/table>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203038\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.053 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.058 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 100\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 108\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:4936-0!*!0!!en!*!* and timestamp 20190403203038 and revision id 23594\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_and_laboratory_informatics_questionnaire\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_and_laboratory_informatics_questionnaire<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","92ea35489b5bec7b99a0ee92e2071d9f_images":[],"92ea35489b5bec7b99a0ee92e2071d9f_timestamp":1554323438,"de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_type":"article","de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_title":"Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations","de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations","de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tLII:Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\nTitle: Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations\nAuthor for citation: Association of Public Health Laboratories (APHL)\nLicense for content: Copyright 2018, Association of Public Health Laboratories\nPublication date: November 2018\nWhile not a laboratory informatics course in itself, this APHL guidebook certainly contains a full class-worth of material. Developed over several years with funding from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), this guide collects comprehensive information from informaticians and laboratorians in multiple countries in regards to the implementation and project management of laboratory information systems (LIS) in the public health setting. According to APHL, the guide contains useful information for most anyone, from \"[n]ovices who are considering LIS\nin their laboratory for the first time ... [to] more experienced implementers who have questions on certain topics or are looking for a strategic approach to a problem.\"\nYou can find the guide under \"Global Health\": APHL Publications by Topic\n\r\n\nAbout the authors\nAPHL is a membership organization that focuses on providing resources to and promoting the importance of public health laboratories to national and global health. The organization works closely with not only public laboratories but also federal agencies and international entities to develop and implement regional and national health initiatives, as well as promote better access to diagnostic testing services. APHL also lends its expertise to the development of laboratory informatics systems, training, policy, and research programs.\n\nGeneral layout and contents of the guide \nThe guide contains six major sections as well as appendices and notes. An executive summary and introduction provide insight into the purpose of the guide, which constitutes a significant revision of their 2005 Guidebook for the Implementation of Laboratory Information Systems in Resource Poor Settings. (Located here, for the curious.) They note \"[t]he overall organization and layout of each LIS Guide section reflects feedback and guidance from various in-country LIS implementation teams and information system subject matter experts.\"\nAfterwards, the \"Laboratory Information Systems (LIS) Overview\" discusses the differences between a LIS and a laboratory information management system (LIMS), as well as why a LIS is important, what it does, and how data can be managed with it. The next section \"Starting a National LIS Program\" details the implementation strategies, monitoring tools, team management, and sustainability concerns that go into a national LIS project. How the LIS becomes a project itself at the laboratory level is detailed thoroughly afterwards.\nThe guide's last major section gets into the core details of project management planning, including scheduling, quality management, procurement, human resources, communication, and risk management strategies. The appendices close out the guide.\n\nThe guide \n: The guide can be found on the APHL site, under \"Global Health\": APHL Publications by Topic\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tLII\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 1 April 2019, at 19:30.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 218 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:APHL-Logo.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"91d3a596e43e3b4c047a1b96a0822ede\"><img alt=\"APHL-Logo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/f\/f0\/APHL-Logo.png\" width=\"240\" height=\"179\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>Laboratory Information Systems Project Management: A Guidebook for International Implementations<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Association of Public Health Laboratories (APHL)\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: Copyright 2018, Association of Public Health Laboratories\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: November 2018\n<\/p><p>While not a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> course in itself, this APHL guidebook certainly contains a full class-worth of material. Developed over several years with funding from the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention\" title=\"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"176aa9c9513251c328d864d1e724e814\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<\/a> (CDC), this guide collects comprehensive information from informaticians and laboratorians in multiple countries in regards to the implementation and project management of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information systems<\/a> (LIS) in the public health setting. According to APHL, the guide contains useful information for most anyone, from \"[n]ovices who are considering LIS\nin their laboratory for the first time ... [to] more experienced implementers who have questions on certain topics or are looking for a strategic approach to a problem.\"\n<\/p><p>You can find the guide under \"Global Health\": <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/aboutAPHL\/publications\/pages\/list-of-publications.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">APHL Publications by Topic<\/a>\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<b>About the authors<\/b>\n<\/p><p>APHL is a membership organization that focuses on providing resources to and promoting the importance of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_laboratory\" title=\"Public health laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34ffb658cb79bf322c65efaad95996f5\">public health laboratories<\/a> to national and global health. The organization works closely with not only public laboratories but also federal agencies and international entities to develop and implement regional and national health initiatives, as well as promote better access to diagnostic testing services. APHL also lends its expertise to the development of laboratory informatics systems, training, policy, and research programs.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"General_layout_and_contents_of_the_guide\">General layout and contents of the guide<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The guide contains six major sections as well as appendices and notes. An executive summary and introduction provide insight into the purpose of the guide, which constitutes a significant revision of their 2005 <i>Guidebook for the Implementation of Laboratory Information Systems in Resource Poor Settings<\/i>. (Located <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/MRC\/Documents\/GH_2005October_LIS-Guidebook.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">here<\/a>, for the curious.) They note \"[t]he overall organization and layout of each LIS Guide section reflects feedback and guidance from various in-country LIS implementation teams and information system subject matter experts.\"\n<\/p><p>Afterwards, the \"Laboratory Information Systems (LIS) Overview\" discusses the differences between a LIS and a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS), as well as why a LIS is important, what it does, and how data can be managed with it. The next section \"Starting a National LIS Program\" details the implementation strategies, monitoring tools, team management, and sustainability concerns that go into a national LIS project. How the LIS becomes a project itself at the laboratory level is detailed thoroughly afterwards.\n<\/p><p>The guide's last major section gets into the core details of project management planning, including scheduling, quality management, procurement, human resources, communication, and risk management strategies. The appendices close out the guide.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_guide\">The guide<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/aboutAPHL\/publications\/pages\/list-of-publications.aspx\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a>: The guide can be found on the APHL site, under \"Global Health\": <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/aboutAPHL\/publications\/pages\/list-of-publications.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">APHL Publications by Topic<\/a>\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203038\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.011 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.018 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 7\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 16\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10885-0!*!0!!*!5!* and timestamp 20190403203038 and revision id 35344\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Information_Systems_Project_Management:_A_Guidebook_for_International_Implementations<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_images":["https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/f\/f0\/APHL-Logo.png"],"de9b2109f3975a703634052af790b2d1_timestamp":1554323438,"00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_type":"article","00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_title":"A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work","00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work","00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tLII:A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\nTitle: A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work\nAuthor for citation: Joe Liscouski\nLicense for content: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International\nPublication date: January 2018\n\r\n\nLaboratory informatics involves a collection of technologies that range from sample storage management and robotics to database\/workflow management systems such as laboratory information management systems (LIMS) and electronic laboratory notebooks (ELN), with a lot of task-specific tools in between. These components were designed by a number of vendors who saw specific needs and developed products to address them. Those products in turn were presented to laboratories as a means of solving their instrumental data collection and analysis, sample preparation, data management, and document management issues. With many needs and so many ways to address them, how do you go about choosing a set of products that will work for you? \nThat is what this set of webinars is all about. We introduce the technologies and position them for you so that you can see how they may or may not apply to your work. Then we address the very real world topic of justifying the investment needed to put those tools to use in your laboratories. \nOnce that foundation has been put in place we cover:\n\n Technology planning and education: Planning is essential for success in this work. We look at how to go about it, who to involve, and methodologies for carrying out the work. We also look at the associated knowledge necessary to be effective.\n Implementation: Informatics systems can be a challenge to implement. We look at what is needed to minimize risks and make the implementation easier, as well as the support requirements needed to manage their use in your laboratory environment.\n Regulatory guidelines and compliance: We also address regulatory guidelines and compliance and how they can affect every laboratory application.\n The future: What developments will arise and be needed in the future? We wrap up the series with those details.\n\r\n\nAbout the author\nInitially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n\nContents\n\n1 Introduction \n\n1.1 Introductory video \n1.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n2 Part 1: Laboratory Informatics Technologies \n\n2.1 Webinar \n2.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n3 Part 2: Laboratory Informatics and Return on Investment \n\n3.1 Webinar \n3.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n4 Part 3: Technology, Planning, & Education \n\n4.1 Webinar \n4.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n5 Part 4: LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS, IT & Education \n\n5.1 Webinar \n5.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n6 Part 5: Supporting Laboratory Systems \n\n6.1 Webinar \n6.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n7 Part 6: Instrument Data Systems \n\n7.1 Webinar \n7.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n8 Part 7: Laboratory Processes \n\n8.1 Webinar \n8.2 Slides and transcripts \n\n\n\n\n\nIntroduction \nOnce the scientific mission of a lab has been established, lab work is divided into three areas:\n\n Administrative work, including report preparation\n Planning experimental work, including method development and attendant documentation \/ validation\n Experiment \/procedure \/ task execution\nLaboratory computing and automation can play a useful role in each of these points. The effectiveness of these tools depends on preparation, planning, and the capabilities of those carrying out lab work. It is those points that need attention if we are going to transition from a collection of technologies to integrated functional systems. Similar transitions took other production environments from a succession of individual steps to highly efficient, cost-effective, and successful productivity.\nThe purpose of these webinars and the resources they carry with them, is to help people understand how to make that transition happen. How those tools can improve laboratory operations.\nWe, as a community, need to move from a series of incremental improvements to well-designed, engineered solutions to laboratory needs. That will require a change in mindset. That mindset change will lead to better science, better results, improved productivity, and more effective laboratory operations and technology management.\n\nIntroductory video \n The introductory video for this series of webinars (12:30) can be found at YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this introductory video can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 1: Laboratory Informatics Technologies \nLIMS, ELN, scientific data management systems (SDMS), laboratory information systems (LIS), laboratory execution systems (LES), and instrument data systems are terms that have been part of laboratory discussions for years, but unless you\u2019ve been an active part of those conversations, they sound like techno-babble. The purpose of this webinar is two-fold:\n\n first, to introduce the webinar series and its objectives, and\n second, to convert that babble into meaningful subjects and see how they apply (or not) to your laboratory.\nInformatics is part of laboratory life: unless it is a piece of glassware, almost everything in the lab has a chip that is supposed to improve its usefulness. At the end of this webinar you will have an understanding of what the key technologies are, how they relate to each other, and how they might improve you lab's operations. The remainder of the series will build on this background, looking at return on investment (ROI) considerations, planning, education, and IT support requirements. You\u2019ll love it.\n\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (50:17) can be found at YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 2: Laboratory Informatics and Return on Investment \nWhen you are considering lab informatics and automation projects, someone is going to ask \u201cwhat is the return on the investment you\u2019re asking for?\u201d How do you answer them? This second webinar in the series provides practical guidance.\nThe introduction of informatics\/automation technologies into laboratory work requires larger investments than typical lab bench spending and involves people from outside support groups. It also brings up issues of knowledge and intellectual property management, an increasingly important corporate topic. Your ability to address these points within the ROI conversation will have a direct impact on the approval of your projects. Join us as we begin to look into these considerations:\n\n How do you justify the expense of laboratory systems?\n What results can be expected from an investment in laboratory technologies?\n How do you go about setting goals that are easily understood and play into corporate concerns?\n How will these investments affect other groups?\nAs laboratory work and the investments in it become more visible to the corporate organization, more effort will have to be put into the justification and evaluation of these expenditures. This webinar will help you form a basis for that work.\n\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (38:31) can be found at YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 3: Technology, Planning, & Education \nThe first webinar introduced the subject of laboratory informatics, comparing the use of LIMS, ELN, SDMS, LIS, LES, and instrument data systems in different laboratory settings. The second looked at how you can evaluate the ROI in those technologies.\nThis third webinar looks at technology planning and education, and more specifically, how you can gain the benefits expected from your investment in informatics technologies. Effective planning, by people with a good understanding of laboratory technologies, is one of the key points in successfully applying informatics technologies to laboratory work. Most failures can be traced back to insufficient planning efforts.\nThis subject may span more than one webinar session and will look at the:\n\n methodologies for laboratory systems planning, including where and when to start and who should be involved;\n roles of regulatory guidelines in different laboratories;\n roles that laboratory management, personnel, and IT support groups play;\n changes taking place in laboratory work and the backgrounds needed to be successful; and \n efforts needed to support the technical work and meet ROI and performance goals. \nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (42:18) can be found at YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 4: LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS, IT & Education \nThis session builds on the material covered in the previous webinars. We extend the discussion of centralized laboratory database systems (LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS) to look at multi-laboratory applications, as well as the use of virtual systems, local\/private cloud, remote cloud, and vendor-supported remote database applications. This session also begins looking at the roles that information technology support groups can play in this work. Points covered include:\n\n planning for multiple laboratory use of database systems;\n using local and cloud-based computing models; and\n integrating IT teams to better play a role in the work.\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (43:59) can be found at YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 5: Supporting Laboratory Systems \nThe previous webinars have progressed from the descriptions of laboratory technologies to choosing some components, the financial justification for their use, and the beginnings of describing the topology and distribution of lab informatics. In the course of those sessions, we began looking at the need for outside support for the systems under consideration: what help do you need when carrying out this work, and where will it come from?\nThis webinar continues the development of that topic. What roles do lab personnel and corporate IT support play in identifying technologies, selecting products, implementing them, and providing for long-term support? Is there a need for additional players in this work and what are their roles?\nWhy is this important to you? We\u2019re past the point where traditional IT backgrounds are sufficient to support laboratory work. While the ability to effectively apply the available technologies, and identify missing components, is outside the experience of most lab personnel and IT support, it is an essential need if we are going to meet the growing productivity and return on investment (ROI) demands of laboratory work. This presentation looks at how we develop people to fit that need.\n\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (43:31) can be found on YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 6: Instrument Data Systems \nInstrument data systems represent a critical transition in lab work: it is the place where we stop working with materials and begin working with numerical representations of those materials, where lab bench science ends and informatics begins. Problems in that transition can negate all the work leading up to it, leading to results that are open to challenge.\nThis webinar takes a look at:\n\n those instrument data systems;\n the processes that affect your data;\n the choices you face in designing an informatics architecture for your lab; and\n the silo effect and the roles of lab managers, personnel, and support have in selecting and managing those technologies.\nWhy does this matter? We are moving toward the development of automated science as a means of gaining higher productivity and reducing costs. If the systems we are putting in place are not well understood and planned, that automation can result in questionable results and missed opportunities. Laboratory informatics architectures have become a major factor in the success of lab operations, and this webinar represents an important step in building that success.\n\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (43:09) can be found on YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\nPart 7: Laboratory Processes \nIn this seventh and final episode of the webinar series, we broaden our view to examine the full range of lab work, including the methods and procedures that put the \u201cscience\u201d in lab work. \nThis webinar takes a look at:\n\n how the various informatics pieces relate to each other in the process of lab work, and\n what it takes to integrate them into computer-controlled, computer-assisted, and scientific production systems.\nWhy is this important to you? As the drive for higher productivity and improved ROI continues, laboratories need to take advantage of the full range of informatics and automation tools available to them. That includes viewing the lab's operations from a broader viewpoint, ensuring that resources are used effectively and opportunities aren\u2019t missed. This concluding session brings the entire series to a close, allowing you to apply all the concepts we've covered to your lab's work, all while realizing how regulatory guidelines come into play.\n\nWebinar \n The webinar for this session (33:10) can be found on YouTube: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/\n\nSlides and transcripts \n The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive: https:\/\/drive.google.com\/\n\r\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tLII\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView 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page-LII_A_Guide_for_Management_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization_s_Work skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:LabCourses_Transparent.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8c952781a315e89a294f7326bb7182d\"><img alt=\"LabCourses Transparent.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b4\/LabCourses_Transparent.png\" width=\"240\" height=\"147\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<p><b>Title<\/b>: <i>A Guide for Management: Successfully Applying Laboratory Systems to Your Organization's Work<\/i>\n<\/p><p><b>Author for citation<\/b>: Joe Liscouski\n<\/p><p><b>License for content<\/b>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International<\/a>\n<\/p><p><b>Publication date<\/b>: January 2018\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">Laboratory informatics<\/a> involves a collection of technologies that range from sample storage management and robotics to database\/workflow management systems such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management systems<\/a> (LIMS) and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebooks<\/a> (ELN), with a lot of task-specific tools in between. These components were designed by a number of vendors who saw specific needs and developed products to address them. Those products in turn were presented to laboratories as a means of solving their instrumental data collection and analysis, sample preparation, data management, and document management issues. With many needs and so many ways to address them, how do you go about choosing a set of products that will work for you? \n<\/p><p>That is what this set of webinars is all about. We introduce the technologies and position them for you so that you can see how they may or may not apply to your work. Then we address the very real world topic of justifying the investment needed to put those tools to use in your laboratories. \n<\/p><p>Once that foundation has been put in place we cover:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> Technology planning and education: Planning is essential for success in this work. We look at how to go about it, who to involve, and methodologies for carrying out the work. We also look at the associated knowledge necessary to be effective.<\/li>\n<li> Implementation: Informatics systems can be a challenge to implement. We look at what is needed to minimize risks and make the implementation easier, as well as the support requirements needed to manage their use in your laboratory environment.<\/li>\n<li> Regulatory guidelines and compliance: We also address regulatory guidelines and compliance and how they can affect every laboratory application.<\/li>\n<li> The future: What developments will arise and be needed in the future? We wrap up the series with those details.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/>\n<b>About the author<\/b>\n<\/p><p>Initially educated as a chemist, author Joe Liscouski is an experienced laboratory automation\/computing professional with over forty years experience in the field, including the design and development of automation systems (both custom and commercial systems), LIMS, robotics and data interchange standards. He also consults on the use of computing in laboratory work. He has held symposia on validation and presented technical material and short courses on laboratory automation and computing in the U.S., Europe, and Japan. He has worked\/consulted in pharmaceutical, biotech, polymer, medical, and government laboratories. His current work centers on working with companies to establish planning programs for lab systems, developing effective support groups, and helping people with the application of automation and information technologies in research and quality control environments.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Once the scientific mission of a lab has been established, lab work is divided into three areas:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li> Administrative work, including report preparation<\/li>\n<li> Planning experimental work, including method development and attendant documentation \/ validation<\/li>\n<li> Experiment \/procedure \/ task execution<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Laboratory computing and automation can play a useful role in each of these points. The effectiveness of these tools depends on preparation, planning, and the capabilities of those carrying out lab work. It is those points that need attention if we are going to transition from a collection of technologies to integrated functional systems. Similar transitions took other production environments from a succession of individual steps to highly efficient, cost-effective, and successful productivity.\n<\/p><p>The purpose of these webinars and the resources they carry with them, is to help people understand how to make that transition happen. How those tools can improve laboratory operations.\n<\/p><p>We, as a community, need to move from a series of incremental improvements to well-designed, engineered solutions to laboratory needs. That will require a change in mindset. That mindset change will lead to better science, better results, improved productivity, and more effective laboratory operations and technology management.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introductory_video\">Introductory video<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=6p_aRNTiBQM\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The introductory video for this series of webinars (12:30) can be found at YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=6p_aRNTiBQM\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=15jiWwQ0PBflzjP7fvG6S48ppvJVVvmcn\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this introductory video can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=15jiWwQ0PBflzjP7fvG6S48ppvJVVvmcn\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_1:_Laboratory_Informatics_Technologies\">Part 1: Laboratory Informatics Technologies<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>LIMS, ELN, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\" title=\"Scientific data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253\">scientific data management systems<\/a> (SDMS), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information systems<\/a> (LIS), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\" title=\"Laboratory execution system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a\">laboratory execution systems<\/a> (LES), and instrument data systems are terms that have been part of laboratory discussions for years, but unless you\u2019ve been an active part of those conversations, they sound like techno-babble. The purpose of this webinar is two-fold:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> first, to introduce the webinar series and its objectives, and<\/li>\n<li> second, to convert that babble into meaningful subjects and see how they apply (or not) to your laboratory.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Informatics is part of laboratory life: unless it is a piece of glassware, almost everything in the lab has a chip that is supposed to improve its usefulness. At the end of this webinar you will have an understanding of what the key technologies are, how they relate to each other, and how they might improve you lab's operations. The remainder of the series will build on this background, looking at return on investment (ROI) considerations, planning, education, and IT support requirements. You\u2019ll love it.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=p6FtygPEZS4\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (50:17) can be found at YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=p6FtygPEZS4\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_2\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1iykZUk9HcNrpFrqg5ZpuHmoAQdCn-yf_\/view\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1iykZUk9HcNrpFrqg5ZpuHmoAQdCn-yf_\/view\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_2:_Laboratory_Informatics_and_Return_on_Investment\">Part 2: Laboratory Informatics and Return on Investment<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>When you are considering lab informatics and automation projects, someone is going to ask \u201cwhat is the return on the investment you\u2019re asking for?\u201d How do you answer them? This second webinar in the series provides practical guidance.\n<\/p><p>The introduction of informatics\/automation technologies into laboratory work requires larger investments than typical lab bench spending and involves people from outside support groups. It also brings up issues of knowledge and intellectual property management, an increasingly important corporate topic. Your ability to address these points within the ROI conversation will have a direct impact on the approval of your projects. Join us as we begin to look into these considerations:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> How do you justify the expense of laboratory systems?<\/li>\n<li> What results can be expected from an investment in laboratory technologies?<\/li>\n<li> How do you go about setting goals that are easily understood and play into corporate concerns?<\/li>\n<li> How will these investments affect other groups?<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>As laboratory work and the investments in it become more visible to the corporate organization, more effort will have to be put into the justification and evaluation of these expenditures. This webinar will help you form a basis for that work.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_2\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=e6SfvFEXwSk\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (38:31) can be found at YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=e6SfvFEXwSk\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_3\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1az0Wq-SX1f-m4_-wVn838kgX8I6LZ3me\/view\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1az0Wq-SX1f-m4_-wVn838kgX8I6LZ3me\/view\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_3:_Technology.2C_Planning.2C_.26_Education\">Part 3: Technology, Planning, & Education<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The first webinar introduced the subject of laboratory informatics, comparing the use of LIMS, ELN, SDMS, LIS, LES, and instrument data systems in different laboratory settings. The second looked at how you can evaluate the ROI in those technologies.\n<\/p><p>This third webinar looks at technology planning and education, and more specifically, how you can gain the benefits expected from your investment in informatics technologies. Effective planning, by people with a good understanding of laboratory technologies, is one of the key points in successfully applying informatics technologies to laboratory work. Most failures can be traced back to insufficient planning efforts.\n<\/p><p>This subject may span more than one webinar session and will look at the:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> methodologies for laboratory systems planning, including where and when to start and who should be involved;<\/li>\n<li> roles of regulatory guidelines in different laboratories;<\/li>\n<li> roles that laboratory management, personnel, and IT support groups play;<\/li>\n<li> changes taking place in laboratory work and the backgrounds needed to be successful; and <\/li>\n<li> efforts needed to support the technical work and meet ROI and performance goals. <\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_3\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=nyIt6j_6qzQ\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (42:18) can be found at YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=nyIt6j_6qzQ\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_4\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1sGeOlNLfzoJfcRXBYQBaT24GloSJ2zyB\/view\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1sGeOlNLfzoJfcRXBYQBaT24GloSJ2zyB\/view\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_4:_LIMS.2FLIS.2C_ELN.2C_SDMS.2C_IT_.26_Education\">Part 4: LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS, IT & Education<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This session builds on the material covered in the previous webinars. We extend the discussion of centralized laboratory database systems (LIMS\/LIS, ELN, SDMS) to look at multi-laboratory applications, as well as the use of virtual systems, local\/private cloud, remote cloud, and vendor-supported remote database applications. This session also begins looking at the roles that information technology support groups can play in this work. Points covered include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> planning for multiple laboratory use of database systems;<\/li>\n<li> using local and cloud-based computing models; and<\/li>\n<li> integrating IT teams to better play a role in the work.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_4\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-8dkKsuEwdU\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (43:59) can be found at YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-8dkKsuEwdU\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_5\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1RFlWkKHZAi-MPqV1XjDm5vYexyO7tGld\/view\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/1RFlWkKHZAi-MPqV1XjDm5vYexyO7tGld\/view\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_5:_Supporting_Laboratory_Systems\">Part 5: Supporting Laboratory Systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The previous webinars have progressed from the descriptions of laboratory technologies to choosing some components, the financial justification for their use, and the beginnings of describing the topology and distribution of lab informatics. In the course of those sessions, we began looking at the need for outside support for the systems under consideration: what help do you need when carrying out this work, and where will it come from?\n<\/p><p>This webinar continues the development of that topic. What roles do lab personnel and corporate IT support play in identifying technologies, selecting products, implementing them, and providing for long-term support? Is there a need for additional players in this work and what are their roles?\n<\/p><p>Why is this important to you? We\u2019re past the point where traditional IT backgrounds are sufficient to support laboratory work. While the ability to effectively apply the available technologies, and identify missing components, is outside the experience of most lab personnel and IT support, it is an essential need if we are going to meet the growing productivity and return on investment (ROI) demands of laboratory work. This presentation looks at how we develop people to fit that need.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_5\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/1Oi6Flczt8g\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (43:31) can be found on YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/1Oi6Flczt8g\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_6\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1tfNnWYgVb49FyKU5S_saPi1TZ6n9_L4Q\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1tfNnWYgVb49FyKU5S_saPi1TZ6n9_L4Q\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_6:_Instrument_Data_Systems\">Part 6: Instrument Data Systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Instrument data systems represent a critical transition in lab work: it is the place where we stop working with materials and begin working with numerical representations of those materials, where lab bench science ends and informatics begins. Problems in that transition can negate all the work leading up to it, leading to results that are open to challenge.\n<\/p><p>This webinar takes a look at:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> those instrument data systems;<\/li>\n<li> the processes that affect your data;<\/li>\n<li> the choices you face in designing an informatics architecture for your lab; and<\/li>\n<li> the silo effect and the roles of lab managers, personnel, and support have in selecting and managing those technologies.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Why does this matter? We are moving toward the development of automated science as a means of gaining higher productivity and reducing costs. If the systems we are putting in place are not well understood and planned, that automation can result in questionable results and missed opportunities. Laboratory informatics architectures have become a major factor in the success of lab operations, and this webinar represents an important step in building that success.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_6\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gvkTjx8veBI\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (43:09) can be found on YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gvkTjx8veBI\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_7\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1_vMiovIWRfUrA4Wf8kTP4YQplfPWH0KH\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1_vMiovIWRfUrA4Wf8kTP4YQplfPWH0KH\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Part_7:_Laboratory_Processes\">Part 7: Laboratory Processes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In this seventh and final episode of the webinar series, we broaden our view to examine the full range of lab work, including the methods and procedures that put the \u201cscience\u201d in lab work. \n<\/p><p>This webinar takes a look at:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> how the various informatics pieces relate to each other in the process of lab work, and<\/li>\n<li> what it takes to integrate them into computer-controlled, computer-assisted, and scientific production systems.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Why is this important to you? As the drive for higher productivity and improved ROI continues, laboratories need to take advantage of the full range of informatics and automation tools available to them. That includes viewing the lab's operations from a broader viewpoint, ensuring that resources are used effectively and opportunities aren\u2019t missed. This concluding session brings the entire series to a close, allowing you to apply all the concepts we've covered to your lab's work, all while realizing how regulatory guidelines come into play.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Webinar_7\">Webinar<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-ppHVRoNkFE\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PlayVideo.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/4\/46\/PlayVideo.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The webinar for this session (33:10) can be found on YouTube<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-ppHVRoNkFE\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slides_and_transcripts_8\">Slides and transcripts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1ex1qRsP9nw2_rT5u34NLoFSm2-Onwn4B\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><img alt=\"PDF.png\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/a\/a6\/PDF.png\" width=\"40\" height=\"40\" \/><\/a> <i>The slides and transcripts for this webinar can be found on Google Drive<\/i>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/open?id=1ex1qRsP9nw2_rT5u34NLoFSm2-Onwn4B\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/drive.google.com\/<\/a>\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203037\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.034 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.054 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 95\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 104\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10382-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403203037 and revision id 33485\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:A_Guide_for_Management:_Successfully_Applying_Laboratory_Systems_to_Your_Organization%27s_Work<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_images":["https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/b\/b4\/LabCourses_Transparent.png"],"00b300565027cb0518bcb0410d6df360_timestamp":1554323437,"8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_type":"article","8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_title":"The NELAC Institute","8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute","8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tThe NELAC Institute\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThe NELAC Institute (TNI) is a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting \"the generation of environmental data of known and documented quality through an open, inclusive, and transparent process that is responsive to the needs of the community.\"[1] The founders' long-term motivation behind the creation of the NIC was to enact a \"uniform, rigorous, and robust\" nationwide environmental laboratory and monitoring accreditation program.[1] This accreditation program exists today in the form of the National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program (NELAP).\n\nContents\n\n1 History \n2 National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program \n3 External links \n4 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nThe NELAC Institute (TNI) was formed on November 6, 2006 as a collaboration between the National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Conference (NELAC) and the Institute for National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation (INELA) with \"the vision that all entities generating environmental data in the United States be accredited to a national standard.\"[2] \nWith the original 2003 NELAC Standard and 2005 updates to ISO\/IEC 17025 as their guide, TNI continued work on revising the NELAC Standard, culminating in the release of its new standards in July 2011. The revisions both made ISO\/IEC 17025 adherence mandatory and added analysis requirements for \"five new contaminants and lower limits for existing contaminants.\"[3][4]\n\nNational Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program \nNELAP is an accreditation program targeted at environmental laboratories. The laboratory and accreditation body standards for the program are modeled after sections of ISO\/IEC 17025 and ISO\/IEC 17011.[5] Accreditation for NELAP is performed by U.S. state governmental agencies that wish to participate; control over scope, laboratory types accepted, and fees are all controlled by the state agency. As of February 2015[update], 14 agencies in 13 states are organized as NELAP accreditation bodies. Those states are Florida, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah, and Virginia.[6] California used to also participate but withdrew from the program on January 31, 2014.[7]\nEnvironmental laboratories seeking NELAP accreditation are directed to go to their State's accreditation body. If the lab's state doesn't have such a body, the lab is still able to select an out-of-state body to do the accreditation for them.[6][8] This sort of \"reciprocal certification\" has the disadvantage that the accredited lab will only be certified to test a certain subset of analytes and contaminants, specifically those chosen for coverage by the state's accreditation body. This requires labs to carefully select which state agency to go through. Once the application stage begins, labs go through a series of performance evaluation studies and on-site auditing as well as pay the necessary fees. Each state may vary its audit requirements for labs maintaining accreditation.[9]\n\nExternal links \n The NELAC Institute\n National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program\n TNI LAMS\nReferences \n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 \"The NELAC Instute - About TNI\". The NELAC Institute. http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/aboutus.php . Retrieved 02 March 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"NELAC\". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 25 January 2011. http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/nelac\/ . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Mensingh, Jeanne; Thurston, Colin (01 October 2012). \"LIMS Wastes No Time Testing Wastewater\". Laboratory Equipment. Advantage Business Media. http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/articles\/2012\/10\/lims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Parr, Jerry L (20 October 2008). \"History and Future of Laboratory Accreditation\" (PDF). The NELAC Institute. http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/docs\/pubs\/NELAC%20history2008.pdf . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program (NELAP)\". The NELAC Institute. http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/newnelap.php . Retrieved 02 March 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 \"NELAP-Recognized Accreditation Bodies\". The NELAC Institute. http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/accred-bodies.php . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"TestAmerica NELAP Accredited in California Despite State's Decision to Withdraw from Program\". TestAmerica Laboratories, Inc. 06 February 2014. http:\/\/www.testamericainc.com\/news\/2014\/testamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%E2%80%99s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program\/ . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Management System: Search\". The NELAC Institute. http:\/\/lams.nelac-institute.org\/search . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Metzger, Marianne (10 April 2012). \"Is your Laboratory EPA Certified?\". National Testing Laboratories, Ltd. http:\/\/www.ntllabs.com\/blog\/?p=24 . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Articles containing potentially dated statements from February 2015Articles with invalid date parameter in templateAll articles containing potentially dated statementsAccrediting organizations\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 23 February 2015, at 21:51.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 7,093 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-The_NELAC_Institute skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">The NELAC Institute<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><p><b>The NELAC Institute<\/b> (<b>TNI<\/b>) is a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting \"the generation of environmental data of known and documented quality through an open, inclusive, and transparent process that is responsive to the needs of the community.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELACAbout_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELACAbout-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The founders' long-term motivation behind the creation of the NIC was to enact a \"uniform, rigorous, and robust\" nationwide environmental laboratory and monitoring accreditation program.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELACAbout_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELACAbout-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> This accreditation program exists today in the form of the National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program (NELAP).\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The NELAC Institute (TNI) was formed on November 6, 2006 as a collaboration between the National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Conference (NELAC) and the Institute for National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation (INELA) with \"the vision that all entities generating environmental data in the United States be accredited to a national standard.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPANELAP_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPANELAP-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>With the original 2003 NELAC Standard and 2005 updates to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a> as their guide, TNI continued work on revising the NELAC Standard, culminating in the release of its new standards in July 2011. The revisions both made ISO\/IEC 17025 adherence mandatory and added analysis requirements for \"five new contaminants and lower limits for existing contaminants.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABNewStands_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABNewStands-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Parr_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Parr-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"National_Environmental_Laboratory_Accreditation_Program\">National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>NELAP is an accreditation program targeted at environmental laboratories. The laboratory and accreditation body standards for the program are modeled after sections of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a> and ISO\/IEC 17011.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELAPHome_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELAPHome-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Accreditation for NELAP is performed by U.S. state governmental agencies that wish to participate; control over scope, laboratory types accepted, and fees are all controlled by the state agency. As of February 2015<sup class=\"plainlinks noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, 14 agencies in 13 states are organized as NELAP accreditation bodies. Those states are Florida, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah, and Virginia.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELAPAccred_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELAPAccred-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> California used to also participate but withdrew from the program on January 31, 2014.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELAPCali_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELAPCali-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Environmental laboratories seeking NELAP accreditation are directed to go to their State's accreditation body. If the lab's state doesn't have such a body, the lab is still able to select an out-of-state body to do the accreditation for them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELAPAccred_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELAPAccred-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TNILAMS_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TNILAMS-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> This sort of \"reciprocal certification\" has the disadvantage that the accredited lab will only be certified to test a certain subset of analytes and contaminants, specifically those chosen for coverage by the state's accreditation body. This requires labs to carefully select which state agency to go through. Once the application stage begins, labs go through a series of performance evaluation studies and on-site auditing as well as pay the necessary fees. Each state may vary its audit requirements for labs maintaining accreditation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NELAPNTL_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NELAPNTL-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/index.php\" target=\"_blank\">The NELAC Institute<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/newnelap.php\" target=\"_blank\">National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/lams.nelac-institute.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">TNI LAMS<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-NELACAbout-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELACAbout_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELACAbout_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/aboutus.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"The NELAC Instute - About TNI\"<\/a>. The NELAC Institute<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/aboutus.php\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/aboutus.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 02 March 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+NELAC+Instute+-+About+TNI&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=The+NELAC+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nelac-institute.org%2Faboutus.php&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EPANELAP-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EPANELAP_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/nelac\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"NELAC\"<\/a>. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 25 January 2011<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/nelac\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/nelac\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=NELAC&rft.atitle=&rft.date=25+January+2011&rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fnelac%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LABNewStands-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABNewStands_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Mensingh, Jeanne; Thurston, Colin (01 October 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/articles\/2012\/10\/lims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS Wastes No Time Testing Wastewater\"<\/a>. <i>Laboratory Equipment<\/i>. Advantage Business Media<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/articles\/2012\/10\/lims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/articles\/2012\/10\/lims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LIMS+Wastes+No+Time+Testing+Wastewater&rft.atitle=Laboratory+Equipment&rft.aulast=Mensingh%2C+Jeanne%3B+Thurston%2C+Colin&rft.au=Mensingh%2C+Jeanne%3B+Thurston%2C+Colin&rft.date=01+October+2012&rft.pub=Advantage+Business+Media&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.laboratoryequipment.com%2Farticles%2F2012%2F10%2Flims-wastes-no-time-testing-wastewater&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Parr-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Parr_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Parr, Jerry L (20 October 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/docs\/pubs\/NELAC%20history2008.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"History and Future of Laboratory Accreditation\"<\/a> (PDF). The NELAC Institute<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/docs\/pubs\/NELAC%20history2008.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/docs\/pubs\/NELAC%20history2008.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=History+and+Future+of+Laboratory+Accreditation&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Parr%2C+Jerry+L&rft.au=Parr%2C+Jerry+L&rft.date=20+October+2008&rft.pub=The+NELAC+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nelac-institute.org%2Fdocs%2Fpubs%2FNELAC%2520history2008.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NELAPHome-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELAPHome_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/newnelap.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program (NELAP)\"<\/a>. The NELAC Institute<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/newnelap.php\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/newnelap.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 02 March 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=National+Environmental+Laboratory+Accreditation+Program+%28NELAP%29&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=The+NELAC+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nelac-institute.org%2Fnewnelap.php&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NELAPAccred-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELAPAccred_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELAPAccred_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/accred-bodies.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"NELAP-Recognized Accreditation Bodies\"<\/a>. The NELAC Institute<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/accred-bodies.php\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.nelac-institute.org\/accred-bodies.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=NELAP-Recognized+Accreditation+Bodies&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=The+NELAC+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nelac-institute.org%2Faccred-bodies.php&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NELAPCali-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELAPCali_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.testamericainc.com\/news\/2014\/testamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%E2%80%99s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"TestAmerica NELAP Accredited in California Despite State's Decision to Withdraw from Program\"<\/a>. TestAmerica Laboratories, Inc. 06 February 2014<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.testamericainc.com\/news\/2014\/testamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%E2%80%99s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.testamericainc.com\/news\/2014\/testamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%E2%80%99s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=TestAmerica+NELAP+Accredited+in+California+Despite+State%27s+Decision+to+Withdraw+from+Program&rft.atitle=&rft.date=06+February+2014&rft.pub=TestAmerica+Laboratories%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.testamericainc.com%2Fnews%2F2014%2Ftestamerica-nelap-accredited-in-california-despite-state%25E2%2580%2599s-decision-to-withdraw-from-program%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TNILAMS-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TNILAMS_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/lams.nelac-institute.org\/search\" target=\"_blank\">\"National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Management System: Search\"<\/a>. The NELAC Institute<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/lams.nelac-institute.org\/search\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/lams.nelac-institute.org\/search<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=National+Environmental+Laboratory+Accreditation+Management+System%3A+Search&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=The+NELAC+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flams.nelac-institute.org%2Fsearch&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NELAPNTL-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NELAPNTL_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Metzger, Marianne (10 April 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ntllabs.com\/blog\/?p=24\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is your Laboratory EPA Certified?\"<\/a>. National Testing Laboratories, Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ntllabs.com\/blog\/?p=24\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ntllabs.com\/blog\/?p=24<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Is+your+Laboratory+EPA+Certified%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Metzger%2C+Marianne&rft.au=Metzger%2C+Marianne&rft.date=10+April+2012&rft.pub=National+Testing+Laboratories%2C+Ltd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ntllabs.com%2Fblog%2F%3Fp%3D24&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_NELAC_Institute\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203037\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.169 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.186 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5325\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 13726\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 32019\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 12117\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 161.678 1 - -total\n 84.79% 137.083 9 - Template:Cite_web\n 79.45% 128.459 9 - Template:Citation\/core\n 9.37% 15.143 1 - Template:As_of\n 6.98% 11.287 1 - Template:DMCA\n 5.87% 9.493 1 - Template:Dated_maintenance_category\n 4.84% 7.824 10 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 2.88% 4.653 1 - Template:FULLROOTPAGENAME\n 1.58% 2.554 1 - Template:Ns_has_subpages\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3387-0!*!0!!en!*!* and timestamp 20190403203037 and revision id 20901\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_images":[],"8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991_timestamp":1554323437,"f364a7d9dca831de0caaaba41cf0b7ea_type":"article","f364a7d9dca831de0caaaba41cf0b7ea_title":"The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board","f364a7d9dca831de0caaaba41cf0b7ea_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board","f364a7d9dca831de0caaaba41cf0b7ea_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tThe American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThe American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD\/LAB) was a Missouri-based not-for-profit that \"offers voluntary accreditation to public and private crime laboratories\" around the world.[1] Laboratories wishing to become accredited had go through a proficiency testing program as part of the accreditation process.[2] \nThe main objectives of the ASCLD\/LAB were[3][4]:\n\nto improve the quality of laboratory services provided to the criminal justice system.\nto adopt, develop and maintain criteria which may be used by a laboratory to assess its level of performance and to strengthen its operation.\nto provide an independent, impartial, and objective system by which laboratories can benefit from a total operational review.\nto offer to the general public and to users of laboratory services a means of identifying those laboratories which have demonstrated that they meet established standards.\nThe ASCLD\/LAB was acquired by and merged into the ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board (ANAB) in April 2016.[5]\n\nContents\n\n1 History \n2 Accreditation \n3 Compliance \n4 External links \n5 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nThe American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors (ASCLD) was officially founded in the fall of 1974.[6] Around the same time, a national examination of forensic science laboratories began, culminating in 1977 with the revelation that many mistakes were being made in those labs. The problematic statistics that came out of that research partially drove the ASCLD to create the Laboratory Accreditation Board (LAB) in the summer of 1981.[7][8] The ASCLD\/LAB eventually incorporated as a non-profit corporation in Missouri on February 4, 1988. By June 1992, the organization had accredited 128 laboratories, including its first international laboratory, located in Adelaide, Australia.[8] By the spring of 2014 that total was 403.[7]\nOn April 22, 2016, ANAB announced that it had signed \"an affiliation agreement with The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD\/LAB), merging ASCLD\/LAB into ANAB.\"[5] ANAB stated that with the merger ASCLD\/LAB employees would be kept, the ASCLD\/LAB brand would be maintained, and \"current ASCLD\/LAB customers will continue to be accredited under the ASCLD\/LAB accreditation symbol.\"[5]\n\nAccreditation \nASCLD\/LAB accredited forensic laboratories and certain forensic breath alcohol calibration programs to help them \"demonstrate that its technical operations and overall management system meet ISO\/IEC 17025:2005 requirements and applicable ASCLD\/LAB-International supplemental requirements.\"[9] Application review, on-site assessments, quality review, and, if necessary, corrective action resolutions were conducted before the final review and accreditation decision. The International accreditation typically was good for four years as long as the lab remained compliant and maintained obligations such as notification of significant changes to primary policies, resources, organization, and legal ownership.[10]\n\nCompliance \nAfter acceptance, ASCLD\/LAB used its Annual Accreditation Audit Report, proficiency testing reports, and laboratory visits to monitor a crime lab's compliance with the body's accreditation standards.[11] In the unusual case of a laboratory failing to comply with those standards, the ASCLD at times opted to place the lab on probation. Examples of such probationary action included the Nassau County, New York crime lab in 2007 and 2010[12][13] and the El Paso Police Department in 2011.[14] Once on probation, the affected lab had to satisfy certain conditions before being able to again operate and eventually be removed from the probationary period, including but not limited to submitting lab analyses for external technical reviews.[15] In extreme cases of non-compliance, the ASCLD at times also chose to suspend the lab for a period of time or even revoke the lab's accreditation.[16][10]\n\nExternal links \n ASCLD\n ASCLD\/LAB (archived)\nReferences \n\n\u2191 \"ASCLD\/LAB - Welcome\". ASCLD\/LAB. http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/ . Retrieved 25 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"ASCLD\/LAB - Proficiency Testing\". ASCLD\/LAB. http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/proftesting\/ptoverview.html . Retrieved 25 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Peters, Justin (17 January 2013). \"Crime Labs Botch Tests All the Time. Who's Supposed To Make Sure They Don't Screw Up?\". Slate Crime Blog. The Slate Group. http:\/\/www.slate.com\/blogs\/crime\/2013\/01\/17\/crime_lab_scandal_crime_labs_botch_tests_all_the_time_who_s_supposed_to.html . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Objectives\". ASCLD\/LAB. http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/objectives\/ . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 5.2 \"ANAB and ASCLD\/LAB Merge Forensics Operations\". American National Standards Institute. 22 April 2016. https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news_publications\/news_story?menuid=7&articleid=a3415f4c-540e-467c-951c-a54815c29c64 . Retrieved 06 June 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 \"About ASCLD\". American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors. http:\/\/www.ascld.org\/about-ascld\/ . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 7.0 7.1 Smith, Jordan Michael (01 May 2014). \"FORENSIC FAILS: Forget 'CSI' -- What's Happening In America's Crime Labs Is A Complete Disaster\". Business Insider Australia. Allure Media. http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com.au\/forensic-csi-crime-labs-disaster-2014-4 . Retrieved 23 February 2105 .   \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 \"History of the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors \/ Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD\/LAB)\". ASCLD\/LAB. http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/history\/ . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"How to Become An Accredited Lab\". ASCLD\/LAB. http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/how-to-become-accredited\/ . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 10.0 10.1 \"ASCLD\/LAB-International Program Overview 2015 Edition\" (PDF). ASCLD\/LAB. 25 January 2015. pp. 32. http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/ASCLDLAB-International-2015-Program-Overview.pdf . Retrieved 23 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"ASCLD\/LAB - Compliance\/Conformance Monitoring\". ASCLD\/LAB. http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/monitoring\/monitoring_overview.html . Retrieved 25 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"NY Crime Lab On Probation After Review\". CBS New York. 07 December 2010. http:\/\/newyork.cbslocal.com\/2010\/12\/07\/ny-crime-lab-on-probation-after-review\/ . Retrieved 01 March 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"New York Crime Lab Goes On Probation\". Innocence Project. 08 December 2010. http:\/\/www.innocenceproject.org\/Content\/New_York_Crime_Lab_Goes_On_Probation.php . Retrieved 01 March 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"El Paso Police Department's Crime Lab On Probation\". KFOX 14. 07 July 2011. http:\/\/www.kfoxtv.com\/news\/news\/el-paso-police-departments-crime-lab-on-probation\/nD664\/ . Retrieved 01 March 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Board: El Paso Crime Lab Can Resume Drug Analysis\". KVIA 7. 02 September 2011. http:\/\/www.kvia.com\/news\/Board-El-Paso-Crime-Lab-Can-Resume-Drug-Analysis\/-\/391068\/15246862\/-\/52k8vnz\/-\/index.html . Retrieved 01 March 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Balassone, Merrill (26 September 2010). \"Criminal trial not the end for Ripon crime lab questions\". The Modesto Bee. http:\/\/www.modbee.com\/2010\/09\/26\/1355529\/criminal-trial-not-the-end-for.html . Retrieved 01 March 2013 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Accrediting organizations\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom 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\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 6 June 2017, at 23:55.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 9,823 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","f364a7d9dca831de0caaaba41cf0b7ea_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors_Laboratory_Accreditation_Board skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><p><b>The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board<\/b> (<b>ASCLD\/LAB<\/b>) was a Missouri-based not-for-profit that \"offers voluntary accreditation to public and private crime laboratories\" around the world.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASCLD.2FLAB_Home_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASCLD.2FLAB_Home-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Laboratories wishing to become accredited had go through a proficiency testing program as part of the accreditation process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASCLD.2FLAB_Prof_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASCLD.2FLAB_Prof-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>The main objectives of the ASCLD\/LAB were<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Peters_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Peters-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABObj_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABObj-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>to improve the quality of laboratory services provided to the criminal justice system.<\/li>\n<li>to adopt, develop and maintain criteria which may be used by a laboratory to assess its level of performance and to strengthen its operation.<\/li>\n<li>to provide an independent, impartial, and objective system by which laboratories can benefit from a total operational review.<\/li>\n<li>to offer to the general public and to users of laboratory services a means of identifying those laboratories which have demonstrated that they meet established standards.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>The ASCLD\/LAB was acquired by and merged into the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ANSI-ASQ_National_Accreditation_Board\" title=\"ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da3478a32653a38e3e11b3f6d479cdb4\">ANSI-ASQ National Accreditation Board<\/a> (ANAB) in April 2016.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANSIANAB16_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANSIANAB16-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors (ASCLD) was officially founded in the fall of 1974.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASCLDHist_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASCLDHist-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> Around the same time, a national examination of forensic science laboratories began, culminating in 1977 with the revelation that many mistakes were being made in those labs. The problematic statistics that came out of that research partially drove the ASCLD to create the Laboratory Accreditation Board (LAB) in the summer of 1981.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fails_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fails-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABHist_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABHist-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> The ASCLD\/LAB eventually incorporated as a non-profit corporation in Missouri on February 4, 1988. By June 1992, the organization had accredited 128 laboratories, including its first international laboratory, located in Adelaide, Australia.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABHist_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABHist-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> By the spring of 2014 that total was 403.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fails_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fails-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On April 22, 2016, ANAB announced that it had signed \"an affiliation agreement with The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD\/LAB), merging ASCLD\/LAB into ANAB.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANSIANAB16_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANSIANAB16-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> ANAB stated that with the merger ASCLD\/LAB employees would be kept, the ASCLD\/LAB brand would be maintained, and \"current ASCLD\/LAB customers will continue to be accredited under the ASCLD\/LAB accreditation symbol.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ANSIANAB16_5-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ANSIANAB16-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Accreditation\">Accreditation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ASCLD\/LAB accredited forensic laboratories and certain forensic breath alcohol calibration programs to help them \"demonstrate that its technical operations and overall management system meet <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025:2005<\/a> requirements and applicable ASCLD\/LAB-International supplemental requirements.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABAccred1_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABAccred1-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> Application review, on-site assessments, quality review, and, if necessary, corrective action resolutions were conducted before the final review and accreditation decision. The International accreditation typically was good for four years as long as the lab remained compliant and maintained obligations such as notification of significant changes to primary policies, resources, organization, and legal ownership.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABProgOver_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABProgOver-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Compliance\">Compliance<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>After acceptance, ASCLD\/LAB used its Annual Accreditation Audit Report, proficiency testing reports, and laboratory visits to monitor a crime lab's compliance with the body's accreditation standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASCLD.2FLAB_Comp_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASCLD.2FLAB_Comp-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> In the unusual case of a laboratory failing to comply with those standards, the ASCLD at times opted to place the lab on probation. Examples of such probationary action included the Nassau County, New York crime lab in 2007 and 2010<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NYCBS_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NYCBS-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-InnocenceProj_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-InnocenceProj-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> and the El Paso Police Department in 2011.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KFOX14_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KFOX14-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Once on probation, the affected lab had to satisfy certain conditions before being able to again operate and eventually be removed from the probationary period, including but not limited to submitting lab analyses for external technical reviews.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KVIA7_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KVIA7-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> In extreme cases of non-compliance, the ASCLD at times also chose to suspend the lab for a period of time or even revoke the lab's accreditation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ModestoBee_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ModestoBee-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LABProgOver_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LABProgOver-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">ASCLD<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160413040425\/http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">ASCLD\/LAB<\/a> (archived)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASCLD.2FLAB_Home-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASCLD.2FLAB_Home_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASCLD\/LAB - Welcome\"<\/a>. ASCLD\/LAB<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 25 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ASCLD%2FLAB+-+Welcome&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=ASCLD%2FLAB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ascld-lab.org%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASCLD.2FLAB_Prof-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASCLD.2FLAB_Prof_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/proftesting\/ptoverview.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASCLD\/LAB - Proficiency Testing\"<\/a>. ASCLD\/LAB<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/proftesting\/ptoverview.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/proftesting\/ptoverview.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 25 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ASCLD%2FLAB+-+Proficiency+Testing&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=ASCLD%2FLAB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ascld-lab.org%2Fproftesting%2Fptoverview.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Peters-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Peters_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Peters, Justin (17 January 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.slate.com\/blogs\/crime\/2013\/01\/17\/crime_lab_scandal_crime_labs_botch_tests_all_the_time_who_s_supposed_to.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Crime Labs Botch Tests All the Time. Who's Supposed To Make Sure They Don't Screw Up?\"<\/a>. <i>Slate Crime Blog<\/i>. The Slate Group<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.slate.com\/blogs\/crime\/2013\/01\/17\/crime_lab_scandal_crime_labs_botch_tests_all_the_time_who_s_supposed_to.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.slate.com\/blogs\/crime\/2013\/01\/17\/crime_lab_scandal_crime_labs_botch_tests_all_the_time_who_s_supposed_to.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Crime+Labs+Botch+Tests+All+the+Time.+Who%27s+Supposed+To+Make+Sure+They+Don%27t+Screw+Up%3F&rft.atitle=Slate+Crime+Blog&rft.aulast=Peters%2C+Justin&rft.au=Peters%2C+Justin&rft.date=17+January+2013&rft.pub=The+Slate+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slate.com%2Fblogs%2Fcrime%2F2013%2F01%2F17%2Fcrime_lab_scandal_crime_labs_botch_tests_all_the_time_who_s_supposed_to.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LABObj-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABObj_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/objectives\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Objectives\"<\/a>. ASCLD\/LAB<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/objectives\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/objectives\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Objectives&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=ASCLD%2FLAB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ascld-lab.org%2Fobjectives%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ANSIANAB16-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANSIANAB16_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANSIANAB16_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ANSIANAB16_5-2\">5.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news_publications\/news_story?menuid=7&articleid=a3415f4c-540e-467c-951c-a54815c29c64\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANAB and ASCLD\/LAB Merge Forensics Operations\"<\/a>. American National Standards Institute. 22 April 2016<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news_publications\/news_story?menuid=7&articleid=a3415f4c-540e-467c-951c-a54815c29c64\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ansi.org\/news_publications\/news_story?menuid=7&articleid=a3415f4c-540e-467c-951c-a54815c29c64<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 June 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ANAB+and+ASCLD%2FLAB+Merge+Forensics+Operations&rft.atitle=&rft.date=22+April+2016&rft.pub=American+National+Standards+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ansi.org%2Fnews_publications%2Fnews_story%3Fmenuid%3D7%26articleid%3Da3415f4c-540e-467c-951c-a54815c29c64&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASCLDHist-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASCLDHist_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld.org\/about-ascld\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"About ASCLD\"<\/a>. American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld.org\/about-ascld\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ascld.org\/about-ascld\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=About+ASCLD&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=American+Society+of+Crime+Laboratory+Directors&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ascld.org%2Fabout-ascld%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Fails-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Fails_7-0\">7.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Fails_7-1\">7.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Smith, Jordan Michael (01 May 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com.au\/forensic-csi-crime-labs-disaster-2014-4\" target=\"_blank\">\"FORENSIC FAILS: Forget 'CSI' -- What's Happening In America's Crime Labs Is A Complete Disaster\"<\/a>. <i>Business Insider Australia<\/i>. Allure Media<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com.au\/forensic-csi-crime-labs-disaster-2014-4\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com.au\/forensic-csi-crime-labs-disaster-2014-4<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 February 2105<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=FORENSIC+FAILS%3A+Forget+%27CSI%27+--+What%27s+Happening+In+America%27s+Crime+Labs+Is+A+Complete+Disaster&rft.atitle=Business+Insider+Australia&rft.aulast=Smith%2C+Jordan+Michael&rft.au=Smith%2C+Jordan+Michael&rft.date=01+May+2014&rft.pub=Allure+Media&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com.au%2Fforensic-csi-crime-labs-disaster-2014-4&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LABHist-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABHist_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABHist_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/history\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"History of the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors \/ Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD\/LAB)\"<\/a>. ASCLD\/LAB<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/history\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/history\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=History+of+the+American+Society+of+Crime+Laboratory+Directors+%2F+Laboratory+Accreditation+Board+%28ASCLD%2FLAB%29&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=ASCLD%2FLAB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ascld-lab.org%2Fhistory%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LABAccred1-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABAccred1_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/how-to-become-accredited\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to Become An Accredited Lab\"<\/a>. ASCLD\/LAB<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/how-to-become-accredited\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/how-to-become-accredited\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=How+to+Become+An+Accredited+Lab&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=ASCLD%2FLAB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ascld-lab.org%2Fhow-to-become-accredited%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LABProgOver-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABProgOver_10-0\">10.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LABProgOver_10-1\">10.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/ASCLDLAB-International-2015-Program-Overview.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASCLD\/LAB-<i>International<\/i> Program Overview 2015 Edition\"<\/a> (PDF). ASCLD\/LAB. 25 January 2015. pp. 32<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/ASCLDLAB-International-2015-Program-Overview.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/02\/ASCLDLAB-International-2015-Program-Overview.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ASCLD%2FLAB-%27%27International%27%27+Program+Overview+2015+Edition&rft.atitle=&rft.date=25+January+2015&rft.pages=pp.+32&rft.pub=ASCLD%2FLAB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ascld-lab.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F02%2FASCLDLAB-International-2015-Program-Overview.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASCLD.2FLAB_Comp-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASCLD.2FLAB_Comp_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/monitoring\/monitoring_overview.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASCLD\/LAB - Compliance\/Conformance Monitoring\"<\/a>. ASCLD\/LAB<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/monitoring\/monitoring_overview.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ascld-lab.org\/monitoring\/monitoring_overview.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 25 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ASCLD%2FLAB+-+Compliance%2FConformance+Monitoring&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=ASCLD%2FLAB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ascld-lab.org%2Fmonitoring%2Fmonitoring_overview.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NYCBS-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NYCBS_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/newyork.cbslocal.com\/2010\/12\/07\/ny-crime-lab-on-probation-after-review\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"NY Crime Lab On Probation After Review\"<\/a>. CBS New York. 07 December 2010<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/newyork.cbslocal.com\/2010\/12\/07\/ny-crime-lab-on-probation-after-review\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/newyork.cbslocal.com\/2010\/12\/07\/ny-crime-lab-on-probation-after-review\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 01 March 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=NY+Crime+Lab+On+Probation+After+Review&rft.atitle=&rft.date=07+December+2010&rft.pub=CBS+New+York&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnewyork.cbslocal.com%2F2010%2F12%2F07%2Fny-crime-lab-on-probation-after-review%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-InnocenceProj-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-InnocenceProj_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.innocenceproject.org\/Content\/New_York_Crime_Lab_Goes_On_Probation.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"New York Crime Lab Goes On Probation\"<\/a>. Innocence Project. 08 December 2010<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.innocenceproject.org\/Content\/New_York_Crime_Lab_Goes_On_Probation.php\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.innocenceproject.org\/Content\/New_York_Crime_Lab_Goes_On_Probation.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 01 March 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=New+York+Crime+Lab+Goes+On+Probation&rft.atitle=&rft.date=08+December+2010&rft.pub=Innocence+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.innocenceproject.org%2FContent%2FNew_York_Crime_Lab_Goes_On_Probation.php&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KFOX14-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KFOX14_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kfoxtv.com\/news\/news\/el-paso-police-departments-crime-lab-on-probation\/nD664\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"El Paso Police Department's Crime Lab On Probation\"<\/a>. KFOX 14. 07 July 2011<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kfoxtv.com\/news\/news\/el-paso-police-departments-crime-lab-on-probation\/nD664\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.kfoxtv.com\/news\/news\/el-paso-police-departments-crime-lab-on-probation\/nD664\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 01 March 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=El+Paso+Police+Department%27s+Crime+Lab+On+Probation&rft.atitle=&rft.date=07+July+2011&rft.pub=KFOX+14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kfoxtv.com%2Fnews%2Fnews%2Fel-paso-police-departments-crime-lab-on-probation%2FnD664%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KVIA7-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KVIA7_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kvia.com\/news\/Board-El-Paso-Crime-Lab-Can-Resume-Drug-Analysis\/-\/391068\/15246862\/-\/52k8vnz\/-\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Board: El Paso Crime Lab Can Resume Drug Analysis\"<\/a>. KVIA 7. 02 September 2011<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kvia.com\/news\/Board-El-Paso-Crime-Lab-Can-Resume-Drug-Analysis\/-\/391068\/15246862\/-\/52k8vnz\/-\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.kvia.com\/news\/Board-El-Paso-Crime-Lab-Can-Resume-Drug-Analysis\/-\/391068\/15246862\/-\/52k8vnz\/-\/index.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 01 March 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Board%3A+El+Paso+Crime+Lab+Can+Resume+Drug+Analysis&rft.atitle=&rft.date=02+September+2011&rft.pub=KVIA+7&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kvia.com%2Fnews%2FBoard-El-Paso-Crime-Lab-Can-Resume-Drug-Analysis%2F-%2F391068%2F15246862%2F-%2F52k8vnz%2F-%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ModestoBee-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ModestoBee_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Balassone, Merrill (26 September 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.modbee.com\/2010\/09\/26\/1355529\/criminal-trial-not-the-end-for.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Criminal trial not the end for Ripon crime lab questions\"<\/a>. The Modesto Bee<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.modbee.com\/2010\/09\/26\/1355529\/criminal-trial-not-the-end-for.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.modbee.com\/2010\/09\/26\/1355529\/criminal-trial-not-the-end-for.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 01 March 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Criminal+trial+not+the+end+for+Ripon+crime+lab+questions&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Balassone%2C+Merrill&rft.au=Balassone%2C+Merrill&rft.date=26+September+2010&rft.pub=The+Modesto+Bee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.modbee.com%2F2010%2F09%2F26%2F1355529%2Fcriminal-trial-not-the-end-for.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203036\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.296 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.307 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 9181\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 13797\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 57902\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 21862\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 11\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 262.173 1 - -total\n 99.32% 260.401 16 - Template:Cite_web\n 94.04% 246.539 16 - Template:Citation\/core\n 5.29% 13.871 18 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3371-0!*!0!!en!*!* and timestamp 20190403203036 and revision id 30710\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","f364a7d9dca831de0caaaba41cf0b7ea_images":[],"f364a7d9dca831de0caaaba41cf0b7ea_timestamp":1554323436,"7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_type":"article","7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_title":"Regulatory compliance","7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance","7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tRegulatory compliance\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\"Compliance (regulation)\" redirects here. For other uses, see Compliance (disambiguation).\nIn general, compliance means conforming to a rule, such as a specification, policy, standard or law. Regulatory compliance describes the goal that organizations aspire to achieve in their efforts to ensure that they are aware of and take steps to comply with relevant laws, policies, and regulations.[1] Due to the increasing number of regulations and need for operational transparency, organizations are increasingly adopting the use of consolidated and harmonized sets of compliance controls.[2] This approach is used to ensure that all necessary governance requirements can be met without the unnecessary duplication of effort and activity from resources. \nRegulations and accrediting organizations vary among fields, with examples such as PCI-DSS and GLBA in the financial industry, FISMA for U.S. federal agencies, HACCP for the food and beverage industry, and the Joint Commission and HIPAA in healthcare. In some cases other compliance frameworks (such as COBIT) or even standards (NIST) inform on how to comply with regulations.\nSome organizations keep compliance data\u2014all data belonging or pertaining to the enterprise or included in the law, which can be used for the purpose of implementing or validating compliance\u2014in a separate store for meeting reporting requirements. Compliance software is increasingly being implemented to help companies manage their compliance data more efficiently. This store may include calculations, data transfers, and audit trails.[3][4]\n\nContents \n\n1 By nation \n\n1.1 Australia \n1.2 Canada \n1.3 India \n1.4 United Kingdom \n\n1.4.1 Financial compliance \n\n\n\n\n2 Challenges \n\n2.1 United States \n\n\n3 Standards \n4 See also \n5 References \n6 External links \n\n\nBy nation \nRegulatory compliance varies not only by industry but often by location. The financial, research, and pharmaceutical regulatory structures in one country, for example, may be similar but with particularly different nuances in another country. These similarities and differences are often a product \"of reactions to the changing objectives and requirements in different countries, industries, and policy contexts.\"[5]\n\nAustralia \nAustralia's major financial services regulators of deposits, insurance, and superannuation include the Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA), the Australian Prudential Regulation Authority (APRA), the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC), and the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC).[6] These regulators help to ensure financial institutes meet their promises, that transactional information is well documented, and that competition is fair while protecting consumers. The APRA in particular deals with superannuation and its regulation, including new regulations requiring trustees of superannuation funds to demonstrate to APRA that they have adequate resources (human, technology and financial), risk management systems, and appropriate skills and expertise to manage the superannuation fund, with individuals running them being \"fit and proper.\"[6]\nOther key regulators in Australia include the Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) for broadcasting, the internet, and communications[7]; the Clean Energy Regulator for \"monitoring, facilitating and enforcing compliance with\" energy and carbon emission schemes[8]; and the Therapeutic Goods Administration for drugs, devices, and biologics[9]; \nAustralian organisations seeking to remain compliant with various regulations may turn to AS ISO 19600:2015 (which supersedes AS 3806-2006). This standard helps organisations with compliance management, placing \"emphasis on the organisational elements that are required to support compliance\" while also recognizing the need for continual improvement.[10][11]\n\nCanada \nIn Canada, federal regulation of deposits, insurance, and superannuation is governed by two independent bodies: the OSFI through the Bank Act, and FINTRAC, mandated by the Proceeds of Crime (Money Laundering) and Terrorist Financing Act, 2001 (PCMLTFA).[12][13] These groups protect consumers, regulate how risk is controlled and managed, and investigate illegal action such as money laundering and terrorist financing.[12][13] On a provincial level, each province maintain individuals laws and agencies. Unlike any other major federation, Canada does not have a securities regulatory authority at the federal government level. The provincial and territorial regulators work together to coordinate and harmonize regulation of the Canadian capital markets through the Canadian Securities Administrators (CSA).[14]\nOther key regulators in Canada include the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) for food safety, animal health, and plant health; Health Canada for public health; and Environment and Climate Change Canada for environment and sustainable energy.[15]\nAustralian organizations seeking to remain compliant with various regulations may turn to ISO 19600:2014, an international compliance standard that \"provides guidance for establishing, developing, implementing, evaluating, maintaining and improving an effective and responsive compliance management system within an organization.\"[16] For more industry specific guidance, e.g., financial institutions, Canada's E-13 Regulatory Compliance Management provides specific compliance risk management tactics.[17]\n\nIndia \nIn India, compliance regulation takes place across three strata: Central, State, and Local regulation. India veers towards central regulation, especially of financial organizations and foreign funds.[18] Compliance regulations vary based on the industry segment in addition to the geographical mix. Most regulation comes in the following broad categories: economic regulation, regulation in the public interest, and environmental regulation.[19] India has also been characterized by poor compliance - reports suggest that only around 65% of companies are fully compliant to norms.[20]\n\nUnited Kingdom \nThere is considerable regulation in the United Kingdom, some of which is from European Union legislation. Various areas are policed by different bodies, such as the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA), Environment Agency, Scottish Environment Protection Agency, Information Commissioner's Office, Care Quality Commission, and others.\nImportant compliance issues for all organizations large and small include the Data Protection Act 1998 and, for the public sector, Freedom of Information Act 2000.\n\nFinancial compliance \nThe U.K. Corporate Governance Code (formerly the Combined Code) is issued by the Financial Reporting Council (FRC) and \"sets standards of good practice in relation to board leadership and effectiveness, remuneration, accountability, and relations with shareholders.\"[21] All companies with a Premium Listing of equity shares in the U.K. are required under the Listing Rules to report on how they have applied the Combined Code in their annual report and accounts.[22] (The Codes are therefore most similar to the U.S.' Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act.)\nThe U.K.'s regulatory framework requires that all its publicly listed companies should provide specific content in the core financial statements that must appear in a yearly report, including balance sheet, comprehensive income statement, and statement of changes in equity, as well as cash flow statement as required under international accounting standards.[23] It further demonstrates the relationship that subsists among shareholders, management, and the independent audit teams. Financial statements must be prepared using a particular set of rules and regulations hence the rationale behind allowing the companies to apply the provisions of company law, international financial reporting standards (IFRS), as well as the U.K. stock exchange rules as directed by the FCA.[24] It is also possible that shareholders may not understand the figures as presented in the various financial statements, hence it is critical that the board should provide notes on accounting policies as well as other explanatory notes to help them understand the report better.\n\nChallenges \nData retention is a part of regulatory compliance that is proving to be a challenge in many instances. The security that comes from compliance with industry regulations can seem contrary to maintaining user privacy. Data retention laws and regulations ask data owners and other service providers to retain extensive records of user activity beyond the time necessary for normal business operations. These requirements have been called into question by privacy rights advocates.[25]\nCompliance in this area is becoming very difficult. Laws like the CAN-SPAM Act and Fair Credit Reporting Act in the U.S. require that businesses give people the right to be forgotten.[26][27] In other words, they must remove individuals from marketing lists if it is requested, tell them when and why they might share personal information with a third party, or at least ask permission before sharing that data. Now, with new laws coming out that demand longer data retention despite the individual\u2019s desires, it can create some real difficulties.\n\nUnited States \nCorporate scandals and breakdowns such as the Enron case of reputational risk in 2001 have increased calls for stronger compliance and regulations, particularly for publicly listed companies.[28] The most significant regulation in this context is the Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act developed by two U.S. congressmen, Senator Paul Sarbanes and Representative Michael Oxley in 2002 which defined significantly tighter personal responsibility of corporate top management for the accuracy of reported financial statements; and the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act.\nThe Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) is an agency of the United States Department of the Treasury under the auspices of the Under Secretary of the Treasury for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence. OFAC administers and enforces economic and trade sanctions based on U.S. foreign policy and national security goals against targeted foreign states, organizations, and individuals.\nCompliance in the U.S. generally means compliance with laws and regulations. These laws can have criminal or civil penalties or can be regulations. The definition of what constitutes an effective compliance plan has been elusive. Most authors, however, continue to cite the guidance provided by the United States Sentencing Commission in Chapter 8 of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines.[29][30]\nOn October 12, 2006, the U.S. Small Business Administration re-launched Business.gov (new Business.USA.gov)[31] which provides a single point of access to government services and information that help businesses comply with government regulations.\nThe U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) was created by Congress to assure safe and healthful working conditions for working men and women by setting and enforcing standards and by providing training, outreach, education and assistance. OSHA implements laws and regulations regularly in the following areas, construction, maritime, agriculture, and recordkeeping.[32]\n\nStandards \nThe International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and its ISO 19600 standard is one of the primary international standards for how businesses handle regulatory compliance, providing a reminder of how compliance and risk should operate together, as \u201ccolleagues\u201d sharing a common framework with some nuances to account for their differences.[33] The ISO also produces international standards such as ISO\/IEC 27002 to help organizations meet regulatory compliance with their security management and assurance best practices.[34]\nSome local or international specialized organizations such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) also develop standards and regulation codes. They thereby provide a wide range of rules and directives to ensure compliance of the products to safety, security or design standards.[35]\n\nSee also \nChina Compulsory Certificate\nBusiness Motivation Model. A standard for recording governance and compliance activities\nCall report\nChief compliance officer\nGovernance, risk management, and compliance\nCompliance and ethics program\nEnforcement\nHealth Care Compliance Association\nLaw enforcement agency\nLaw enforcement templates by country or region\nSociety of Corporate Compliance and Ethics\nReferences \nExternal links \n\n\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Regulatory compliance.\nBusiness.USA.gov, Official U.S. Government Portal for Complying with Regulations.\nEuropean Project COMPAS, European Project COMPAS - Compliance-driven Models, Languages, and Architectures for Services; funded by the EU 7th Framework Programme Information and Communication Technologies Objective.\nAuthority control \nNDL: 00991913 \n\n^ Compliance, Technology, and Modern Finance, 11 Journal of Corporate, Financial & Commercial Law 159 (2016) \n\n^ Silveira, P.; Rodriguez, C.; Birukou, A.; Casati, F.; Daniel, F.; D'Andrea, V.; Worledge, C.; Zouhair, T. (2012), Aiding Compliance Governance in Service-Based Business Processes, IGI Global, pp. 524\u2013548 \n\n^ Norris-Montanari, J. (27 February 2017). \"Compliance \u2013 Where does it fit in a data strategy?\". SAS Blogs. SAS Institute, Inc. Retrieved 31 July 2018 . \n\n^ Monica, A.D.; Shilt, C.; Rimmerman, R.; et al. (2015). \"Chapter 4: Monitoring software updates\". Microsoft System Center Software Update Management Field Experience. Microsoft Press. pp. 57\u201382. ISBN 9780735695894. \n\n^ Malyshev, N. (2008). \"The Evolution of Regulatory Policy in OECD Countries\" (PDF) . OECD. Retrieved 27 July 2018 . \n\n^ a b Pearson, G. (2009). \"Chapter 2: The regulatory structure\". Financial Services Law and Compliance in Australia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 20\u201368. ISBN 9780521617840. \n\n^ \"Regulatory Responsibility\". ACMA. 17 December 2012. Retrieved 31 July 2018 . \n\n^ \"What we do\". Clean Energy Regulator. 14 December 2016. Retrieved 31 July 2018 . \n\n^ Weinberg, S. (2011). \"Chapter 13: International Regulation\". Cost-Contained Regulatory Compliance: For the Pharmaceutical, Biologics, and Medical Device Industries. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 227\u2013258. ISBN 9781118002278. \n\n^ CompliSpace (14 April 2016). \"Compliance Standards ISO 19600 and AS 3806 \u2013 Differences explained\". Retrieved 31 July 2018 . \n\n^ \"AS ISO 19600:2015\". Standards Catalogue. Standards Australia. Retrieved 31 July 2018 . \n\n^ a b International Monetary Fund; Financial Action Task Force (December 2008). Canada: Report on Observance of Standards and Codes - FATF Recommendations for Anti-Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism. \n\n^ a b International Monetary Fund (August 2016). Canada: Detailed Assessment Report on Anti-Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism. ISBN 9781475536188. \n\n^ Lee, R. (2003). \"Chapter 6: Promoting Regional Capital Market Integration\". In Dowers, K.; Msci, P. Focus on Capital: New Approaches to Developing Latin American Capital Markets. Inter-American Development Bank. p. 168. ISBN 9781931003490. \n\n^ Smyth, S.J.; McHughen, A. (2012). \"Chapter 2: Regulation of Genetically Modified Crops in USA and Canada: Canadian Overview\". In Wozniak, C.A.; McHughen, A. Regulation of Agricultural Biotechnology: The United States and Canada. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 15\u201334. ISBN 9789400721562. \n\n^ International Organization for Standardization (December 2014). \"ISO 19600:2014\". Standards Catalogue. Retrieved 31 July 2018 . \n\n^ Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions (14 November 2014). \"Revised Guideline E-13 \u2013 Regulatory Compliance Management (RCM)\". Government of Canada. Retrieved 31 July 2018 . \n\n^ avantisadmin (2016-09-18). \"The structure of regulatory compliance in India\". Avantis. Retrieved 2016-09-18 . \n\n^ \"Regulatory Management and Reform in India\" (PDF) . OECD. \n\n^ \"India Inc has poor record in regulatory compliance | Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis\". 2014-10-12. Retrieved 2016-09-18 . \n\n^ \"UK Corporate Governance Code\". Financial Reporting Council. Retrieved 31 July 2018 . \n\n^ \"LR 1.5 Standard and Premium Listing\". FCA Handbook. Financial Conduct Authority. Retrieved 31 July 2018 . \n\n^ \"LR 9.8 Annual financial report\". FCA Handbook. Financial Conduct Authority. Retrieved 31 July 2018 . \n\n^ \"FCA Handbook\". Financial Conduct Authority. Retrieved 31 July 2018 . \n\n^ \"Compliance Challenge: Privacy vs. Security\". Dell.com. Archived from the original on 2011-02-26. Retrieved 2012-06-19 . \n\n^ Francis, L.P.; Francis, J.G. (2017). Privacy: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford University Press. p. PT102. ISBN 9780190612283. \n\n^ Dale, N.; Lewis, J. (2015). Computer Science Illuminated. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 388. ISBN 9781284055924. \n\n^ Compliance, Technology, and Modern Finance, 11 Journal of Corporate, Financial & Commercial Law 159 (2016) \n\n^ \"Special Reports and Discussions on Chapter Eight\". USSC.gov. Archived from the original on November 23, 2010. \n\n^ The Ethics and Compliance Initiative (ECI). \"Principles and Practices of High Quality Ethics & Compliance Programs\". pp. 12\u201313. Retrieved 31 August 2016 . \n\n^ \"Explore Business Tools & Resources\". Business.USA.gov. \n\n^ \"OSHA Law & Regulations | Occupational Safety and Health Administration\". www.osha.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-07 . \n\n^ Tattam, David. \"Compliance Risk Management\". Protecht Risk Management Insights. Retrieved 27 March 2015 . \n\n^ Calder, A.; Watkins, S. (2015). IT Governance: An International Guide to Data Security and ISO 27001\/ISO 27002. Kogan Page Publishers. pp. 39\u201340. ISBN 9780749474065. \n\n^ Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspection According to ASME \n\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Business and data managementRegulatory informationHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 31 July 2018, at 22:05.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 1,326 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Regulatory_compliance skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Regulatory compliance<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"Compliance (regulation)\" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Compliance_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-redirect mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Compliance (disambiguation)\" data-key=\"e8d4d16a3b16830a63eebdd8c3de14c4\">Compliance (disambiguation)<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p>In general, <b>compliance<\/b> means conforming to a rule, such as a specification, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Policy\" title=\"Policy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1e53cac97ac6a1bb336545f75a474b3\">policy<\/a>, standard or law. <b>Regulatory compliance<\/b> describes the goal that organizations aspire to achieve in their efforts to ensure that they are aware of and take steps to comply with relevant <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Law\" title=\"Law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a4bcab6b03bbfbf75baac123e1b8a0b\">laws<\/a>, policies, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulations\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Regulations\" data-key=\"8e577f5bab21f415ddbc3172a4668ca7\">regulations<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Due to the increasing number of regulations and need for operational transparency, organizations are increasingly adopting the use of consolidated and harmonized sets of compliance controls.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> This approach is used to ensure that all necessary governance requirements can be met without the unnecessary duplication of effort and activity from resources. \n<\/p><p>Regulations and accrediting organizations vary among fields, with examples such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PCI-DSS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PCI-DSS\" data-key=\"f51eacc10c4e573cea5c64238269032d\">PCI-DSS<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GLBA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GLBA\" data-key=\"f416f00703d341ac09931f8c5d41918a\">GLBA<\/a> in the financial industry, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FISMA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"FISMA\" data-key=\"4c79d8d056a802433394865de1cbcfa0\">FISMA<\/a> for U.S. federal agencies, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HACCP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HACCP\" data-key=\"b870062afc1634e4ec568683d6b00d98\">HACCP<\/a> for the food and beverage industry, and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joint_Commission\" title=\"Joint Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da15412bea3be2d28dcf7cc4b265a139\">Joint Commission<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HIPAA\" data-key=\"e5d765dfa9187745e2a5463d1b49a4c9\">HIPAA<\/a> in healthcare. In some cases other compliance frameworks (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/COBIT\" title=\"COBIT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d26ff34a68e7a0ff8c85cde8e7fde21\">COBIT<\/a>) or even standards (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NIST\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NIST\" data-key=\"2c5730fa123ebb7598290eb8137b243f\">NIST<\/a>) inform on how to comply with regulations.\n<\/p><p>Some organizations keep compliance data\u2014all data belonging or pertaining to the enterprise or included in the law, which can be used for the purpose of implementing or validating compliance\u2014in a separate store for meeting reporting requirements. Compliance software is increasingly being implemented to help companies manage their compliance data more efficiently. This store may include calculations, data transfers, and audit trails.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Norris-MontanariCompliance17_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Norris-MontanariCompliance17-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MonicaMicrosoft15_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MonicaMicrosoft15-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"By_nation\">By nation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Regulatory compliance varies not only by industry but often by location. The financial, research, and pharmaceutical regulatory structures in one country, for example, may be similar but with particularly different nuances in another country. These similarities and differences are often a product \"of reactions to the changing objectives and requirements in different countries, industries, and policy contexts.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MalyshevTheEvo08_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MalyshevTheEvo08-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Australia\">Australia<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australia\" title=\"Australia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c2db49e6ded3da2c9ba98e453f9ea81\">Australia<\/a>'s major <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_regulation_in_Australia\" title=\"Financial regulation in Australia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8a3769dd0485b50263187a1fa9e8b7d\">financial services regulators<\/a> of deposits, insurance, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superannuation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Superannuation\" data-key=\"63d5d93fcec35dabe323db908a5aef54\">superannuation<\/a> include the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reserve_Bank_of_Australia\" title=\"Reserve Bank of Australia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f5401ab379f907b7abab43b3b9948f0\">Reserve Bank of Australia<\/a> (RBA), the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australian_Prudential_Regulation_Authority\" title=\"Australian Prudential Regulation Authority\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3080c3796282ae1199aab6b72ffa222c\">Australian Prudential Regulation Authority<\/a> (APRA), the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australian_Securities_and_Investments_Commission\" title=\"Australian Securities and Investments Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"356316f6b17f9e1460a941e13c267ce2\">Australian Securities and Investments Commission<\/a> (ASIC), and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australian_Competition_and_Consumer_Commission\" title=\"Australian Competition and Consumer Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a464ce5fbc2e954c0557adec7aa93b26\">Australian Competition and Consumer Commission<\/a> (ACCC).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PearsonFinancial09_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PearsonFinancial09-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> These regulators help to ensure financial institutes meet their promises, that transactional information is well documented, and that competition is fair while protecting consumers. The APRA in particular deals with superannuation and its regulation, including new regulations requiring trustees of superannuation funds to demonstrate to APRA that they have adequate resources (human, technology and financial), risk management systems, and appropriate skills and expertise to manage the superannuation fund, with individuals running them being \"fit and proper.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PearsonFinancial09_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PearsonFinancial09-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other key regulators in Australia include the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australian_Communications_and_Media_Authority\" title=\"Australian Communications and Media Authority\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2145a7117241211b242e0da3483b671c\">Australian Communications and Media Authority<\/a> (ACMA) for broadcasting, the internet, and communications<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ACMARegulatory12_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ACMARegulatory12-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>; the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clean_Energy_Regulator\" title=\"Clean Energy Regulator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"111c8e8988ece1ef056f06ffe73de7fd\">Clean Energy Regulator<\/a> for \"monitoring, facilitating and enforcing compliance with\" energy and carbon emission schemes<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CERWhat16_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CERWhat16-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>; and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Therapeutic_Goods_Administration\" title=\"Therapeutic Goods Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be66c90b0aae3ff839897d475180684c\">Therapeutic Goods Administration<\/a> for drugs, devices, and biologics<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WeinbergCost11_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WeinbergCost11-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>; \n<\/p><p>Australian organisations seeking to remain compliant with various regulations may turn to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_19600\" title=\"ISO 19600\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95364d689c7f217412bcd2a05843b987\">AS ISO 19600:2015<\/a> (which supersedes AS 3806-2006). This standard helps organisations with compliance management, placing \"emphasis on the organisational elements that are required to support compliance\" while also recognizing the need for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Continual_improvement_process\" title=\"Continual improvement process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0c083e85a0c6a14719294c23bdaf2cd\">continual improvement<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CompliCompliance16_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CompliCompliance16-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SA_ASISO19600_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SA_ASISO19600-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Canada\">Canada<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Canada\" title=\"Canada\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d2d285670d9ceeca776b202248af2f2\">Canada<\/a>, federal regulation of deposits, insurance, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superannuation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Superannuation\" data-key=\"63d5d93fcec35dabe323db908a5aef54\">superannuation<\/a> is governed by two independent bodies: the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OSFI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OSFI\" data-key=\"187def7b4483feca5095d3072d9046ad\">OSFI<\/a> through the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bank_Act\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bank Act\" data-key=\"55157c86b5bff83a5e50174a5d8def6d\">Bank Act<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FINTRAC\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"FINTRAC\" data-key=\"c8125f521c8b972240ccaac6a9bd7283\">FINTRAC<\/a>, mandated by the Proceeds of Crime (Money Laundering) and Terrorist Financing Act, 2001 (PCMLTFA).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IMFCanada08_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IMFCanada08-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IMFCanada16_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IMFCanada16-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> These groups protect consumers, regulate how risk is controlled and managed, and investigate illegal action such as money laundering and terrorist financing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IMFCanada08_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IMFCanada08-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IMFCanada16_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IMFCanada16-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> On a provincial level, each province maintain individuals laws and agencies. Unlike any other major federation, Canada does not have a securities regulatory authority at the federal government level. The provincial and territorial regulators work together to coordinate and harmonize regulation of the Canadian capital markets through the Canadian Securities Administrators (CSA).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeePromoting03_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeePromoting03-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other key regulators in Canada include the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Canadian_Food_Inspection_Agency\" title=\"Canadian Food Inspection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e5a9e7eafe9032cfbb5e955e53a4cb3\">Canadian Food Inspection Agency<\/a> (CFIA) for food safety, animal health, and plant health; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_Canada\" title=\"Health Canada\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d9f7b0c166e7b7580d969a18b36f8c3\">Health Canada<\/a> for public health; and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environment_and_Climate_Change_Canada\" title=\"Environment and Climate Change Canada\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb98e99e2d4235d8d592de85d7023e9c\">Environment and Climate Change Canada<\/a> for environment and sustainable energy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SmythRegulation12_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SmythRegulation12-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Australian organizations seeking to remain compliant with various regulations may turn to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_19600\" title=\"ISO 19600\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95364d689c7f217412bcd2a05843b987\">ISO 19600:2014<\/a>, an international compliance standard that \"provides guidance for establishing, developing, implementing, evaluating, maintaining and improving an effective and responsive compliance management system within an organization.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO19600_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO19600-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> For more industry specific guidance, e.g., financial institutions, Canada's E-13 Regulatory Compliance Management provides specific compliance risk management tactics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OSFIRevised14_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OSFIRevised14-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"India\">India<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In India, compliance regulation takes place across three strata: Central, State, and Local regulation. India veers towards central regulation, especially of financial organizations and foreign funds.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> Compliance regulations vary based on the industry segment in addition to the geographical mix. Most regulation comes in the following broad categories: economic regulation, regulation in the public interest, and environmental regulation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> India has also been characterized by poor compliance - reports suggest that only around 65% of companies are fully compliant to norms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"United_Kingdom\">United Kingdom<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There is considerable regulation in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_Kingdom\" title=\"United Kingdom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec8205bb550c2cfa9d84ff6d896f202f\">United Kingdom<\/a>, some of which is from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a> legislation. Various areas are policed by different bodies, such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_Conduct_Authority\" title=\"Financial Conduct Authority\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02912773ffa5d5aeb810cc9cc26c02d7\">Financial Conduct Authority<\/a> (FCA), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environment_Agency\" title=\"Environment Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17f9fe7cf3c0213c6c0a3bfc9574a0d5\">Environment Agency<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scottish_Environment_Protection_Agency\" title=\"Scottish Environment Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"870ef0af7354eb9587b31b5905bfb0f0\">Scottish Environment Protection Agency<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Commissioner%27s_Office\" title=\"Information Commissioner's Office\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42dea620818f881e4865280dbc45fd95\">Information Commissioner's Office<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Care_Quality_Commission\" title=\"Care Quality Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c26e72f8af174840d7ae6b6336ca12c\">Care Quality Commission<\/a>, and others.\n<\/p><p>Important compliance issues for all organizations large and small include the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Protection_Act_1998\" title=\"Data Protection Act 1998\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c31e8341972897bbde3d1dfa3760171\">Data Protection Act 1998<\/a> and, for the public sector, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Freedom_of_Information_Act_2000\" title=\"Freedom of Information Act 2000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"28bc3e63c01e7574c9f4497cbe6b3590\">Freedom of Information Act 2000<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Financial_compliance\">Financial compliance<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UK_Corporate_Governance_Code\" title=\"UK Corporate Governance Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b59bc5ec4a52a218018c8d7c509f154\">U.K. Corporate Governance Code<\/a> (formerly the Combined Code) is issued by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_Reporting_Council\" title=\"Financial Reporting Council\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01f771dbb457289c18bcbcd6218e3366\">Financial Reporting Council<\/a> (FRC) and \"sets standards of good practice in relation to board leadership and effectiveness, remuneration, accountability, and relations with shareholders.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FRCUKCorp_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FRCUKCorp-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> All companies with a Premium Listing of equity shares in the U.K. are required under the Listing Rules to report on how they have applied the Combined Code in their annual report and accounts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FCALR1.5_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FCALR1.5-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> (The Codes are therefore most similar to the U.S.' <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sarbanes%E2%80%93Oxley_Act\" title=\"Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bc225a8cadba29f9f88c2930c3a91b9\">Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act<\/a>.)\n<\/p><p>The U.K.'s regulatory framework requires that all its publicly listed companies should provide specific content in the core financial statements that must appear in a yearly report, including balance sheet, comprehensive income statement, and statement of changes in equity, as well as cash flow statement as required under international accounting standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FCALR9.8_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FCALR9.8-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> It further demonstrates the relationship that subsists among shareholders, management, and the independent audit teams. Financial statements must be prepared using a particular set of rules and regulations hence the rationale behind allowing the companies to apply the provisions of company law, international financial reporting standards (IFRS), as well as the U.K. stock exchange rules as directed by the FCA.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FCAHandbook_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FCAHandbook-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> It is also possible that shareholders may not understand the figures as presented in the various financial statements, hence it is critical that the board should provide notes on accounting policies as well as other explanatory notes to help them understand the report better.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Challenges\">Challenges<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_retention\" title=\"Data retention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7319085a4f0e9c849d3614b6d796cdb5\">Data retention<\/a> is a part of regulatory compliance that is proving to be a challenge in many instances. The security that comes from compliance with industry regulations can seem contrary to maintaining user privacy. Data retention laws and regulations ask data owners and other service providers to retain extensive records of user activity beyond the time necessary for normal business operations. These requirements have been called into question by privacy rights advocates.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Compliance in this area is becoming very difficult. Laws like the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CAN-SPAM_Act\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CAN-SPAM Act\" data-key=\"17d88e9d7785cacb5a772625c787c147\">CAN-SPAM Act<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fair_Credit_Reporting_Act\" title=\"Fair Credit Reporting Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0f010b6b8a28b8bfa5ed2ee1dc67ee6\">Fair Credit Reporting Act<\/a> in the U.S. require that businesses give people the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Right_to_be_forgotten\" title=\"Right to be forgotten\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4767bb98073cd934e871b77d65c4bdd1\">right to be forgotten<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FrancisPrivacy17_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FrancisPrivacy17-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DaleComp15_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DaleComp15-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> In other words, they must remove individuals from marketing lists if it is requested, tell them when and why they might share personal information with a third party, or at least ask permission before sharing that data. Now, with new laws coming out that demand longer data retention despite the individual\u2019s desires, it can create some real difficulties.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"United_States\">United States<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Corporate scandals and breakdowns such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enron\" title=\"Enron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84766d866873390fe53f7efd813ecb48\">Enron<\/a> case of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reputational_risk\" title=\"Reputational risk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"423bed7ea8fd28fb698f92ba4c9ea168\">reputational risk<\/a> in 2001 have increased calls for stronger compliance and regulations, particularly for publicly listed companies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> The most significant regulation in this context is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sarbanes%E2%80%93Oxley_Act\" title=\"Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bc225a8cadba29f9f88c2930c3a91b9\">Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act<\/a> developed by two U.S. congressmen, Senator <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paul_Sarbanes\" title=\"Paul Sarbanes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"461f1d187f039c48b5b2b99244aa4756\">Paul Sarbanes<\/a> and Representative <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_Oxley\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Michael Oxley\" data-key=\"3536d69036ca8c583f55055de9f4feb6\">Michael Oxley<\/a> in 2002 which defined significantly tighter personal responsibility of corporate top management for the accuracy of reported financial statements; and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dodd-Frank_Wall_Street_Reform_and_Consumer_Protection_Act\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act\" data-key=\"de6363c814338f42d9e22ba0f44b7dae\">Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OFAC\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OFAC\" data-key=\"4cf48a332f2b3168a71e762f8dedd508\">Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC)<\/a> is an agency of the United States Department of the Treasury under the auspices of the Under Secretary of the Treasury for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence. OFAC administers and enforces economic and trade sanctions based on U.S. foreign policy and national security goals against targeted foreign states, organizations, and individuals.\n<\/p><p>Compliance in the U.S. generally means compliance with laws and regulations. These laws can have criminal or civil penalties or can be regulations. The definition of what constitutes an effective compliance plan has been elusive. Most authors, however, continue to cite the guidance provided by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Sentencing_Commission\" title=\"United States Sentencing Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"503073d9d6fe00d527895fba974ac438\">United States Sentencing Commission<\/a> in Chapter 8 of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On October 12, 2006, the U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Small_Business_Administration\" title=\"Small Business Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8054840afa9b61560458cbd233d1060\">Small Business Administration<\/a> re-launched <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business.gov\" title=\"Business.gov\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c92019398857784f963cde7c90556503\">Business.gov<\/a> (new Business.USA.gov)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> which provides a single point of access to government services and information that help businesses comply with government regulations.\n<\/p><p>The U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) was created by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Congress\" title=\"United States Congress\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3e9948feec8fdbe2ecf8ba138c7a20d\">Congress<\/a> to assure safe and healthful working conditions for working men and women by setting and enforcing standards and by providing training, outreach, education and assistance. OSHA implements laws and regulations regularly in the following areas, construction, maritime, agriculture, and recordkeeping.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standards\">Standards<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO) and its <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_19600\" title=\"ISO 19600\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95364d689c7f217412bcd2a05843b987\">ISO 19600<\/a> standard is one of the primary international standards for how businesses handle regulatory compliance, providing a reminder of how compliance and risk should operate together, as \u201ccolleagues\u201d sharing a common framework with some nuances to account for their differences.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> The ISO also produces international standards such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_27002\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 27002\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc28eaa3c6396ef0cb40ec8a4bc4ab2e\">ISO\/IEC 27002<\/a> to help organizations meet regulatory compliance with their security management and assurance best practices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CalderITGov15_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CalderITGov15-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Some local or international specialized organizations such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/American_Society_of_Mechanical_Engineers\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"American Society of Mechanical Engineers\" data-key=\"644284570edf77a4f0c1978a50dd9c30\">American Society of Mechanical Engineers<\/a> (ASME) also develop standards and regulation codes. They thereby provide a wide range of rules and directives to ensure compliance of the products to safety, security or design standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/China_Compulsory_Certificate\" title=\"China Compulsory Certificate\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b16acd402ab893174f2d7b8f6fd45b2\">China Compulsory Certificate<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_Motivation_Model\" title=\"Business Motivation Model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9034fffa9114bb45358fb4e0dd114acc\">Business Motivation Model<\/a>. A standard for recording governance and compliance activities<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Call_report\" title=\"Call report\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"438b157b4a1d38826b114568e734d2e7\">Call report<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chief_compliance_officer\" title=\"Chief compliance officer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98b38815dc7010d9facdcb4862dca2fd\">Chief compliance officer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Governance,_risk_management,_and_compliance\" title=\"Governance, risk management, and compliance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33f778588d220ee82300b430db4e449e\">Governance, risk management, and compliance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Compliance_and_ethics_program\" title=\"Compliance and ethics program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94f7eaccdd3de3aeff8d046a4e00cb6a\">Compliance and ethics program<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enforcement\" title=\"Enforcement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc75a3086654a0204947caaf38401134\">Enforcement<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_Care_Compliance_Association\" title=\"Health Care Compliance Association\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d3155dc4c039a6e91f492b4c4b31a66\">Health Care Compliance Association<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Law_enforcement_agency\" title=\"Law enforcement agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5827c14b03e73d46ac8b7fb0a1940306\">Law enforcement agency<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Law_enforcement_templates_by_country_or_region\" title=\"Category:Law enforcement templates by country or region\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a2122c266023067eb674c99fe1f4356d\">Law enforcement templates by country or region<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Society_of_Corporate_Compliance_and_Ethics\" title=\"Society of Corporate Compliance and Ethics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c49e736922090b1b6c025f48aade5993\">Society of Corporate Compliance and Ethics<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.business.USA.gov\/\" target=\"_blank\">Business.USA.gov<\/a>, Official U.S. Government Portal for Complying with Regulations.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.compas-ict.eu\" target=\"_blank\">European Project COMPAS<\/a>, European Project COMPAS - Compliance-driven Models, Languages, and Architectures for Services; funded by the EU 7th Framework Programme Information and Communication Technologies Objective.<\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=2904664\" target=\"_blank\">Compliance, Technology, and Modern Finance, 11 Journal of Corporate, Financial & Commercial Law 159 (2016)<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSilveira,_P.Rodriguez,_C.Birukou,_A.Casati,_F.2012\" class=\"citation\">Silveira, P.; Rodriguez, C.; Birukou, A.; Casati, F.; Daniel, F.; D'Andrea, V.; Worledge, C.; Zouhair, T. (2012), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.igi-global.com\/chapter\/handbook-research-service-oriented-systems\/60900\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Aiding Compliance Governance in Service-Based Business Processes<\/i><\/a>, IGI Global, pp. 524\u2013548<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aiding+Compliance+Governance+in+Service-Based+Business+Processes&rft.pages=524-548&rft.pub=IGI+Global&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Silveira%2C+P.&rft.au=Rodriguez%2C+C.&rft.au=Birukou%2C+A.&rft.au=Casati%2C+F.&rft.au=Daniel%2C+F.&rft.au=D%27Andrea%2C+V.&rft.au=Worledge%2C+C.&rft.au=Zouhair%2C+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.igi-global.com%2Fchapter%2Fhandbook-research-service-oriented-systems%2F60900&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Norris-MontanariCompliance17-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Norris-MontanariCompliance17_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Norris-Montanari, J. (27 February 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blogs.sas.com\/content\/datamanagement\/2017\/02\/27\/compliance-fit-in-data-strategy\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Compliance \u2013 Where does it fit in a data strategy?\"<\/a>. <i>SAS Blogs<\/i>. SAS Institute, Inc<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SAS+Blogs&rft.atitle=Compliance+%E2%80%93+Where+does+it+fit+in+a+data+strategy%3F&rft.date=2017-02-27&rft.au=Norris-Montanari%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.sas.com%2Fcontent%2Fdatamanagement%2F2017%2F02%2F27%2Fcompliance-fit-in-data-strategy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MonicaMicrosoft15-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MonicaMicrosoft15_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Monica, A.D.; Shilt, C.; Rimmerman, R.; et al. (2015). \"Chapter 4: Monitoring software updates\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=e7TEBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA57\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Microsoft System Center Software Update Management Field Experience<\/i><\/a>. Microsoft Press. pp. 57\u201382. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780735695894.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4%3A+Monitoring+software+updates&rft.btitle=Microsoft+System+Center+Software+Update+Management+Field+Experience&rft.pages=57-82&rft.pub=Microsoft+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780735695894&rft.au=Monica%2C+A.D.&rft.au=Shilt%2C+C.&rft.au=Rimmerman%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De7TEBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MalyshevTheEvo08-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MalyshevTheEvo08_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Malyshev, N. (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oecd.org\/gov\/regulatory-policy\/41882845.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Evolution of Regulatory Policy in OECD Countries\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. OECD<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Regulatory+Policy+in+OECD+Countries&rft.pub=OECD&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Malyshev%2C+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd.org%2Fgov%2Fregulatory-policy%2F41882845.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PearsonFinancial09-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-PearsonFinancial09_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-PearsonFinancial09_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Pearson, G. (2009). \"Chapter 2: The regulatory structure\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=_rCX5G2RncYC&pg=PA20\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Financial Services Law and Compliance in Australia<\/i><\/a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 20\u201368. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780521617840.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+The+regulatory+structure&rft.btitle=Financial+Services+Law+and+Compliance+in+Australia&rft.pages=20-68&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780521617840&rft.au=Pearson%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_rCX5G2RncYC%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ACMARegulatory12-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ACMARegulatory12_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.acma.gov.au\/theACMA\/About\/Corporate\/Responsibilities\/regulation-responsibilities-acma\" target=\"_blank\">\"Regulatory Responsibility\"<\/a>. ACMA. 17 December 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Regulatory+Responsibility&rft.pub=ACMA&rft.date=2012-12-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.acma.gov.au%2FtheACMA%2FAbout%2FCorporate%2FResponsibilities%2Fregulation-responsibilities-acma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CERWhat16-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CERWhat16_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au\/About\/What-we-do\" target=\"_blank\">\"What we do\"<\/a>. Clean Energy Regulator. 14 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+we+do&rft.pub=Clean+Energy+Regulator&rft.date=2016-12-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cleanenergyregulator.gov.au%2FAbout%2FWhat-we-do&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WeinbergCost11-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WeinbergCost11_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Weinberg, S. (2011). \"Chapter 13: International Regulation\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=qAZri2M0yTEC&pg=PA227\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Cost-Contained Regulatory Compliance: For the Pharmaceutical, Biologics, and Medical Device Industries<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 227\u2013258. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781118002278.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+13%3A+International+Regulation&rft.btitle=Cost-Contained+Regulatory+Compliance%3A+For+the+Pharmaceutical%2C+Biologics%2C+and+Medical+Device+Industries&rft.pages=227-258&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781118002278&rft.au=Weinberg%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqAZri2M0yTEC%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CompliCompliance16-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CompliCompliance16_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">CompliSpace (14 April 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.complispace.com.au\/blog\/financial-services-updates\/compliance-standards-iso-19600-3806-differences-explained\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Compliance Standards ISO 19600 and AS 3806 \u2013 Differences explained\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Compliance+Standards+ISO+19600+and+AS+3806+%E2%80%93+Differences+explained&rft.date=2016-04-14&rft.au=CompliSpace&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.complispace.com.au%2Fblog%2Ffinancial-services-updates%2Fcompliance-standards-iso-19600-3806-differences-explained%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SA_ASISO19600-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SA_ASISO19600_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.standards.org.au\/standards-catalogue\/sa-snz\/publicsafety\/qr-017\/as--iso--19600-colon-2015\" target=\"_blank\">\"AS ISO 19600:2015\"<\/a>. <i>Standards Catalogue<\/i>. Standards Australia<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Standards+Catalogue&rft.atitle=AS+ISO+19600%3A2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.standards.org.au%2Fstandards-catalogue%2Fsa-snz%2Fpublicsafety%2Fqr-017%2Fas--iso--19600-colon-2015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IMFCanada08-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-IMFCanada08_12-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-IMFCanada08_12-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">International Monetary Fund; Financial Action Task Force (December 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=qElS-YxIMPMC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Canada: Report on Observance of Standards and Codes - FATF Recommendations for Anti-Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism<\/i><\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canada%3A+Report+on+Observance+of+Standards+and+Codes+-+FATF+Recommendations+for+Anti-Money+Laundering+and+Combating+the+Financing+of+Terrorism&rft.date=2008-12&rft.au=International+Monetary+Fund%3B+Financial+Action+Task+Force&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqElS-YxIMPMC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IMFCanada16-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-IMFCanada16_13-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-IMFCanada16_13-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">International Monetary Fund (August 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rJUtDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Canada: Detailed Assessment Report on Anti-Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism<\/i><\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781475536188.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canada%3A+Detailed+Assessment+Report+on+Anti-Money+Laundering+and+Combating+the+Financing+of+Terrorism&rft.date=2016-08&rft.isbn=9781475536188&rft.au=International+Monetary+Fund&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrJUtDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LeePromoting03-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LeePromoting03_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Lee, R. (2003). \"Chapter 6: Promoting Regional Capital Market Integration\". In Dowers, K.; Msci, P. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=DSTPlnZW5MAC&pg=PA168\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Focus on Capital: New Approaches to Developing Latin American Capital Markets<\/i><\/a>. Inter-American Development Bank. p. 168. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781931003490.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Promoting+Regional+Capital+Market+Integration&rft.btitle=Focus+on+Capital%3A+New+Approaches+to+Developing+Latin+American+Capital+Markets&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=Inter-American+Development+Bank&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781931003490&rft.au=Lee%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDSTPlnZW5MAC%26pg%3DPA168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SmythRegulation12-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SmythRegulation12_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Smyth, S.J.; McHughen, A. (2012). \"Chapter 2: Regulation of Genetically Modified Crops in USA and Canada: Canadian Overview\". In Wozniak, C.A.; McHughen, A. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rkqOO_QG6jsC&pg=PA15\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Regulation of Agricultural Biotechnology: The United States and Canada<\/i><\/a>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 15\u201334. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9789400721562.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Regulation+of+Genetically+Modified+Crops+in+USA+and+Canada%3A+Canadian+Overview&rft.btitle=Regulation+of+Agricultural+Biotechnology%3A+The+United+States+and+Canada&rft.pages=15-34&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9789400721562&rft.au=Smyth%2C+S.J.&rft.au=McHughen%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrkqOO_QG6jsC%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO19600-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO19600_16-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">International Organization for Standardization (December 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/62342.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 19600:2014\"<\/a>. <i>Standards Catalogue<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Financial Conduct Authority<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FCA+Handbook&rft.atitle=LR+1.5+Standard+and+Premium+Listing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.handbook.fca.org.uk%2Fhandbook%2FLR%2F1%2F5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FCALR9.8-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FCALR9.8_23-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.handbook.fca.org.uk\/handbook\/LR\/9\/8.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LR 9.8 Annual financial report\"<\/a>. <i>FCA Handbook<\/i>. Financial Conduct Authority<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FCA+Handbook&rft.atitle=LR+9.8+Annual+financial+report&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.handbook.fca.org.uk%2Fhandbook%2FLR%2F9%2F8.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FCAHandbook-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FCAHandbook_24-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.handbook.fca.org.uk\/handbook\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"FCA Handbook\"<\/a>. Financial Conduct Authority<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/content.dell.com\/us\/en\/enterprise\/d\/large-business\/challenge-privacy-vs-security.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2011-02-26<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Oxford University Press. p. PT102. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780190612283.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Privacy%3A+What+Everyone+Needs+to+Know&rft.pages=PT102&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780190612283&rft.au=Francis%2C+L.P.&rft.au=Francis%2C+J.G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMDElDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DaleComp15-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DaleComp15_27-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Dale, N.; Lewis, J. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=_ENGBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA388\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Computer Science Illuminated<\/i><\/a>. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 388. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781284055924.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+Science+Illuminated&rft.pages=388&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781284055924&rft.au=Dale%2C+N.&rft.au=Lewis%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_ENGBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA388&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=2904664\" target=\"_blank\">Compliance, Technology, and Modern Finance, 11 Journal of Corporate, Financial & Commercial Law 159 (2016)<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20101123033209\/http:\/\/www.ussc.gov\/orgguide.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Special Reports and Discussions on Chapter Eight\"<\/a>. <i>USSC.gov<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ussc.gov\/orgguide.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on November 23, 2010.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USSC.gov&rft.atitle=Special+Reports+and+Discussions+on+Chapter+Eight&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ussc.gov%2Forgguide.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">The Ethics and Compliance Initiative (ECI). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ethics.org\/eci\/certification\/blue-ribbon\/brpreport-public\" target=\"_blank\">\"Principles and Practices of High Quality Ethics & Compliance Programs\"<\/a>. pp. 12\u201313<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 August<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Principles+and+Practices+of+High+Quality+Ethics+%26+Compliance+Programs&rft.pages=12-13&rft.au=The+Ethics+and+Compliance+Initiative+%28ECI%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethics.org%2Feci%2Fcertification%2Fblue-ribbon%2Fbrpreport-public&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.business.USA.gov\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Explore Business Tools & Resources\"<\/a>. <i>Business.USA.gov<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Business.USA.gov&rft.atitle=Explore+Business+Tools+%26+Resources&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.business.USA.gov%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.osha.gov\/law-regs.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"OSHA Law & Regulations | Occupational Safety and Health Administration\"<\/a>. <i>www.osha.gov<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2017-04-07<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.osha.gov&rft.atitle=OSHA+Law+%26+Regulations+%7C+Occupational+Safety+and+Health+Administration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osha.gov%2Flaw-regs.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Tattam, David. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.protecht.com.au\/compliance-risk-management\" target=\"_blank\">\"Compliance Risk Management\"<\/a>. <i>Protecht Risk Management Insights<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 March<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Protecht+Risk+Management+Insights&rft.atitle=Compliance+Risk+Management&rft.aulast=Tattam&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.protecht.com.au%2Fcompliance-risk-management&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CalderITGov15-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CalderITGov15_34-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Calder, A.; Watkins, S. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=OctwCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA39\" target=\"_blank\"><i>IT Governance: An International Guide to Data Security and ISO 27001\/ISO 27002<\/i><\/a>. Kogan Page Publishers. pp. 39\u201340. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780749474065.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=IT+Governance%3A+An+International+Guide+to+Data+Security+and+ISO+27001%2FISO+27002&rft.pages=39-40&rft.pub=Kogan+Page+Publishers&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780749474065&rft.au=Calder%2C+A.&rft.au=Watkins%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOctwCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA39&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARegulatory+compliance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tuv.com\/en\/corporate\/business_customers\/plants_machinery_1\/pressure_equipment_2\/asme_1\/asme.html\" target=\"_blank\">Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspection According to ASME<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1272\nCached time: 20190330194038\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.396 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.473 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1480\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 56101\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 278\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 2\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 63918\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\nLua time usage: 0.219\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 5.21 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 384.809 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>21.37% 82.222 21 Template:Cite_web\n18.43% 70.936 1 Template:Commonscat\n17.15% 65.982 1 Template:Citation\n14.85% 57.161 1 Template:Commons\n14.34% 55.183 1 Template:Sister_project\n13.57% 52.234 1 Template:Side_box\n11.27% 43.371 10 Template:Cite_book\n11.18% 43.036 2 Template:If_then_show\n10.50% 40.396 1 Template:Authority_control\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:1464132-1!canonical and timestamp 20190330194037 and revision id 883743562\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulatory_compliance\" data-key=\"4ca6bf47b29b4fa458d97db174b6cb0f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203036\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.014 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.151 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 142.907 1 - wikipedia:Regulatory_compliance\n100.00% 142.907 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10705-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203036 and revision id 33634\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_images":[],"7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca_timestamp":1554323435,"98e43baa168925d15899a66e9c9f0b8f_type":"article","98e43baa168925d15899a66e9c9f0b8f_title":"ISO\/TS 16949","98e43baa168925d15899a66e9c9f0b8f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/TS_16949","98e43baa168925d15899a66e9c9f0b8f_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tISO\/TS 16949\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t Manufacturers of automotive parts supplied to automakers most certainly must get ISO\/TS 16949 certified to remain competitive.\nISO\/TS 16949 is an International Organization for Standardization (ISO) technical specification for the development of a quality management system, specifically for the development, production, and, when relevant, installation and servicing of automotive-related products. The standard provides for continual improvement of these processes, emphasizing defect prevention and the reduction of variation and waste in the supply chain. It is based on the ISO 9001 standard. \n\nContents\n\n1 History \n2 The standard \n\n2.1 Introduction \n2.2 Scope \n2.3 Normative references \n2.4 Terms and definitions \n2.5 Quality management system \n2.6 Management responsibility \n2.7 Resource management \n2.8 Product realization \n2.9 Measurement, analysis and improvement \n2.10 Annex A \n\n\n3 Certification \n4 Further reading \n5 External links \n6 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nISO\/TC 16949 is based on DaimlerChrysler, Ford, and General Motors' QS-9000 quality systems standards as well as the ISO 9000 family of standards. In June 1988, at the ASQ Automotive Division conference, a group of parts suppliers suggested to the attending vice presidents the need for a set of quality assessment standards separate from the ISO 9000 standards, which were introduced only a year earlier. At that time suppliers noted that ISO 9000 \"lacked some elements in current automotive industry documents, such as business plans, customer satisfaction, continuous improvement, manufacturing capabilities, and much of the advanced quality planning content.\"[1] The QS-9000 manual \u2014 based on content from ISO 9001 \u2014 was eventually released in August 1994, followed by a second edition in February 1995, which caught on worldwide with other original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). A few months later, at a European QS-9000 implementation meeting, representatives for the U.S. automakers learned that similar efforts had already been underway in the forms of \"VDA 6.1 in Germany, AVSQ in Italy, and EAQF in France.\"[1] A desire to further unify these disparate standards was expressed, resulting in the creation of the International Automotive Task Force (IATF).[2] \nThe ISO Technical Committee (TC) 176, responsible for quality management and assurance standards, took notice and, not wanting to fraction ISO 9000 standards into sector-specific branches, attempted to convince the IATF to adopt ISO 9000. However, after several meetings, the TC 176 agreed the family of standards was not comprehensive enough for the automotive industry and vowed to include updates in the next version. Though the technical committee worked with the IATF, their needs were different enough that the automotive-specific changes would not be able to make it into the upcoming 2000 iteration. By November 1997, the two groups agreed on using the ISO technical report as a tool for the requirements, which would be based off of ISO 9001:1994.[1]\nBy the time the first draft document was created in the fall of 1998, a new type of ISO document became available: a Technical Specification (TS). The IATF agreed to this format, and in November 1998, ISO\/TS 16949 was initially approved as the first ISO Technical Specification, with a second official printing arriving in March 1999.[1] In March 2002, a revised ISO\/TS 16949:2002 was released to align with changes to ISO 9001, putting more focus on how \"to improve effectiveness and efficiency of the entire process instead of a narrow focus on mere compliance with standards.\"[3][4] The current version is ISO\/TS 16949:2009. It was released in July 2009 and draws off of ISO 9001:2008, \"emphasizing defect prevention and the reduction of variation and waste in the supply chain.\"[5]\n\nThe standard \nISO\/TS 16949 applies to the design, development, production and, when relevant, installation and servicing of automotive-related products. The requirements are intended to be applied throughout the supply chain, with vehicle assembly plants being encouraged to seek ISO\/TS 16949 certification so as to improve system and process quality, to increase customer satisfaction, to identify problems and risks in production process and supply chain, and to take preventive measures to ensure effectiveness.[4]\nThe technical specification is organized as follows[6][7]:\n\nIntroduction \nThis section introduces the perceived importance of quality management systems as well as adopting a process-based approach to their development and implementation. It also addresses its relationship to the ISO 9001, 9004 and 14001 standards.\n\nScope \nThe scope and application of the standard is described as defining \"the quality management system requirements for the design and development, production and, when relevant, installation and service of automotive-related products.\"[6]\n\nNormative references \nThis section states the definitions in ISO 9000:2005 are vital to applying the specification.\n\nTerms and definitions \nAdditional definitions like \"control plan,\" \"error proofing,\" and \"laboratory scope\" are defined.\n\nQuality management system \nThe requirements for the operational effectiveness of a manufacturer's quality management system are outlined in this section. The requirements are broken down into two subsections: \n4.1 General requirements\n4.2 Documentation requirements\n\nManagement responsibility \nThis section outlines the managerial responsibilities associated with designing and implementing a quality management system. These responsibilities are broken into six subsections:\n5.1 Management commitment\n5.2 Customer focus\n5.3 Quality policy\n5.4 Planning\n5.5 Responsibility, authority and communication\n5.6 Management review\n\nResource management \nThis section outlines the requirements for managing the various resources needed to develop and maintain a quality management system as well as improve its effectiveness. These responsibilities are broken into four subsections:\n6.1 Provision of resources\n6.2 Human resources\n6.3 Infrastructure\n6.4 Work environment\n\nProduct realization \nThe requirements for managing the aspects of a quality management system that directly affects how products are designed, produced, and shipped are covered in this section, which spans six subsections:\n7.1 Planning of product realization\n7.2 Customer-related processes\n7.3 Design and development\n7.4 Purchasing\n7.5 Production and service provision\n7.6 Control of monitoring and measuring equipment\n\nMeasurement, analysis and improvement \nThe requirements of this section address how products created through the quality management system should conform and be continually assessed for improvement. This section is divided into five subsections:\n8.1 General\n8.2 Monitoring and measurement\n8.3 Control of nonconforming product\n8.4 Analysis of data\n8.5 Improvement\n\nAnnex A \nAnnex A: Control plan \"shows the correspondence between ISO 9001:2008 and ISO 14001:2004.\"[6]\n\nCertification \nManufacturers get ISO\/TS 16949 certified based of the certification rules issued by the International Automotive Task Force (IATF). Those certification rules changed in April 2014, \"intended to strengthen the value of the certification as seen by the customers of the scheme, i.e. the automotive OEMs who receive the products that are produced by the suppliers certified to the scheme.\"[8] The new rules place extra emphasis on customer-measured performance as well as audit planning, including additional controls on site extensions, ring fencing, and nonconformity management. In March 2014, standards institute BSI outlined all the changes that took place to the certification process in their document Presentation by BSI on the main changes to the IATF ISO\/TS 16949 certification scheme.[8] \nCertifications last three years, and according to the new rules, the first recertification audit should be completed within exactly three years of the initial Stage 2 audit.[8] \n\nFurther reading \n Lomas, Frank (14 March 2014). \"Presentation by BSI on the main changes to the IATF ISO\/TS 16949 certification scheme\" (PDF). The British Standards Institution. http:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-US\/Documents\/TS16949changespresentations.pdf .   \nExternal links \n ISO\/TS 16949 standards at the International Organization for Standardization\nReferences \n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Reid, R. Dan. \"TS 16949 - The First ISO Technical Specification\". GM Heritage Center. General Motors. https:\/\/history.gmheritagecenter.com\/wiki\/index.php\/TS_16949_-_The_First_ISO_Technical_Specification . Retrieved 21 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Cassel, Michael (2007). ISO\/TS 16949 - Qualit\u00e4tsmanagement in der Automobilindustrie umsetzen: Qualit\u00e4tsmanagement in der Autoindustrie umsetzen. Germany: Carl Hanser Verlag GmbH & Co. p. 1. ISBN 3446227296. http:\/\/www.hanser-elibrary.com\/isbn\/9783446227293 . Retrieved 21 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"The Automotive Industry\u2019s Shift from QS-9000 to ISO\/TS 16949:2009\". Cebos. http:\/\/www.cebos.com\/automotive-industry-shifts-qs-9000-to-iso-ts-16949-2009\/ . Retrieved 21 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 Kartha, C.P. (2004). \"A comparison of ISO 9000:2000 quality system standards, QS9000, ISO\/TS 16949 and Baldrige criteria\". The TQM Magazine (Emerald Group Publishing Limited) 16 (5): 336. doi:10.1108\/09544780410551269. http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/journals.htm?articleid=842121&show=html . Retrieved 21 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"New edition of ISO\/TS 16949 quality specification for automotive industry supply chain\". International Organization for Standardization. 02 July 2009. http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1234 . Retrieved 21 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 6.2 [https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso:ts:16949:ed-3:v1:en \"ISO\/TS 16949:2009(en)\nQuality management systems \u2014 Particular requirements for the application of ISO 9001:2008 for automotive production and relevant service part organizations\"]. ISO Online Browsing Platform (OBP). International Organization for Standardization. 2009. https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso:ts:16949:ed-3:v1:en . Retrieved 21 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Lewis, Art J. \"Understanding The ISO\/TS 16949:2002 Standard\". Ask Art Solutions. http:\/\/www.askartsolutions.com\/ts16949\/Major-Clauses.html . Retrieved 21 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 8.2 Lomas, Frank (14 March 2014). \"Presentation by BSI on the main changes to the IATF ISO\/TS 16949 certification scheme\" (PDF). The British Standards Institution. http:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-US\/Documents\/TS16949changespresentations.pdf . Retrieved 21 February 2015 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/TS_16949\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/TS_16949<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Production standards\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 21 February 2015, at 19:16.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 4,807 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","98e43baa168925d15899a66e9c9f0b8f_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-ISO_TS_16949 skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ISO\/TS 16949<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:502px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Ifc-composite2.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"89b53cea108711f845b2623dcdf79e2f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f0\/Ifc-composite2.jpg\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Ifc-composite2.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"89b53cea108711f845b2623dcdf79e2f\"><\/a><\/div>Manufacturers of automotive parts supplied to automakers most certainly must get ISO\/TS 16949 certified to remain competitive.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>ISO\/TS 16949<\/b> is an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116defc5d89c8a55f5b7c1be0790b442\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO) technical specification for the development of a quality management system, specifically for the development, production, and, when relevant, installation and servicing of automotive-related products. The standard provides for continual improvement of these processes, emphasizing defect prevention and the reduction of variation and waste in the supply chain. It is based on the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9001<\/a> standard. \n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ISO\/TC 16949 is based on DaimlerChrysler, Ford, and General Motors' QS-9000 quality systems standards as well as the ISO 9000 family of standards. In June 1988, at the ASQ Automotive Division conference, a group of parts suppliers suggested to the attending vice presidents the need for a set of quality assessment standards separate from the ISO 9000 standards, which were introduced only a year earlier. At that time suppliers noted that ISO 9000 \"lacked some elements in current automotive industry documents, such as business plans, customer satisfaction, continuous improvement, manufacturing capabilities, and much of the advanced quality planning content.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GM16949_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GM16949-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The QS-9000 manual \u2014 based on content from ISO 9001 \u2014 was eventually released in August 1994, followed by a second edition in February 1995, which caught on worldwide with other original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). A few months later, at a European QS-9000 implementation meeting, representatives for the U.S. automakers learned that similar efforts had already been underway in the forms of \"VDA 6.1 in Germany, AVSQ in Italy, and EAQF in France.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GM16949_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GM16949-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> A desire to further unify these disparate standards was expressed, resulting in the creation of the International Automotive Task Force (IATF).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cassel_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cassel-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>The ISO Technical Committee (TC) 176, responsible for quality management and assurance standards, took notice and, not wanting to fraction ISO 9000 standards into sector-specific branches, attempted to convince the IATF to adopt ISO 9000. However, after several meetings, the TC 176 agreed the family of standards was not comprehensive enough for the automotive industry and vowed to include updates in the next version. Though the technical committee worked with the IATF, their needs were different enough that the automotive-specific changes would not be able to make it into the upcoming 2000 iteration. By November 1997, the two groups agreed on using the ISO technical report as a tool for the requirements, which would be based off of ISO 9001:1994.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GM16949_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GM16949-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By the time the first draft document was created in the fall of 1998, a new type of ISO document became available: a Technical Specification (TS). The IATF agreed to this format, and in November 1998, ISO\/TS 16949 was initially approved as the first ISO Technical Specification, with a second official printing arriving in March 1999.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GM16949_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GM16949-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> In March 2002, a revised ISO\/TS 16949:2002 was released to align with changes to ISO 9001, putting more focus on how \"to improve effectiveness and efficiency of the entire process instead of a narrow focus on mere compliance with standards.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cebos_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cebos-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KarthaISO_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KarthaISO-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> The current version is ISO\/TS 16949:2009. It was released in July 2009 and draws off of ISO 9001:2008, \"emphasizing defect prevention and the reduction of variation and waste in the supply chain.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO16949-2009_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO16949-2009-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_standard\">The standard<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ISO\/TS 16949 applies to the design, development, production and, when relevant, installation and servicing of automotive-related products. The requirements are intended to be applied throughout the supply chain, with vehicle assembly plants being encouraged to seek ISO\/TS 16949 certification so as to improve system and process quality, to increase customer satisfaction, to identify problems and risks in production process and supply chain, and to take preventive measures to ensure effectiveness.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KarthaISO_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KarthaISO-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The technical specification is organized as follows<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO16949Peek_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO16949Peek-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AskArt_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AskArt-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section introduces the perceived importance of quality management systems as well as adopting a process-based approach to their development and implementation. It also addresses its relationship to the ISO 9001, 9004 and 14001 standards.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Scope\">Scope<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The scope and application of the standard is described as defining \"the quality management system requirements for the design and development, production and, when relevant, installation and service of automotive-related products.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO16949Peek_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO16949Peek-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Normative_references\">Normative references<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section states the definitions in ISO 9000:2005 are vital to applying the specification.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Terms_and_definitions\">Terms and definitions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Additional definitions like \"control plan,\" \"error proofing,\" and \"laboratory scope\" are defined.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quality_management_system\">Quality management system<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The requirements for the operational effectiveness of a manufacturer's quality management system are outlined in this section. The requirements are broken down into two subsections: \n<\/p><p><b>4.1<\/b> General requirements\n<\/p><p><b>4.2<\/b> Documentation requirements\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Management_responsibility\">Management responsibility<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section outlines the managerial responsibilities associated with designing and implementing a quality management system. These responsibilities are broken into six subsections:\n<\/p><p><b>5.1<\/b> Management commitment\n<\/p><p><b>5.2<\/b> Customer focus\n<\/p><p><b>5.3<\/b> Quality policy\n<\/p><p><b>5.4<\/b> Planning\n<\/p><p><b>5.5<\/b> Responsibility, authority and communication\n<\/p><p><b>5.6<\/b> Management review\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Resource_management\">Resource management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section outlines the requirements for managing the various resources needed to develop and maintain a quality management system as well as improve its effectiveness. These responsibilities are broken into four subsections:\n<\/p><p><b>6.1<\/b> Provision of resources\n<\/p><p><b>6.2<\/b> Human resources\n<\/p><p><b>6.3<\/b> Infrastructure\n<\/p><p><b>6.4<\/b> Work environment\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Product_realization\">Product realization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The requirements for managing the aspects of a quality management system that directly affects how products are designed, produced, and shipped are covered in this section, which spans six subsections:\n<\/p><p><b>7.1<\/b> Planning of product realization\n<\/p><p><b>7.2<\/b> Customer-related processes\n<\/p><p><b>7.3<\/b> Design and development\n<\/p><p><b>7.4<\/b> Purchasing\n<\/p><p><b>7.5<\/b> Production and service provision\n<\/p><p><b>7.6<\/b> Control of monitoring and measuring equipment\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Measurement.2C_analysis_and_improvement\">Measurement, analysis and improvement<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The requirements of this section address how products created through the quality management system should conform and be continually assessed for improvement. This section is divided into five subsections:\n<\/p><p><b>8.1<\/b> General\n<\/p><p><b>8.2<\/b> Monitoring and measurement\n<\/p><p><b>8.3<\/b> Control of nonconforming product\n<\/p><p><b>8.4<\/b> Analysis of data\n<\/p><p><b>8.5<\/b> Improvement\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Annex_A\">Annex A<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><i>Annex A: Control plan<\/i> \"shows the correspondence between ISO 9001:2008 and ISO 14001:2004.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO16949Peek_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO16949Peek-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Certification\">Certification<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Manufacturers get ISO\/TS 16949 certified based of the certification rules issued by the International Automotive Task Force (IATF). Those certification rules changed in April 2014, \"intended to strengthen the value of the certification as seen by the customers of the scheme, i.e. the automotive OEMs who receive the products that are produced by the suppliers certified to the scheme.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BSI16949_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BSI16949-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> The new rules place extra emphasis on customer-measured performance as well as audit planning, including additional controls on site extensions, ring fencing, and nonconformity management. In March 2014, standards institute BSI outlined all the changes that took place to the certification process in their document <i>Presentation by BSI on the main changes to the IATF ISO\/TS 16949 certification scheme<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BSI16949_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BSI16949-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Certifications last three years, and according to the new rules, the first recertification audit should be completed within exactly three years of the initial Stage 2 audit.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BSI16949_8-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BSI16949-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation web\">Lomas, Frank (14 March 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-US\/Documents\/TS16949changespresentations.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Presentation by BSI on the main changes to the IATF ISO\/TS 16949 certification scheme\"<\/a> (PDF). The British Standards Institution<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-US\/Documents\/TS16949changespresentations.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-US\/Documents\/TS16949changespresentations.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Presentation+by+BSI+on+the+main+changes+to+the+IATF+ISO%2FTS+16949+certification+scheme&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Lomas%2C+Frank&rft.au=Lomas%2C+Frank&rft.date=14+March+2014&rft.pub=The+British+Standards+Institution&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bsigroup.com%2FLocalFiles%2Fen-US%2FDocuments%2FTS16949changespresentations.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/TS_16949\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/catalogue_detail?csnumber=52844\" target=\"_blank\">ISO\/TS 16949 standards at the International Organization for Standardization<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-GM16949-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GM16949_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GM16949_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GM16949_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GM16949_1-3\">1.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Reid, R. Dan. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/history.gmheritagecenter.com\/wiki\/index.php\/TS_16949_-_The_First_ISO_Technical_Specification\" target=\"_blank\">\"TS 16949 - The First ISO Technical Specification\"<\/a>. <i>GM Heritage Center<\/i>. General Motors<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/history.gmheritagecenter.com\/wiki\/index.php\/TS_16949_-_The_First_ISO_Technical_Specification\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/history.gmheritagecenter.com\/wiki\/index.php\/TS_16949_-_The_First_ISO_Technical_Specification<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=TS+16949+-+The+First+ISO+Technical+Specification&rft.atitle=GM+Heritage+Center&rft.aulast=Reid%2C+R.+Dan&rft.au=Reid%2C+R.+Dan&rft.pub=General+Motors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.gmheritagecenter.com%2Fwiki%2Findex.php%2FTS_16949_-_The_First_ISO_Technical_Specification&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/TS_16949\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cassel-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Cassel_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Cassel, Michael (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hanser-elibrary.com\/isbn\/9783446227293\" target=\"_blank\"><i>ISO\/TS 16949 - Qualit\u00e4tsmanagement in der Automobilindustrie umsetzen: Qualit\u00e4tsmanagement in der Autoindustrie umsetzen<\/i><\/a>. Germany: Carl Hanser Verlag GmbH & Co. p. 1. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 3446227296<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hanser-elibrary.com\/isbn\/9783446227293\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hanser-elibrary.com\/isbn\/9783446227293<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ISO%2FTS+16949+-+Qualit%C3%A4tsmanagement+in+der+Automobilindustrie+umsetzen%3A+Qualit%C3%A4tsmanagement+in+der+Autoindustrie+umsetzen&rft.aulast=Cassel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Cassel%2C%26%2332%3BMichael&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B1&rft.place=Germany&rft.pub=Carl+Hanser+Verlag+GmbH+%26+Co&rft.isbn=3446227296&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hanser-elibrary.com%2Fisbn%2F9783446227293&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/TS_16949\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cebos-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Cebos_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cebos.com\/automotive-industry-shifts-qs-9000-to-iso-ts-16949-2009\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Automotive Industry\u2019s Shift from QS-9000 to ISO\/TS 16949:2009\"<\/a>. Cebos<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cebos.com\/automotive-industry-shifts-qs-9000-to-iso-ts-16949-2009\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.cebos.com\/automotive-industry-shifts-qs-9000-to-iso-ts-16949-2009\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+Automotive+Industry%E2%80%99s+Shift+from+QS-9000+to+ISO%2FTS+16949%3A2009&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Cebos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cebos.com%2Fautomotive-industry-shifts-qs-9000-to-iso-ts-16949-2009%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/TS_16949\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KarthaISO-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KarthaISO_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KarthaISO_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Kartha, C.P. (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/journals.htm?articleid=842121&show=html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A comparison of ISO 9000:2000 quality system standards, QS9000, ISO\/TS 16949 and Baldrige criteria\"<\/a>. <i>The TQM Magazine<\/i> (Emerald Group Publishing Limited) <b>16<\/b> (5): 336. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1108%2F09544780410551269\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/09544780410551269<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/journals.htm?articleid=842121&show=html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/journals.htm?articleid=842121&show=html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=A+comparison+of+ISO+9000%3A2000+quality+system+standards%2C+QS9000%2C+ISO%2FTS+16949+and+Baldrige+criteria&rft.jtitle=The+TQM+Magazine&rft.aulast=Kartha&rft.aufirst=C.P.&rft.au=Kartha%2C%26%2332%3BC.P.&rft.date=2004&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=336&rft.pub=Emerald+Group+Publishing+Limited&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1108%2F09544780410551269&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.emeraldinsight.com%2Fjournals.htm%3Farticleid%3D842121%26show%3Dhtml&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/TS_16949\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO16949-2009-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO16949-2009_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1234\" target=\"_blank\">\"New edition of ISO\/TS 16949 quality specification for automotive industry supply chain\"<\/a>. International Organization for Standardization. 02 July 2009<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1234\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1234<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=New+edition+of+ISO%2FTS+16949+quality+specification+for+automotive+industry+supply+chain&rft.atitle=&rft.date=02+July+2009&rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fhome%2Fnews_index%2Fnews_archive%2Fnews.htm%3Frefid%3DRef1234&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/TS_16949\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO16949Peek-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO16949Peek_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO16949Peek_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO16949Peek_6-2\">6.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">[<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"#iso:std:iso:ts:16949:ed-3:v1:en\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso:ts:16949:ed-3:v1:en<\/a> \"ISO\/TS 16949:2009(en)\nQuality management systems \u2014 Particular requirements for the application of ISO 9001:2008 for automotive production and relevant service part organizations\"]. <i>ISO Online Browsing Platform (OBP)<\/i>. International Organization for Standardization. 2009<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"#iso:std:iso:ts:16949:ed-3:v1:en\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso:ts:16949:ed-3:v1:en<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ISO%2FTS+16949%3A2009%28en%29%0AQuality+management+systems+%E2%80%94+Particular+requirements+for+the+application+of+ISO+9001%3A2008+for+automotive+production+and+relevant+service+part+organizations&rft.atitle=ISO+Online+Browsing+Platform+%28OBP%29&rft.date=2009&rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fobp%2Fui%2F%23iso%3Astd%3Aiso%3Ats%3A16949%3Aed-3%3Av1%3Aen&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/TS_16949\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AskArt-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AskArt_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Lewis, Art J. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.askartsolutions.com\/ts16949\/Major-Clauses.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Understanding The ISO\/TS 16949:2002 Standard\"<\/a>. Ask Art Solutions<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.askartsolutions.com\/ts16949\/Major-Clauses.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.askartsolutions.com\/ts16949\/Major-Clauses.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Understanding+The+ISO%2FTS+16949%3A2002+Standard&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Lewis%2C+Art+J&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Art+J&rft.pub=Ask+Art+Solutions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.askartsolutions.com%2Fts16949%2FMajor-Clauses.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/TS_16949\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BSI16949-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BSI16949_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BSI16949_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-BSI16949_8-2\">8.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Lomas, Frank (14 March 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-US\/Documents\/TS16949changespresentations.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Presentation by BSI on the main changes to the IATF ISO\/TS 16949 certification scheme\"<\/a> (PDF). The British Standards Institution<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-US\/Documents\/TS16949changespresentations.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/en-US\/Documents\/TS16949changespresentations.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Presentation+by+BSI+on+the+main+changes+to+the+IATF+ISO%2FTS+16949+certification+scheme&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Lomas%2C+Frank&rft.au=Lomas%2C+Frank&rft.date=14+March+2014&rft.pub=The+British+Standards+Institution&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bsigroup.com%2FLocalFiles%2Fen-US%2FDocuments%2FTS16949changespresentations.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/TS_16949\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203035\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.255 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.058 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5743\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20299\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 41938\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 17357\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 181.411 1 - -total\n 84.82% 153.868 9 - Template:Citation\/core\n 65.79% 119.355 7 - Template:Cite_web\n 16.41% 29.770 1 - Template:Cite_book\n 13.93% 25.273 1 - Template:Cite_journal\n 5.37% 9.750 11 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 5.34% 9.690 2 - Template:Citation\/identifier\n 1.44% 2.606 4 - Template:Hide_in_print\n 1.17% 2.126 2 - Template:Only_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3377-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403203034 and revision id 20873\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/TS_16949\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/TS_16949<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","98e43baa168925d15899a66e9c9f0b8f_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f0\/Ifc-composite2.jpg"],"98e43baa168925d15899a66e9c9f0b8f_timestamp":1554323434,"01899cd8e35ba9dcdf29c7c9e41c28d9_type":"article","01899cd8e35ba9dcdf29c7c9e41c28d9_title":"ISO\/IEC 29119","01899cd8e35ba9dcdf29c7c9e41c28d9_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_29119","01899cd8e35ba9dcdf29c7c9e41c28d9_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tISO\/IEC 29119\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\n\n Software Testing portal \nISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119 Software and systems engineering -- Software testing[1] is a series of five international standards for software testing. First developed in 2007[2] and released in 2013, the standard \"defines vocabulary, processes, documentation, techniques, and a process assessment model for testing that be used within any software development lifecycle.\"[3]\n\nContents \n\n1 History and revisions \n2 Structure and contents \n\n2.1 ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-1:2013, Part 1: Concepts and definitions \n2.2 ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-2:2013, Part 2: Test processes \n2.3 ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-3:2013, Part 3: Test documentation \n2.4 ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-4:2015, Part 4: Test techniques \n\n2.4.1 Specification-based test design techniques \n2.4.2 Structure-based test design techniques \n2.4.3 Experience-based test design techniques \n\n\n2.5 ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-5:2016, Part 5: Keyword-driven testing \n\n\n3 Controversy \n4 References \n\n\nHistory and revisions \nDevelopment of the set of ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119 software testing standards began in May 2007, based on existing standards such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers's IEEE 829 (test documentation), and IEEE 1008 (unit testing); and the BSI Group's BS 7925-1 (vocabulary) and -2 (software components).[2][4]\nAt first the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) had no working group with significant software testing experience, so the ISO created WG26, which by 2011 was represented by more than 20 different countries.[2] Initially four sections were developed for the standard: Concepts and definitions (1), Test processes (2), Test documentation (3), and Test techniques (4).[2] A fifth part concerning process assessment was considered for addition, ultimately becoming ISO\/IEC 33063:2015, which ties to 29119-2's test processes.[2][5] The actual fifth part of 29119 was published in November 2016 concerning the concept of keyword-driven testing.[6] \nAs of June 2018[update], no major revisions have occurred to the five parts of the standard. These parts are, from most recent to oldest:\n\nISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-5:2016, Part 5: Keyword-driven testing, published in November 2016[6]\nISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-4:2015, Part 4: Test techniques, published in December 2015[7]\nISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-3:2013, Part 3: Test documentation, published in September 2013[8]\nISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-2:2013, Part 2: Test processes, published in September 2013[9]\nISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-1:2013, Part 1: Concepts and definitions, published in September 2013[1]\nStructure and contents \n ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-1:2013, Part 1: Concepts and definitions \nISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119 Part 1 facilitates the use of the other parts of the standard by introducing the vocabulary on which the standard is built and provides examples of its application in practice.[4] Part 1 provides definitions, a description of the concepts of software testing, and ways to apply these definitions and concepts to the other parts of the standard.[1]\n\n ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-2:2013, Part 2: Test processes \nPart 2 defines a generic test process model for software testing that is intended for use by organizations when performing software testing. It comprises test process descriptions that define the software testing processes at the organizational level, test management (project) level, and dynamic test process levels (WG26 couldn't get consensus on the inclusion of static testing).[2][3][10] The processes defined in this standard can be used in conjunction with different software development lifecycle models.[9]\n\n ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-3:2013, Part 3: Test documentation \nThis part deals with software test documentation and includes templates and test documentation examples that are produced during the test process. The templates support the three primary test process levels of Part 2, and the standard also includes mapping to other existing standards.[2][8]\nThe documents that are defined in ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-3 are as follows[2][4]:\n\nOrganizational Test Process Documentation:\n- Test Policy\n- Organizational Test Strategy\nTest Management Process Documentation:\n- Test Plan (including a Test Strategy)\n- Test Status\n- Test Completion\nDynamic Test Process Documentation:\n- Test Design Specification\n- Test Case Specification\n- Test Procedure Specification\n- Test Data Requirements\n- Test Data Readiness Report\n- Test Environment Requirements\n- Test Environment Readiness Report\n- Actual Results\n- Test Result\n- Test Execution Log\n- Test Incident Report\n ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-4:2015, Part 4: Test techniques \nPart 4 provides standard definitions of software test design techniques (also known as test case design techniques or test methods) and corresponding coverage measures that can be used during the test design and implementation processes defined in Part 2.[7] Techniques of Part 4 are intended to support or be used separately from Part 2. The standard's test design techniques are categorized into three main categories: Specification-, Structure-, and Experience-Based Test Design Techniques.[2][11]\n\nSpecification-based test design techniques \nThese techniques are base on the (functional) specification of the system under test. They are also called black-box testing techniques.\nSuggested test design techniques in this group are[2][11]:\n\nEquivalence Partitioning\nClassification Tree Method\nBoundary Value Analysis\nSyntax Testing\nCombinatorial Test Design Techniques\nDecision Table Testing\nCause-Effect Graphing\nState Transition Testing\nScenario Testing\nRandom Testing\nStructure-based test design techniques \nThese structural testing techniques are based on the (internal) structure of the system under test. They are also called white-box testing techniques.\nSuggested test design techniques in this group are[2][11]:\n\nBranch Testing\nDecision Testing\nBranch Condition Testing\nBranch Condition Combination Testing\nModified Condition Decision Coverage (MCDC) Testing\nData Flow Testing\nExperience-based test design techniques \nThese exploratory testing techniques rely on the experience of the human tester.\nSuggested test design techniques in this group are[11]:\n\nError Guessing\n ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-5:2016, Part 5: Keyword-driven testing \nThis standard covers keyword-driven testing, an approach to specifying software tests (normally automated) used in the software testing industry.[12] This standard is intended for users \"who want to create keyword-driven test specifications, create corresponding frameworks, or build test automation based on keywords.\"[6]\n\nControversy \nUpon introduction of ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119, culminating in the summer of 2014, some software testers and associated organizations began making calls for the ISO to rescind the standard.[13][14][15][16][17][18][19] Notable organizations that protested the standard included the Association for Software Testing[18] and the International Society for Software Testing[20] Some reasons for opposition to the standard included:\n\nlack of true consensus of content\u2014as required by ISO\/IEC\u2014among professional testers[13][20][15][16]\nheavy focus on documentation will detract from the actual process of software testing[13][14][18]\nISO 29119 is inconsistent with the way that people work on cognitively demanding tasks, while reinforcing the way they cling to unhelpful practices while doing complex, stressful organisations [19]\nthe standard fails to take account of relevant work elsewhere on the balance of rules and principles in regulation and standards; the standard is unclear about the principles that should govern testing, while being over-prescriptive about the detail, leading to a confusion of means and ends[19]\nthe standard effectively excludes context-driven testing[16][17]\nstandardization of software testing in general is unnecessary[15][18]\nthe standard has political and monetary connotations and is too prescriptive, which doesn't benefit the industry[13][17][18]\nDr. Stuart Reid, convenor of WG26, replied to some of these and other opposing viewpoints in September 2014[21], though it's not clear if any further action by WG26 was taken due to software testers' complaints.\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c \"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-1:2013\". Standards catalogue. International Organization for Standardization. September 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k Reid, S. (2012). \"The New Software Testing Standard\". In Dale, C.; Anderson, T. Achieving Systems Safety: Proceedings of the Twentieth Safety-Critical Systems Symposium, Bristol, UK, 7-9th February 2012. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 237\u201356. ISBN 9781447124948. \n\n^ a b Shoemaker, D.; Sigler, K. (2014). \"Chapter 6: Software Impelementation Process Group\". Cybersecurity: Engineering a Secure Information Technology Organization. Cengage Learning. pp. 117\u201334. ISBN 9781305443471. \n\n^ a b c Pr\u00f6ll, R.; Bauer, B. (2018). \"Toward a Consistent and Strictly Model-Based Interpretation of the ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119 for Early Testing Activities\". Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Model-Driven Engineering and Software Development (MODELSWARD 2018): 699\u2013706. doi:10.5220\/0006749606990706. \n\n^ \"ISO\/IEC 33063:2015\". Standards catalogue. International Organization for Standardization. August 2015. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b c \"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-5:2016\". Standards catalogue. International Organization for Standardization. November 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b \"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-4:2015\". Standards catalogue. International Organization for Standardization. December 2015. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b \"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-3:2013\". Standards catalogue. International Organization for Standardization. September 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b \"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-2:2013\". Standards catalogue. International Organization for Standardization. September 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n^ Kasurinen, J.; Runeson, P.; Riungu, L.; et al. (2011). \"A Self-assessment Framework for Finding Improvement Objectives with ISO\/IEC 29119 Test Standard\". In Connor, R.V.; Pries-Heje, J.; Messnarz, R. Systems, Software and Services Process Improvement: 18th European Conference, EuroSPI 2011, Roskilde, Denmark, June 27-29, 2011, Proceedings. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 25\u201336. ISBN 9783642222054. \n\n^ a b c d \"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-4:2015-12 (E) Table of Contents\". Normenausschuss Informationstechnik und Anwendungen (NIA). Deutsches Institut f\u00fcr Normung e. V. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n^ Faught, D.R. (5 November 2004). \"Keyword-Driven Testing\". StickyMinds. TechWell Corp. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d Krill, P. (22 August 2014). \"Software testers balk at ISO 29119 standards proposal\". InfoWorld. IDG Communications, Inc. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b Demman, J. (9 September 2014). \"Software testers petition to stop ISO 29119\". TechTarget SearchSoftwareQuality. TechTarget, Inc. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b c McCowatt, I. (24 August 2014). \"STOP 29119\". Exploring Uncertainty: A Software Testing Blog. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b c Bach, J. (25 August 2014). \"How Not to Standardize Testing (ISO 29119)\". Satisfice Blog. Satisfice, Inc. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b c Kaner, C. (28 August 2014). \"Please sign the Petition to Stop ISO 29119\". context-driven-testing.com. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d e \"The ISO29119 debate\". Association for Software Testing. 5 September 2014. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b c Christie, J. (28 August 2015). \"Why ISO 29119 Is a Flawed Quality Standard\". Better Software Magazine. Retrieved 23 July 2018 . \n\n^ a b \"Petition against ISO 29119\". International Society for Software Testing. 19 August 2014. Archived from the original on 8 February 2017. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n^ Marnane, T.; Reid, S. (10 September 2014). \"Response to Stop 29119 Petition\". SoftwareTestingStandard.org. Retrieved 24 June 2018 . \n\n\nvteISO standards by standard number List of ISO standards \/ ISO romanizations \/ IEC standards1\u20139999\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n9\n16\n17\n31\n-0\n-1\n-2\n-3\n-4\n-5\n-6\n-7\n-8\n-9\n-10\n-11\n-12\n-13\n128\n216\n217\n226\n228\n233\n259\n269\n302\n306\n361\n428\n500\n518\n519\n639\n-1\n-2\n-3\n-5\n-6\n646\n657\n668\n690\n704\n732\n764\n838\n843\n860\n898\n965\n999\n1000\n1004\n1007\n1073-1\n1155\n1413\n1538\n1629\n1745\n1989\n2014\n2015\n2022\n2033\n2047\n2108\n2145\n2146\n2240\n2281\n2533\n2709\n2711\n2720\n2788\n2848\n2852\n3029\n3103\n3166\n-1\n-2\n-3\n3297\n3307\n3601\n3602\n3864\n3901\n3950\n3977\n4031\n4157\n4165\n4217\n4909\n5218\n5426\n5427\n5428\n5725\n5775\n5776\n5800\n5964\n6166\n6344\n6346\n6385\n6425\n6429\n6438\n6523\n6709\n6943\n7001\n7002\n7010\n7027\n7064\n7098\n7185\n7200\n7498\n-1\n7637\n7736\n7810\n7811\n7812\n7813\n7816\n7942\n8000\n8093\n8178\n8217\n8373\n8501-1\n8571\n8583\n8601\n8613\n8632\n8651\n8652\n8691\n8805\/8806\n8807\n8820-5\n8859\n-1\n-2\n-3\n-4\n-5\n-6\n-7\n-8\n-8-I\n-9\n-10\n-11\n-12\n-13\n-14\n-15\n-16\n8879\n9000\/9001\n9036\n9075\n9126\n9141\n9227\n9241\n9293\n9314\n9362\n9407\n9506\n9529\n9564\n9592\/9593\n9594\n9660\n9797-1\n9897\n9899\n9945\n9984\n9985\n9995\n10000\u201319999\n10005\n10006\n10007\n10116\n10118-3\n10160\n10161\n10165\n10179\n10206\n10218\n10303\n-11\n-21\n-22\n-28\n-238\n10383\n10487\n10585\n10589\n10646\n10664\n10746\n10861\n10957\n10962\n10967\n11073\n11170\n11179\n11404\n11544\n11783\n11784\n11785\n11801\n11898\n11940 (-2)\n11941\n11941 (TR)\n11992\n12006\n12182\n12207\n12234-2\n13211\n-1\n-2\n13216\n13250\n13399\n13406-2\n13450\n13485\n13490\n13567\n13568\n13584\n13616\n14000\n14031\n14224\n14289\n14396\n14443\n14496\n-2\n-3\n-6\n-10\n-11\n-12\n-14\n-17\n-20\n14644\n14649\n14651\n14698\n14750\n14764\n14882\n14971\n15022\n15189\n15288\n15291\n15292\n15398\n15408\n15444\n-3\n15445\n15438\n15504\n15511\n15686\n15693\n15706\n-2\n15707\n15897\n15919\n15924\n15926\n15926 WIP\n15930\n16023\n16262\n16355-1\n16612-2\n16750\n16949 (TS)\n17024\n17025\n17100\n17203\n17369\n17442\n17799\n18000\n18004\n18014\n18245\n18629\n18916\n19005\n19011\n19092 (-1\n-2)\n19114\n19115\n19125\n19136\n19407\n19439\n19500\n19501\n19502\n19503\n19505\n19506\n19507\n19508\n19509\n19510\n19600\n19752\n19757\n19770\n19775-1\n19794-5\n19831\n20000+\n20000\n20022\n20121\n20400\n21000\n21047\n21500\n21827:2002\n22000\n23270\n23271\n23360\n24517\n24613\n24617\n24707\n25178\n25964\n26000\n26262\n26300\n26324\n27000 series\n27000\n27001\n27002\n27006\n27729\n28000\n29110\n29148\n29199-2\n29500\n30170\n31000\n32000\n37001\n38500\n40500\n42010\n45001\n50001\n55000\n80000\n-1\n-2\n-3\n\n Category\nvteList of International Electrotechnical Commission standardsIEC standards\nIEC 60027\nIEC 60034\nIEC 60038\nIEC 60062\nIEC 60063\nIEC 60068\nIEC 60112\nIEC 60228\nIEC 60269\nIEC 60297\nIEC 60309\nIEC 60320\nIEC 60364\nIEC 60446\nIEC 60559\nIEC 60601\nIEC 60870\nIEC 60870-5\nIEC 60870-6\nIEC 60906-1\nIEC 60908\nIEC 60929\nIEC 60958\nAES3\nS\/PDIF\nIEC 61030\nIEC 61131\nIEC 61131-3\nIEC 61158\nIEC 61162\nIEC 61334\nIEC 61346\nIEC 61355\nIEC 61360\nIEC 61400\nIEC 61499\nIEC 61508\nIEC 61511\nIEC 61850\nIEC 61851\nIEC 61883\nIEC 61960\nIEC 61968\nIEC 61970\nIEC 62014-4\nIEC 62056\nIEC 62061\nIEC 62196\nIEC 62262\nIEC 62264\nIEC 62304\nIEC 62325\nIEC 62351\nIEC 62365\nIEC 62366\nIEC 62379\nIEC 62386\nIEC 62455\nIEC 62680\nIEC 62682\nIEC 62700\nISO\/IEC standards\nISO\/IEC 646\nISO\/IEC 2022\nISO\/IEC 4909\nISO\/IEC 5218\nISO\/IEC 6429\nISO\/IEC 6523\nISO\/IEC 7810\nISO\/IEC 7811\nISO\/IEC 7812\nISO\/IEC 7813\nISO\/IEC 7816\nISO\/IEC 7942\nISO\/IEC 8613\nISO\/IEC 8632\nISO\/IEC 8652\nISO\/IEC 8859\nISO\/IEC 9126\nISO\/IEC 9293\nISO\/IEC 9592\nISO\/IEC 9593\nISO\/IEC 9899\nISO\/IEC 9945\nISO\/IEC 9995\nISO\/IEC 10021\nISO\/IEC 10116\nISO\/IEC 10165\nISO\/IEC 10179\nISO\/IEC 10646\nISO\/IEC 10967\nISO\/IEC 11172\nISO\/IEC 11179\nISO\/IEC 11404\nISO\/IEC 11544\nISO\/IEC 11801\nISO\/IEC 12207\nISO\/IEC 13250\nISO\/IEC 13346\nISO\/IEC 13522-5\nISO\/IEC 13568\nISO\/IEC 13818\nISO\/IEC 14443\nISO\/IEC 14496\nISO\/IEC 14882\nISO\/IEC 15288\nISO\/IEC 15291\nISO\/IEC 15408\nISO\/IEC 15444\nISO\/IEC 15445\nISO\/IEC 15504\nISO\/IEC 15511\nISO\/IEC 15693\nISO\/IEC 15897\nISO\/IEC 15938\nISO\/IEC 16262\nISO\/IEC 17024\nISO\/IEC 17025\nISO\/IEC 18000\nISO\/IEC 18004\nISO\/IEC 18014\nISO\/IEC 19752\nISO\/IEC 19757\nISO\/IEC 19770\nISO\/IEC 19788\nISO\/IEC 20000\nISO\/IEC 21000\nISO\/IEC 21827\nISO\/IEC 23000\nISO\/IEC 23003\nISO\/IEC 23008\nISO\/IEC 23270\nISO\/IEC 23360\nISO\/IEC 24707\nISO\/IEC 24727\nISO\/IEC 24744\nISO\/IEC 24752\nISO\/IEC 26300\nISO\/IEC 27000\nISO\/IEC 27000-series\nISO\/IEC 27002\nISO\/IEC 27040\nISO\/IEC 29119\nISO\/IEC 33001\nISO\/IEC 38500\nISO\/IEC 42010\nISO\/IEC 80000\nRelated\nInternational Electrotechnical Commission\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_29119\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_29119<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Design and development standardsSoftware standardsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation 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LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","01899cd8e35ba9dcdf29c7c9e41c28d9_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-ISO_IEC_29119 skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ISO\/IEC 29119<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n<div role=\"navigation\" aria-label=\"Portals\" class=\"noprint portal plainlist tright\" style=\"margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px\">\n<ul style=\"display:table;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0.1em;max-width:175px;background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold\">\n<li style=\"display:table-row\"><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Green_bug_and_broom.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"016a62924f371627c0a0b35716fcf493\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/83\/Green_bug_and_broom.svg\/32px-Green_bug_and_broom.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"32\" height=\"28\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/a><\/span><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Software_Testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Portal:Software Testing\" data-key=\"747b995ddd92445bd425fe56ab7c2a02\">Software Testing portal<\/a><\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<p><b>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119<\/b> <i>Software and systems engineering -- Software testing<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO29119-1-2013_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO29119-1-2013-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> is a series of five <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_standard\" title=\"International standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b27d8ad57b5d2b13abbf150355ac317\">international standards<\/a> for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_testing\" title=\"Software testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1f063d549d38c63342218d62a80c724\">software testing<\/a>. First developed in 2007<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReidAchieving12-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> and released in 2013, the standard \"defines vocabulary, processes, documentation, techniques, and a process assessment model for testing that be used within any software development lifecycle.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShoemakerCyber14_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShoemakerCyber14-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_and_revisions\">History and revisions<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Development of the set of ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119 software testing standards began in May 2007, based on existing standards such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers\" title=\"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f59f91778922e317c3722d620206111b\">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE_829\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IEEE 829\" data-key=\"84841e5bdff086c0c46c25d08e0b44d2\">IEEE 829<\/a> (test documentation), and IEEE 1008 (unit testing); and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BSI_Group\" title=\"BSI Group\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5ec312fedcd57f496d0649b22736142\">BSI Group<\/a>'s BS 7925-1 (vocabulary) and -2 (software components).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReidAchieving12-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Pr\u00f6llToward18_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pr\u00f6llToward18-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>At first the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO) had no <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Working_group\" title=\"Working group\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8dd6f7fe227af3abde8c8c833ff3a9e\">working group<\/a> with significant software testing experience, so the ISO created WG26, which by 2011 was represented by more than 20 different countries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReidAchieving12-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Initially four sections were developed for the standard: Concepts and definitions (1), Test processes (2), Test documentation (3), and Test techniques (4).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReidAchieving12-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> A fifth part concerning process assessment was considered for addition, ultimately becoming ISO\/IEC 33063:2015, which ties to 29119-2's test processes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReidAchieving12-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO33063-2015_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO33063-2015-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> The actual fifth part of 29119 was published in November 2016 concerning the concept of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Keyword-driven_testing\" title=\"Keyword-driven testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4eee61acf4da164c90d426cba0fc8ef9\">keyword-driven testing<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO29119-5-2016_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO29119-5-2016-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>As of June 2018<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, no major revisions have occurred to the five parts of the standard. These parts are, from most recent to oldest:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-5:2016, Part 5: Keyword-driven testing, published in November 2016<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO29119-5-2016_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO29119-5-2016-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-4:2015, Part 4: Test techniques, published in December 2015<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO29119-4-2015_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO29119-4-2015-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-3:2013, Part 3: Test documentation, published in September 2013<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO29119-3-2013_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO29119-3-2013-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-2:2013, Part 2: Test processes, published in September 2013<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO29119-2-2013_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO29119-2-2013-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-1:2013, Part 1: Concepts and definitions, published in September 2013<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO29119-1-2013_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO29119-1-2013-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structure_and_contents\">Structure and contents<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-ISO.2FIEC.2FIEEE_29119-1:2013.2C_Part_1:_Concepts_and_definitions\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE_29119-1:2013,_Part_1:_Concepts_and_definitions\">ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-1:2013, Part 1: Concepts and definitions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119 Part 1 facilitates the use of the other parts of the standard by introducing the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vocabulary\" title=\"Vocabulary\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53b15627cdd0c79c66a3eb0eb5866982\">vocabulary<\/a> on which the standard is built and provides examples of its application in practice.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Pr\u00f6llToward18_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pr\u00f6llToward18-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> Part 1 provides definitions, a description of the concepts of software testing, and ways to apply these definitions and concepts to the other parts of the standard.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO29119-1-2013_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO29119-1-2013-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-ISO.2FIEC.2FIEEE_29119-2:2013.2C_Part_2:_Test_processes\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE_29119-2:2013,_Part_2:_Test_processes\">ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-2:2013, Part 2: Test processes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Part 2 defines a generic test process model for software testing that is intended for use by organizations when performing software testing. It comprises test process descriptions that define the software testing processes at the organizational level, test management (project) level, and dynamic test process levels (WG26 couldn't get consensus on the inclusion of static testing).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReidAchieving12-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShoemakerCyber14_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShoemakerCyber14-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KasurinenASelf11_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KasurinenASelf11-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> The processes defined in this standard can be used in conjunction with different software development lifecycle models.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO29119-2-2013_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO29119-2-2013-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-ISO.2FIEC.2FIEEE_29119-3:2013.2C_Part_3:_Test_documentation\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE_29119-3:2013,_Part_3:_Test_documentation\">ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-3:2013, Part 3: Test documentation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This part deals with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_Test_Documentation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software Test Documentation\" data-key=\"d8e8825b3f7d4d84ddcfa638b2ab7291\">software test documentation<\/a> and includes templates and test documentation examples that are produced during the test process. The templates support the three primary test process levels of Part 2, and the standard also includes mapping to other existing standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReidAchieving12-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO29119-3-2013_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO29119-3-2013-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The documents that are defined in ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-3 are as follows<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReidAchieving12-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Pr\u00f6llToward18_4-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pr\u00f6llToward18-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt><b>Organizational Test Process Documentation:<\/b><\/dt>\n<dd>- Test Policy<\/dd>\n<dd>- Organizational Test Strategy<\/dd>\n<dt><b>Test Management Process Documentation:<\/b><\/dt>\n<dd>- Test Plan (including a Test Strategy)<\/dd>\n<dd>- Test Status<\/dd>\n<dd>- Test Completion<\/dd>\n<dt><b>Dynamic Test Process Documentation:<\/b><\/dt>\n<dd>- Test Design Specification<\/dd>\n<dd>- Test Case Specification<\/dd>\n<dd>- Test Procedure Specification<\/dd>\n<dd>- Test Data Requirements<\/dd>\n<dd>- Test Data Readiness Report<\/dd>\n<dd>- Test Environment Requirements<\/dd>\n<dd>- Test Environment Readiness Report<\/dd>\n<dd>- Actual Results<\/dd>\n<dd>- Test Result<\/dd>\n<dd>- Test Execution Log<\/dd>\n<dd>- Test Incident Report<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-ISO.2FIEC.2FIEEE_29119-4:2015.2C_Part_4:_Test_techniques\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE_29119-4:2015,_Part_4:_Test_techniques\">ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-4:2015, Part 4: Test techniques<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Part 4 provides standard definitions of software <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test_design\" title=\"Test design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41e0feb511efffebd512f78c344ed9e2\">test design<\/a> techniques (also known as test case design techniques or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test_method\" title=\"Test method\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcdb3a33a2d418538a7207f41a38af15\">test methods<\/a>) and corresponding coverage measures that can be used during the test design and implementation processes defined in Part 2.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO29119-4-2015_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO29119-4-2015-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Techniques of Part 4 are intended to support or be used separately from Part 2. The standard's test design techniques are categorized into three main categories: Specification-, Structure-, and Experience-Based Test Design Techniques.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReidAchieving12-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29119-4TOC_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29119-4TOC-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Specification-based_test_design_techniques\">Specification-based test design techniques<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>These techniques are base on the (functional) specification of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_under_test\" title=\"System under test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a56a8bfd94805aab2ee7698cafd999d4\">system under test<\/a>. They are also called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black-box_testing\" title=\"Black-box testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdf147e38381ccbe9b93d84a39e7fa54\">black-box testing<\/a> techniques.\n<\/p><p>Suggested test design techniques in this group are<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReidAchieving12-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29119-4TOC_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29119-4TOC-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Equivalence_Partitioning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Equivalence Partitioning\" data-key=\"3e8dba7086672f291fe5a20883de5bd2\">Equivalence Partitioning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classification_Tree_Method\" title=\"Classification Tree Method\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a25fe93efbba1cb0c4f80e2053f722e7\">Classification Tree Method<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boundary_Value_Analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Boundary Value Analysis\" data-key=\"4c4460f77cf543d034969c5319c07192\">Boundary Value Analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzz_testing#Techniques\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fuzz testing\" data-key=\"0657fef69e8cb2c89db12203e442a23a\">Syntax Testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/All-pairs_testing\" title=\"All-pairs testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"007c95be5d36d3a87edd4c28cae18d6b\">Combinatorial Test Design Techniques<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_table\" title=\"Decision table\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53853c4cd001ee42d7b83aed42940927\">Decision Table Testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cause-effect_graph\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cause-effect graph\" data-key=\"2b5a2cc49d218ba6dbb2d8bbf648a843\">Cause-Effect Graphing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/State_transition_diagram\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"State transition diagram\" data-key=\"f698c2b7254bdacd066f650fd3e6ece0\">State Transition Testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scenario_testing\" title=\"Scenario testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3d3e45a63144dcc73bbd6e5699eeafa\">Scenario Testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Random_Testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Random Testing\" data-key=\"622e6090b19a7de5e86bdc09945c2757\">Random Testing<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structure-based_test_design_techniques\">Structure-based test design techniques<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>These <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Structural_testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Structural testing\" data-key=\"11e1290891cd83c5d774a4dd8adf1e6b\">structural testing<\/a> techniques are based on the (internal) structure of the system under test. They are also called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/White-box_testing\" title=\"White-box testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86458edb2c0cf54347b9f06aa6501df6\">white-box testing<\/a> techniques.\n<\/p><p>Suggested test design techniques in this group are<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReidAchieving12-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29119-4TOC_11-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29119-4TOC-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_coverage#Basic_coverage_criteria\" title=\"Code coverage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"075fe4ca522c5272ff78f0a9bf342505\">Branch Testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Decision Testing<\/li>\n<li>Branch Condition Testing<\/li>\n<li>Branch Condition Combination Testing<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MCDC_testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MCDC testing\" data-key=\"a1522f062fba5eefbd622b9b73f428c4\">Modified Condition Decision Coverage (MCDC) Testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data-flow_analysis\" title=\"Data-flow analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d4fe3d277348340968fa18eb7d5b7f2\">Data Flow<\/a> Testing<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Experience-based_test_design_techniques\">Experience-based test design techniques<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>These <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploratory_testing\" title=\"Exploratory testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b908eb11e068a7a5f0ed90be545257ad\">exploratory testing<\/a> techniques rely on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Experience\" title=\"Experience\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d9cfcd0ec6274f6fa129624f27a1041\">experience<\/a> of the human tester.\n<\/p><p>Suggested test design techniques in this group are<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29119-4TOC_11-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29119-4TOC-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Error_guessing\" title=\"Error guessing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf7df909b183f6fbb6df7730068bc28a\">Error Guessing<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-ISO.2FIEC.2FIEEE_29119-5:2016.2C_Part_5:_Keyword-driven_testing\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE_29119-5:2016,_Part_5:_Keyword-driven_testing\">ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-5:2016, Part 5: Keyword-driven testing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This standard covers <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Keyword-driven_testing\" title=\"Keyword-driven testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4eee61acf4da164c90d426cba0fc8ef9\">keyword-driven testing<\/a>, an approach to specifying software tests (normally automated) used in the software testing industry.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FaughtKeyword04_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FaughtKeyword04-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> This standard is intended for users \"who want to create keyword-driven test specifications, create corresponding frameworks, or build <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test_automation\" title=\"Test automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a2485f0273145db6b21478529a54de46\">test automation<\/a> based on keywords.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO29119-5-2016_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO29119-5-2016-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Controversy\">Controversy<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Upon introduction of ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119, culminating in the summer of 2014, some software testers and associated organizations began making calls for the ISO to rescind the standard.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KrillSoftware14_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KrillSoftware14-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DenmanSoftware14_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DenmanSoftware14-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McCowattStop14_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McCowattStop14-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BachHow14_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BachHow14-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KanerPlease14_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KanerPlease14-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTTheISO14_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTTheISO14-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BetterSoftwareChristie_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BetterSoftwareChristie-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> Notable organizations that protested the standard included the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_for_Software_Testing\" title=\"Association for Software Testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47860a1678d250838190b12fc3bc2bdb\">Association for Software Testing<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTTheISO14_18-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTTheISO14-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Society_for_Software_Testing\" title=\"International Society for Software Testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36ae17baf1dc51938b78f716641f8474\">International Society for Software Testing<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISSTPetition14_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISSTPetition14-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> Some reasons for opposition to the standard included:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>lack of true consensus of content\u2014as required by ISO\/IEC\u2014among professional testers<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KrillSoftware14_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KrillSoftware14-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISSTPetition14_20-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISSTPetition14-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McCowattStop14_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McCowattStop14-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BachHow14_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BachHow14-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>heavy focus on documentation will detract from the actual process of software testing<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KrillSoftware14_13-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KrillSoftware14-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DenmanSoftware14_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DenmanSoftware14-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTTheISO14_18-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTTheISO14-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ISO 29119 is inconsistent with the way that people work on cognitively demanding tasks, while reinforcing the way they cling to unhelpful practices while doing complex, stressful organisations <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BetterSoftwareChristie_19-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BetterSoftwareChristie-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>the standard fails to take account of relevant work elsewhere on the balance of rules and principles in regulation and standards; the standard is unclear about the principles that should govern testing, while being over-prescriptive about the detail, leading to a confusion of means and ends<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BetterSoftwareChristie_19-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BetterSoftwareChristie-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>the standard effectively excludes context-driven testing<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BachHow14_16-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BachHow14-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KanerPlease14_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KanerPlease14-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_testing_controversies\" title=\"Software testing controversies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24fde55169a5a50c8fee72dfc867e298\">standardization of software testing<\/a> in general is unnecessary<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McCowattStop14_15-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McCowattStop14-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTTheISO14_18-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTTheISO14-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>the standard has political and monetary connotations and is too prescriptive, which doesn't benefit the industry<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KrillSoftware14_13-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KrillSoftware14-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KanerPlease14_17-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KanerPlease14-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTTheISO14_18-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTTheISO14-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Dr. Stuart Reid, convenor of WG26, replied to some of these and other opposing viewpoints in September 2014<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReidResponse14_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReidResponse14-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>, though it's not clear if any further action by WG26 was taken due to software testers' complaints.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO29119-1-2013-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO29119-1-2013_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO29119-1-2013_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO29119-1-2013_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/45142.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-1:2013\"<\/a>. <i>Standards catalogue<\/i>. International Organization for Standardization. September 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Standards+catalogue&rft.atitle=ISO%2FIEC%2FIEEE+29119-1%3A2013&rft.date=2013-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F45142.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ReidAchieving12-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-8\"><sup><i><b>i<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-9\"><sup><i><b>j<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ReidAchieving12_2-10\"><sup><i><b>k<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Reid, S. (2012). \"The New Software Testing Standard\". In Dale, C.; Anderson, T. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FpfhqhDs15YC&pg=PA243\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Achieving Systems Safety: Proceedings of the Twentieth Safety-Critical Systems Symposium, Bristol, UK, 7-9th February 2012<\/i><\/a>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 237\u201356. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781447124948.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+New+Software+Testing+Standard&rft.btitle=Achieving+Systems+Safety%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Twentieth+Safety-Critical+Systems+Symposium%2C+Bristol%2C+UK%2C+7-9th+February+2012&rft.pages=237-56&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781447124948&rft.au=Reid%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFpfhqhDs15YC%26pg%3DPA243&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShoemakerCyber14-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ShoemakerCyber14_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ShoemakerCyber14_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Shoemaker, D.; Sigler, K. (2014). \"Chapter 6: Software Impelementation Process Group\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=b1s8AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA131\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Cybersecurity: Engineering a Secure Information Technology Organization<\/i><\/a>. Cengage Learning. pp. 117\u201334. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781305443471.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Software+Impelementation+Process+Group&rft.btitle=Cybersecurity%3A+Engineering+a+Secure+Information+Technology+Organization&rft.pages=117-34&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781305443471&rft.au=Shoemaker%2C+D.&rft.au=Sigler%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db1s8AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Pr\u00f6llToward18-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Pr\u00f6llToward18_4-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Pr\u00f6llToward18_4-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Pr\u00f6llToward18_4-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Pr\u00f6ll, R.; Bauer, B. (2018). \"Toward a Consistent and Strictly Model-Based Interpretation of the ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119 for Early Testing Activities\". <i>Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Model-Driven Engineering and Software Development (MODELSWARD 2018)<\/i>: 699\u2013706. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5220%2F0006749606990706\" target=\"_blank\">10.5220\/0006749606990706<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+6th+International+Conference+on+Model-Driven+Engineering+and+Software+Development+%28MODELSWARD+2018%29&rft.atitle=Toward+a+Consistent+and+Strictly+Model-Based+Interpretation+of+the+ISO%2FIEC%2FIEEE+29119+for+Early+Testing+Activities&rft.pages=699-706&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5220%2F0006749606990706&rft.au=Pr%C3%B6ll%2C+R.&rft.au=Bauer%2C+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO33063-2015-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO33063-2015_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/55154.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 33063:2015\"<\/a>. <i>Standards catalogue<\/i>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Standards+catalogue&rft.atitle=ISO%2FIEC+33063%3A2015&rft.date=2015-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F55154.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO29119-5-2016-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO29119-5-2016_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO29119-5-2016_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO29119-5-2016_6-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/62821.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-5:2016\"<\/a>. <i>Standards catalogue<\/i>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Standards+catalogue&rft.atitle=ISO%2FIEC%2FIEEE+29119-5%3A2016&rft.date=2016-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F62821.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO29119-4-2015-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO29119-4-2015_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO29119-4-2015_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/60245.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-4:2015\"<\/a>. <i>Standards catalogue<\/i>. International Organization for Standardization. December 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Standards+catalogue&rft.atitle=ISO%2FIEC%2FIEEE+29119-4%3A2015&rft.date=2015-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F60245.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO29119-3-2013-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO29119-3-2013_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO29119-3-2013_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/56737.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-3:2013\"<\/a>. <i>Standards catalogue<\/i>. International Organization for Standardization. September 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Standards+catalogue&rft.atitle=ISO%2FIEC%2FIEEE+29119-3%3A2013&rft.date=2013-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F56737.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO29119-2-2013-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO29119-2-2013_9-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO29119-2-2013_9-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/56736.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-2:2013\"<\/a>. <i>Standards catalogue<\/i>. International Organization for Standardization. September 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Standards+catalogue&rft.atitle=ISO%2FIEC%2FIEEE+29119-2%3A2013&rft.date=2013-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fstandard%2F56736.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KasurinenASelf11-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KasurinenASelf11_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Kasurinen, J.; Runeson, P.; Riungu, L.; et al. (2011). \"A Self-assessment Framework for Finding Improvement Objectives with ISO\/IEC 29119 Test Standard\". In Connor, R.V.; Pries-Heje, J.; Messnarz, R. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Li_JzmrWfkwC&pg=PA25\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Systems, Software and Services Process Improvement: 18th European Conference, EuroSPI 2011, Roskilde, Denmark, June 27-29, 2011, Proceedings<\/i><\/a>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 25\u201336. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783642222054.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Self-assessment+Framework+for+Finding+Improvement+Objectives+with+ISO%2FIEC+29119+Test+Standard&rft.btitle=Systems%2C+Software+and+Services+Process+Improvement%3A+18th+European+Conference%2C+EuroSPI+2011%2C+Roskilde%2C+Denmark%2C+June+27-29%2C+2011%2C+Proceedings&rft.pages=25-36&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9783642222054&rft.au=Kasurinen%2C+J.&rft.au=Runeson%2C+P.&rft.au=Riungu%2C+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLi_JzmrWfkwC%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29119-4TOC-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-29119-4TOC_11-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-29119-4TOC_11-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-29119-4TOC_11-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-29119-4TOC_11-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.din.de\/de\/mitwirken\/normenausschuesse\/nia\/normen\/wdc-beuth:din21:247318197\/toc-2405676\/download\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119-4:2015-12 (E) Table of Contents\"<\/a>. <i>Normenausschuss Informationstechnik und Anwendungen (NIA)<\/i>. Deutsches Institut f\u00fcr Normung e. V<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Normenausschuss+Informationstechnik+und+Anwendungen+%28NIA%29&rft.atitle=ISO%2FIEC%2FIEEE+29119-4%3A2015-12+%28E%29+Table+of+Contents&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.din.de%2Fde%2Fmitwirken%2Fnormenausschuesse%2Fnia%2Fnormen%2Fwdc-beuth%3Adin21%3A247318197%2Ftoc-2405676%2Fdownload&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FaughtKeyword04-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FaughtKeyword04_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Faught, D.R. (5 November 2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.stickyminds.com\/article\/keyword-driven-testing\" target=\"_blank\">\"Keyword-Driven Testing\"<\/a>. <i>StickyMinds<\/i>. TechWell Corp<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=StickyMinds&rft.atitle=Keyword-Driven+Testing&rft.date=2004-11-05&rft.au=Faught%2C+D.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stickyminds.com%2Farticle%2Fkeyword-driven-testing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KrillSoftware14-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-KrillSoftware14_13-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-KrillSoftware14_13-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-KrillSoftware14_13-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-KrillSoftware14_13-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Krill, P. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=InfoWorld&rft.atitle=Software+testers+balk+at+ISO+29119+standards+proposal&rft.date=2014-08-22&rft.au=Krill%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoworld.com%2Farticle%2F2608932%2Fapplication-development%2Fsoftware-testers-balk-at-iso-29119-standards-proposal.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DenmanSoftware14-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-DenmanSoftware14_14-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DenmanSoftware14_14-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Demman, J. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TechTarget+SearchSoftwareQuality&rft.atitle=Software+testers+petition+to+stop+ISO+29119&rft.date=2014-09-09&rft.au=Demman%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearchsoftwarequality.techtarget.com%2Fnews%2F2240230293%2FSoftware-testers-petition-to-stop-ISO-29119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-McCowattStop14-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-McCowattStop14_15-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-McCowattStop14_15-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-McCowattStop14_15-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">McCowatt, I. (24 August 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/exploringuncertainty.com\/blog\/archives\/1124\" target=\"_blank\">\"STOP 29119\"<\/a>. <i>Exploring Uncertainty: A Software Testing Blog<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Exploring+Uncertainty%3A+A+Software+Testing+Blog&rft.atitle=STOP+29119&rft.date=2014-08-24&rft.au=McCowatt%2C+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fexploringuncertainty.com%2Fblog%2Farchives%2F1124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BachHow14-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-BachHow14_16-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BachHow14_16-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BachHow14_16-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Bach, J. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Satisfice+Blog&rft.atitle=How+Not+to+Standardize+Testing+%28ISO+29119%29&rft.date=2014-08-25&rft.au=Bach%2C+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.satisfice.com%2Fblog%2Farchives%2F1464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KanerPlease14-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-KanerPlease14_17-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-KanerPlease14_17-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-KanerPlease14_17-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Kaner, C. (28 August 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/context-driven-testing.com\/?p=91\" target=\"_blank\">\"Please sign the Petition to Stop ISO 29119\"<\/a>. <i>context-driven-testing.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=context-driven-testing.com&rft.atitle=Please+sign+the+Petition+to+Stop+ISO+29119&rft.date=2014-08-28&rft.au=Kaner%2C+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontext-driven-testing.com%2F%3Fp%3D91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTTheISO14-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTTheISO14_18-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTTheISO14_18-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTTheISO14_18-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTTheISO14_18-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTTheISO14_18-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.associationforsoftwaretesting.org\/2014\/09\/05\/the-iso29119-debate\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The ISO29119 debate\"<\/a>. Association for Software Testing. 5 September 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+ISO29119+debate&rft.pub=Association+for+Software+Testing&rft.date=2014-09-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.associationforsoftwaretesting.org%2F2014%2F09%2F05%2Fthe-iso29119-debate%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BetterSoftwareChristie-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-BetterSoftwareChristie_19-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BetterSoftwareChristie_19-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BetterSoftwareChristie_19-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Christie, J. (28 August 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/clarotesting.wordpress.com\/2016\/04\/07\/why-iso-29119-is-a-flawed-quality-standard\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why ISO 29119 Is a Flawed Quality Standard\"<\/a>. Better Software Magazine<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+ISO+29119+Is+a+Flawed+Quality+Standard&rft.pub=Better+Software+Magazine&rft.date=2015-08-28&rft.au=Christie%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclarotesting.wordpress.com%2F2016%2F04%2F07%2Fwhy-iso-29119-is-a-flawed-quality-standard%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISSTPetition14-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISSTPetition14_20-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISSTPetition14_20-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170208172750\/http:\/\/www.commonsensetesting.org\/news\/files\/PetitionISO29119.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Petition against ISO 29119\"<\/a>. International Society for Software Testing. 19 August 2014. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.commonsensetesting.org\/news\/files\/PetitionISO29119.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 8 February 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Petition+against+ISO+29119&rft.pub=International+Society+for+Software+Testing&rft.date=2014-08-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.commonsensetesting.org%2Fnews%2Ffiles%2FPetitionISO29119.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ReidResponse14-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ReidResponse14_21-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Marnane, T.; Reid, S. (10 September 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.softwaretestingstandard.org\/29119petitionresponse.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"Response to Stop 29119 Petition\"<\/a>. <i>SoftwareTestingStandard.org<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SoftwareTestingStandard.org&rft.atitle=Response+to+Stop+29119+Petition&rft.date=2014-09-10&rft.au=Marnane%2C+T.&rft.au=Reid%2C+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.softwaretestingstandard.org%2F29119petitionresponse.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+29119\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1257\nCached time: 20190401023309\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.540 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.798 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1467\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 92504\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 694\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 4\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 72143\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\nLua time usage: 0.195\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4.26 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 586.022 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>41.28% 241.884 1 Template:Reflist\n38.68% 226.680 1 Template:Use_dmy_dates\n26.12% 153.087 17 Template:Cite_web\n 8.08% 47.345 2 Template:Navbox\n 7.83% 45.893 1 Template:ISO_standards\n 5.12% 30.009 2 Template:DMCA\n 4.93% 28.900 1 Template:Cite_journal\n 4.10% 24.015 2 Template:Dated_maintenance_category\n 3.42% 20.059 3 Template:Cite_book\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:43697668-1!canonical and timestamp 20190401023309 and revision id 881656547\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_29119\" data-key=\"a79f383d03c2c9e3b33ff48fb934a567\">article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203034\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.013 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.176 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 167.290 1 - wikipedia:ISO\/IEC_29119\n100.00% 167.290 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10659-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203034 and revision id 33473\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_29119\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_29119<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","01899cd8e35ba9dcdf29c7c9e41c28d9_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/83\/Green_bug_and_broom.svg\/64px-Green_bug_and_broom.svg.png"],"01899cd8e35ba9dcdf29c7c9e41c28d9_timestamp":1554323434,"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_type":"article","0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_title":"ISO\/IEC 17025","0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025","0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tISO\/IEC 17025\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t Even military testing and calibration labs like the Navy Standards Laboratory (WPP) opt to get ISO\/IEC 17025 certified.[1]\nISO\/IEC 17025 is an International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard used by testing and calibration laboratories to provide a basis for accreditation of laboratory quality systems. There are many commonalities with the ISO 9000 family of standards, but ISO\/IEC 17025 adds in the concept of competence to the equation, applying directly to those organizations that produce testing and calibration results. \n\nContents\n\n1 History \n2 The standard \n\n2.1 Scope \n2.2 Normative references \n2.3 Terms and definitions \n2.4 Management requirements \n2.5 Technical requirements \n2.6 Annexes \n\n\n3 Accreditation \n4 Further reading \n5 External links \n6 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nISO\/IEC 17025 was originally known as ISO\/IEC Guide 25, first released in 1978, with subsequent editions following in 1982 and 1990. Guide 25 was created with the belief that \"third party certification systems [for laboratories] should, to the extent possible, be based on internationally agreed standards and procedures.\"[2] In the mid- to late 1990s, an update to Guide 25 was required. However, the ISO decided to convert the guide into a standard and introduce tight compatibility with ISO 9001, which was also being revised, such that ISO 9001 would be treated as a master standard and the next evolution of Guide 25 to be treated as a standard to be specifically applied to testing and calibration laboratories.\nISO\/IEC 17025:1999 was issued by the ISO in late 1999 and was internationally adopted in 2000. A second release \u2014 ISO\/IEC 17025:2005 \u2014 was made on May 12, 2005 after it was agreed that it needed to have its wording more closely aligned with the 2000 version of ISO 9001. The most significant changes introduced greater emphasis on the responsibilities of senior management, as well as explicit requirements for continual improvement of the management system itself, particularly communication with the customer.[3][2]\nISO\/IEC 17025:1999 became defunct in May 2007.\n\nThe standard \nThe ISO\/IEC 17025 standard itself comprises five elements: scope, normative references, terms and definitions, management requirements, and technical requirements. Two annexes are also included. In particular the management and technical requirements are the most important sections, with the management requirement section detailing the operation and effectiveness of the quality management system within the laboratory and the technical requirements section detailing the factors which determine the correctness and reliability of the tests and calibrations performed in laboratory.\nThe standard is organized as follows[4][5]:\n\nScope \nThe scope of the standard is described over six points. It states what type of testing and calibration is covered; who it's applicable to; the purpose for the standard; what's not covered; and how it relates to ISO 9001.\n\nNormative references \nThis section states both ISO\/IEC 17000 and the International Vocabulary of Metrology (VIM) are vital to applying the standard.\n\nTerms and definitions \nThis sections simply states that relevant terms found in the standard can be defined via ISO\/IEC 17000 and VIM.\n\nManagement requirements \nThe requirements for the operational effectiveness of a laboratory's quality management system are outlined in this section. The requirements are broken down into 15 subsections:\n4.1 Organization\n4.2 Management system\n4.3 Document control\n4.4 Review of requests, tenders and contracts\n4.5 Subcontracting of tests and calibrations\n4.6 Purchasing services and supplies\n4.7 Service to the customer\n4.8 Complaints\n4.9 Control of nonconforming testing and\/or calibration work\n4.10 Improvement\n4.11 Corrective action\n4.12 Preventive action\n4.13 Control of records\n4.14 Internal audits\n4.15 Management reviews\n\nTechnical requirements \nThe requirements for staff competence, methodologies, equipment testing and calibration, and test methods are outlined in this section. The requirements are broken down into 10 subsections:\n5.1 General\n5.2 Personnel\n5.3 Accommodation and environmental conditions\n5.4 Test and calibration methods and method validation\n5.5 Equipment\n5.6 Measurement traceability\n5.7 Sampling\n5.8 Handling of test and calibration items\n5.9 Assuring the quality of the test and calibration results\n5.10 Reporting the results\n\nAnnexes \nTwo annexes and a bibliography are included. Annex A: Nominal cross-references to ISO 9001:2000 provides links between this standard and ISO 9001, important as this standard includes requirements not covered in ISO 9001. Annex B: Guidelines for establishing applications for specific fields gives accreditation seekers explanations of specific requirements to better complete their applications.\n\nAccreditation \nLaboratories use ISO\/IEC 17025 to implement a quality system aimed at improving their ability to consistently produce valid results.[6] It is also the basis for accreditation from an accreditation body. Since the standard is about competence, accreditation is simply formal recognition of a demonstration of that competence. A prerequisite for a laboratory to become accredited is to have a documented quality management system. The usual contents of the quality manual follow the outline of the ISO\/IEC 17025 standard.[2]\nNational accreditation bodies are primarily responsible for accrediting laboratories to ISO\/IEC 17025. Laboratories can use either a domestic organization or some other internationally recognized body in cases where the domestic organization \"has either no international recognition or where it lacks recognition in parts of the world relevant to the laboratory\u2019s operations.\"[2] Laboratories typically select a range of common and frequently used methodologies that could readily benefit and demonstrate a comprehensive quality system that those methodologies run under.\n\nFurther reading \n \"Complying with ISO 17025\" (PDF). United Nations Industrial Development Organization. October 2009. pp. 106. http:\/\/www.unido.org\/fileadmin\/user_media\/Publications\/Pub_fr\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook.pdf .   \nExternal links \n ISO 17025:2005\n ISO 17025:2005 on the ISO Online Browsing Platform\nReferences \n\n\u2191 \"Navy Standards Laboratory (WPP), Naval Surface Warfare Center, Corona Division\". Lab Accreditation Bureau. http:\/\/l-a-b.com\/company\/navy-standards-laboratory-wpp-naval-surface-warfare-center-corona-division\/ . Retrieved 20 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 \"Complying with ISO 17025\" (PDF). United Nations Industrial Development Organization. October 2009. pp. 106. http:\/\/www.unido.org\/fileadmin\/user_media\/Publications\/Pub_fr\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook.pdf . Retrieved 20 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Hoolihan, Daniel D. \"ISO\/IEC 17025:1999 versus 2005\" (PDF). Hoolihan EMC Consulting. http:\/\/gsi.nist.gov\/global\/docs\/mra\/2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf . Retrieved 20 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"ISO\/IEC 17025:2005(en) - General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories\". ISO Online Browsing Platform (OBP). International Organization for Standardization. 2005. https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-2:v1:en . Retrieved 20 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"ISO\/IEC 17025 - General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories\". Activation Laboratories Ltd. http:\/\/actlabs.com\/page.aspx?menu=60&app=206&cat1=732&tp=2&lk=no . Retrieved 20 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Honsa, Julie D.; Deborah A. McIntyre (2003). \"ISO 17025: Practical Benefits of Implementing a Quality System\". Journal of AOAC International 86 (5): 1038\u20131044. http:\/\/aoac.publisher.ingentaconnect.com\/content\/aoac\/jaoac\/2003\/00000086\/00000005\/art00023 . Retrieved 28 February 2012 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Health standards\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 12 February 2016, at 23:23.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 7,949 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-ISO_IEC_17025 skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:402px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:US_Navy_100714-N-3852A-118_Hull_Systems_Technician_monitors_nitrogen_tank.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"de97ce7e843011f46d92204cfd550a0d\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/96\/US_Navy_100714-N-3852A-118_Hull_Systems_Technician_monitors_nitrogen_tank.jpg\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:US_Navy_100714-N-3852A-118_Hull_Systems_Technician_monitors_nitrogen_tank.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"de97ce7e843011f46d92204cfd550a0d\"><\/a><\/div>Even military testing and calibration labs like the Navy Standards Laboratory (WPP) opt to get ISO\/IEC 17025 certified.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NAVY_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NAVY-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>ISO\/IEC 17025<\/b> is an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116defc5d89c8a55f5b7c1be0790b442\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO) standard used by testing and calibration laboratories to provide a basis for accreditation of laboratory quality systems. There are many commonalities with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9000<\/a> family of standards, but ISO\/IEC 17025 adds in the concept of competence to the equation, applying directly to those organizations that produce testing and calibration results. \n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ISO\/IEC 17025 was originally known as ISO\/IEC Guide 25, first released in 1978, with subsequent editions following in 1982 and 1990. Guide 25 was created with the belief that \"third party certification systems [for laboratories] should, to the extent possible, be based on internationally agreed standards and procedures.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Comp17025_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Comp17025-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> In the mid- to late 1990s, an update to Guide 25 was required. However, the ISO decided to convert the guide into a standard and introduce tight compatibility with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9001\" title=\"ISO 9001\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"6de0ce2bd9e48192cdb903331a793aa7\">ISO 9001<\/a>, which was also being revised, such that ISO 9001 would be treated as a master standard and the next evolution of Guide 25 to be treated as a standard to be specifically applied to testing and calibration laboratories.\n<\/p><p>ISO\/IEC 17025:1999 was issued by the ISO in late 1999 and was internationally adopted in 2000. A second release \u2014 ISO\/IEC 17025:2005 \u2014 was made on May 12, 2005 after it was agreed that it needed to have its wording more closely aligned with the 2000 version of ISO 9001. The most significant changes introduced greater emphasis on the responsibilities of senior management, as well as explicit requirements for continual improvement of the management system itself, particularly communication with the customer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Difs_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Difs-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Comp17025_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Comp17025-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>ISO\/IEC 17025:1999 became defunct in May 2007.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_standard\">The standard<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The ISO\/IEC 17025 standard itself comprises five elements: scope, normative references, terms and definitions, management requirements, and technical requirements. Two annexes are also included. In particular the management and technical requirements are the most important sections, with the management requirement section detailing the operation and effectiveness of the quality management system within the laboratory and the technical requirements section detailing the factors which determine the correctness and reliability of the tests and calibrations performed in laboratory.\n<\/p><p>The standard is organized as follows<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO17025Peak_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO17025Peak-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ACT_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ACT-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Scope\">Scope<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The scope of the standard is described over six points. It states what type of testing and calibration is covered; who it's applicable to; the purpose for the standard; what's not covered; and how it relates to ISO 9001.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Normative_references\">Normative references<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section states both ISO\/IEC 17000 and the International Vocabulary of Metrology (VIM) are vital to applying the standard.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Terms_and_definitions\">Terms and definitions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This sections simply states that relevant terms found in the standard can be defined via ISO\/IEC 17000 and VIM.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Management_requirements\">Management requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The requirements for the operational effectiveness of a laboratory's quality management system are outlined in this section. The requirements are broken down into 15 subsections:\n<\/p><p><b>4.1<\/b> Organization\n<\/p><p><b>4.2<\/b> Management system\n<\/p><p><b>4.3<\/b> Document control\n<\/p><p><b>4.4<\/b> Review of requests, tenders and contracts\n<\/p><p><b>4.5<\/b> Subcontracting of tests and calibrations\n<\/p><p><b>4.6<\/b> Purchasing services and supplies\n<\/p><p><b>4.7<\/b> Service to the customer\n<\/p><p><b>4.8<\/b> Complaints\n<\/p><p><b>4.9<\/b> Control of nonconforming testing and\/or calibration work\n<\/p><p><b>4.10<\/b> Improvement\n<\/p><p><b>4.11<\/b> Corrective action\n<\/p><p><b>4.12<\/b> Preventive action\n<\/p><p><b>4.13<\/b> Control of records\n<\/p><p><b>4.14<\/b> Internal audits\n<\/p><p><b>4.15<\/b> Management reviews\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technical_requirements\">Technical requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The requirements for staff competence, methodologies, equipment testing and calibration, and test methods are outlined in this section. The requirements are broken down into 10 subsections:\n<\/p><p><b>5.1<\/b> General\n<\/p><p><b>5.2<\/b> Personnel\n<\/p><p><b>5.3<\/b> Accommodation and environmental conditions\n<\/p><p><b>5.4<\/b> Test and calibration methods and method validation\n<\/p><p><b>5.5<\/b> Equipment\n<\/p><p><b>5.6<\/b> Measurement traceability\n<\/p><p><b>5.7<\/b> Sampling\n<\/p><p><b>5.8<\/b> Handling of test and calibration items\n<\/p><p><b>5.9<\/b> Assuring the quality of the test and calibration results\n<\/p><p><b>5.10<\/b> Reporting the results\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Annexes\">Annexes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Two annexes and a bibliography are included. <i>Annex A: Nominal cross-references to ISO 9001:2000<\/i> provides links between this standard and ISO 9001, important as this standard includes requirements not covered in ISO 9001. <i>Annex B: Guidelines for establishing applications for specific fields<\/i> gives accreditation seekers explanations of specific requirements to better complete their applications.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Accreditation\">Accreditation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Laboratories use ISO\/IEC 17025 to implement a quality system aimed at improving their ability to consistently produce valid results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Honsa_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Honsa-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> It is also the basis for accreditation from an accreditation body. Since the standard is about competence, accreditation is simply formal recognition of a demonstration of that competence. A prerequisite for a laboratory to become accredited is to have a documented quality management system. The usual contents of the quality manual follow the outline of the ISO\/IEC 17025 standard.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Comp17025_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Comp17025-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>National accreditation bodies are primarily responsible for accrediting laboratories to ISO\/IEC 17025. Laboratories can use either a domestic organization or some other internationally recognized body in cases where the domestic organization \"has either no international recognition or where it lacks recognition in parts of the world relevant to the laboratory\u2019s operations.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Comp17025_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Comp17025-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Laboratories typically select a range of common and frequently used methodologies that could readily benefit and demonstrate a comprehensive quality system that those methodologies run under.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.unido.org\/fileadmin\/user_media\/Publications\/Pub_fr\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Complying with ISO 17025\"<\/a> (PDF). United Nations Industrial Development Organization. October 2009. pp. 106<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.unido.org\/fileadmin\/user_media\/Publications\/Pub_fr\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.unido.org\/fileadmin\/user_media\/Publications\/Pub_fr\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Complying+with+ISO+17025&rft.atitle=&rft.date=October+2009&rft.pages=pp.+106&rft.pub=United+Nations+Industrial+Development+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unido.org%2Ffileadmin%2Fuser_media%2FPublications%2FPub_fr%2FComplying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=39883\" target=\"_blank\">ISO 17025:2005<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-2:v1:en\" target=\"_blank\">ISO 17025:2005<\/a> on the ISO Online Browsing Platform<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-NAVY-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NAVY_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/l-a-b.com\/company\/navy-standards-laboratory-wpp-naval-surface-warfare-center-corona-division\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Navy Standards Laboratory (WPP), Naval Surface Warfare Center, Corona Division\"<\/a>. Lab Accreditation Bureau<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/l-a-b.com\/company\/navy-standards-laboratory-wpp-naval-surface-warfare-center-corona-division\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/l-a-b.com\/company\/navy-standards-laboratory-wpp-naval-surface-warfare-center-corona-division\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 20 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Navy+Standards+Laboratory+%28WPP%29%2C+Naval+Surface+Warfare+Center%2C+Corona+Division&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Lab+Accreditation+Bureau&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fl-a-b.com%2Fcompany%2Fnavy-standards-laboratory-wpp-naval-surface-warfare-center-corona-division%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Comp17025-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Comp17025_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Comp17025_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Comp17025_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Comp17025_2-3\">2.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.unido.org\/fileadmin\/user_media\/Publications\/Pub_fr\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Complying with ISO 17025\"<\/a> (PDF). United Nations Industrial Development Organization. October 2009. pp. 106<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.unido.org\/fileadmin\/user_media\/Publications\/Pub_fr\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.unido.org\/fileadmin\/user_media\/Publications\/Pub_fr\/Complying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 20 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Complying+with+ISO+17025&rft.atitle=&rft.date=October+2009&rft.pages=pp.+106&rft.pub=United+Nations+Industrial+Development+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unido.org%2Ffileadmin%2Fuser_media%2FPublications%2FPub_fr%2FComplying_with_ISO_17025_A_practical_guidebook.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Difs-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Difs_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Hoolihan, Daniel D. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/gsi.nist.gov\/global\/docs\/mra\/2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025:1999 versus 2005\"<\/a> (PDF). Hoolihan EMC Consulting<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/gsi.nist.gov\/global\/docs\/mra\/2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/gsi.nist.gov\/global\/docs\/mra\/2005_Hoolihan_17025.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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International Organization for Standardization. 2005<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-2:v1:en\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso-iec:17025:ed-2:v1:en<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 20 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025%3A2005%28en%29+-+General+requirements+for+the+competence+of+testing+and+calibration+laboratories&rft.atitle=ISO+Online+Browsing+Platform+%28OBP%29&rft.date=2005&rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fobp%2Fui%2F%23iso%3Astd%3Aiso-iec%3A17025%3Aed-2%3Av1%3Aen&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ACT-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ACT_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/actlabs.com\/page.aspx?menu=60&app=206&cat1=732&tp=2&lk=no\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC 17025 - General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories\"<\/a>. Activation Laboratories Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/actlabs.com\/page.aspx?menu=60&app=206&cat1=732&tp=2&lk=no\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/actlabs.com\/page.aspx?menu=60&app=206&cat1=732&tp=2&lk=no<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 20 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ISO%2FIEC+17025+-+General+requirements+for+the+competence+of+testing+and+calibration+laboratories&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Activation+Laboratories+Ltd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Factlabs.com%2Fpage.aspx%3Fmenu%3D60%26app%3D206%26cat1%3D732%26tp%3D2%26lk%3Dno&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Honsa-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Honsa_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Honsa, Julie D.; Deborah A. McIntyre (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aoac.publisher.ingentaconnect.com\/content\/aoac\/jaoac\/2003\/00000086\/00000005\/art00023\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 17025: Practical Benefits of Implementing a Quality System\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of AOAC International<\/i> <b>86<\/b> (5): 1038\u20131044<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/aoac.publisher.ingentaconnect.com\/content\/aoac\/jaoac\/2003\/00000086\/00000005\/art00023\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/aoac.publisher.ingentaconnect.com\/content\/aoac\/jaoac\/2003\/00000086\/00000005\/art00023<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=ISO+17025%3A+Practical+Benefits+of+Implementing+a+Quality+System&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+AOAC+International&rft.aulast=Honsa&rft.aufirst=Julie+D.&rft.au=Honsa%2C%26%2332%3BJulie+D.&rft.date=2003&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1038%E2%80%931044&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faoac.publisher.ingentaconnect.com%2Fcontent%2Faoac%2Fjaoac%2F2003%2F00000086%2F00000005%2Fart00023&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO\/IEC_17025\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203033\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.175 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.049 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4199\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 15439\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 29344\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 12314\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 124.431 1 - -total\n 84.92% 105.670 7 - Template:Citation\/core\n 79.00% 98.300 6 - Template:Cite_web\n 16.43% 20.441 1 - Template:Cite_journal\n 5.81% 7.227 8 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3375-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403203032 and revision id 23912\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/96\/US_Navy_100714-N-3852A-118_Hull_Systems_Technician_monitors_nitrogen_tank.jpg"],"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c_timestamp":1554323432,"0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_type":"article","0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_title":"ISO\/IEC 12207","0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_12207","0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tISO\/IEC 12207\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207 Systems and software engineering \u2013 Software life cycle processes[1] is an international standard for software lifecycle processes. First introduced in 1995, it aims to be a primary standard that defines all the processes required for developing and maintaining software systems, including the outcomes and\/or activities of each process.\n\nContents \n\n1 Revision history \n\n1.1 IEEE versions \n\n\n2 Processes not stages \n3 Processes \n\n3.1 Agreement processes \n3.2 Organizational project-enabling processes \n3.3 Technical management processes \n3.4 Technical processes \n\n\n4 Conformance \n5 See also \n6 References \n\n\nRevision history \nISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017 is the newest version, published in November 2017.[1] The IEEE Computer Society joined directly with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in the editing process for this version. A significant change is that it adopts a process model identical to the ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 15288:2015 process model (there is one name change, the 15288 \"System Requirements Definition\" process is renamed to the \"System\/Software Requirements Definition\" process). This harmonization of the two standards led to the removal of separate software development and software reuse processes, bringing the total number of 12207 processes from 43 down to the 30 processes defined in 15288. It also caused changes to the quality management and quality assurance process activities and outcomes. Additionally, the definition of \"audit\" and related audit activities were updated.[2][3][4] Annex I of ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017 provides a process mapping between the 2017 version and the previous version, including the primary process alignments between the two versions; this is intended to enable traceability and ease transition for users of the previous version.\nPrior versions include:\n\nISO\/IEC 12207:2008, which was published in February 2008[5]\nISO\/IEC 12207:1995\/Amd 2:2004, an amended version of the prior, published in November 2004[6]\nISO\/IEC 12207:1995\/Amd 1:2002, an amended version of the prior, published in May 2002[7]\nISO\/IEC 12207:1995, the first iteration, published in July 1995[8]; originally was divided into five primary processes (acquisition, supply, development, operation, and maintenance), with eight supporting and four organizational life cycle processes[9]\nIEEE versions \nPrior to the IEEE Computer Society formally joining the editing process (becoming a major stakeholder) for the 2017 release, the IEEE maintained its own versions of ISO\/IEC 12207, initially with modifications made jointly with the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA).[10][11][12] With the 2008 update came a \"shared strategy of ISO\/IEC JTC 1\/SC 7 and the IEEE to harmonize their respective collections of standards,\" resulting in identical standards thereon, but with slightly different names.[12] Those IEEE versions included:\n\nIEEE Std. 12207-2008: \"integrates ISO\/IEC 12207:1995 with its two amendments and was coordinated with the parallel revision of ISO\/IEC 15288:2002 (System life cycle processes) to align structure, terms, and corresponding organizational and project processes\"[13]; superseded by ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017\nIEEE\/EIA 12207.2-1997: \"provides implementation consideration guidance for the normative clauses of IEEE\/EIA 12207.0\"[14]; superseded\/made obsolete by IEEE Std. 12207-2008, which was then superseded by ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017\nIEEE\/EIA 12207.1-1997: \"provides guidance for recording life cycle data resulting from the life cycle processes of IEEE\/EIA 12207.0\"[15]; superseded by ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 15289:2011, which was then superseded by ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 15289:2017\nIEEE\/EIA 12207.0-1996: \"consists of the clarifications, additions, and changes [to ISO\/IEC 12207:1995 for industry implementation] accepted by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) as formulated by a joint project of the two organizations\"[10]; superseded by IEEE Std. 12207-2008, which was then superseded by ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017\nIt's also worth noting that IEEE\/EIA 12207 officially replaced MIL-STD-498 (released in December 1994[11]) for the development of DoD software systems on May 27, 1998.[9][11]\n\nProcesses not stages \nThe standard establishes a set of processes for managing the lifecycle of software. The standard \"does not prescribe a specific software life cycle model, development methodology, method, modelling approach, or technique.\"[1]. Instead, the standard (as well as ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 15288) distinguishes between a \"stage\" and \"process\" as follows:\n\nstage: \"period within the life cycle of an entity that relates to the state of its description or realization\". A stage is typically a period of time and ends with a \"primary decision gate\".\nprocess: \"set of interrelated or interacting activities that transforms inputs into outputs\". The same process often recurs within different stages.\nStages (aka phases) are not the same as processes, and this standard only defines specific processes - it does not define any particular stages. Instead, the standard acknowledges that software life cycles vary, and may be divided into stages (also called phases) that represent major life cycle periods and give rise to primary decision gates. No particular set of stages is normative, but it does mention two examples:\n\nThe system life cycle stages from ISO\/IEC TS 24748-1 could be used (concept, development, production, utilization, support, and retirement).\nIt also notes that a common set of stages for software is concept exploration, development, sustainment, and retirement.\nThe life cycle processes the standard defines are not aligned to any specific stage in a software life cycle. Indeed, the life cycle processes that involve planning, performance, and evaluation \"should be considered for use at every stage\". In practice, processes occur whenever they are needed within any stage.\n\nProcesses \nISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017 divides software life cycle processes into four main process groups: agreement, organizational project-enabling, technical management, and technical processes.[1][4] Under each of those four process groups are a variety of sub-categories, including the primary activities of acquisition and supply (agreement); configuration (technical management); and operation, maintenance, and disposal (technical).[1][16]\n\nAgreement processes \nHere ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017 includes the acquisition and supply processes[1][2][16], which are activities related to establishing an agreement between a supplier and acquirer. Acquisition covers all the activities involved in initiating a project. The acquisition phase can be divided into different activities and deliverables that are completed chronologically. During the supply phase a project management plan is developed. This plan contains information about the project such as different milestones that need to be reached.\n\nOrganizational project-enabling processes \nDetailed here are life cycle model management, infrastructure management, portfolio management, human resource management, quality management, and knowledge management processes.[1][2][16] These processes help a business or organization enable, control, and support the system life cycle and related projects. Life cycle mode management helps ensure acquisition and supply efforts are supported, while infrastructure and portfolio management supports business and project-specific initiatives during the entire system life cycle. The rest ensure the necessary resources and quality controls are in place to support the business' project and system endeavors. If an organization does not have an appropriate set of organizational processes, a project executed by the organization may apply those processes directly to the project instead.[1]\n\nTechnical management processes \nISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017 places eight different processes here[1][2][16]:\n\nTask planning\nProject assessment and control\nDecision management\nRisk management\nConfiguration management\nInformation management\nMeasurement\nQuality assurance\nThese processes deal with planning, assessment, and control of software and other projects during the life cycle, ensuring quality along the way.\n\nTechnical processes \nThe technical processes of ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017 encompass 14 different processes[1][2][16], some of which came from the old software-specific processes that were phased out from the 2008 version.[2] \nThe full list includes[1][2][16]:\n\nBusiness or mission analysis\nStakeholder needs and requirements definition\nSystems\/Software requirements definition\nArchitecture definition\nDesign definition\nSystem analysis\nImplementation\nIntegration\nVerification\nTransition\nValidation\nOperation\nMaintenance\nDisposal\nThese processes involve technical activities and personnel (information technology, troubleshooters, software specialists, etc.) during pre-, post- and during operation. The analysis and definition processes early on set the stage for how software and projects are implemented. Additional processes of integration, verification, transition, and validation help ensure quality and readiness. The operation and maintenance phases occur simultaneously, with the operation phase consisting of activities like assisting users in working with the implemented software product, and the maintenance phase consisting of maintenance tasks to keep the product up and running. The disposal process describes how the system\/project will be retired and cleaned up, if necessary.[1]\n\nConformance \nClause 4 describes the document's intended use and conformance requirements. It is expected that particular projects \"may not need to use all of the processes provided by this document.\" In practice, conforming to this standard normally involves selecting and declaring the set of suitable processes. This can be done through either \"full conformance\" or \"tailored conformance\".\n\"Full conformance\" can be claimed in one of two ways. \"Full conformance to tasks\" can be claimed if all requirements of the declared processes' activities and tasks are met. \"Full conformance to outcomes\" can be claimed if all required outcomes of the declared processes are met. The latter permits more variation.\n\"Tailored conformance\" may be declared when specific clauses are selected or modified through the tailoring process also defined in the document.\n\nSee also \nSoftware development process\nSoftware release life cycle\nISO\/IEC\/IEEE 15288\nISO\/IEC 15504\nISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119\nISO\/IEC JTC 1\/SC 7\nMeta-modeling technique\nV model\nUnified Modeling Language\nBuild management\nRelease management\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l \"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017\". Standards catalogue. International Organization for Standardization. November 2017. Retrieved 21 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d e f g Reilly, A. (27 June 2017). \"New or Improved! Software Engineering Standards for Quality\". American Society for Quality. Retrieved 21 June 2018 . \n\n^ Bach, C. (12 December 2017). \"ISO\/IEC 12207 Updated and Renumbered as ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207\". Standards Forum. Document Center, Inc. Retrieved 22 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b Reilly, A. (March 2018). \"INCITS\/SSE - Software and Systems Engineering Annual Report - April 2017 to March 2018\" (PDF) . INCITS. Retrieved 22 June 2018 . The cornerstone standards of ISO\/IEC JTC 1\/SC 7, ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017 and ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 15288:2015, have recently completed revision to reflect a unified model set of acquisition, organizational, technical management, and technical processes for systems and software. \n\n^ \"ISO\/IEC 12207:2008\". Standards catalogue. International Organization for Standardization. February 2008. Retrieved 21 June 2018 . \n\n^ \"ISO\/IEC 12207:1995\/Amd 2:2004\". Standards catalogue. International Organization for Standardization. November 2004. Retrieved 21 June 2018 . \n\n^ \"ISO\/IEC 12207:1995\/Amd 1:2002\". Standards catalogue. International Organization for Standardization. May 2002. Retrieved 21 June 2018 . \n\n^ \"ISO\/IEC 12207:1995\". Standards catalogue. International Organization for Standardization. July 1995. Retrieved 21 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b \"Overview of IEEE\/EIA 12207: Standard for Information Technology\". SSC San Diego Process Asset Library. 30 July 1998. Archived from the original on 30 December 2008. Retrieved 22 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b \"IEEE 12207.0-1996 - Standard for Information Technology - Software Life Cycle Processes\". IEEE Standards Association. March 1998. Retrieved 22 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b c \"ISO\/IEC 12207:2008, IEEE Std 12207-2008 Systems and Software Engineering \u2014 Software Life Cycle Processes\" (PDF) . SemanticScholar.org. 7 December 2009. Retrieved 22 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b \"1SO\/IEC 12207:2008(en) Systems and software engineering \u2014 Software life cycle processes: IEEE Introduction\". Online Browsing Platform. International Organization for Standardization. February 2008. Retrieved 22 June 2018 . \n\n^ \"IEEE Std. 12207-2008 - Systems and software engineering -- Software life cycle processes\". IEEE Standards Association. January 2008. Retrieved 22 June 2018 . \n\n^ \"IEEE 12207.2-1997 - Guide for Information Technology - Software Life Cycle Processes - Implementation Considerations\". IEEE Standards Association. April 1998. Retrieved 22 June 2018 . \n\n^ \"IEEE 12207.1-1997 - Guide for Information Technology - Software Life Cycle Processes - Life Cycle Data\". IEEE Standards Association. April 1998. Retrieved 22 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d e f Pe\u00f1alvo, F.J.; Holgado, A.G. (2017). \"Proceso: Ingenier\u00eda de Software I\" (PDF) . Universidad de Salamanca. p. 39. Retrieved 21 June 2018 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n\nvteISO standards by standard number List of ISO standards \/ ISO romanizations \/ IEC standards1\u20139999\n1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6\n7\n9\n16\n17\n31\n-0\n-1\n-2\n-3\n-4\n-5\n-6\n-7\n-8\n-9\n-10\n-11\n-12\n-13\n128\n216\n217\n226\n228\n233\n259\n269\n302\n306\n361\n428\n500\n518\n519\n639\n-1\n-2\n-3\n-5\n-6\n646\n657\n668\n690\n704\n732\n764\n838\n843\n860\n898\n965\n999\n1000\n1004\n1007\n1073-1\n1155\n1413\n1538\n1629\n1745\n1989\n2014\n2015\n2022\n2033\n2047\n2108\n2145\n2146\n2240\n2281\n2533\n2709\n2711\n2720\n2788\n2848\n2852\n3029\n3103\n3166\n-1\n-2\n-3\n3297\n3307\n3601\n3602\n3864\n3901\n3950\n3977\n4031\n4157\n4165\n4217\n4909\n5218\n5426\n5427\n5428\n5725\n5775\n5776\n5800\n5964\n6166\n6344\n6346\n6385\n6425\n6429\n6438\n6523\n6709\n6943\n7001\n7002\n7010\n7027\n7064\n7098\n7185\n7200\n7498\n-1\n7637\n7736\n7810\n7811\n7812\n7813\n7816\n7942\n8000\n8093\n8178\n8217\n8373\n8501-1\n8571\n8583\n8601\n8613\n8632\n8651\n8652\n8691\n8805\/8806\n8807\n8820-5\n8859\n-1\n-2\n-3\n-4\n-5\n-6\n-7\n-8\n-8-I\n-9\n-10\n-11\n-12\n-13\n-14\n-15\n-16\n8879\n9000\/9001\n9036\n9075\n9126\n9141\n9227\n9241\n9293\n9314\n9362\n9407\n9506\n9529\n9564\n9592\/9593\n9594\n9660\n9797-1\n9897\n9899\n9945\n9984\n9985\n9995\n10000\u201319999\n10005\n10006\n10007\n10116\n10118-3\n10160\n10161\n10165\n10179\n10206\n10218\n10303\n-11\n-21\n-22\n-28\n-238\n10383\n10487\n10585\n10589\n10646\n10664\n10746\n10861\n10957\n10962\n10967\n11073\n11170\n11179\n11404\n11544\n11783\n11784\n11785\n11801\n11898\n11940 (-2)\n11941\n11941 (TR)\n11992\n12006\n12182\n12207\n12234-2\n13211\n-1\n-2\n13216\n13250\n13399\n13406-2\n13450\n13485\n13490\n13567\n13568\n13584\n13616\n14000\n14031\n14224\n14289\n14396\n14443\n14496\n-2\n-3\n-6\n-10\n-11\n-12\n-14\n-17\n-20\n14644\n14649\n14651\n14698\n14750\n14764\n14882\n14971\n15022\n15189\n15288\n15291\n15292\n15398\n15408\n15444\n-3\n15445\n15438\n15504\n15511\n15686\n15693\n15706\n-2\n15707\n15897\n15919\n15924\n15926\n15926 WIP\n15930\n16023\n16262\n16355-1\n16612-2\n16750\n16949 (TS)\n17024\n17025\n17100\n17203\n17369\n17442\n17799\n18000\n18004\n18014\n18245\n18629\n18916\n19005\n19011\n19092 (-1\n-2)\n19114\n19115\n19125\n19136\n19407\n19439\n19500\n19501\n19502\n19503\n19505\n19506\n19507\n19508\n19509\n19510\n19600\n19752\n19757\n19770\n19775-1\n19794-5\n19831\n20000+\n20000\n20022\n20121\n20400\n21000\n21047\n21500\n21827:2002\n22000\n23270\n23271\n23360\n24517\n24613\n24617\n24707\n25178\n25964\n26000\n26262\n26300\n26324\n27000 series\n27000\n27001\n27002\n27006\n27729\n28000\n29110\n29148\n29199-2\n29500\n30170\n31000\n32000\n37001\n38500\n40500\n42010\n45001\n50001\n55000\n80000\n-1\n-2\n-3\n\n Category\n\nvteList of International Electrotechnical Commission standardsIEC standards\nIEC 60027\nIEC 60034\nIEC 60038\nIEC 60062\nIEC 60063\nIEC 60068\nIEC 60112\nIEC 60228\nIEC 60269\nIEC 60297\nIEC 60309\nIEC 60320\nIEC 60364\nIEC 60446\nIEC 60559\nIEC 60601\nIEC 60870\nIEC 60870-5\nIEC 60870-6\nIEC 60906-1\nIEC 60908\nIEC 60929\nIEC 60958\nAES3\nS\/PDIF\nIEC 61030\nIEC 61131\nIEC 61131-3\nIEC 61158\nIEC 61162\nIEC 61334\nIEC 61346\nIEC 61355\nIEC 61360\nIEC 61400\nIEC 61499\nIEC 61508\nIEC 61511\nIEC 61850\nIEC 61851\nIEC 61883\nIEC 61960\nIEC 61968\nIEC 61970\nIEC 62014-4\nIEC 62056\nIEC 62061\nIEC 62196\nIEC 62262\nIEC 62264\nIEC 62304\nIEC 62325\nIEC 62351\nIEC 62365\nIEC 62366\nIEC 62379\nIEC 62386\nIEC 62455\nIEC 62680\nIEC 62682\nIEC 62700\nISO\/IEC standards\nISO\/IEC 646\nISO\/IEC 2022\nISO\/IEC 4909\nISO\/IEC 5218\nISO\/IEC 6429\nISO\/IEC 6523\nISO\/IEC 7810\nISO\/IEC 7811\nISO\/IEC 7812\nISO\/IEC 7813\nISO\/IEC 7816\nISO\/IEC 7942\nISO\/IEC 8613\nISO\/IEC 8632\nISO\/IEC 8652\nISO\/IEC 8859\nISO\/IEC 9126\nISO\/IEC 9293\nISO\/IEC 9592\nISO\/IEC 9593\nISO\/IEC 9899\nISO\/IEC 9945\nISO\/IEC 9995\nISO\/IEC 10021\nISO\/IEC 10116\nISO\/IEC 10165\nISO\/IEC 10179\nISO\/IEC 10646\nISO\/IEC 10967\nISO\/IEC 11172\nISO\/IEC 11179\nISO\/IEC 11404\nISO\/IEC 11544\nISO\/IEC 11801\nISO\/IEC 12207\nISO\/IEC 13250\nISO\/IEC 13346\nISO\/IEC 13522-5\nISO\/IEC 13568\nISO\/IEC 13818\nISO\/IEC 14443\nISO\/IEC 14496\nISO\/IEC 14882\nISO\/IEC 15288\nISO\/IEC 15291\nISO\/IEC 15408\nISO\/IEC 15444\nISO\/IEC 15445\nISO\/IEC 15504\nISO\/IEC 15511\nISO\/IEC 15693\nISO\/IEC 15897\nISO\/IEC 15938\nISO\/IEC 16262\nISO\/IEC 17024\nISO\/IEC 17025\nISO\/IEC 18000\nISO\/IEC 18004\nISO\/IEC 18014\nISO\/IEC 19752\nISO\/IEC 19757\nISO\/IEC 19770\nISO\/IEC 19788\nISO\/IEC 20000\nISO\/IEC 21000\nISO\/IEC 21827\nISO\/IEC 23000\nISO\/IEC 23003\nISO\/IEC 23008\nISO\/IEC 23270\nISO\/IEC 23360\nISO\/IEC 24707\nISO\/IEC 24727\nISO\/IEC 24744\nISO\/IEC 24752\nISO\/IEC 26300\nISO\/IEC 27000\nISO\/IEC 27000-series\nISO\/IEC 27002\nISO\/IEC 27040\nISO\/IEC 29119\nISO\/IEC 33001\nISO\/IEC 38500\nISO\/IEC 42010\nISO\/IEC 80000\nRelated\nInternational Electrotechnical Commission\n\nvteIEEE standardsCurrent\n488\n730\n754\nRevision\n854\n828\n829\n896\n1003\n1014\n1016\n1076\n1149.1\n1154\n1164\n1275\n1278\n1284\n1355\n1394\n1451\n1497\n1516\n1541\n1547\n1584\n1588\n1596\n1603\n1613\n1666\n1667\n1675\n1685\n1722\n1733\n1800\n1801\n1815\n1850\n1900\n1901\n1902\n1904\n1905\n2030\n2050\n11073\n12207\n14764\n16085\n16326\n29148\n42010\n802 series802.1\nD\np\nQ\nQat\nQay\nw\nX\nab\nad\nAE\nag\nah\nak\naq\nAS\nax\naz\nBA\n802.3\n-1983\na\nb\nd\ne\ni\nj\nu\nx\ny\nz\nab\nac\nad\nae\naf\nah\nak\nan\naq\nat\nav\naz\nba\nbt\nby\n802.11\nlegacy mode\na\nb\nc\nd\ne\nf\ng\nh\ni\nj\nk\nn\np\nr\ns\nu\nv\nw\ny\nac\nad\naf\nah\nai\nax\nay\n\n.2\n.4\n.5\n.6\n.7\n.8\n.9\n.10\n.12\n.14\n.15\n.1\n.4\n.4a\n.6\n.16\nOriginal \u00b7 d \u00b7 e\n.17\n.18\n.20\n.21\n.22Proposed\nP1363\nP1619\nP1699\nP1823\nP1906.1\nSuperseded\n754-1985\n830\n1219\n1233\n1362\n1364\n1471\n\nSee also\nIEEE Standards Association\nCategory:IEEE standards\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_12207\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_12207<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Design and development standardsSoftware standardsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation 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information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 22 June 2018, at 22:01.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 1,065 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-ISO_IEC_12207 skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ISO\/IEC 12207<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207<\/b> <i>Systems and software engineering \u2013 Software life cycle processes<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-2017-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> is an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_standard\" title=\"International standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b27d8ad57b5d2b13abbf150355ac317\">international standard<\/a> for software lifecycle processes. First introduced in 1995, it aims to be a primary standard that defines all the processes required for developing and maintaining <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_system\" title=\"Software system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5da1a00677203bd9b989943f4ffd22b\">software systems<\/a>, including the outcomes and\/or activities of each process.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Revision_history\">Revision history<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017 is the newest version, published in November 2017.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-2017-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE_Computer_Society\" title=\"IEEE Computer Society\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c05bae3845ca95d7032b65bfa47246cf\">IEEE Computer Society<\/a> joined directly with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO) in the editing process for this version. A significant change is that it adopts a process model identical to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_15288\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 15288\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db8499701388d7af4f9d22c0fa09f572\">ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 15288<\/a>:2015 process model (there is one name change, the 15288 \"System Requirements Definition\" process is renamed to the \"System\/Software Requirements Definition\" process). This harmonization of the two standards led to the removal of separate software development and software reuse processes, bringing the total number of 12207 processes from 43 down to the 30 processes defined in 15288. It also caused changes to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_management\" title=\"Quality management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ffec9747f7700f58e7a4d2c9394d6719\">quality management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_assurance\" title=\"Quality assurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"680f2f1a2b91429b38fd9a1d2b226d01\">quality assurance<\/a> process activities and outcomes. Additionally, the definition of \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conformity_assessment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Conformity assessment\" data-key=\"e17f917107e6a81ea2ae1d8d05f37a21\">audit<\/a>\" and related audit activities were updated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReillyNew17_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReillyNew17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BachISO17_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BachISO17-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReillyINCITS18_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReillyINCITS18-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> Annex I of ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017 provides a process mapping between the 2017 version and the previous version, including the primary process alignments between the two versions; this is intended to enable traceability and ease transition for users of the previous version.\n<\/p><p>Prior versions include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>ISO\/IEC 12207:2008, which was published in February 2008<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-2008_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-2008-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ISO\/IEC 12207:1995\/Amd 2:2004, an amended version of the prior, published in November 2004<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-1995-Amd2_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-1995-Amd2-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ISO\/IEC 12207:1995\/Amd 1:2002, an amended version of the prior, published in May 2002<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-1995-Amd1_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-1995-Amd1-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ISO\/IEC 12207:1995, the first iteration, published in July 1995<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-1995_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-1995-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>; originally was divided into five primary processes (acquisition, supply, development, operation, and maintenance), with eight supporting and four organizational life cycle processes<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SSCOverview98_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SSCOverview98-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"IEEE_versions\">IEEE versions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Prior to the IEEE Computer Society formally joining the editing process (becoming a major stakeholder) for the 2017 release, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers\" title=\"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f59f91778922e317c3722d620206111b\">IEEE<\/a> maintained its own versions of ISO\/IEC 12207, initially with modifications made jointly with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Industries_Alliance\" title=\"Electronic Industries Alliance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25c8150ee8a465559d2686d1a5aa2b5a\">Electronic Industries Alliance<\/a> (EIA).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IEEE12207.0-1996_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IEEE12207.0-1996-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISOPresent09_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISOPresent09-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-OBP_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-OBP-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> With the 2008 update came a \"shared strategy of ISO\/IEC JTC 1\/SC 7 and the IEEE to harmonize their respective collections of standards,\" resulting in identical standards thereon, but with slightly different names.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-OBP_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-OBP-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Those IEEE versions included:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>IEEE Std. 12207-2008: \"integrates ISO\/IEC 12207:1995 with its two amendments and was coordinated with the parallel revision of ISO\/IEC 15288:2002 (System life cycle processes) to align structure, terms, and corresponding organizational and project processes\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IEEE_Std._12207-2008_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IEEE_Std._12207-2008-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>; superseded by ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017<\/li>\n<li>IEEE\/EIA 12207.2-1997: \"provides implementation consideration guidance for the normative clauses of IEEE\/EIA 12207.0\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IEEE12207.2-1997_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IEEE12207.2-1997-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>; superseded\/made obsolete by IEEE Std. 12207-2008, which was then superseded by ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017<\/li>\n<li>IEEE\/EIA 12207.1-1997: \"provides guidance for recording life cycle data resulting from the life cycle processes of IEEE\/EIA 12207.0\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IEEE12207.1-1997_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IEEE12207.1-1997-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>; superseded by ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 15289:2011, which was then superseded by ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 15289:2017<\/li>\n<li>IEEE\/EIA 12207.0-1996: \"consists of the clarifications, additions, and changes [to ISO\/IEC 12207:1995 for industry implementation] accepted by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) as formulated by a joint project of the two organizations\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IEEE12207.0-1996_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IEEE12207.0-1996-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>; superseded by IEEE Std. 12207-2008, which was then superseded by ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>It's also worth noting that IEEE\/EIA 12207 officially replaced <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIL-STD-498\" title=\"MIL-STD-498\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc77bf616609aa917ea2cac2132cf8a3\">MIL-STD-498<\/a> (released in December 1994<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISOPresent09_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISOPresent09-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>) for the development of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Department_of_Defense\" title=\"United States Department of Defense\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"655b39ec745d1842fbcb4d9760be7f84\">DoD<\/a> software systems on May 27, 1998.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SSCOverview98_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SSCOverview98-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISOPresent09_11-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISOPresent09-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Processes_not_stages\">Processes not stages<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The standard establishes a set of processes for managing the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_release_life_cycle\" title=\"Software release life cycle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a25005aad3914c4e78e7a9aba662e01\">lifecycle of software<\/a>. The standard \"does not prescribe a specific software life cycle model, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_development_process\" title=\"Software development process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b625ec27484d01f1edaa461ce66ec0a\">development methodology<\/a>, method, modelling approach, or technique.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-2017-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>. Instead, the standard (as well as ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 15288) distinguishes between a \"stage\" and \"process\" as follows:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>stage: \"period within the life cycle of an entity that relates to the state of its description or realization\". A stage is typically a period of time and ends with a \"primary decision gate\".<\/li>\n<li>process: \"set of interrelated or interacting activities that transforms inputs into outputs\". The same process often recurs within different stages.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Stages (aka phases) are not the same as processes, and this standard only defines specific processes - it does not define any particular stages. Instead, the standard acknowledges that software life cycles vary, and may be divided into stages (also called phases) that represent major life cycle periods and give rise to primary decision gates. No particular set of stages is normative, but it does mention two examples:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The system life cycle stages from ISO\/IEC TS 24748-1 could be used (concept, development, production, utilization, support, and retirement).<\/li>\n<li>It also notes that a common set of stages for software is concept exploration, development, sustainment, and retirement.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The life cycle processes the standard defines are not aligned to any specific stage in a software life cycle. Indeed, the life cycle processes that involve planning, performance, and evaluation \"should be considered for use at every stage\". In practice, processes occur whenever they are needed within any stage.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Processes\">Processes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017 divides software life cycle processes into four main process groups: agreement, organizational project-enabling, technical management, and technical processes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-2017-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReillyINCITS18_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReillyINCITS18-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> Under each of those four process groups are a variety of sub-categories, including the primary activities of acquisition and supply (agreement); configuration (technical management); and operation, maintenance, and disposal (technical).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-2017-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Agreement_processes\">Agreement processes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Here ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017 includes the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Procurement\" title=\"Procurement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b2eeab44988b1a895617cc24455657b\">acquisition<\/a> and supply processes<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-2017-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReillyNew17_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReillyNew17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>, which are activities related to establishing an agreement between a supplier and acquirer. Acquisition covers all the activities involved in initiating a project. The acquisition phase can be divided into different activities and deliverables that are completed chronologically. During the supply phase a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_plan\" title=\"Project plan\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e30d83f8509642412b576825b9718b75\">project management plan<\/a> is developed. This plan contains information about the project such as different milestones that need to be reached.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Organizational_project-enabling_processes\">Organizational project-enabling processes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Detailed here are life cycle model management, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrastructure\" title=\"Infrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb70668db4564897263976d0920fec5\">infrastructure<\/a> management, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_portfolio_management\" title=\"IT portfolio management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a79b8bcc0660a4b37e090fc6d6539136\">portfolio management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_resource_management\" title=\"Human resource management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67af1c07f791dfa2ff0207e3a0ada027\">human resource management<\/a>, quality management, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">knowledge management<\/a> processes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-2017-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReillyNew17_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReillyNew17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17_16-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> These processes help a business or organization enable, control, and support the system life cycle and related projects. Life cycle mode management helps ensure acquisition and supply efforts are supported, while infrastructure and portfolio management supports business and project-specific initiatives during the entire system life cycle. The rest ensure the necessary resources and quality controls are in place to support the business' project and system endeavors. If an organization does not have an appropriate set of organizational processes, a project executed by the organization may apply those processes directly to the project instead.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-2017-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technical_management_processes\">Technical management processes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017 places eight different processes here<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-2017-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReillyNew17_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReillyNew17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17_16-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><\/li>\n<li>Project assessment and control<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_management\" title=\"Decision management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"994377cea5702b5a2b78ba91a1627293\">Decision management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_management\" title=\"Risk management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8dfffb6fe8cc680af34e88ec60c1c92\">Risk management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Configuration_management\" title=\"Configuration management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c9f634bcce1231b1a7f52d4d90c10b2\">Configuration management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_management\" title=\"Information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6eb7b16b6cf9e903b35914f058a684c1\">Information management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Measurement\" title=\"Measurement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc7e7d559d615c65d4595c18681815ad\">Measurement<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Quality assurance<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>These processes deal with planning, assessment, and control of software and other projects during the life cycle, ensuring quality along the way.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technical_processes\">Technical processes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The technical processes of ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017 encompass 14 different processes<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-2017-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReillyNew17_2-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReillyNew17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17_16-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>, some of which came from the old software-specific processes that were phased out from the 2008 version.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReillyNew17_2-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReillyNew17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>The full list includes<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-2017-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReillyNew17_2-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReillyNew17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17_16-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_analysis\" title=\"Business analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b78b96ff345f64ef8c22e8b85dd60f2\">Business or mission analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_(corporate)\" title=\"Stakeholder (corporate)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ca00d64d7f7af3b41dfe409fa5af06e\">Stakeholder<\/a> needs and requirements definition<\/li>\n<li>Systems\/Software requirements definition<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology_architecture\" title=\"Information technology architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc7597844ad28d60e7e34a072ebe368a\">Architecture<\/a> definition<\/li>\n<li>Design definition<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_analysis\" title=\"Systems analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf6f18f272eb8ded526cb987640f530d\">System analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Implementation\" title=\"Implementation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ba461a45254e02267625e8444f40493\">Implementation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_integration\" title=\"System integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6418d682ca1c64236b013d57e27099f\">Integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Verification_and_validation\" title=\"Verification and validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed7e27dd6af25849fd870d013597fa9f\">Verification<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transition_(computer_science)\" title=\"Transition (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b69723c37ad02014413a3d25a38f4f8\">Transition<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Verification_and_validation\" title=\"Verification and validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed7e27dd6af25849fd870d013597fa9f\">Validation<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Operation<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_maintenance\" title=\"Software maintenance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8211caab69059eb6d3deb30cdd8be3c9\">Maintenance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/End-of-life_(product)\" title=\"End-of-life (product)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"467648519a7442d0029621496d5d0265\">Disposal<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>These processes involve technical activities and personnel (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">information technology<\/a>, troubleshooters, software specialists, etc.) during pre-, post- and during operation. The analysis and definition processes early on set the stage for how software and projects are implemented. Additional processes of integration, verification, transition, and validation help ensure quality and readiness. The operation and maintenance phases occur simultaneously, with the operation phase consisting of activities like assisting users in working with the implemented software product, and the maintenance phase consisting of maintenance tasks to keep the product up and running. The disposal process describes how the system\/project will be retired and cleaned up, if necessary.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO12207-2017-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Conformance\">Conformance<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Clause 4 describes the document's intended use and conformance requirements. It is expected that particular projects \"may not need to use all of the processes provided by this document.\" In practice, conforming to this standard normally involves selecting and declaring the set of suitable processes. This can be done through either \"full conformance\" or \"tailored conformance\".\n<\/p><p>\"Full conformance\" can be claimed in one of two ways. \"Full conformance to tasks\" can be claimed if all requirements of the declared processes' activities and tasks are met. \"Full conformance to outcomes\" can be claimed if all required outcomes of the declared processes are met. The latter permits more variation.\n<\/p><p>\"Tailored conformance\" may be declared when specific clauses are selected or modified through the tailoring process also defined in the document.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_development_process\" title=\"Software development process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b625ec27484d01f1edaa461ce66ec0a\">Software development process<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_release_life_cycle\" title=\"Software release life cycle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a25005aad3914c4e78e7a9aba662e01\">Software release life cycle<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_15288\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 15288\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db8499701388d7af4f9d22c0fa09f572\">ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 15288<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_15504\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 15504\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7be0f9e43b4e9bba2b76698ca906ff9d\">ISO\/IEC 15504<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_29119\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 29119\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a79f383d03c2c9e3b33ff48fb934a567\">ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 29119<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_JTC_1\/SC_7\" title=\"ISO\/IEC JTC 1\/SC 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5e07c1fc9f2e652bbfb491661e40487\">ISO\/IEC JTC 1\/SC 7<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meta-modeling_technique\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Meta-modeling technique\" data-key=\"98201bec1fc69bb77c90810fb7e94a1d\">Meta-modeling technique<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/V_model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"V model\" data-key=\"b077938920e97c7e8c24f7f39a9bb011\">V model<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unified_Modeling_Language\" title=\"Unified Modeling Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4f7a5ac247bdf246e28ae68e11e58e5\">Unified Modeling Language<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Build_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Build management\" data-key=\"ef6b7aacced4e7ed2d480c0ab8d39b5e\">Build management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Release_management\" title=\"Release management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"881358b587d7187eb6ff12e6d51d36c8\">Release management<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO12207-2017-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-8\"><sup><i><b>i<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-9\"><sup><i><b>j<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-10\"><sup><i><b>k<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO12207-2017_1-11\"><sup><i><b>l<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/63712.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 12207:2017\"<\/a>. <i>Standards catalogue<\/i>. International Organization for Standardization. November 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IEEE+12207.2-1997+-+Guide+for+Information+Technology+-+Software+Life+Cycle+Processes+-+Implementation+Considerations&rft.pub=IEEE+Standards+Association&rft.date=1998-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstandards.ieee.org%2Ffindstds%2Fstandard%2F12207.2-1997.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+12207\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IEEE12207.1-1997-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-IEEE12207.1-1997_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/standards.ieee.org\/findstds\/standard\/12207.1-1997.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"IEEE 12207.1-1997 - Guide for Information Technology - Software Life Cycle Processes - Life Cycle Data\"<\/a>. IEEE Standards Association. April 1998<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IEEE+12207.1-1997+-+Guide+for+Information+Technology+-+Software+Life+Cycle+Processes+-+Life+Cycle+Data&rft.pub=IEEE+Standards+Association&rft.date=1998-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstandards.ieee.org%2Ffindstds%2Fstandard%2F12207.1-1997.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+12207\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17_16-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17_16-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17_16-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17_16-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17_16-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Pe\u00f1alvoProceso17_16-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Pe\u00f1alvo, F.J.; Holgado, A.G. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/repositorio.grial.eu\/bitstream\/grial\/1148\/1\/3.%20Proceso.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Proceso: Ingenier\u00eda de Software I\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Universidad de Salamanca. p. 39<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Proceso%3A+Ingenier%C3%ADa+de+Software+I&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Universidad+de+Salamanca&rft.date=2017&rft.au=Pe%C3%B1alvo%2C+F.J.%3B+Holgado%2C+A.G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepositorio.grial.eu%2Fbitstream%2Fgrial%2F1148%2F1%2F3.%2520Proceso.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AISO%2FIEC+12207\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1330\nCached time: 20190326124835\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.392 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.461 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1077\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 107302\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 188\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 10\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 54096\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\nLua time usage: 0.118\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 2.96 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 215.319 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>72.42% 155.938 1 Template:Reflist\n59.50% 128.116 16 Template:Cite_web\n23.90% 51.451 4 Template:Navbox\n19.50% 41.991 1 Template:ISO_standards\n 4.74% 10.198 1 Template:Nobold\n 4.64% 9.999 1 Template:Icon\n 4.63% 9.967 1 Template:IEEE_standards\n 3.31% 7.132 1 Template:List_of_International_Electrotechnical_Commission_standards\n 2.18% 4.691 1 Template:Smaller\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:643926-1!canonical and timestamp 20190326124835 and revision id 889553177\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_12207\" data-key=\"ee1dab1cc8d418c7364804835b424f4c\">article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203032\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.015 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.179 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 169.046 1 - wikipedia:ISO\/IEC_12207\n100.00% 169.046 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10658-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203032 and revision id 33472\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_12207\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_12207<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_images":[],"0760ac8a009427ff5077ec385024faed_timestamp":1554323432,"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_type":"article","53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_title":"ISO 9000","53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000","53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tISO 9000\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t A General Motors assembly plant advertises its ISO 9001 certification.\nISO 9000 is a family of standards related to quality management systems and designed to help organizations ensure that they meet the needs of customers and other stakeholders.[1] The standards are published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and are available through national standards bodies. ISO 9000 deals with the fundamentals of quality management systems [2], including the eight management principles on which the family of standards is based.[3][2] \nISO 9001 deals with the requirements that organizations wishing to meet the standard have to fulfill.[4] Third party certification bodies provide independent confirmation that organizations meet the requirements of ISO 9001. Over a million organizations worldwide[5] are independently certified, making ISO 9001 one of the most widely used management tools in the world today. Despite widespread use, however, the ISO certification process has been criticized[6][7] as being wasteful and not being useful for all organizations.[8][9][10]\n\nContents\n\n1 History \n\n1.1 Changes to ISO 9000 \n\n\n2 Adoption of the standard \n3 Criticisms of the standard \n4 Further reading \n5 External links \n6 Notes \n7 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nThe ISO 9000 family of standards was originally built on several British standards developed in the early 1970s: BS 9000, BS 5179, and BS 5750. These quality assurance standards were initially related to the electronics manufacturing industry and set guidelines on managing supply-side quality through auditing and contractual documentation.[11] However, the history of ISO 9000 can be traced back even further to the publication of the United States Department of Defense MIL-Q-9858 standard in 1959. MIL-Q-9858 was revised into the NATO AQAP series of standards in 1969, which in turn were revised into the BS 5179 series of guidance standards published in 1974, and finally revised into the BS 5750 series of requirements standards in 1979.[12][13]\nAs the idea of company certification of meeting a certain level of quality became more attractive, the push for a more rigorous international standard (primarily led by the British Standards Institute [BSI][14]) resulted in the creation of the ISO 9000 family in 1987.[11] Originally based on BS 5750, the ISO 9000 family started out with three quality management models and a set of guidelines for following them[15][16]:\n\n ISO 9001:1987 Model for quality assurance in design, development, production, installation, and servicing\n ISO 9002:1987 Model for quality assurance in production, installation, and servicing\n ISO 9003:1987 Model for quality assurance in final inspection and test\n ISO 9004.1:1987 Quality management and quality system elements - Part 1: Guidelines\nChanges to ISO 9000 \nIn 1994, the ISO 9000 standards were updated to place focus on the importance of quality control and preventative action, and emphasize the need for the documentation of procedures.[16][17]\nIn 2000, ISO 9001, 9002, and 9003 were combined into ISO 9001:2000, with a major shift in focus towards quality management versus quality control as well as a focus on process management, \"the monitoring and optimizing of a company's tasks and activities, instead of just inspecting the final product.\"[17] It directed manufacturers to carefully examine client requirements in order to design and improve processes and improve customer satisfaction.[16]\nThe 2008 changes to ISO 9001 were minimal, clarifying and simplifying language while making it more consistent with other standards.[17][16]\nThe ISO 9004 guidelines document was updated in 2009 \"to promote a sustainable business approach\" that focused on all stakeholders.[16]\nAn updated version of ISO 9001 is expected at the end of 2015 if the ISO members vote favorably in the second quarter of 2015.[18] With the revision the scope of the standard will not change. An essential change, however, will affect the structure. The new ISO 9001:2015 will follow the so-called high-level structure. This, and the uniform use of core texts and terms, will enable an identical structure for all management systems.[19] \n\nAdoption of the standard \nThe global adoption of ISO 9001 may be attributable to a number of factors. Many major purchasers require their suppliers to hold ISO 9001 certification. In addition to several stakeholders' benefits, a number of studies have identified significant financial benefits for organizations certified to ISO 9001. Examples include:\n1. In 2002, Heras et al. found superior return on assets compared to otherwise similar organizations without certification and demonstrated that this was statistically significant and not a function of organization size.[20] \n2. A 2003 study of 146 Singapore-based companies by Chow-Chua et al. found improved financial performance, though with the caveat \"that while certification leads to better overall financial performance, non\u2010listed certified firms experience better documentation procedures, higher perceived quality of products or services, and more effective communication among employees than listed certified firms.\"[21]\n3. That same year Rajan and Tamimi showed that ISO 9001 certification resulted in superior stock market performance and suggested that shareholders were richly rewarded for investing in the certified companies.[22]\n4. In 2005, Corbett et al. showed in 2005 similar superior performance, atating that \"three years after certification, the certified firms do display strongly significant abnormal performance under all control-group specifications.\"[23] \n5. That same year, Sharma linked increases in \"operating efficiency, growth in sales, and overall financial performance\" gains with ISO 9000 certification.[24] \n6. Naveha and Marcus claimed in 2007 that manufacturers in the U.S. automotive industry that implemented ISO 9001 saw superior operational performance soon after.[25]\n7. A 2011 survey from The British Assessment Bureau showing 44 percent of their certified clients had won new business due to becoming certified.[26]\nWhile the connection between superior financial performance and ISO 9001 may be seen from the examples cited, there remains no proof of direct causation, though longitudinal studies such as those of Corbett et al.[23] may suggest it. Other researchers such as Heras et al. have suggested that while there is some evidence of this, the improvement is partly driven by the fact that there is a tendency for better performing companies to seek ISO 9001 certification.[20]\n\nCriticisms of the standard \nA common criticism of the ISO 9000 family of standards is the amount of money, time, and paperwork required for registration. In 2003, writing for Quality Magazine, engineer Scott Dalgleish emphasized that \"[u]nder ISO, every quality system enhancement triggers enormous documentation changes that make quality managers question whether the benefits of the change are worth the effort.\"[27] In a piece for Inc. magazine in 2005, journalist Stephanie Clifford told the story of Delaware North Companies, which spent nearly 18 months and $115,000 just to certify their guest services management division.[28]\nOthers have chosen not to adopt the standard because of the perceived risks and uncertainty of not knowing if there are direct relationships to improved quality as well as doubts about what kind and how many resources will be needed. Other perceived risks include how much certification will cost, increased bureaucratic processes, and risk of poor company image if the certification process fails.[29] Critics like John Seddon, a leading global authority on the service industry, claim ISO 9001 promotes specification, control, and procedures rather than understanding and improvement.[8] Others like business improvement specialist Jim Wade have argued that ISO 9001 is effective as a guideline, but that promoting it as a standard \"helps to mislead companies into thinking that certification means better quality, ... [undermining] the need for an organization to set its own quality standards.\"[30] In short, Wade argues that reliance on the specifications of ISO 9001 does not guarantee a successful quality system.\nThe standard has been seen as especially prone to failure when a company is interested in certification before quality.[8] Certifications have in fact often been based on customer contractual requirements rather than a desire to actually improve quality.[31][32] \"If you just want the certificate on the wall, chances are you will create a paper system that doesn't have much to do with the way you actually run your business,\" said ISO's Roger Frost in 2001.[32] Certification by an independent auditor is often seen as the problem area, and according to Barnes, it \"has become a vehicle to increase consulting services.\"[31]\n\nFurther reading \n Cochran, Craig (2008). ISO 9001 in Plain English. Paton Professional. pp. 178. ISBN 9781932828207. https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-GplCM5xTYYC .   \nExternal links \n ISO 9000 at the International Organization for Standardization\nNotes \nThis article reuses a few elements from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\u2191 Poksinska, B.; Dahlgaard, J.J.; Antoni, M. (2002). \"The state of ISO 9000 certification: A study of Swedish organisations\". The TQM Magazine 14 (5). http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/journals.htm?articleid=842040&show=abstract . Retrieved 2010-11-22 .   \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 Tsim, Y.C.; Yeung, V. W. S.; Leung, E. T. C. (2002). \"An adaptation to ISO 9001: 2000 for certified organisations\". Managerial Auditing Journal 17 (5). http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/journals.htm?articleid=868561&show=abstract . Retrieved 2010-11-22 .   \n\n\u2191 Beattie, K.R.; Sohal, A.S. (1999). \"Implementing ISO 9000: A study of its benefits among Australian organizations\". Total Quality Management 1 (1): 95\u2013106. http:\/\/www.informaworld.com\/smpp\/content~db=all~content=a713600335 . Retrieved 28 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"ISO 9001:2008 - Quality management systems -- Requirements\". International Organization for Standardization. http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=46486 . Retrieved 28 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"ISO 9001 certifications top one million mark, food safety and information security continue meteoric increase\". International Organization for Standardization. 25 October 2010. http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/pressrelease.htm?refid=Ref1363 . Retrieved 28 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Clifford, Stephanie (1 May 2005). \"So many standards to follow, so little payoff\". Inc. Magazine. http:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html . Retrieved 28 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Wilson, Ian (4 June 2010). \"Is ISO the way to go? Some say, Not So\". Westgard QC, Inc.. http:\/\/james.westgard.com\/the_westgard_rules\/2010\/06\/iso-not-so.html . Retrieved 28 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 8.2 Seddon, John (18 November 2000). \"The 'quality' you can't feel\". The Observer. http:\/\/www.guardian.co.uk\/money\/2000\/nov\/19\/workandcareers.madeleinebunting . Retrieved 28 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Seddon, John (2000). \"Chapter 1: A Brief History of ISO 9000 - Where did we go wrong?\". The Case Against ISO 9000 (2nd ed.). Oak Tree Press. ISBN 1-86076-173-9. http:\/\/www.systemsthinking.co.uk\/3-1-article.asp .   \n\n\u2191 O'Connor, Patrick D.T. O'Connor (1991). \"ISO 9000: Help or Hoax\". http:\/\/www.pat-oconnor.co.uk\/iso9000.htm . Retrieved 28 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 11.0 11.1 \"The history of ISO 9000\". The British Assessment Bureau. 04 April 2012. http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/articles\/the-history-of-iso-9000 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Miura, Akio (September 2004). \"MIL-Q-9858A, the Origin of ISO 9001\". Tech Journal. ASQ. http:\/\/asq.org\/fdc\/2012\/06\/mil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html?shl=109629 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Lamprecht, James L. (2000). \"Chapter 12: The ISO 9000 Phenomenon and the Privatization of Military Standards\". Quality and Power in the Supply Chain: What Industry Does for the Sake of Quality. Newnes. pp. 125\u2013148. ISBN 9780750673433. https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fSFlJSZLgfgC&pg=PA132 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"ISO 9001 Whitepaper: The history and future of ISO 9001\" (PDF). BSI. http:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/EN-HK\/ISO%20revision%20video\/ISO_9001_Whitepaper_-_the_history_and_future_of_ISO_9001.pdf . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"History of ISO 9000 at a glance\". Standards Consultants Ltd. http:\/\/www.standardsconsultants.com\/iso-9000-overview . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 \"ISO 9000:1987\". International Organization for Standardization. http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_ics\/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=16529 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 17.0 17.1 17.2 \"History and Evolution of ISO 9000\". Kaizen Consulting Group. http:\/\/www.kcg.com.sg\/history-iso9000.html . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Calabrese, Rick (03 December 2014). \"Countdown to ISO 9001:2015\". Quality Digest. Quality Digest. http:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/countdown-iso-90012015.html . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Croft, Nigel H. (28 August 2012). \"ISO 9001:2015 and beyond - Preparing for the next 25 years of quality management standards\". International Organization for Standardization. http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1633 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 20.0 20.1 Heras, I\u00f1aki; Dick, Gavin P.M.; Casades\u00fas, Mart\u00ed (2002). \"ISO 9000 registration's impact on sales and profitability: A longitudinal analysis of performance before and after accreditation\". International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management 19 (6): 774\u2013791. doi:10.1108\/02656710210429618.   \n\n\u2191 Chow-Chua, Clare; Goh, Mark; Wan, Tan Boon (2003). \"Does ISO 9000 certification improve business performance?\". International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management 20 (8): 936\u2013953. doi:10.1108\/02656710310493643. http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1108\/02656710310493643 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Rajan, Murli; Tamimi, Nabil (2003). \"Payoff to ISO 9000 Registration\". The Journal of Investing 12 (1): 71\u201377. doi:10.3905\/joi.2003.319536. http:\/\/www.iijournals.com\/doi\/abs\/10.3905\/joi.2003.319536 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 23.0 23.1 Corbett, Charles J.; Montes-Sancho, Mar\u00eda J.; Kirsch, David A. (2005). \"The Financial Impact of ISO 9000 Certification in the United States: An Empirical Analysis\". Management Science 51 (7): 1607\u201316. doi:10.1287\/mnsc.1040.0358. http:\/\/pubsonline.informs.org\/doi\/abs\/10.1287\/mnsc.1040.0358 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Sharma, Divesh S. (2005). \"The association between ISO 9000 certification and financial performance\". The International Journal of Accounting 40 (2): 151\u2013172. doi:10.1016\/j.intacc.2005.01.011. http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0020706305000282 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Naveh, Eitan; Marcus, Alfred (2007). \"Financial performance, ISO 9000 standard and safe driving practices effects on accident rate in the U.S. Motor carrier industry\". Accident Analysis & Prevention 39 (4): 731\u2013742. doi:10.1016\/j.aap.2006.11.004. http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0001457506002041 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"ISO 9001 proven to help win new business\". The British Assessment Bureau. 25 May 2011. http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/news\/iso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Dalgleish, Scott (05 May 2003). \"ISO 9000: More Hindrance than Help\". Quality Magazine. Quality Magazine. http:\/\/www.qualitymag.com\/articles\/84308-84308-probing-the-limits-br-iso-9000-more-hindrance-than-help . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Clifford, Stephanie (01 May 2005). \"So many standards to follow, so little payoff\". Inc (Mansueto Ventures). http:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Sroufe, Robert; Curkovic, Sime (July 2008). \"An examination of ISO 9000:2000 and supply chain quality assurance\". Journal of Operations Management 26 (4): 503\u2013520. doi:10.1016\/j.jom.2007.06.006. http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0272696307000873 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Wade, Jim (May\u2013June 2002). \"Is ISO 9000 really a standard?\" (PDF). ISO Management Systems. pp. 17\u201320. http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/livelinkgetfile-isocs?nodeId=15013106 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 31.0 31.1 Barnes, Frank (22 March 2000). \"Good Business Sense Is the Key to Confronting ISO 9000\". AllBusiness. AllBusiness.com, Inc. http:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/Good+Business+Sense+Is+the+Key+to+Confronting+ISO+9000.-a073182519 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 32.0 32.1 Henricks, Mark (01 Decenber 2001). \"ISO a Go-Go\". Entrepreneur Magazine. Entrepreneur Media, Inc. http:\/\/www.entrepreneur.com\/article\/46342 . Retrieved 19 February 2015 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Production standards\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 21 February 2015, at 03:58.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 9,876 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-ISO_9000 skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ISO 9000<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:402px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Janesville_GM_Assembly_Plant_-_ISO_9001_Certified_sign_(3549915451).jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"3da7a4e566deb147b80af46bf15c34ac\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/66\/Janesville_GM_Assembly_Plant_-_ISO_9001_Certified_sign_%283549915451%29.jpg\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Janesville_GM_Assembly_Plant_-_ISO_9001_Certified_sign_(3549915451).jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"3da7a4e566deb147b80af46bf15c34ac\"><\/a><\/div>A General Motors assembly plant advertises its ISO 9001 certification.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>ISO 9000 <\/b> is a family of standards related to quality management systems and designed to help organizations ensure that they meet the needs of customers and other stakeholders.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The standards are published by the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116defc5d89c8a55f5b7c1be0790b442\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO) and are available through national standards bodies. ISO 9000 deals with the fundamentals of quality management systems <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-emeraldinsight.com_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-emeraldinsight.com-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>, including the eight management principles on which the family of standards is based.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-emeraldinsight.com_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-emeraldinsight.com-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>ISO 9001 deals with the requirements that organizations wishing to meet the standard have to fulfill.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> Third party certification bodies provide independent confirmation that organizations meet the requirements of ISO 9001. Over a million organizations worldwide<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> are independently certified, making ISO 9001 one of the most widely used management tools in the world today. Despite widespread use, however, the ISO certification process has been criticized<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-clifford_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-clifford-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-wilson_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-wilson-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> as being wasteful and not being useful for all organizations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Seddon_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seddon-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-seddon2_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-seddon2-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OConnor_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OConnor-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The ISO 9000 family of standards was originally built on several British standards developed in the early 1970s: BS 9000, BS 5179, and BS 5750. These quality assurance standards were initially related to the electronics manufacturing industry and set guidelines on managing supply-side quality through auditing and contractual documentation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-His90001_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-His90001-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> However, the history of ISO 9000 can be traced back even further to the publication of the United States Department of Defense MIL-Q-9858 standard in 1959. MIL-Q-9858 was revised into the NATO AQAP series of standards in 1969, which in turn were revised into the BS 5179 series of guidance standards published in 1974, and finally revised into the BS 5750 series of requirements standards in 1979.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Miura_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Miura-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Lamprecht_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Lamprecht-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As the idea of company certification of meeting a certain level of quality became more attractive, the push for a more rigorous international standard (primarily led by the British Standards Institute [BSI]<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BSI9000_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BSI9000-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>) resulted in the creation of the ISO 9000 family in 1987.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-His90001_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-His90001-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> Originally based on BS 5750, the ISO 9000 family started out with three quality management models and a set of guidelines for following them<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-His90002_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-His90002-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9000-1987_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9000-1987-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> ISO 9001:1987 Model for quality assurance in design, development, production, installation, and servicing<\/li>\n<li> ISO 9002:1987 Model for quality assurance in production, installation, and servicing<\/li>\n<li> ISO 9003:1987 Model for quality assurance in final inspection and test<\/li>\n<li> ISO 9004.1:1987 Quality management and quality system elements - Part 1: Guidelines<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Changes_to_ISO_9000\">Changes to ISO 9000<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 1994, the ISO 9000 standards were updated to place focus on the importance of quality control and preventative action, and emphasize the need for the documentation of procedures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9000-1987_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9000-1987-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kaizen_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kaizen-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2000, ISO 9001, 9002, and 9003 were combined into ISO 9001:2000, with a major shift in focus towards quality management versus quality control as well as a focus on process management, \"the monitoring and optimizing of a company's tasks and activities, instead of just inspecting the final product.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kaizen_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kaizen-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> It directed manufacturers to carefully examine client requirements in order to design and improve processes and improve customer satisfaction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9000-1987_16-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9000-1987-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The 2008 changes to ISO 9001 were minimal, clarifying and simplifying language while making it more consistent with other standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kaizen_17-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kaizen-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9000-1987_16-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9000-1987-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The ISO 9004 guidelines document was updated in 2009 \"to promote a sustainable business approach\" that focused on all stakeholders.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9000-1987_16-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9000-1987-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An updated version of ISO 9001 is expected at the end of 2015 if the ISO members vote favorably in the second quarter of 2015.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Countdown_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Countdown-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> With the revision the scope of the standard will not change. An essential change, however, will affect the structure. The new ISO 9001:2015 will follow the so-called high-level structure. This, and the uniform use of core texts and terms, will enable an identical structure for all management systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nigel_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nigel-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Adoption_of_the_standard\">Adoption of the standard<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The global adoption of ISO 9001 may be attributable to a number of factors. Many major purchasers require their suppliers to hold ISO 9001 certification. In addition to several stakeholders' benefits, a number of studies have identified significant financial benefits for organizations certified to ISO 9001. Examples include:\n<\/p><p><b>1.<\/b> In 2002, Heras <i>et al.<\/i> found superior return on assets compared to otherwise similar organizations without certification and demonstrated that this was statistically significant and not a function of organization size.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Heras_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Heras-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p><b>2.<\/b> A 2003 study of 146 Singapore-based companies by Chow-Chua <i>et al.<\/i> found improved financial performance, though with the caveat \"that while certification leads to better overall financial performance, non\u2010listed certified firms experience better documentation procedures, higher perceived quality of products or services, and more effective communication among employees than listed certified firms.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChowChua_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChowChua-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>3.<\/b> That same year Rajan and Tamimi showed that ISO 9001 certification resulted in superior stock market performance and suggested that shareholders were richly rewarded for investing in the certified companies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Rajan_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Rajan-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>4.<\/b> In 2005, Corbett <i>et al.<\/i> showed in 2005 similar superior performance, atating that \"three years after certification, the certified firms do display strongly significant abnormal performance under all control-group specifications.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Corbett_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Corbett-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p><b>5.<\/b> That same year, Sharma linked increases in \"operating efficiency, growth in sales, and overall financial performance\" gains with ISO 9000 certification.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Sharma2005_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Sharma2005-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p><b>6.<\/b> Naveha and Marcus claimed in 2007 that manufacturers in the U.S. automotive industry that implemented ISO 9001 saw superior operational performance soon after.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Naveh_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Naveh-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>7.<\/b> A 2011 survey from The British Assessment Bureau showing 44 percent of their certified clients had won new business due to becoming certified.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BAB44_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BAB44-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While the connection between superior financial performance and ISO 9001 may be seen from the examples cited, there remains no proof of direct causation, though longitudinal studies such as those of Corbett <i>et al.<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Corbett_23-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Corbett-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> may suggest it. Other researchers such as Heras <i>et al.<\/i> have suggested that while there is some evidence of this, the improvement is partly driven by the fact that there is a tendency for better performing companies to seek ISO 9001 certification.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Heras_20-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Heras-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Criticisms_of_the_standard\">Criticisms of the standard<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A common criticism of the ISO 9000 family of standards is the amount of money, time, and paperwork required for registration. In 2003, writing for <i>Quality Magazine<\/i>, engineer Scott Dalgleish emphasized that \"[u]nder ISO, every quality system enhancement triggers enormous documentation changes that make quality managers question whether the benefits of the change are worth the effort.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Dalgleish_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dalgleish-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> In a piece for <i>Inc.<\/i> magazine in 2005, journalist Stephanie Clifford told the story of Delaware North Companies, which spent nearly 18 months and $115,000 just to certify their guest services management division.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Clifford_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Clifford-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Others have chosen not to adopt the standard because of the perceived risks and uncertainty of not knowing if there are direct relationships to improved quality as well as doubts about what kind and how many resources will be needed. Other perceived risks include how much certification will cost, increased bureaucratic processes, and risk of poor company image if the certification process fails.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Sroufe_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Sroufe-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> Critics like John Seddon, a leading global authority on the service industry, claim ISO 9001 promotes specification, control, and procedures rather than understanding and improvement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Seddon_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seddon-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> Others like business improvement specialist Jim Wade have argued that ISO 9001 is effective as a guideline, but that promoting it as a standard \"helps to mislead companies into thinking that certification means better quality, ... [undermining] the need for an organization to set its own quality standards.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Wade_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Wade-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> In short, Wade argues that reliance on the specifications of ISO 9001 does not guarantee a successful quality system.\n<\/p><p>The standard has been seen as especially prone to failure when a company is interested in certification before quality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Seddon_8-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seddon-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> Certifications have in fact often been based on customer contractual requirements rather than a desire to actually improve quality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Barnes_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Barnes-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Henricks_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Henricks-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> \"If you just want the certificate on the wall, chances are you will create a paper system that doesn't have much to do with the way you actually run your business,\" said ISO's Roger Frost in 2001.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Henricks_32-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Henricks-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> Certification by an independent auditor is often seen as the problem area, and according to Barnes, it \"has become a vehicle to increase consulting services.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Barnes_31-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Barnes-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation book\">Cochran, Craig (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-GplCM5xTYYC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>ISO 9001 in Plain English<\/i><\/a>. Paton Professional. pp. 178. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 9781932828207<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-GplCM5xTYYC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-GplCM5xTYYC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ISO+9001+in+Plain+English&rft.aulast=Cochran%2C+Craig&rft.au=Cochran%2C+Craig&rft.date=2008&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B178&rft.pub=Paton+Professional&rft.isbn=9781932828207&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-GplCM5xTYYC&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_9000\" target=\"_blank\">ISO 9000<\/a> at the International Organization for Standardization<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article reuses a few elements from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_9000\" data-key=\"ed2fdd6c6980efdbacebfc565dd707ac\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Poksinska, B.; Dahlgaard, J.J.; Antoni, M. (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/journals.htm?articleid=842040&show=abstract\" target=\"_blank\">\"The state of ISO 9000 certification: A study of Swedish organisations\"<\/a>. <i>The TQM Magazine<\/i> <b>14<\/b> (5)<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/journals.htm?articleid=842040&show=abstract\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/journals.htm?articleid=842040&show=abstract<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 2010-11-22<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+state+of+ISO+9000+certification%3A+A+study+of+Swedish+organisations&rft.jtitle=The+TQM+Magazine&rft.aulast=Poksinska&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Poksinska%2C%26%2332%3BB.&rft.au=Dahlgaard%2C%26%2332%3BJ.J.&rft.au=Antoni%2C%26%2332%3BM.&rft.date=2002&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=5&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.emeraldinsight.com%2Fjournals.htm%3Farticleid%3D842040%26show%3Dabstract&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-emeraldinsight.com-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-emeraldinsight.com_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-emeraldinsight.com_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Tsim, Y.C.; Yeung, V. W. S.; Leung, E. T. C. (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/journals.htm?articleid=868561&show=abstract\" target=\"_blank\">\"An adaptation to ISO 9001: 2000 for certified organisations\"<\/a>. <i>Managerial Auditing Journal<\/i> <b>17<\/b> (5)<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/journals.htm?articleid=868561&show=abstract\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/journals.htm?articleid=868561&show=abstract<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 2010-11-22<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=An+adaptation+to+ISO+9001%3A+2000+for+certified+organisations&rft.jtitle=Managerial+Auditing+Journal&rft.aulast=Tsim&rft.aufirst=Y.C.&rft.au=Tsim%2C%26%2332%3BY.C.&rft.au=Yeung%2C%26%2332%3BV.+W.+S.&rft.au=Leung%2C%26%2332%3BE.+T.+C.&rft.date=2002&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=5&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.emeraldinsight.com%2Fjournals.htm%3Farticleid%3D868561%26show%3Dabstract&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Beattie, K.R.; Sohal, A.S. (1999). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informaworld.com\/smpp\/content~db=all~content=a713600335\" target=\"_blank\">\"Implementing ISO 9000: A study of its benefits among Australian organizations\"<\/a>. <i>Total Quality Management<\/i> <b>1<\/b> (1): 95\u2013106<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informaworld.com\/smpp\/content~db=all~content=a713600335\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.informaworld.com\/smpp\/content~db=all~content=a713600335<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Implementing+ISO+9000%3A+A+study+of+its+benefits+among+Australian+organizations&rft.jtitle=Total+Quality+Management&rft.aulast=Beattie&rft.aufirst=K.R.&rft.au=Beattie%2C%26%2332%3BK.R.&rft.au=Sohal%2C%26%2332%3BA.S.&rft.date=1999&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=95%E2%80%93106&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.informaworld.com%2Fsmpp%2Fcontent%7Edb%3Dall%7Econtent%3Da713600335&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=46486\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001:2008 - Quality management systems -- Requirements\"<\/a>. International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=46486\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=46486<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ISO+9001%3A2008+-+Quality+management+systems+--+Requirements&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fiso_catalogue%2Fcatalogue_tc%2Fcatalogue_detail.htm%3Fcsnumber%3D46486&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/pressrelease.htm?refid=Ref1363\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001 certifications top one million mark, food safety and information security continue meteoric increase\"<\/a>. International Organization for Standardization. 25 October 2010<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/pressrelease.htm?refid=Ref1363\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/pressrelease.htm?refid=Ref1363<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ISO+9001+certifications+top+one+million+mark%2C+food+safety+and+information+security+continue+meteoric+increase&rft.atitle=&rft.date=25+October+2010&rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fpressrelease.htm%3Frefid%3DRef1363&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-clifford-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-clifford_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Clifford, Stephanie (1 May 2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"So many standards to follow, so little payoff\"<\/a>. Inc. Magazine<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=So+many+standards+to+follow%2C+so+little+payoff&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Clifford%2C+Stephanie&rft.au=Clifford%2C+Stephanie&rft.date=1+May+2005&rft.pub=Inc.+Magazine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.inc.com%2Fmagazine%2F20050501%2Fmanagement.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-wilson-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-wilson_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Wilson, Ian (4 June 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/james.westgard.com\/the_westgard_rules\/2010\/06\/iso-not-so.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is ISO the way to go? Some say, Not So\"<\/a>. Westgard QC, Inc.<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/james.westgard.com\/the_westgard_rules\/2010\/06\/iso-not-so.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/james.westgard.com\/the_westgard_rules\/2010\/06\/iso-not-so.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Is+ISO+the+way+to+go%3F+Some+say%2C+Not+So&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Wilson%2C+Ian&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Ian&rft.date=4+June+2010&rft.pub=Westgard+QC%2C+Inc.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjames.westgard.com%2Fthe_westgard_rules%2F2010%2F06%2Fiso-not-so.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Seddon-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Seddon_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Seddon_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Seddon_8-2\">8.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Seddon, John (18 November 2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.guardian.co.uk\/money\/2000\/nov\/19\/workandcareers.madeleinebunting\" target=\"_blank\">\"The 'quality' you can't feel\"<\/a>. The Observer<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.guardian.co.uk\/money\/2000\/nov\/19\/workandcareers.madeleinebunting\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.guardian.co.uk\/money\/2000\/nov\/19\/workandcareers.madeleinebunting<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+%27quality%27+you+can%27t+feel&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Seddon%2C+John&rft.au=Seddon%2C+John&rft.date=18+November+2000&rft.pub=The+Observer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.guardian.co.uk%2Fmoney%2F2000%2Fnov%2F19%2Fworkandcareers.madeleinebunting&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-seddon2-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-seddon2_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Seddon, John (2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.systemsthinking.co.uk\/3-1-article.asp\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: A Brief History of ISO 9000 - Where did we go wrong?\"<\/a>. <i>The Case Against ISO 9000<\/i> (2nd ed.). Oak Tree Press. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 1-86076-173-9<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.systemsthinking.co.uk\/3-1-article.asp\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.systemsthinking.co.uk\/3-1-article.asp<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+A+Brief+History+of+ISO+9000+-+Where+did+we+go+wrong%3F&rft.atitle=The+Case+Against+ISO+9000&rft.aulast=Seddon%2C+John&rft.au=Seddon%2C+John&rft.date=2000&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oak+Tree+Press&rft.isbn=1-86076-173-9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.systemsthinking.co.uk%2F3-1-article.asp&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OConnor-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OConnor_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">O'Connor, Patrick D.T. O'Connor (1991). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pat-oconnor.co.uk\/iso9000.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9000: Help or Hoax\"<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pat-oconnor.co.uk\/iso9000.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pat-oconnor.co.uk\/iso9000.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ISO+9000%3A+Help+or+Hoax&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=O%27Connor%2C+Patrick+D.T.+O%27Connor&rft.au=O%27Connor%2C+Patrick+D.T.+O%27Connor&rft.date=1991&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pat-oconnor.co.uk%2Fiso9000.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-His90001-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-His90001_11-0\">11.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-His90001_11-1\">11.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/articles\/the-history-of-iso-9000\" target=\"_blank\">\"The history of ISO 9000\"<\/a>. The British Assessment Bureau. 04 April 2012<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/articles\/the-history-of-iso-9000\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/articles\/the-history-of-iso-9000<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+history+of+ISO+9000&rft.atitle=&rft.date=04+April+2012&rft.pub=The+British+Assessment+Bureau&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.british-assessment.co.uk%2Farticles%2Fthe-history-of-iso-9000&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Miura-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Miura_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Miura, Akio (September 2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/asq.org\/fdc\/2012\/06\/mil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html?shl=109629\" target=\"_blank\">\"MIL-Q-9858A, the Origin of ISO 9001\"<\/a>. <i>Tech Journal<\/i>. ASQ<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/asq.org\/fdc\/2012\/06\/mil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html?shl=109629\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/asq.org\/fdc\/2012\/06\/mil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html?shl=109629<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=MIL-Q-9858A%2C+the+Origin+of+ISO+9001&rft.atitle=Tech+Journal&rft.aulast=Miura%2C+Akio&rft.au=Miura%2C+Akio&rft.date=September+2004&rft.pub=ASQ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fasq.org%2Ffdc%2F2012%2F06%2Fmil-q-9858a-the-origin-of-iso-9001.html%3Fshl%3D109629&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Lamprecht-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Lamprecht_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Lamprecht, James L. (2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fSFlJSZLgfgC&pg=PA132\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 12: The ISO 9000 Phenomenon and the Privatization of Military Standards\"<\/a>. <i>Quality and Power in the Supply Chain: What Industry Does for the Sake of Quality<\/i>. Newnes. pp. 125\u2013148. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 9780750673433<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fSFlJSZLgfgC&pg=PA132\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fSFlJSZLgfgC&pg=PA132<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+12%3A+The+ISO+9000+Phenomenon+and+the+Privatization+of+Military+Standards&rft.atitle=Quality+and+Power+in+the+Supply+Chain%3A+What+Industry+Does+for+the+Sake+of+Quality&rft.aulast=Lamprecht%2C+James+L.&rft.au=Lamprecht%2C+James+L.&rft.date=2000&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B125%E2%80%93148&rft.pub=Newnes&rft.isbn=9780750673433&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfSFlJSZLgfgC%26pg%3DPA132&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BSI9000-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BSI9000_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/EN-HK\/ISO%20revision%20video\/ISO_9001_Whitepaper_-_the_history_and_future_of_ISO_9001.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001 Whitepaper: The history and future of ISO 9001\"<\/a> (PDF). BSI<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/EN-HK\/ISO%20revision%20video\/ISO_9001_Whitepaper_-_the_history_and_future_of_ISO_9001.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.bsigroup.com\/LocalFiles\/EN-HK\/ISO%20revision%20video\/ISO_9001_Whitepaper_-_the_history_and_future_of_ISO_9001.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ISO+9001+Whitepaper%3A+The+history+and+future+of+ISO+9001&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=BSI&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bsigroup.com%2FLocalFiles%2FEN-HK%2FISO%2520revision%2520video%2FISO_9001_Whitepaper_-_the_history_and_future_of_ISO_9001.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-His90002-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-His90002_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.standardsconsultants.com\/iso-9000-overview\" target=\"_blank\">\"History of ISO 9000 at a glance\"<\/a>. Standards Consultants Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.standardsconsultants.com\/iso-9000-overview\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.standardsconsultants.com\/iso-9000-overview<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=History+of+ISO+9000+at+a+glance&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Standards+Consultants+Ltd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.standardsconsultants.com%2Fiso-9000-overview&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9000-1987-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-9000-1987_16-0\">16.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-9000-1987_16-1\">16.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-9000-1987_16-2\">16.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-9000-1987_16-3\">16.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-9000-1987_16-4\">16.4<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_ics\/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=16529\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9000:1987\"<\/a>. International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_ics\/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=16529\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_ics\/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=16529<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ISO+9000%3A1987&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fiso_catalogue%2Fcatalogue_ics%2Fcatalogue_detail_ics.htm%3Fcsnumber%3D16529&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Kaizen-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Kaizen_17-0\">17.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Kaizen_17-1\">17.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Kaizen_17-2\">17.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kcg.com.sg\/history-iso9000.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"History and Evolution of ISO 9000\"<\/a>. Kaizen Consulting Group<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kcg.com.sg\/history-iso9000.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.kcg.com.sg\/history-iso9000.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=History+and+Evolution+of+ISO+9000&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Kaizen+Consulting+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kcg.com.sg%2Fhistory-iso9000.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Countdown-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Countdown_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Calabrese, Rick (03 December 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/countdown-iso-90012015.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Countdown to ISO 9001:2015\"<\/a>. <i>Quality Digest<\/i>. Quality Digest<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/countdown-iso-90012015.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/inside\/quality-insider-article\/countdown-iso-90012015.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Countdown+to+ISO+9001%3A2015&rft.atitle=Quality+Digest&rft.aulast=Calabrese%2C+Rick&rft.au=Calabrese%2C+Rick&rft.date=03+December+2014&rft.pub=Quality+Digest&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qualitydigest.com%2Finside%2Fquality-insider-article%2Fcountdown-iso-90012015.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Nigel-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Nigel_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Croft, Nigel H. (28 August 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1633\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001:2015 and beyond - Preparing for the next 25 years of quality management standards\"<\/a>. International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1633\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/news_index\/news_archive\/news.htm?refid=Ref1633<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ISO+9001%3A2015+and+beyond+-+Preparing+for+the+next+25+years+of+quality+management+standards&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Croft%2C+Nigel+H.&rft.au=Croft%2C+Nigel+H.&rft.date=28+August+2012&rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fhome%2Fnews_index%2Fnews_archive%2Fnews.htm%3Frefid%3DRef1633&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Heras-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Heras_20-0\">20.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Heras_20-1\">20.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Heras, I\u00f1aki; Dick, Gavin P.M.; Casades\u00fas, Mart\u00ed (2002). \"ISO 9000 registration's impact on sales and profitability: A longitudinal analysis of performance before and after accreditation\". <i>International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management<\/i> <b>19<\/b> (6): 774\u2013791. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1108%2F02656710210429618\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/02656710210429618<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=ISO+9000+registration%27s+impact+on+sales+and+profitability%3A+A+longitudinal+analysis+of+performance+before+and+after+accreditation&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Quality+%26+Reliability+Management&rft.aulast=Heras&rft.aufirst=I%C3%B1aki&rft.au=Heras%2C%26%2332%3BI%C3%B1aki&rft.au=Dick%2C%26%2332%3BGavin+P.M.&rft.au=Casades%C3%BAs%2C%26%2332%3BMart%C3%AD&rft.date=2002&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=774%E2%80%93791&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1108%2F02656710210429618&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChowChua-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChowChua_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Chow-Chua, Clare; Goh, Mark; Wan, Tan Boon (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1108\/02656710310493643\" target=\"_blank\">\"Does ISO 9000 certification improve business performance?\"<\/a>. <i>International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management<\/i> <b>20<\/b> (8): 936\u2013953. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1108%2F02656710310493643\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/02656710310493643<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1108\/02656710310493643\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.emeraldinsight.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1108\/02656710310493643<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Does+ISO+9000+certification+improve+business+performance%3F&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Quality+%26+Reliability+Management&rft.aulast=Chow-Chua&rft.aufirst=Clare&rft.au=Chow-Chua%2C%26%2332%3BClare&rft.au=Goh%2C%26%2332%3BMark&rft.au=Wan%2C%26%2332%3BTan+Boon&rft.date=2003&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=936%E2%80%93953&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1108%2F02656710310493643&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.emeraldinsight.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1108%2F02656710310493643&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Rajan-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Rajan_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Rajan, Murli; Tamimi, Nabil (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iijournals.com\/doi\/abs\/10.3905\/joi.2003.319536\" target=\"_blank\">\"Payoff to ISO 9000 Registration\"<\/a>. <i>The Journal of Investing<\/i> <b>12<\/b> (1): 71\u201377. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3905%2Fjoi.2003.319536\" target=\"_blank\">10.3905\/joi.2003.319536<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iijournals.com\/doi\/abs\/10.3905\/joi.2003.319536\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.iijournals.com\/doi\/abs\/10.3905\/joi.2003.319536<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Payoff+to+ISO+9000+Registration&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Investing&rft.aulast=Rajan&rft.aufirst=Murli&rft.au=Rajan%2C%26%2332%3BMurli&rft.au=Tamimi%2C%26%2332%3BNabil&rft.date=2003&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71%E2%80%9377&rft_id=info:doi\/10.3905%2Fjoi.2003.319536&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iijournals.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.3905%2Fjoi.2003.319536&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Corbett-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Corbett_23-0\">23.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Corbett_23-1\">23.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Corbett, Charles J.; Montes-Sancho, Mar\u00eda J.; Kirsch, David A. (2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pubsonline.informs.org\/doi\/abs\/10.1287\/mnsc.1040.0358\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Financial Impact of ISO 9000 Certification in the United States: An Empirical Analysis\"<\/a>. <i>Management Science<\/i> <b>51<\/b> (7): 1607\u201316. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1287%2Fmnsc.1040.0358\" target=\"_blank\">10.1287\/mnsc.1040.0358<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/pubsonline.informs.org\/doi\/abs\/10.1287\/mnsc.1040.0358\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/pubsonline.informs.org\/doi\/abs\/10.1287\/mnsc.1040.0358<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0020706305000282\" target=\"_blank\">\"The association between ISO 9000 certification and financial performance\"<\/a>. <i>The International Journal of Accounting<\/i> <b>40<\/b> (2): 151\u2013172. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.intacc.2005.01.011\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.intacc.2005.01.011<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0020706305000282\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0020706305000282<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+association+between+ISO+9000+certification+and+financial+performance&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Accounting&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Divesh+S.&rft.au=Sharma%2C%26%2332%3BDivesh+S.&rft.date=2005&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=151%E2%80%93172&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.intacc.2005.01.011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0020706305000282&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Naveh-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Naveh_25-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Naveh, Eitan; Marcus, Alfred (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0001457506002041\" target=\"_blank\">\"Financial performance, ISO 9000 standard and safe driving practices effects on accident rate in the U.S. Motor carrier industry\"<\/a>. <i>Accident Analysis & Prevention<\/i> <b>39<\/b> (4): 731\u2013742. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.aap.2006.11.004\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.aap.2006.11.004<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0001457506002041\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0001457506002041<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Financial+performance%2C+ISO+9000+standard+and+safe+driving+practices+effects+on+accident+rate+in+the+U.S.+Motor+carrier+industry&rft.jtitle=Accident+Analysis+%26+Prevention&rft.aulast=Naveh&rft.aufirst=Eitan&rft.au=Naveh%2C%26%2332%3BEitan&rft.au=Marcus%2C%26%2332%3BAlfred&rft.date=2007&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=731%E2%80%93742&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.aap.2006.11.004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0001457506002041&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BAB44-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BAB44_26-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/news\/iso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9001 proven to help win new business\"<\/a>. The British Assessment Bureau. 25 May 2011<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/news\/iso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.british-assessment.co.uk\/news\/iso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ISO+9001+proven+to+help+win+new+business&rft.atitle=&rft.date=25+May+2011&rft.pub=The+British+Assessment+Bureau&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.british-assessment.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fiso-9001-proven-to-help-win-new-business&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Dalgleish-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Dalgleish_27-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Dalgleish, Scott (05 May 2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.qualitymag.com\/articles\/84308-84308-probing-the-limits-br-iso-9000-more-hindrance-than-help\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO 9000: More Hindrance than Help\"<\/a>. <i>Quality Magazine<\/i>. Quality Magazine<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.qualitymag.com\/articles\/84308-84308-probing-the-limits-br-iso-9000-more-hindrance-than-help\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.qualitymag.com\/articles\/84308-84308-probing-the-limits-br-iso-9000-more-hindrance-than-help<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ISO+9000%3A+More+Hindrance+than+Help&rft.atitle=Quality+Magazine&rft.aulast=Dalgleish%2C+Scott&rft.au=Dalgleish%2C+Scott&rft.date=05+May+2003&rft.pub=Quality+Magazine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qualitymag.com%2Farticles%2F84308-84308-probing-the-limits-br-iso-9000-more-hindrance-than-help&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Clifford-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Clifford_28-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation news\">Clifford, Stephanie (01 May 2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"So many standards to follow, so little payoff\"<\/a>. <i>Inc<\/i> (Mansueto Ventures)<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.inc.com\/magazine\/20050501\/management.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=So+many+standards+to+follow%2C+so+little+payoff&rft.jtitle=Inc&rft.aulast=Clifford&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rft.au=Clifford%2C%26%2332%3BStephanie&rft.date=01+May+2005&rft.pub=Mansueto+Ventures&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.inc.com%2Fmagazine%2F20050501%2Fmanagement.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Sroufe-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Sroufe_29-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Sroufe, Robert; Curkovic, Sime (July 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0272696307000873\" target=\"_blank\">\"An examination of ISO 9000:2000 and supply chain quality assurance\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Operations Management<\/i> <b>26<\/b> (4): 503\u2013520. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.jom.2007.06.006\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.jom.2007.06.006<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0272696307000873\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0272696307000873<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=An+examination+of+ISO+9000%3A2000+and+supply+chain+quality+assurance&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Operations+Management&rft.aulast=Sroufe%2C+Robert%3B+Curkovic%2C+Sime&rft.au=Sroufe%2C+Robert%3B+Curkovic%2C+Sime&rft.date=July+2008&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=503%E2%80%93520&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.jom.2007.06.006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0272696307000873&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Wade-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Wade_30-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Wade, Jim (May\u2013June 2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/livelinkgetfile-isocs?nodeId=15013106\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is ISO 9000 really a standard?\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>ISO Management Systems<\/i>. pp. 17\u201320<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/livelinkgetfile-isocs?nodeId=15013106\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/livelinkgetfile-isocs?nodeId=15013106<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Is+ISO+9000+really+a+standard%3F&rft.atitle=ISO+Management+Systems&rft.aulast=Wade%2C+Jim&rft.au=Wade%2C+Jim&rft.date=May%E2%80%93June+2002&rft.pages=pp.+17%E2%80%9320&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Flivelinkgetfile-isocs%3FnodeId%3D15013106&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Barnes-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Barnes_31-0\">31.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Barnes_31-1\">31.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Barnes, Frank (22 March 2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/Good+Business+Sense+Is+the+Key+to+Confronting+ISO+9000.-a073182519\" target=\"_blank\">\"Good Business Sense Is the Key to Confronting ISO 9000\"<\/a>. <i>AllBusiness<\/i>. AllBusiness.com, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/Good+Business+Sense+Is+the+Key+to+Confronting+ISO+9000.-a073182519\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/Good+Business+Sense+Is+the+Key+to+Confronting+ISO+9000.-a073182519<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Good+Business+Sense+Is+the+Key+to+Confronting+ISO+9000&rft.atitle=AllBusiness&rft.aulast=Barnes%2C+Frank&rft.au=Barnes%2C+Frank&rft.date=22+March+2000&rft.pub=AllBusiness.com%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreelibrary.com%2FGood%2BBusiness%2BSense%2BIs%2Bthe%2BKey%2Bto%2BConfronting%2BISO%2B9000.-a073182519&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Henricks-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Henricks_32-0\">32.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Henricks_32-1\">32.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Henricks, Mark (01 Decenber 2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.entrepreneur.com\/article\/46342\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO a Go-Go\"<\/a>. <i>Entrepreneur Magazine<\/i>. Entrepreneur Media, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.entrepreneur.com\/article\/46342\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.entrepreneur.com\/article\/46342<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ISO+a+Go-Go&rft.atitle=Entrepreneur+Magazine&rft.aulast=Henricks%2C+Mark&rft.au=Henricks%2C+Mark&rft.date=01+Decenber+2001&rft.pub=Entrepreneur+Media%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.entrepreneur.com%2Farticle%2F46342&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ISO_9000\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203031\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.652 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.551 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 22014\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 27784\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 147859\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 54566\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 552.278 1 - -total\n 90.88% 501.911 33 - Template:Citation\/core\n 47.01% 259.603 19 - Template:Cite_web\n 33.63% 185.755 10 - Template:Cite_journal\n 13.75% 75.961 3 - Template:Cite_book\n 4.92% 27.187 41 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 3.47% 19.154 1 - Template:Cite_news\n 3.26% 18.008 10 - Template:Citation\/identifier\n 1.16% 6.430 20 - Template:Hide_in_print\n 0.78% 4.309 10 - Template:Only_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3376-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403203030 and revision id 20871\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/66\/Janesville_GM_Assembly_Plant_-_ISO_9001_Certified_sign_%283549915451%29.jpg"],"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a_timestamp":1554323430,"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_type":"article","e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_title":"Health Level 7","e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7","e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tHealth Level 7\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t The Reference Information Model (RIM) is an important component of the HL7 v3.0 standard and is based on XML.\nHealth Level Seven (HL7) is an international non-profit volunteer-based organization involved with the development of international health care informatics interoperability standards.[1] The HL7 community consists of health care experts and information scientists collaborating to create standards for the exchange, management, and integration of electronic health care information.\nThe term \"HL7\" is also used to refer to some of the specific standards created by the organization (e.g., HL7 v2.x, v3.0, HL7 RIM).[2] HL7 and its members provide a framework (and related standards) for the exchange, integration, sharing, and retrieval of electronic health information. v2.x of the standards, which support clinical practice and the management, delivery, and evaluation of health services, are the most commonly used in the world.[3] \n\nContents\n\n1 History \n2 Standards \n\n2.1 Reference Information Model (RIM) \n2.2 Clinical Document Architecture (CDA) \n2.3 Clinical Context Object Workgroup (CCOW) \n2.4 Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) \n\n\n3 Further reading \n4 External links \n5 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nThe International Organization for Standardization (ISO) got involved with standardizing network exchanges of data between computers around 1979, creating the Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) standards model. These formal OSI standards ranged across seven levels, from OSI Level 1 (physical layer, e.g. communication over coaxial cable) to OSI Level 7 (application layer, e.g. communication between clinical software). By 1981, researchers at University of California - San Francisco had created a proprietary protocol that unbeknownst to them at the time fit under the OSI Level 7 model. The protocol was developed for clinical purposes such that \"computers exchanged several core messages, including the synchronization of patient admission-discharge-transfer information, orders from clinical areas, and the display of textual results to the clinical areas.\"[4] \nBy 1985, Simborg Systems (which developed hospital information systems) sought to have a non-proprietary protocol created because \"standardization efforts at the time was either fragmented, in a different direction or with a different scope.\"[4] This led to a push to create a new standards organization, with initial meetings occurring at the end of March 1987. The meetings produced the term \"HL7\" and prompted a non-profit organization to be created, eventually known as Health Level Seven International. Version 1.0 of the HL7 specification was released in October 1987. The direction of HL7 was largely led by Simborg Systems; however, with greater practical use seen in furthering the protocol and non-profit, the first non-Simborg Systems chairperson, Ed Hammond, took the reigns in 1989.[4] By June 1990, Version 2.1 was published and included mechanisms for results reporting and billing. By the early- to mid-1990s news of HL7 was beginning to spread to international clinical sectors, particularly parts of Europe, including Netherlands, Germany, Canada, Japan, Australia, and the United Kingdom.[4][5]\nIn June 1994 the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) awarded Health Level 7 International status as an accredited standards developer. Version 2.2 became an official ANSI standard in February 1996. HL7 had roughly 1,700 members from various health care industries around the globe by the late 1990s.[5]\nVersion 3.0 of the HL7 standard was released in late 2005, which internationalized it and made it more consistent and precise.[6] Where the 2.x standards eventually received wide adoption for their flexibility and available implementation options, the 3.0 standards, in contrast, departed from that flexibility in order to be more \"definite and testable, and provide the ability to certify vendors' conformance.\"[7] In 2009, Corepoint Health reported that most HL7 messaging was occurring using 2.3 and 2.3.1 models, with 3.0-based messages representing only a tiny fraction of all interfaces[8]; in 2012 Corepoint Health's Rob Brull estimated that more than 90 percent of all healthcare systems were still utilizing 2.x models.[9] That trend continued, with several experts proclaiming the standard to be more or less a failure.[10][11]\nIn early 2012, HL7 announced the HL7 FHIR (Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources) initiative, which would utilize the best aspects of both 2.x and 3.0 standards, optimally resulting in a standard that is 20 percent the size of 3.0 but still meet the operation requirements of 80 percent of systems using the standard.[12] FHIR is being built on RESTful web services and provides modular, extensible \"resources\" to provide some flexibility but within a more fixed framework.[13] In December 2014, HL7 announced the Argonaut Project, meant \"to hasten current FHIR development efforts in order to create practical and focused guidelines and profiles for FHIR by the spring of 2015.\"[14]\n\nStandards \nIn total HL7 develops conceptual standards (e.g., HL7 RIM), document standards (e.g., HL7 CDA), application standards (e.g., HL7 CCOW), and messaging standards (e.g., HL7 v2.x and v3.0). Messaging standards are particularly important because they define how information is packaged and communicated from one party to another. Such standards set the language, structure, and data types required for seamless integration from one system to another.[15] Business use of the HL7 standards requires a paid organizational membership in HL7, Inc. HL7 members can access standards for free, and non-members can buy the standards from HL7 or ANSI.\nHL7 v2.x and 3.0 are the primary standards from the organization. They provide a framework for data exchange among clinical and healthcare systems in an ideal format. The 2.x standards are flexible, with several implementation options, loosely geared towards \"clinical interface specialists\" working to move clinical data in the application space. The 3.0 standards are designed to be more fixed, precise, and international, geared towards governments and end users of clinical applications.[8] \nWhile HL7 v2.x and 3.0 are the primary standards, a few other important standards and components are associated with HL7, as detailed below.\n\nReference Information Model (RIM) \nThe Reference Information Model (RIM) is an important component of the HL7 Version 3 standard. RIM expresses the data content needed in a specific clinical or administrative context and provides an explicit representation of the semantic and lexical connections that exist between the information carried in the fields of HL7 messages.[16] The standard is accepted as official by the ISO as ISO\/HL7 21731; the original was approved in 2006, with a revised version appearing in 2014.[17]\n\nClinical Document Architecture (CDA) \nThe Clinical Document Architecture (CDA) is an XML-based markup standard intended to specify the encoding, structure, and semantics of clinical documents for exchange.[18] The standard is accepted as official by the ISO as ISO\/HL7 27932; the most current version comes from 2009.[19]\n\nClinical Context Object Workgroup (CCOW) \nThe Clinical Context Object Workgroup (CCOW) family of standards are designed to enable disparate applications to share user context and patient context in real-time, particularly at the user-interface level. CCOW implementations typically require a CCOW vault system to manage user security between applications. The primary standard under CCOW is the Context Management Specifications (CCOW), which \"serves as the basis for ensuring secure and consistent access to patient information from heterogeneous sources.\"[20] This standard is accepted as official by ANSI as ANSI\/HL7 CMS V1.6.\n\nFast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) \nThe Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) standard was announced in 2012 and has been in development since. FHIR is being built on RESTful web services and provides modular, extensible \"resources\" to provide some flexibility but within a more fixed framework. The fundamental principles of FHIR are[21]:\n\n prioritize implementers as the target user of the standard;\n provide a flexible framework for interoperability;\n limit complexity to where it's most needed;\n keep conformance requirement minimal but also provide varying degrees of rigor;\n leverage open source development principles;\n make the standard available without cost;\n support multiple exchange architectures;\n leverage common web technologies;\n make the standard forward and backward compatible; and\n design, publish, and implement associated specifications using widely available tools.\nFurther reading \n Introduction to HL7 Standards\n Spronk, Ren\u00e9 (05 September 2014). \"The Early History of Health Level 7\". Ringholm BV. http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm .   \nExternal links \n Health Level 7 International\n HL7 Wiki\n HL7 FHIR\nReferences \n\n\u2191 \"About Health Level Seven International\". Health Level Seven International. http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/about\/index.cfm . Retrieved 02 March 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Healthcare Interoperability Glossary\". Corepoint Health. http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/resource-center\/healthcare-interoperability-glossary#H . Retrieved 02 March 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Shaver, Dave. \"The HL7 Evolution - Comparing HL7 Versions 2 and 3\" (PDF). Corepoint Health. http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf . Retrieved 02 March 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Spronk, Ren\u00e9 (05 September 2014). \"The Early History of Health Level 7\". Ringholm BV. http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm . Retrieved 17 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 Di Lima, Sara N.; Johns, Lisa T.; Liebler, Joan Gratto (1998). A Practical Introduction to Health Information Management. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 9780834212312. https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vX_zVaMlR8sC&pg=PA90 . Retrieved 17 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Shaver,Dave (17 February 2015). \"What Is HL7 Version 3 or V3?\". HL7 Standards. http:\/\/www.hl7standards.com\/blog\/2006\/10\/05\/what-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3\/ .   \n\n\u2191 \"HL7 Version 3 Product Suite\". Health Level 7 International. 15 May 2014. http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=186 . Retrieved 18 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 Shaver, Dave (2009). \"The HL7 Evolution: Comparing HL7 Version 2 to Version 3, Including a History of Version 2\" (PDF). Corepoint Health. http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf . Retrieved 18 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 McNickle, Michelle (25 April 2012). \"8 common questions about HL7\". Healthcare IT News. HIMSS Media. http:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/8-common-questions-about-hl7 . Retrieved 18 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Morin, Jeanluc (04 January 2011). \"Will HL7 V3 Adoption Take Off in 2011? 5 Points and 1 Caveat\". Caristix Blog. Caristix. http:\/\/caristix.com\/blog\/2011\/01\/will-hl7-v3-adoption-take-off-in-2011\/ . Retrieved 18 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Grieve, Grahame (15 August 2011). \"HL7 needs a fresh look because V3 has failed\". Health Intersections Blog. Health Intersections Pty. Ltd. http:\/\/www.healthintersections.com.au\/?p=476 . Retrieved 18 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 McKenzie, Lloyd (February 2012). \"HL7\u2019s Next Generation Standard is Coming: Keep Calm, Carry On\". Healthcare Information Management & Communications Canada 26 (1). http:\/\/www.healthcareimc.com\/node\/515 . Retrieved 18 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Brull, Rob (26 March 2013). \"5 Things to Know About HL7 FHIR\". HL7 Standards Blog. HL7 Standards. http:\/\/www.hl7standards.com\/blog\/2013\/03\/26\/hl7-fhir\/ . Retrieved 18 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Kern, Christine (12 December 2014). \"HL7 Advancing FHIR\". Health IT Outcomes. Jameson Publishing. http:\/\/www.healthitoutcomes.com\/doc\/hl-advancing-fhir-0001 . Retrieved 18 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Kim, Katherine (July 2005). \"Creating Clinical Data Standards in Health Care: Five Case Studies\" (PDF). California HealthCare Foundation. http:\/\/www.kathykim.com\/sitebuildercontent\/sitebuilderfiles\/ClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf . Retrieved 02 March 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"HL7 Reference Information Model\". Health Level 7 International. http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/rim.cfm . Retrieved 17 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"ISO\/HL7 21731:2006\". International Organization for Standardization. http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/store\/catalogue_ics\/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=40399 . Retrieved 17 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Boone, Keith W. (2011). The CDA Book. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 17\u201321. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rwa6DDB4jY8C&pg=PA17 . Retrieved 17 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"ISO\/HL7 27932:2009\". International Organization for Standardization. http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=44429 . Retrieved 17 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Product CCOW\". HL7 Wiki. Health Level 7 International. 27 October 2010. http:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Product_CCOW . Retrieved 17 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Fundamental Principles of FHIR\". HL7 Wiki. Health Level 7 International. 16 September 2014. http:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Fundamental_Principles_of_FHIR . Retrieved 18February 2015 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Communication protocols and standardsHealth informaticsHealth standardsStandards organizationsHidden category: Pages using duplicate arguments in template calls\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom 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class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Health Level 7<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:552px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:HL7_Reference_Information_Model.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8e925aa26de89f4ff8ca5fc5541ac42\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f8\/HL7_Reference_Information_Model.jpg\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:HL7_Reference_Information_Model.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"b8e925aa26de89f4ff8ca5fc5541ac42\"><\/a><\/div>The Reference Information Model (RIM) is an important component of the HL7 v3.0 standard and is based on XML.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Health Level Seven<\/b> (<b>HL7<\/b>) is an international non-profit volunteer-based organization involved with the development of international health care informatics interoperability standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7About_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7About-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The HL7 community consists of health care experts and information scientists collaborating to create standards for the exchange, management, and integration of electronic health care information.\n<\/p><p>The term \"HL7\" is also used to refer to some of the specific standards created by the organization (e.g., HL7 v2.x, v3.0, HL7 RIM).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7BatchProtocol_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7BatchProtocol-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> HL7 and its members provide a framework (and related standards) for the exchange, integration, sharing, and retrieval of electronic health information. v2.x of the standards, which support clinical practice and the management, delivery, and evaluation of health services, are the most commonly used in the world.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116defc5d89c8a55f5b7c1be0790b442\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO) got involved with standardizing network exchanges of data between computers around 1979, creating the Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) standards model. These formal OSI standards ranged across seven levels, from OSI Level 1 (physical layer, e.g. communication over coaxial cable) to OSI Level 7 (application layer, e.g. communication between clinical software). By 1981, researchers at University of California - San Francisco had created a proprietary protocol that unbeknownst to them at the time fit under the OSI Level 7 model. The protocol was developed for clinical purposes such that \"computers exchanged several core messages, including the synchronization of patient admission-discharge-transfer information, orders from clinical areas, and the display of textual results to the clinical areas.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Hist1-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>By 1985, Simborg Systems (which developed <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital_information_system\" title=\"Hospital information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8385de7b1f39a39d793f8ce349b448d\">hospital information systems<\/a>) sought to have a non-proprietary protocol created because \"standardization efforts at the time was either fragmented, in a different direction or with a different scope.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Hist1-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> This led to a push to create a new standards organization, with initial meetings occurring at the end of March 1987. The meetings produced the term \"HL7\" and prompted a non-profit organization to be created, eventually known as Health Level Seven International. Version 1.0 of the HL7 specification was released in October 1987. The direction of HL7 was largely led by Simborg Systems; however, with greater practical use seen in furthering the protocol and non-profit, the first non-Simborg Systems chairperson, Ed Hammond, took the reigns in 1989.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Hist1-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> By June 1990, Version 2.1 was published and included mechanisms for results reporting and billing. By the early- to mid-1990s news of HL7 was beginning to spread to international clinical sectors, particularly parts of Europe, including Netherlands, Germany, Canada, Japan, Australia, and the United Kingdom.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Hist1-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PractDiLama_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PractDiLama-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In June 1994 the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/American_National_Standards_Institute\" title=\"American National Standards Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a3da6ae9a20adfa068187109b058ff4\">American National Standards Institute<\/a> (ANSI) awarded Health Level 7 International status as an accredited standards developer. Version 2.2 became an official ANSI standard in February 1996. HL7 had roughly 1,700 members from various health care industries around the globe by the late 1990s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PractDiLama_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PractDiLama-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Version 3.0 of the HL7 standard was released in late 2005, which internationalized it and made it more consistent and precise.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL730_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL730-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> Where the 2.x standards eventually received wide adoption for their flexibility and available implementation options, the 3.0 standards, in contrast, departed from that flexibility in order to be more \"definite and testable, and provide the ability to certify vendors' conformance.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Three_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Three-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> In 2009, Corepoint Health reported that most HL7 messaging was occurring using 2.3 and 2.3.1 models, with 3.0-based messages representing only a tiny fraction of all interfaces<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CH09_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CH09-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>; in 2012 Corepoint Health's Rob Brull estimated that more than 90 percent of all healthcare systems were still utilizing 2.x models.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8Common_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8Common-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> That trend continued, with several experts proclaiming the standard to be more or less a failure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cari11_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cari11-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HI11_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HI11-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In early 2012, HL7 announced the HL7 FHIR (Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources) initiative, which would utilize the best aspects of both 2.x and 3.0 standards, optimally resulting in a standard that is 20 percent the size of 3.0 but still meet the operation requirements of 80 percent of systems using the standard.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FHIR12_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FHIR12-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> FHIR is being built on RESTful web services and provides modular, extensible \"resources\" to provide some flexibility but within a more fixed framework.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7StandardFHIR_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7StandardFHIR-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> In December 2014, HL7 announced the Argonaut Project, meant \"to hasten current FHIR development efforts in order to create practical and focused guidelines and profiles for FHIR by the spring of 2015.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FHIRArgo_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FHIRArgo-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standards\">Standards<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In total HL7 develops conceptual standards (e.g., HL7 RIM), document standards (e.g., HL7 CDA), application standards (e.g., HL7 CCOW), and messaging standards (e.g., HL7 v2.x and v3.0). Messaging standards are particularly important because they define how information is packaged and communicated from one party to another. Such standards set the language, structure, and data types required for seamless integration from one system to another.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> Business use of the HL7 standards requires a paid organizational membership in HL7, Inc. HL7 members can access standards for free, and non-members can buy the standards from HL7 or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ANSI\" title=\"ANSI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"682431568a190846c1164f8943aedded\">ANSI<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>HL7 v2.x and 3.0 are the primary standards from the organization. They provide a framework for data exchange among clinical and healthcare systems in an ideal format. The 2.x standards are flexible, with several implementation options, loosely geared towards \"clinical interface specialists\" working to move clinical data in the application space. The 3.0 standards are designed to be more fixed, precise, and international, geared towards governments and end users of clinical applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CH09_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CH09-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>While HL7 v2.x and 3.0 are the primary standards, a few other important standards and components are associated with HL7, as detailed below.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reference_Information_Model_.28RIM.29\">Reference Information Model (RIM)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The Reference Information Model (RIM) is an important component of the HL7 Version 3 standard. RIM expresses the data content needed in a specific clinical or administrative context and provides an explicit representation of the semantic and lexical connections that exist between the information carried in the fields of HL7 messages.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RIM_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RIM-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> The standard is accepted as official by the ISO as ISO\/HL7 21731; the original was approved in 2006, with a revised version appearing in 2014.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO21731_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO21731-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Clinical_Document_Architecture_.28CDA.29\">Clinical Document Architecture (CDA)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The Clinical Document Architecture (CDA) is an XML-based markup standard intended to specify the encoding, structure, and semantics of clinical documents for exchange.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDABook_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDABook-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> The standard is accepted as official by the ISO as ISO\/HL7 27932; the most current version comes from 2009.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISO27932_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISO27932-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Clinical_Context_Object_Workgroup_.28CCOW.29\">Clinical Context Object Workgroup (CCOW)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The Clinical Context Object Workgroup (CCOW) family of standards are designed to enable disparate applications to share user context and patient context in real-time, particularly at the user-interface level. CCOW implementations typically require a CCOW vault system to manage user security between applications. The primary standard under CCOW is the Context Management Specifications (CCOW), which \"serves as the basis for ensuring secure and consistent access to patient information from heterogeneous sources.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CCOWWiki_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CCOWWiki-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> This standard is accepted as official by ANSI as ANSI\/HL7 CMS V1.6.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Fast_Healthcare_Interoperability_Resources_.28FHIR.29\">Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR) standard was announced in 2012 and has been in development since. FHIR is being built on RESTful web services and provides modular, extensible \"resources\" to provide some flexibility but within a more fixed framework. The fundamental principles of FHIR are<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FHIRPrinc_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FHIRPrinc-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> prioritize implementers as the target user of the standard;<\/li>\n<li> provide a flexible framework for interoperability;<\/li>\n<li> limit complexity to where it's most needed;<\/li>\n<li> keep conformance requirement minimal but also provide varying degrees of rigor;<\/li>\n<li> leverage open source development principles;<\/li>\n<li> make the standard available without cost;<\/li>\n<li> support multiple exchange architectures;<\/li>\n<li> leverage common web technologies;<\/li>\n<li> make the standard forward and backward compatible; and<\/li>\n<li> design, publish, and implement associated specifications using widely available tools.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/index.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">Introduction to HL7 Standards<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <span class=\"citation web\">Spronk, Ren\u00e9 (05 September 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Early History of Health Level 7\"<\/a>. Ringholm BV<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+Early+History+of+Health+Level+7&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Spronk%2C+Ren%C3%A9&rft.au=Spronk%2C+Ren%C3%A9&rft.date=05+September+2014&rft.pub=Ringholm+BV&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ringholm.com%2Fdocs%2Fthe_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Health Level 7 International<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Main_Page\" target=\"_blank\">HL7 Wiki<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=FHIR\" target=\"_blank\">HL7 FHIR<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7About-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7About_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/about\/index.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">\"About Health Level Seven International\"<\/a>. Health Level Seven International<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/about\/index.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/about\/index.cfm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 02 March 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=About+Health+Level+Seven+International&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Health+Level+Seven+International&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7.org%2Fabout%2Findex.cfm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7BatchProtocol-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7BatchProtocol_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#H\">\"Healthcare Interoperability Glossary\"<\/a>. Corepoint Health<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"#H\">http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/resource-center\/healthcare-interoperability-glossary#H<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 02 March 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Healthcare+Interoperability+Glossary&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Corepoint+Health&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.corepointhealth.com%2Fresource-center%2Fhealthcare-interoperability-glossary%23H&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Shaver, Dave. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The HL7 Evolution - Comparing HL7 Versions 2 and 3\"<\/a> (PDF). Corepoint Health<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 02 March 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+HL7+Evolution+-+Comparing+HL7+Versions+2+and+3&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Shaver&rft.aufirst=Dave&rft.au=Shaver%2C%26%2332%3BDave&rft.pub=Corepoint+Health&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.corepointhealth.com%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fwhitepapers%2Fhl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7Hist1-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-2\">4.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Hist1_4-3\">4.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Spronk, Ren\u00e9 (05 September 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Early History of Health Level 7\"<\/a>. Ringholm BV<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ringholm.com\/docs\/the_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 17 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+Early+History+of+Health+Level+7&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Spronk%2C+Ren%C3%A9&rft.au=Spronk%2C+Ren%C3%A9&rft.date=05+September+2014&rft.pub=Ringholm+BV&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ringholm.com%2Fdocs%2Fthe_early_history_of_health_level_7_HL7.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PractDiLama-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PractDiLama_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PractDiLama_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Di Lima, Sara N.; Johns, Lisa T.; Liebler, Joan Gratto (1998). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vX_zVaMlR8sC&pg=PA90\" target=\"_blank\"><i>A Practical Introduction to Health Information Management<\/i><\/a>. Jones & Bartlett Learning. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 9780834212312<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vX_zVaMlR8sC&pg=PA90\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vX_zVaMlR8sC&pg=PA90<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 17 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Practical+Introduction+to+Health+Information+Management&rft.aulast=Di+Lima%2C+Sara+N.%3B+Johns%2C+Lisa+T.%3B+Liebler%2C+Joan+Gratto&rft.au=Di+Lima%2C+Sara+N.%3B+Johns%2C+Lisa+T.%3B+Liebler%2C+Joan+Gratto&rft.date=1998&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&rft.isbn=9780834212312&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvX_zVaMlR8sC%26pg%3DPA90&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL730-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL730_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Shaver,Dave (17 February 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7standards.com\/blog\/2006\/10\/05\/what-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is HL7 Version 3 or V3?\"<\/a>. <i>HL7 Standards<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7standards.com\/blog\/2006\/10\/05\/what-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7standards.com\/blog\/2006\/10\/05\/what-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=What+Is+HL7+Version+3+or+V3%3F&rft.atitle=HL7+Standards&rft.aulast=Shaver%2CDave&rft.au=Shaver%2CDave&rft.date=17+February+2015&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7standards.com%2Fblog%2F2006%2F10%2F05%2Fwhat-is-hl7-version-3-or-v3%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7Three-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Three_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=186\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 Version 3 Product Suite\"<\/a>. Health Level 7 International. 15 May 2014<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=186\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=186<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=HL7+Version+3+Product+Suite&rft.atitle=&rft.date=15+May+2014&rft.pub=Health+Level+7+International&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7.org%2Fimplement%2Fstandards%2Fproduct_brief.cfm%3Fproduct_id%3D186&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CH09-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CH09_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CH09_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Shaver, Dave (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The HL7 Evolution: Comparing HL7 Version 2 to Version 3, Including a History of Version 2\"<\/a> (PDF). Corepoint Health<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.corepointhealth.com\/sites\/default\/files\/whitepapers\/hl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+HL7+Evolution%3A+Comparing+HL7+Version+2+to+Version+3%2C+Including+a+History+of+Version+2&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Shaver%2C+Dave&rft.au=Shaver%2C+Dave&rft.date=2009&rft.pub=Corepoint+Health&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.corepointhealth.com%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fwhitepapers%2Fhl7-v2-v3-evolution.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8Common-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-8Common_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">McNickle, Michelle (25 April 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/8-common-questions-about-hl7\" target=\"_blank\">\"8 common questions about HL7\"<\/a>. <i>Healthcare IT News<\/i>. HIMSS Media<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/8-common-questions-about-hl7\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.healthcareitnews.com\/news\/8-common-questions-about-hl7<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=8+common+questions+about+HL7&rft.atitle=Healthcare+IT+News&rft.aulast=McNickle%2C+Michelle&rft.au=McNickle%2C+Michelle&rft.date=25+April+2012&rft.pub=HIMSS+Media&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthcareitnews.com%2Fnews%2F8-common-questions-about-hl7&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cari11-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Cari11_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Morin, Jeanluc (04 January 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/caristix.com\/blog\/2011\/01\/will-hl7-v3-adoption-take-off-in-2011\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Will HL7 V3 Adoption Take Off in 2011? 5 Points and 1 Caveat\"<\/a>. <i>Caristix Blog<\/i>. Caristix<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/caristix.com\/blog\/2011\/01\/will-hl7-v3-adoption-take-off-in-2011\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/caristix.com\/blog\/2011\/01\/will-hl7-v3-adoption-take-off-in-2011\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Will+HL7+V3+Adoption+Take+Off+in+2011%3F+5+Points+and+1+Caveat&rft.atitle=Caristix+Blog&rft.aulast=Morin%2C+Jeanluc&rft.au=Morin%2C+Jeanluc&rft.date=04+January+2011&rft.pub=Caristix&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcaristix.com%2Fblog%2F2011%2F01%2Fwill-hl7-v3-adoption-take-off-in-2011%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HI11-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HI11_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Grieve, Grahame (15 August 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthintersections.com.au\/?p=476\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 needs a fresh look because V3 has failed\"<\/a>. <i>Health Intersections Blog<\/i>. Health Intersections Pty. Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthintersections.com.au\/?p=476\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.healthintersections.com.au\/?p=476<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=HL7+needs+a+fresh+look+because+V3+has+failed&rft.atitle=Health+Intersections+Blog&rft.aulast=Grieve%2C+Grahame&rft.au=Grieve%2C+Grahame&rft.date=15+August+2011&rft.pub=Health+Intersections+Pty.+Ltd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthintersections.com.au%2F%3Fp%3D476&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FHIR12-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FHIR12_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">McKenzie, Lloyd (February 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthcareimc.com\/node\/515\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7\u2019s Next Generation Standard is Coming: Keep Calm, Carry On\"<\/a>. <i>Healthcare Information Management & Communications Canada<\/i> <b>26<\/b> (1)<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthcareimc.com\/node\/515\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.healthcareimc.com\/node\/515<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=HL7%E2%80%99s+Next+Generation+Standard+is+Coming%3A+Keep+Calm%2C+Carry+On&rft.jtitle=Healthcare+Information+Management+%26+Communications+Canada&rft.aulast=McKenzie%2C+Lloyd&rft.au=McKenzie%2C+Lloyd&rft.date=February+2012&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthcareimc.com%2Fnode%2F515&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7StandardFHIR-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7StandardFHIR_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Brull, Rob (26 March 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7standards.com\/blog\/2013\/03\/26\/hl7-fhir\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"5 Things to Know About HL7 FHIR\"<\/a>. <i>HL7 Standards Blog<\/i>. HL7 Standards<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7standards.com\/blog\/2013\/03\/26\/hl7-fhir\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7standards.com\/blog\/2013\/03\/26\/hl7-fhir\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=5+Things+to+Know+About+HL7+FHIR&rft.atitle=HL7+Standards+Blog&rft.aulast=Brull%2C+Rob&rft.au=Brull%2C+Rob&rft.date=26+March+2013&rft.pub=HL7+Standards&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7standards.com%2Fblog%2F2013%2F03%2F26%2Fhl7-fhir%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FHIRArgo-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FHIRArgo_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Kern, Christine (12 December 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthitoutcomes.com\/doc\/hl-advancing-fhir-0001\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 Advancing FHIR\"<\/a>. <i>Health IT Outcomes<\/i>. Jameson Publishing<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.healthitoutcomes.com\/doc\/hl-advancing-fhir-0001\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.healthitoutcomes.com\/doc\/hl-advancing-fhir-0001<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=HL7+Advancing+FHIR&rft.atitle=Health+IT+Outcomes&rft.aulast=Kern%2C+Christine&rft.au=Kern%2C+Christine&rft.date=12+December+2014&rft.pub=Jameson+Publishing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.healthitoutcomes.com%2Fdoc%2Fhl-advancing-fhir-0001&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Kim, Katherine (July 2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kathykim.com\/sitebuildercontent\/sitebuilderfiles\/ClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Creating Clinical Data Standards in Health Care: Five Case Studies\"<\/a> (PDF). California HealthCare Foundation<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kathykim.com\/sitebuildercontent\/sitebuilderfiles\/ClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.kathykim.com\/sitebuildercontent\/sitebuilderfiles\/ClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 02 March 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Creating+Clinical+Data+Standards+in+Health+Care%3A+Five+Case+Studies&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Kim%2C+Katherine&rft.au=Kim%2C+Katherine&rft.date=July+2005&rft.pub=California+HealthCare+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kathykim.com%2Fsitebuildercontent%2Fsitebuilderfiles%2FClinicalDataStandardsInHealthCare.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RIM-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RIM_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/rim.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">\"HL7 Reference Information Model\"<\/a>. Health Level 7 International<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/rim.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/rim.cfm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 17 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=HL7+Reference+Information+Model&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Health+Level+7+International&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7.org%2Fimplement%2Fstandards%2Frim.cfm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO21731-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO21731_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/store\/catalogue_ics\/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=40399\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/HL7 21731:2006\"<\/a>. International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/store\/catalogue_ics\/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=40399\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/home\/store\/catalogue_ics\/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=40399<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 17 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ISO%2FHL7+21731%3A2006&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fhome%2Fstore%2Fcatalogue_ics%2Fcatalogue_detail_ics.htm%3Fcsnumber%3D40399&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDABook-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDABook_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Boone, Keith W. (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rwa6DDB4jY8C&pg=PA17\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The CDA Book<\/i><\/a>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 17\u201321<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rwa6DDB4jY8C&pg=PA17\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=rwa6DDB4jY8C&pg=PA17<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 17 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+CDA+Book&rft.aulast=Boone%2C+Keith+W.&rft.au=Boone%2C+Keith+W.&rft.date=2011&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B17%E2%80%9321&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Drwa6DDB4jY8C%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISO27932-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISO27932_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=44429\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISO\/HL7 27932:2009\"<\/a>. International Organization for Standardization<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=44429\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=44429<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 17 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ISO%2FHL7+27932%3A2009&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=International+Organization+for+Standardization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fiso_catalogue%2Fcatalogue_tc%2Fcatalogue_detail.htm%3Fcsnumber%3D44429&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CCOWWiki-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CCOWWiki_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Product_CCOW\" target=\"_blank\">\"Product CCOW\"<\/a>. <i>HL7 Wiki<\/i>. Health Level 7 International. 27 October 2010<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Product_CCOW\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Product_CCOW<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 17 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Product+CCOW&rft.atitle=HL7+Wiki&rft.date=27+October+2010&rft.pub=Health+Level+7+International&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwiki.hl7.org%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DProduct_CCOW&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FHIRPrinc-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FHIRPrinc_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Fundamental_Principles_of_FHIR\" target=\"_blank\">\"Fundamental Principles of FHIR\"<\/a>. <i>HL7 Wiki<\/i>. Health Level 7 International. 16 September 2014<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Fundamental_Principles_of_FHIR\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/wiki.hl7.org\/index.php?title=Fundamental_Principles_of_FHIR<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Fundamental+Principles+of+FHIR&rft.atitle=HL7+Wiki&rft.date=16+September+2014&rft.pub=Health+Level+7+International&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwiki.hl7.org%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DFundamental_Principles_of_FHIR&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Level_7\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203029\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.430 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.276 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 13390\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 22117\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 80461\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 31038\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 359.032 1 - -total\n 89.39% 320.922 22 - Template:Citation\/core\n 79.44% 285.212 19 - Template:Cite_web\n 12.09% 43.408 2 - Template:Cite_book\n 5.96% 21.411 1 - Template:Cite_journal\n 5.77% 20.725 30 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 2.21% 7.943 1 - Template:Citation\/identifier\n 0.58% 2.079 1 - Template:Only_in_print\n 0.53% 1.887 2 - Template:Hide_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3385-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403203028 and revision id 27386\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f8\/HL7_Reference_Information_Model.jpg"],"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f_timestamp":1554323428,"b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_type":"article","b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_title":"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act","b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act","b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tHealth Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\nThe Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) was enacted by the United States Congress and signed by President Bill Clinton in 1996. Its intended purpose was \"to improve portability and continuity of health insurance coverage in the group and individual markets; to combat waste, fraud, and abuse in health insurance and health care delivery; to promote the use of medical savings accounts; to improve access to long-term care services and coverage; [and] to simplify the administration of health insurance.\"[1]\n\nContents\n\n1 History \n\n1.1 Initial \n1.2 Amendments \n\n\n2 Structure \n\n2.1 Description \n\n\n3 Enforcement \n4 Assessed impact \n5 Audit guidelines and checklist \n6 Further reading \n7 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nInitial \nIn 1994, U.S. President Bill Clinton attempted to overhaul the national health care system but didn't receive the support he needed. In 1995, Senators Nancy Kassebaum (R-KS) and Edward Kennedy (D-MA) introduced a comparatively pared down proposal called the Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995 (S 11028), later referred to informally as the Kassebaum\/Kennedy Bill. The proposal called for health insurance portability for employees, medical savings accounts, increased deductibility of health insurance for the self-employed, and tax breaks for long-term care insurance.[2][3] The legislation successfully made it out of the Senate Labor and Human Resources Committee on August 2, 1995[4], only to be stalled \"because of opposition from conservative senators who shared industry concerns over the group-to-individual portability provisions.\"[2] \nWith desire to get some sort of health care reform legislation passed, Clinton referenced the stalled bill in his January 1996 State of the Union address on several occasions. Though some feared the ploy by Clinton would ultimately sink the bill, it inevitably resulted in bipartisan cooperation so no one side could take credit for the bill.[4] On February 7, 1996, the two parties agreed to further discuss the legislation in the House and Senate. This resulted in several events: the House of Representatives created an alternative bill (HR 3103) that drew on characteristics of S 11028, passing on March 28; the Senate passed a version of the original S 11028 on April 23 but without controversial attachments like medical savings accounts. However, differences between the House and Senate bills caused problems. \"The House bill, for example, included provisions allowing for medical savings accounts, a limit on monetary damages in medical malpractice lawsuits and a reduction in states' authority to regulate health insurance purchasing pools created by small businesses.\"[2] Additionally, a provision on mental health coverage was found on the Senate bill that was omitted from the House version. It took several weeks of debating to make concessions on these topics. \nA Republican-led compromise was offered on June 10, however debate raged on. It wasn't until a July 25 compromise between Kennedy and Ways and Means Committee Chairman Bill Archer (R-TX) on medical savings accounts that momentum shifted. Provisions on mental illness and medical malpractice were eventually dropped from the proposal on July 31, with both House and Senate agreeing on the final version on August 1 and August 2 respectively.[2] On August 21, 1996, the legislation was signed into law by President Clinton and codified as Public Law 104-191, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA).[5][1]\n\nAmendments \nThe administrative simplification provisions in HIPAA meant more work had to be done in regards to the legislation. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) began work on the HIPAA Privacy Rule in 1999, \"which set out detailed regulations regarding the types of uses and disclosures of personally identifiable health information that are permitted by the covered entities.\"[6] However, large volumes of comments and Executive branch changes in 2000 slowed the process down.[6] Several more years of corrections and requests for comments followed, culminating in the release of the Final Rule on August 14, 2002 as 45 CFR Part 160 and Subparts A and E of Part 164.[7] Most health plans were expected to be in compliance by April 14, 2003, though some exceptions existed.\nDespite the Privacy Rule, many still argued that the legislation wasn't suitable enough to prevent mishandling of personal health information and that it was impeding research.[6] These concerns mixed with few incidents of enforcement in the first few years after the 2003 compliance date prompted additional review by the HHS.[8] On February 16, 2006, HHS issued the Final Rule regarding HIPAA enforcement, to be effective March 16, 2006.[9] \nAdditional updates to the enforcement rule came with the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act (HITECH) Act, enacted on February 17, 2009. The Act added \"several provisions that strengthen the civil and criminal enforcement of the HIPAA rules\" by adding categories of violations and tier levels of penalty amounts.[9] HIPAA and the HITECH statutes were further revised in January 2013 (effective March 26, 2013) \"to strengthen the privacy and security protection for individuals\u2019 health information,\" update the Breach Notification Rule, \"strengthen the privacy protections for genetic information,\" and revise other portions of HIPAA rules \"to improve their workability and effectiveness.\"[10]\n\nStructure \nHIPAA is divided into five titles, each with their own subtitles[1]:\nTitle I: Health Care Access, Portability, and Renewability\n\nSubtitle A - Group Market Rules\nSubtitle B - Individual Market Rules\nSubtitle C - General and Miscellaneous Provisions\nTitle II: Preventing Health Care Fraud and Abuse; Administrative Simplification; Medical Liability Reform\n\nSubtitle A - Fraud and Abuse Control Program\nSubtitle B - Revisions to Current Sanctions for Fraud and Abuse\nSubtitle C - Data Collection\nSubtitle D - Civil Monetary Penalties\nSubtitle E - Revisions to Criminal Law\nSubtitle F - Administrative Simplification\nSubtitle G - Duplication and Coordination of Medicare-Related Plans\nTitle III: Tax-Related Health Provisions\n\nSubtitle A - Medical Savings Accounts\nSubtitle B - Increase in Deduction for Health Insurance Costs of Self-Employed Individuals\nSubtitle C - Long-Term Care Services and Contracts\nSubtitle D - Treatment of Accelerated Death Benefits\nSubtitle E - State Insurance Pools\nSubtitle F - Organizations Subject to Section 833\nSubtitle G - IRA Distributions to the Unemployed\nSubtitle H - Organ and Tissue Donation Information Included With Income Tax Refund Payments\nTitle IV: Application and Enforcement of Group Health Plan Requirements\n\nSubtitle A - Application and Enforcement of Group Health Plan Requirements\nSubtitle B - Clarification of Certain Continuation Coverage Requirements\nTitle V: Revenue Offsets\n\nSubtitle A - Company-Owned Life Insurance\nSubtitle B - Treatment of Individuals Who Lose United States Citizenship\nSubtitle C - Repeal of Financial Institution Transition Rule to Interest Allocation Rules\nDescription \nTitle I of HIPAA contains three subtitles that protect health insurance coverage for workers and their families when they change or lose their jobs. \nTitle II of HIPAA contains seven subtitles. One of the most important for expanding HIPAA is Subtitle F, the Administrative Simplification (AS) provisions, requiring the establishment of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers. Title II also addresses the security and privacy of health data, with the intent of improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the nation's health care system by encouraging the widespread use of electronic data interchange in the U.S. health care system.\nTitle III of HIPAA modifies the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) to revise available tax deductions for health insurance, clarify how pre-tax money could be applied health payments, and regulate long-term care services and how they're contracted. Other tax-related issues like IRA distribution and organ donor tax refund payments are covered by this title, in total spread out over eight subtitles.\nTitle IV of HIPAA modifies both the IRC and the Public Health Service Act (PHSA) to describe requirements for and enforcement of how group health plans could legally manage and cover patients' pre-existing conditions as well as their continuation of coverage. This information is supplied over two subtitles.\nTitle V of HIPAA contains three subtitles that amend the IRC concerning miscellaneous issues such as interest deductions on loans related to company-owned life insurance, how individuals who lose their U.S. citizenship shall be treated tax-wise, and the removal of certain limitations on interest allocation.\n\nEnforcement \nOn February 16, 2006, HHS issued the Final Rule regarding HIPAA enforcement. It became effective on March 16, 2006. The Enforcement Rule set civil money penalties for violating HIPAA rules and established procedures for investigations and hearings for HIPAA violations. Before the enforcement rule, the deterrent effects of the legislation seemed negligible, with few prosecutions for violations.[8] Enforcement operations were ratcheted up further with the passage of the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act (HITECH) in 2009, which greatly increased the financial penalties that could be applied to entities in non-compliance.[11]\nBy the end of 2014, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Resources (HHS) reported investigating 106,522 HIPAA complaints against national pharmacy chains, major health care centers, insurance groups, hospital chains and other small providers since April 2003. The HHS reported 23,314 of those cases had been resolved by requiring changes in privacy practice or by corrective action. 10,566 cases were investigated and found that HIPAA was followed correctly. Another 68,412 cases were found to be ineligible for enforcement because, for example, a violation occurred before HIPAA became effective, a case was withdrawn by the pursuer, or an activity did not actually violate the rules.[12]\nAccording to the HHS, the most commonly investigated compliance issue, by order of frequency, have been[12]:\n\n incorrectly used or revealed protected health information (PHI);\n insufficient protection mechanisms for PHI;\n insufficient mechanisms for patients to access their PHI;\n insufficient administrative protections and tools for managing electronic PHI; and\n usage and disclosure of more PHI than minimally necessary.\nThe HHS also stated the entities most likely to be responsible for infractions, by order of frequency, have been[12]:\n\n private practices;\n general hospitals;\n outpatient facilities;\n pharmacies; and\n health plans (group health plans and health insurance issuers).\nAssessed impact \nThe enactment of HIPAA caused major changes in the way physicians and medical centers operate. The complex legalities and potentially stiff penalties associated with HIPAA, as well as the increase in paperwork and the cost of its implementation, were causes for concern among physicians and medical centers. Many of those concerns were expressed in an August 2006 paper published in the journal Annals of Internal Medicine.[13] It mentioned a University of Michigan study that demonstrated how the implementation of the HIPAA Privacy rule resulted in a drop from 96 percent to 34 percent in the proportion of follow-up surveys completed by study patients being followed after a heart attack.[14] \nBy 2013, views on the impact of HIPAA were mixed. Leon Rodriguez, director of the HHS' Office for Civil Rights said of HIPAA:\n\nWhereas many thought HIPAA would \"bankrupt\" healthcare, shut down research, and otherwise paralyze the industry, instead the industry has learned the benefits of the transaction and code set standards through the ease of electronic transactions. And the balance of the [HIPAA] Privacy and Security protections have paved the way to real benefits for consumers through greater access to quality care.[11] \nIn an article for the Houston Chronicle, writer and business consultant Lisa Dorward stated the following for patients requesting personal health information:\n\nDirect cost to patients is minimal; health care institutions can charge the patient only for copying and postage costs for delivery of the documents. On the other hand, costs to health care providers are high and can strain already overburdened budgets. Some clinics and hospitals have had to reconstruct or remodel existing registration areas to comply with HIPAA's privacy regulations.[15] \nWriting for the Loyola Consumer Law Review, attorney and legal writer Anna Colvert wrote:\n\nGenerally, HIPAA is considered a step in the right direction regarding patient privacy, and it has resulted in more descriptive and detailed privacy policies; however, it has not improved the online privacy practices of these organizations. While HIPAA is a solid foundation in protecting patients\u2019 healthcare information there is more work to be done...\"[16] \nA May 2013 Computerworld reported on a survey conducted by the Ponemon Institute that found 51 percent of respondents believed \"HIPAA compliance requirements can be a barrier to providing effective patient care\" and 59 percent \"cited the complexity of HIPAA requirements as a major barrier to modernizing the healthcare system.\"[17]\n\nAudit guidelines and checklist \nMain article: Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\/Audit guidelines and checklist\nFor those auditing computer systems and IT environments for their compliance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act and other regulations, a set of guidelines and checklist items may be useful. \n\r\n\nClick the link above for the full set of guidelines and checklist items as they relate to HIPAA.\n\nFurther reading \n \"Public Law 104 - 191 - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996\". U.S. Government Publishing Office. http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/PLAW-104publ191\/content-detail.html .   \n \"S. 1028 (104th): Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995\". GovTrack.us. Civic Impulse, LLC. https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028 .   \n \"Bill Makes Health Insurance \u2018Portable\u2019\". CQ Almanac 1996 52: 6-28\u20136-39. 1997. http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479 .   \nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 \"Public Law 104 - 191 - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996\". U.S. Government Publishing Office. http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/PLAW-104publ191\/content-detail.html . Retrieved 11 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 \"Bill Makes Health Insurance \u2018Portable\u2019\". CQ Almanac 1996 52: 6-28\u20136-39. 1997. http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479 . Retrieved 12 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"S. 1028 (104th): Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995\". GovTrack.us. Civic Impulse, LLC. https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028 . Retrieved 12 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 Hiebert-White, Jane (September-October 1996). \"Who Won What in the Kassebaum\/Kennedy Struggle?\" (PDF). Health Progress 77 (5). https:\/\/www.chausa.org\/docs\/default-source\/health-progress\/health-policy---who-won-what-in-the-kassebaumkennedy-struggle-pdf.pdf?sfvrsn=0 . Retrieved 12 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Starr, Paul (22 August 1996). \"The Signing of the Kennedy-Kassebaum Bill\". The Electronic Policy Network. Archived from the original on 29 January 1998. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980129180414\/http:\/\/epn.org\/library\/signing.html . Retrieved 12 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 6.2 Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Health Research and the Privacy of Health Information: The HIPAA Privacy Rule (2009). Nass, S. J.; Levit, L. A.; Gostin, L. O.. ed. Beyond the HIPAA Privacy Rule: Enhancing Privacy, Improving Health Through Research. National Academies Press. Bookshelf ID NBK9576. http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK9576\/ . Retrieved 12 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"The Privacy Rule\". U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/administrative\/privacyrule\/ . Retrieved 12 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 Stein, Rob (5 June 2006). \"Medical Privacy Law Nets No Fines\". The Washington Post. http:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-dyn\/content\/article\/2006\/06\/04\/AR2006060400672.html . Retrieved 28 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 9.0 9.1 \"The HIPAA Enforcement Rule\". U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/administrative\/enforcementrule\/index.html . Retrieved 12 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Office for Civil Rights, Department of Health and Human Services (25 January 2013). \"Modifications to the HIPAA Privacy, Security, Enforcement, and Breach Notification Rules Under the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act and the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act; Other Modifications to the HIPAA Rules\" (PDF). Federal Register 78 (17). http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/FR-2013-01-25\/pdf\/2013-01073.pdf . Retrieved 12 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 11.0 11.1 Solove, Daniel J. (April 2013). \"HIPAA Turns 10: Analyzing the Past, Present and Future Impact\". Journal of AHIMA 84 (4): 22\u201328. http:\/\/library.ahima.org\/xpedio\/groups\/public\/documents\/ahima\/bok1_050149.hcsp?dDocName=bok1_050149 . Retrieved 11 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 12.0 12.1 12.2 \"Enforcement Highlights\". U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 15 January 2015. Archived from the original on 11 February 2015. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150211170207\/http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/enforcement\/highlights\/index.html . Retrieved 11 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Wilson, Jennifer Fisher (2006). \"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act Privacy Rule Causes Ongoing Concerns among Clinicians and Researchers\". Annals of Internal Medicine 145 (4): 313\u20136. doi:10.7326\/0003-4819-145-4-200608150-00019. PMID 16908928.   \n\n\u2191 Armstrong, David; Kline-Rogers, Eva; Jani, Sandeep M.; Goldman, Edward B.; Fang, Jianming; Mukherjee, Debabrata; Nallamothu, Brahmajee N.; Eagle, Kim A. (2005). \"Potential Impact of the HIPAA Privacy Rule on Data Collection in a Registry of Patients With Acute Coronary Syndrome\". Archives of Internal Medicine 165 (10): 1125\u20139. doi:10.1001\/archinte.165.10.1125. PMID 15911725. http:\/\/archinte.jamanetwork.com\/article.aspx?articleid=486568 . Retrieved 11 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Dorward, Lisa. \"The Positive and Negative Effects of HIPAA Employment Laws\". Houston Chronicle. Hearst Newspapers, LLC. http:\/\/smallbusiness.chron.com\/positive-negative-effects-hipaa-employment-laws-18500.html . Retrieved 11 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Colvert, Anna (2013). \"HIPAA'S Influence on Consumers: Friend or Foe?\". Loyola Consumer Law Review 25 (4): 431\u2013447. http:\/\/lawecommons.luc.edu\/lclr\/vol25\/iss4\/6\/ . Retrieved 11 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Mearian, Lucas (07 May 2013). \"HIPAA rules, outdated tech cost U.S. hospitals $8.3B a year\". Computerworld.com. Computerworld, Inc. http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2496995\/healthcare-it\/hipaa-rules--outdated-tech-cost-u-s--hospitals--8-3b-a-year.html . Retrieved 11 February 2015 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Health informaticsHealth standardsRegulatory information\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 16 August 2016, at 20:55.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 23,707 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"floatright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:HIPAA_Screenshot.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"f43d76e7dcca207ca031bdff3314d856\"><img alt=\"HIPAA Screenshot.png\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/66\/HIPAA_Screenshot.png\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a><\/div>\n<p>The <b>Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996<\/b> (<b>HIPAA<\/b>) was enacted by the United States Congress and signed by President Bill Clinton in 1996. Its intended purpose was \"to improve portability and continuity of health insurance coverage in the group and individual markets; to combat waste, fraud, and abuse in health insurance and health care delivery; to promote the use of medical savings accounts; to improve access to long-term care services and coverage; [and] to simplify the administration of health insurance.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HIPAAGPO-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Initial\">Initial<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 1994, U.S. President Bill Clinton attempted to overhaul the national health care system but didn't receive the support he needed. In 1995, Senators Nancy Kassebaum (R-KS) and Edward Kennedy (D-MA) introduced a comparatively pared down proposal called the Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995 (S 11028), later referred to informally as the Kassebaum\/Kennedy Bill. The proposal called for health insurance portability for employees, medical savings accounts, increased deductibility of health insurance for the self-employed, and tax breaks for long-term care insurance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CQHIPAAHist-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11028Legal_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11028Legal-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The legislation successfully made it out of the Senate Labor and Human Resources Committee on August 2, 1995<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HiebertHIPAA_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HiebertHIPAA-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>, only to be stalled \"because of opposition from conservative senators who shared industry concerns over the group-to-individual portability provisions.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CQHIPAAHist-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>With desire to get some sort of health care reform legislation passed, Clinton referenced the stalled bill in his January 1996 State of the Union address on several occasions. Though some feared the ploy by Clinton would ultimately sink the bill, it inevitably resulted in bipartisan cooperation so no one side could take credit for the bill.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HiebertHIPAA_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HiebertHIPAA-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> On February 7, 1996, the two parties agreed to further discuss the legislation in the House and Senate. This resulted in several events: the House of Representatives created an alternative bill (HR 3103) that drew on characteristics of S 11028, passing on March 28; the Senate passed a version of the original S 11028 on April 23 but without controversial attachments like medical savings accounts. However, differences between the House and Senate bills caused problems. \"The House bill, for example, included provisions allowing for medical savings accounts, a limit on monetary damages in medical malpractice lawsuits and a reduction in states' authority to regulate health insurance purchasing pools created by small businesses.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CQHIPAAHist-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, a provision on mental health coverage was found on the Senate bill that was omitted from the House version. It took several weeks of debating to make concessions on these topics. \n<\/p><p>A Republican-led compromise was offered on June 10, however debate raged on. It wasn't until a July 25 compromise between Kennedy and Ways and Means Committee Chairman Bill Archer (R-TX) on medical savings accounts that momentum shifted. Provisions on mental illness and medical malpractice were eventually dropped from the proposal on July 31, with both House and Senate agreeing on the final version on August 1 and August 2 respectively.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CQHIPAAHist-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> On August 21, 1996, the legislation was signed into law by President Clinton and codified as Public Law 104-191, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StarrHIPAA_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StarrHIPAA-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HIPAAGPO-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Amendments\">Amendments<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The administrative simplification provisions in HIPAA meant more work had to be done in regards to the legislation. The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services\" title=\"United States Department of Health and Human Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efa106bcbb93039b1a6c3c596daedec3\">U.S. Department of Health and Human Services<\/a> (HHS) began work on the HIPAA Privacy Rule in 1999, \"which set out detailed regulations regarding the types of uses and disclosures of personally identifiable health information that are permitted by the covered entities.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrivRule_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrivRule-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> However, large volumes of comments and Executive branch changes in 2000 slowed the process down.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrivRule_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrivRule-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> Several more years of corrections and requests for comments followed, culminating in the release of the Final Rule on August 14, 2002 as 45 CFR Part 160 and Subparts A and E of Part 164.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSFinalPriv_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSFinalPriv-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Most health plans were expected to be in compliance by April 14, 2003, though some exceptions existed.\n<\/p><p>Despite the Privacy Rule, many still argued that the legislation wasn't suitable enough to prevent mishandling of personal health information and that it was impeding research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrivRule_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrivRule-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> These concerns mixed with few incidents of enforcement in the first few years after the 2003 compliance date prompted additional review by the HHS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SteinFines_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SteinFines-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> On February 16, 2006, HHS issued the Final Rule regarding HIPAA enforcement, to be effective March 16, 2006.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSEnfo_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSEnfo-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Additional updates to the enforcement rule came with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Information_Technology_for_Economic_and_Clinical_Health_Act\" title=\"Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89c9e20984bbda2e628b6d1d28ec3ad5\">Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act<\/a> (HITECH) Act, enacted on February 17, 2009. The Act added \"several provisions that strengthen the civil and criminal enforcement of the HIPAA rules\" by adding categories of violations and tier levels of penalty amounts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSEnfo_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSEnfo-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> HIPAA and the HITECH statutes were further revised in January 2013 (effective March 26, 2013) \"to strengthen the privacy and security protection for individuals\u2019 health information,\" update the Breach Notification Rule, \"strengthen the privacy protections for genetic information,\" and revise other portions of HIPAA rules \"to improve their workability and effectiveness.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FR01073_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FR01073-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>HIPAA is divided into five titles, each with their own subtitles<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HIPAAGPO-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p><p><b>Title I<\/b>: Health Care Access, Portability, and Renewability\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>Subtitle A - Group Market Rules<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle B - Individual Market Rules<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle C - General and Miscellaneous Provisions<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Title II<\/b>: Preventing Health Care Fraud and Abuse; Administrative Simplification; Medical Liability Reform\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>Subtitle A - Fraud and Abuse Control Program<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle B - Revisions to Current Sanctions for Fraud and Abuse<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle C - Data Collection<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle D - Civil Monetary Penalties<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle E - Revisions to Criminal Law<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle F - Administrative Simplification<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle G - Duplication and Coordination of Medicare-Related Plans<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Title III<\/b>: Tax-Related Health Provisions\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>Subtitle A - Medical Savings Accounts<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle B - Increase in Deduction for Health Insurance Costs of Self-Employed Individuals<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle C - Long-Term Care Services and Contracts<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle D - Treatment of Accelerated Death Benefits<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle E - State Insurance Pools<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle F - Organizations Subject to Section 833<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle G - IRA Distributions to the Unemployed<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle H - Organ and Tissue Donation Information Included With Income Tax Refund Payments<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Title IV<\/b>: Application and Enforcement of Group Health Plan Requirements\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>Subtitle A - Application and Enforcement of Group Health Plan Requirements<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle B - Clarification of Certain Continuation Coverage Requirements<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Title V<\/b>: Revenue Offsets\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>Subtitle A - Company-Owned Life Insurance<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle B - Treatment of Individuals Who Lose United States Citizenship<\/dd>\n<dd>Subtitle C - Repeal of Financial Institution Transition Rule to Interest Allocation Rules<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Description\">Description<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Title I of HIPAA contains three subtitles that protect health insurance coverage for workers and their families when they change or lose their jobs. \n<\/p><p>Title II of HIPAA contains seven subtitles. One of the most important for expanding HIPAA is Subtitle F, the Administrative Simplification (AS) provisions, requiring the establishment of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers. Title II also addresses the security and privacy of health data, with the intent of improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the nation's health care system by encouraging the widespread use of electronic data interchange in the U.S. health care system.\n<\/p><p>Title III of HIPAA modifies the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) to revise available tax deductions for health insurance, clarify how pre-tax money could be applied health payments, and regulate long-term care services and how they're contracted. Other tax-related issues like IRA distribution and organ donor tax refund payments are covered by this title, in total spread out over eight subtitles.\n<\/p><p>Title IV of HIPAA modifies both the IRC and the Public Health Service Act (PHSA) to describe requirements for and enforcement of how group health plans could legally manage and cover patients' pre-existing conditions as well as their continuation of coverage. This information is supplied over two subtitles.\n<\/p><p>Title V of HIPAA contains three subtitles that amend the IRC concerning miscellaneous issues such as interest deductions on loans related to company-owned life insurance, how individuals who lose their U.S. citizenship shall be treated tax-wise, and the removal of certain limitations on interest allocation.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Enforcement\">Enforcement<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>On February 16, 2006, HHS issued the Final Rule regarding HIPAA enforcement. It became effective on March 16, 2006. The Enforcement Rule set civil money penalties for violating HIPAA rules and established procedures for investigations and hearings for HIPAA violations. Before the enforcement rule, the deterrent effects of the legislation seemed negligible, with few prosecutions for violations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SteinFines_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SteinFines-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> Enforcement operations were ratcheted up further with the passage of the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act (HITECH) in 2009, which greatly increased the financial penalties that could be applied to entities in non-compliance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Solove10_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Solove10-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By the end of 2014, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Resources (HHS) reported investigating 106,522 HIPAA complaints against national pharmacy chains, major health care centers, insurance groups, hospital chains and other small providers since April 2003. The HHS reported 23,314 of those cases had been resolved by requiring changes in privacy practice or by corrective action. 10,566 cases were investigated and found that HIPAA was followed correctly. Another 68,412 cases were found to be ineligible for enforcement because, for example, a violation occurred before HIPAA became effective, a case was withdrawn by the pursuer, or an activity did not actually violate the rules.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSEnforceArch-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>According to the HHS, the most commonly investigated compliance issue, by order of frequency, have been<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSEnforceArch-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li> incorrectly used or revealed protected health information (PHI);<\/li>\n<li> insufficient protection mechanisms for PHI;<\/li>\n<li> insufficient mechanisms for patients to access their PHI;<\/li>\n<li> insufficient administrative protections and tools for managing electronic PHI; and<\/li>\n<li> usage and disclosure of more PHI than minimally necessary.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>The HHS also stated the entities most likely to be responsible for infractions, by order of frequency, have been<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_12-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSEnforceArch-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li> private practices;<\/li>\n<li> general hospitals;<\/li>\n<li> outpatient facilities;<\/li>\n<li> pharmacies; and<\/li>\n<li> health plans (group health plans and health insurance issuers).<\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Assessed_impact\">Assessed impact<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The enactment of HIPAA caused major changes in the way physicians and medical centers operate. The complex legalities and potentially stiff penalties associated with HIPAA, as well as the increase in paperwork and the cost of its implementation, were causes for concern among physicians and medical centers. Many of those concerns were expressed in an August 2006 paper published in the journal <i>Annals of Internal Medicine<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilsonAnnals_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilsonAnnals-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> It mentioned a University of Michigan study that demonstrated how the implementation of the HIPAA Privacy rule resulted in a drop from 96 percent to 34 percent in the proportion of follow-up surveys completed by study patients being followed after a heart attack.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Armstrong_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Armstrong-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>By 2013, views on the impact of HIPAA were mixed. Leon Rodriguez, director of the HHS' Office for Civil Rights said of HIPAA:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote>Whereas many thought HIPAA would \"bankrupt\" healthcare, shut down research, and otherwise paralyze the industry, instead the industry has learned the benefits of the transaction and code set standards through the ease of electronic transactions. And the balance of the [HIPAA] Privacy and Security protections have paved the way to real benefits for consumers through greater access to quality care.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Solove10_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Solove10-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/blockquote> \n<p>In an article for the <i>Houston Chronicle<\/i>, writer and business consultant Lisa Dorward stated the following for patients requesting personal health information:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote>Direct cost to patients is minimal; health care institutions can charge the patient only for copying and postage costs for delivery of the documents. On the other hand, costs to health care providers are high and can strain already overburdened budgets. Some clinics and hospitals have had to reconstruct or remodel existing registration areas to comply with HIPAA's privacy regulations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DorwardHIPAA_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DorwardHIPAA-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/blockquote> \n<p>Writing for the <i>Loyola Consumer Law Review<\/i>, attorney and legal writer Anna Colvert wrote:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote>Generally, HIPAA is considered a step in the right direction regarding patient privacy, and it has resulted in more descriptive and detailed privacy policies; however, it has not improved the online privacy practices of these organizations. While HIPAA is a solid foundation in protecting patients\u2019 healthcare information there is more work to be done...\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Colvert_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Colvert-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/blockquote> \n<p>A May 2013 <i>Computerworld<\/i> reported on a survey conducted by the Ponemon Institute that found 51 percent of respondents believed \"HIPAA compliance requirements can be a barrier to providing effective patient care\" and 59 percent \"cited the complexity of HIPAA requirements as a major barrier to modernizing the healthcare system.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mearian_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mearian-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\">Audit guidelines and checklist<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"rellink relarticle mainarticle\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\/Audit guidelines and checklist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"696695ca2ef0d0aa853c4e3efba250c4\">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\/Audit guidelines and checklist<\/a><\/div>\n<p>For those auditing computer systems and IT environments for their compliance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act and other regulations, a set of guidelines and checklist items may be useful. \n<br \/>\n<\/p><p>Click the link above for the full set of guidelines and checklist items as they relate to HIPAA.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/PLAW-104publ191\/content-detail.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Law 104 - 191 - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996\"<\/a>. U.S. Government Publishing Office<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/PLAW-104publ191\/content-detail.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/PLAW-104publ191\/content-detail.html<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Public+Law+104+-+191+-+Health+Insurance+Portability+and+Accountability+Act+of+1996&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Publishing+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gpo.gov%2Ffdsys%2Fpkg%2FPLAW-104publ191%2Fcontent-detail.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li> <span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028\" target=\"_blank\">\"S. 1028 (104th): Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995\"<\/a>. <i>GovTrack.us<\/i>. Civic Impulse, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=S.+1028+%28104th%29%3A+Health+Insurance+Reform+Act+of+1995&rft.atitle=GovTrack.us&rft.pub=Civic+Impulse%2C+LLC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fbills%2F104%2Fs1028&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li> <span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bill Makes Health Insurance \u2018Portable\u2019\"<\/a>. <i>CQ Almanac 1996<\/i> <b>52<\/b>: 6-28\u20136-39. 1997<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Bill+Makes+Health+Insurance+%E2%80%98Portable%E2%80%99&rft.jtitle=CQ+Almanac+1996&rft.date=1997&rft.volume=52&rft.pages=6-28%E2%80%936-39&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.cqpress.com%2Fcqalmanac%2Fdocument.php%3Fid%3Dcqal96-1092479&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HIPAAGPO-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/PLAW-104publ191\/content-detail.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Law 104 - 191 - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996\"<\/a>. U.S. Government Publishing Office<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/PLAW-104publ191\/content-detail.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/PLAW-104publ191\/content-detail.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 11 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Public+Law+104+-+191+-+Health+Insurance+Portability+and+Accountability+Act+of+1996&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Publishing+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gpo.gov%2Ffdsys%2Fpkg%2FPLAW-104publ191%2Fcontent-detail.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CQHIPAAHist-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CQHIPAAHist_2-3\">2.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bill Makes Health Insurance \u2018Portable\u2019\"<\/a>. <i>CQ Almanac 1996<\/i> <b>52<\/b>: 6-28\u20136-39. 1997<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/library.cqpress.com\/cqalmanac\/document.php?id=cqal96-1092479<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Bill+Makes+Health+Insurance+%E2%80%98Portable%E2%80%99&rft.jtitle=CQ+Almanac+1996&rft.date=1997&rft.volume=52&rft.pages=6-28%E2%80%936-39&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.cqpress.com%2Fcqalmanac%2Fdocument.php%3Fid%3Dcqal96-1092479&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11028Legal-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-11028Legal_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028\" target=\"_blank\">\"S. 1028 (104th): Health Insurance Reform Act of 1995\"<\/a>. <i>GovTrack.us<\/i>. Civic Impulse, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bills\/104\/s1028<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=S.+1028+%28104th%29%3A+Health+Insurance+Reform+Act+of+1995&rft.atitle=GovTrack.us&rft.pub=Civic+Impulse%2C+LLC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fbills%2F104%2Fs1028&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HiebertHIPAA-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HiebertHIPAA_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HiebertHIPAA_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Hiebert-White, Jane (September-October 1996). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.chausa.org\/docs\/default-source\/health-progress\/health-policy---who-won-what-in-the-kassebaumkennedy-struggle-pdf.pdf?sfvrsn=0\" target=\"_blank\">\"Who Won What in the Kassebaum\/Kennedy Struggle?\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>Health Progress<\/i> <b>77<\/b> (5)<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.chausa.org\/docs\/default-source\/health-progress\/health-policy---who-won-what-in-the-kassebaumkennedy-struggle-pdf.pdf?sfvrsn=0\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.chausa.org\/docs\/default-source\/health-progress\/health-policy---who-won-what-in-the-kassebaumkennedy-struggle-pdf.pdf?sfvrsn=0<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Who+Won+What+in+the+Kassebaum%2FKennedy+Struggle%3F&rft.jtitle=Health+Progress&rft.aulast=Hiebert-White%2C+Jane&rft.au=Hiebert-White%2C+Jane&rft.date=September-October+1996&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chausa.org%2Fdocs%2Fdefault-source%2Fhealth-progress%2Fhealth-policy---who-won-what-in-the-kassebaumkennedy-struggle-pdf.pdf%3Fsfvrsn%3D0&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-StarrHIPAA-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-StarrHIPAA_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Starr, Paul (22 August 1996). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980129180414\/http:\/\/epn.org\/library\/signing.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Signing of the Kennedy-Kassebaum Bill\"<\/a>. The Electronic Policy Network. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/epn.org\/library\/signing.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 29 January 1998<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980129180414\/http:\/\/epn.org\/library\/signing.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19980129180414\/http:\/\/epn.org\/library\/signing.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+Signing+of+the+Kennedy-Kassebaum+Bill&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Starr%2C+Paul&rft.au=Starr%2C+Paul&rft.date=22+August+1996&rft.pub=The+Electronic+Policy+Network&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F19980129180414%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fepn.org%2Flibrary%2Fsigning.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PrivRule-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PrivRule_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PrivRule_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-PrivRule_6-2\">6.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Health Research and the Privacy of Health Information: The HIPAA Privacy Rule (2009). Nass, S. J.; Levit, L. A.; Gostin, L. O.. ed. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK9576\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Beyond the HIPAA Privacy Rule: Enhancing Privacy, Improving Health Through Research<\/i><\/a>. National Academies Press. Bookshelf ID NBK9576<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK9576\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK9576\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+HIPAA+Privacy+Rule%3A+Enhancing+Privacy%2C+Improving+Health+Through+Research&rft.aulast=Institute+of+Medicine+%28US%29+Committee+on+Health+Research+and+the+Privacy+of+Health+Information%3A+The+HIPAA+Privacy+Rule&rft.au=Institute+of+Medicine+%28US%29+Committee+on+Health+Research+and+the+Privacy+of+Health+Information%3A+The+HIPAA+Privacy+Rule&rft.date=2009&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK9576%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HHSFinalPriv-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSFinalPriv_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/administrative\/privacyrule\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Privacy Rule\"<\/a>. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/administrative\/privacyrule\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/administrative\/privacyrule\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+Privacy+Rule&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Focr%2Fprivacy%2Fhipaa%2Fadministrative%2Fprivacyrule%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SteinFines-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SteinFines_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SteinFines_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Stein, Rob (5 June 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-dyn\/content\/article\/2006\/06\/04\/AR2006060400672.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Medical Privacy Law Nets No Fines\"<\/a>. The Washington Post<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-dyn\/content\/article\/2006\/06\/04\/AR2006060400672.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-dyn\/content\/article\/2006\/06\/04\/AR2006060400672.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Medical+Privacy+Law+Nets+No+Fines&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Stein%2C+Rob&rft.au=Stein%2C+Rob&rft.date=5+June+2006&rft.pub=The+Washington+Post&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2006%2F06%2F04%2FAR2006060400672.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HHSEnfo-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSEnfo_9-0\">9.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSEnfo_9-1\">9.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/administrative\/enforcementrule\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The HIPAA Enforcement Rule\"<\/a>. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/administrative\/enforcementrule\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/administrative\/enforcementrule\/index.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+HIPAA+Enforcement+Rule&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Focr%2Fprivacy%2Fhipaa%2Fadministrative%2Fenforcementrule%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FR01073-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FR01073_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Office for Civil Rights, Department of Health and Human Services (25 January 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/FR-2013-01-25\/pdf\/2013-01073.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Modifications to the HIPAA Privacy, Security, Enforcement, and Breach Notification Rules Under the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act and the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act; Other Modifications to the HIPAA Rules\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>Federal Register<\/i> <b>78<\/b> (17)<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/FR-2013-01-25\/pdf\/2013-01073.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/FR-2013-01-25\/pdf\/2013-01073.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 12 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Modifications+to+the+HIPAA+Privacy%2C+Security%2C+Enforcement%2C+and+Breach+Notification+Rules+Under+the+Health+Information+Technology+for+Economic+and+Clinical+Health+Act+and+the+Genetic+Information+Nondiscrimination+Act%3B+Other+Modifications+to+the+HIPAA+Rules&rft.jtitle=Federal+Register&rft.aulast=Office+for+Civil+Rights%2C+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&rft.au=Office+for+Civil+Rights%2C+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services&rft.date=25+January+2013&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gpo.gov%2Ffdsys%2Fpkg%2FFR-2013-01-25%2Fpdf%2F2013-01073.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Solove10-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Solove10_11-0\">11.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Solove10_11-1\">11.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Solove, Daniel J. (April 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/library.ahima.org\/xpedio\/groups\/public\/documents\/ahima\/bok1_050149.hcsp?dDocName=bok1_050149\" target=\"_blank\">\"HIPAA Turns 10: Analyzing the Past, Present and Future Impact\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of AHIMA<\/i> <b>84<\/b> (4): 22\u201328<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/library.ahima.org\/xpedio\/groups\/public\/documents\/ahima\/bok1_050149.hcsp?dDocName=bok1_050149\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/library.ahima.org\/xpedio\/groups\/public\/documents\/ahima\/bok1_050149.hcsp?dDocName=bok1_050149<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 11 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=HIPAA+Turns+10%3A+Analyzing+the+Past%2C+Present+and+Future+Impact&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+AHIMA&rft.aulast=Solove%2C+Daniel+J.&rft.au=Solove%2C+Daniel+J.&rft.date=April+2013&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=22%E2%80%9328&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.ahima.org%2Fxpedio%2Fgroups%2Fpublic%2Fdocuments%2Fahima%2Fbok1_050149.hcsp%3FdDocName%3Dbok1_050149&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HHSEnforceArch-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_12-0\">12.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_12-1\">12.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HHSEnforceArch_12-2\">12.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150211170207\/http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/enforcement\/highlights\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Enforcement Highlights\"<\/a>. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 15 January 2015. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/enforcement\/highlights\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 11 February 2015<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150211170207\/http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/enforcement\/highlights\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150211170207\/http:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocr\/privacy\/hipaa\/enforcement\/highlights\/index.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved 11 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Potential+Impact+of+the+HIPAA+Privacy+Rule+on+Data+Collection+in+a+Registry+of+Patients+With+Acute+Coronary+Syndrome&rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Internal+Medicine&rft.aulast=Armstrong%2C+David%3B+Kline-Rogers%2C+Eva%3B+Jani%2C+Sandeep+M.%3B+Goldman%2C+Edward+B.%3B+Fang%2C+Jianming%3B+Mukherjee%2C+Debabrata%3B+Nallamothu%2C+Brahmajee+N.%3B+Eagle%2C+Kim+A.&rft.au=Armstrong%2C+David%3B+Kline-Rogers%2C+Eva%3B+Jani%2C+Sandeep+M.%3B+Goldman%2C+Edward+B.%3B+Fang%2C+Jianming%3B+Mukherjee%2C+Debabrata%3B+Nallamothu%2C+Brahmajee+N.%3B+Eagle%2C+Kim+A.&rft.date=2005&rft.volume=165&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1125%E2%80%939&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1001%2Farchinte.165.10.1125&rft_id=info:pmid\/15911725&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchinte.jamanetwork.com%2Farticle.aspx%3Farticleid%3D486568&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DorwardHIPAA-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DorwardHIPAA_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Dorward, Lisa. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/smallbusiness.chron.com\/positive-negative-effects-hipaa-employment-laws-18500.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Positive and Negative Effects of HIPAA Employment Laws\"<\/a>. <i>Houston Chronicle<\/i>. Hearst Newspapers, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/smallbusiness.chron.com\/positive-negative-effects-hipaa-employment-laws-18500.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/smallbusiness.chron.com\/positive-negative-effects-hipaa-employment-laws-18500.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 11 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+Positive+and+Negative+Effects+of+HIPAA+Employment+Laws&rft.atitle=Houston+Chronicle&rft.aulast=Dorward%2C+Lisa&rft.au=Dorward%2C+Lisa&rft.pub=Hearst+Newspapers%2C+LLC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsmallbusiness.chron.com%2Fpositive-negative-effects-hipaa-employment-laws-18500.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Colvert-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Colvert_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Colvert, Anna (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/lawecommons.luc.edu\/lclr\/vol25\/iss4\/6\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"HIPAA'S Influence on Consumers: Friend or Foe?\"<\/a>. <i>Loyola Consumer Law Review<\/i> <b>25<\/b> (4): 431\u2013447<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/lawecommons.luc.edu\/lclr\/vol25\/iss4\/6\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/lawecommons.luc.edu\/lclr\/vol25\/iss4\/6\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 11 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=HIPAA%27S+Influence+on+Consumers%3A+Friend+or+Foe%3F&rft.jtitle=Loyola+Consumer+Law+Review&rft.aulast=Colvert%2C+Anna&rft.au=Colvert%2C+Anna&rft.date=2013&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=431%E2%80%93447&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flawecommons.luc.edu%2Flclr%2Fvol25%2Fiss4%2F6%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mearian-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Mearian_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Mearian, Lucas (07 May 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2496995\/healthcare-it\/hipaa-rules--outdated-tech-cost-u-s--hospitals--8-3b-a-year.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"HIPAA rules, outdated tech cost U.S. hospitals $8.3B a year\"<\/a>. <i>Computerworld.com<\/i>. Computerworld, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2496995\/healthcare-it\/hipaa-rules--outdated-tech-cost-u-s--hospitals--8-3b-a-year.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2496995\/healthcare-it\/hipaa-rules--outdated-tech-cost-u-s--hospitals--8-3b-a-year.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 11 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=HIPAA+rules%2C+outdated+tech+cost+U.S.+hospitals+%248.3B+a+year&rft.atitle=Computerworld.com&rft.aulast=Mearian%2C+Lucas&rft.au=Mearian%2C+Lucas&rft.date=07+May+2013&rft.pub=Computerworld%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Farticle%2F2496995%2Fhealthcare-it%2Fhipaa-rules--outdated-tech-cost-u-s--hospitals--8-3b-a-year.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203028\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.503 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.400 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 12940\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 23405\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 96062\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 39210\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 15\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 433.715 1 - -total\n 82.81% 359.150 20 - Template:Citation\/core\n 79.33% 344.055 1 - Template:Reflist\n 48.32% 209.558 11 - Template:Cite_web\n 34.89% 151.338 8 - Template:Cite_journal\n 7.21% 31.284 1 - Template:Cite_book\n 5.01% 21.727 26 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 3.05% 13.217 4 - Template:Citation\/identifier\n 1.89% 8.195 1 - Template:Main\n 1.01% 4.385 1 - Template:Rellink\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3374-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403203026 and revision id 27076\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/66\/HIPAA_Screenshot.png"],"b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153_timestamp":1554323426,"a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb_type":"article","a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb_title":"Good Automated Manufacturing Practice","a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice","a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tGood Automated Manufacturing Practice\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t The area of automated pharmaceutical manufacturing is influenced in part by GAMP and its associated guidelines.\nGood Automated Manufacturing Practice (GAMP) is both a technical subcommittee of the International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE) and a set of guidelines for manufacturers and users of automated systems in the pharmaceutical industry.[1] One of the core principles of GAMP is that quality cannot be tested into a batch of product but must be built into each stage of the manufacturing process. As a result, GAMP covers all aspects of production; from the raw materials, facility and equipment to the training and hygiene of staff.\nGAMP is largely about automated system validation. In October 2014, Irish tech company Dataworks Ltd. described it as such[2]:\n\nIt is a formal process of thorough documentation, testing, and logical process steps that validate clients' required specifications. The process begins with a user requirements specification for the machine, from which a functional requirement and a design specification are created. These documents then form the basis for the traceability matrix and for the formal testing of internal acceptance, factory acceptance, and site acceptance. Categorising software is used to support the approach to validation based on the difficulty and individuality of the computerised system.\nContents\n\n1 History \n2 Publications \n\n2.1 GAMP 5 \n\n2.1.1 System categorization \n\n\n2.2 Other guides \n\n\n3 External links \n4 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nGAMP's origins can be traced to the United Kingdom in 1988, when software developers David Forrest and Colin Jones, through their company FJ Systems, developed real-time control and production information management control systems for pharmaceutical manufacturers. They worked with ICI Pharmaceuticals' Tony Margetts on the problem of validating systems that were increasingly becoming more software-based than mechanical- and electrical-based. This culminated in a five-page document called VMAN I, mapping the older installation qualification (IQ), operational qualification (OQ), and performance qualification (PQ) phases of equipment validation to a more modern software validation lifecycle. A second version was created upon additional feedback.[3]\nGAMP itself was eventually founded in 1991 (with the previously mentioned Margetts as chairman of the editorial board) to deal with the evolving U.S. Food and Drug Administration expectations for Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) compliance of manufacturing and related systems.[4] GAMP published its first draft guidance in February 1994, with version 1.0 of it arriving in March 1995. Soon afterwards the organization entered into a partnership with ISPE, formally becoming part of ISPE in 2000. GAMP 4 was released a year later, followed by GAMP 5 in 2008.[5] GAMP has enjoyed the support of numerous regulatory authorities over the years spanning the United States, Europe, and Japan and is now a recognized good practice worldwide.[6]\n\nPublications \nGAMP 5 \nISPE has published a series of good practice guides for the industry on several topics involved in drug manufacturing. The most well-known is The Good Automated Manufacturing Practice (GAMP) Guide for Validation of Automated Systems in Pharmaceutical Manufacture. The last major revision (GAMP 5) was released in February 2008.[7]\nThe guidance generally states that pharmaceutical computer systems should be built with several key ideas in mind[8]:\n1. Make product and process understanding clear.\n2. Approach the life cycle from the standpoint of a quality management system.\n3. Make life cycle activities scalable.\n4. Ensure quality risk management is science-based.\n5. Leverage supplier involvement into the system.\n\nSystem categorization \nSoftware systems borne from these principles can be categorized into one of four GAMP 5 categories. (Note: \"Category 2: Firmware\" was removed from GAMP with revision five.) These classifications act as built-in risk and difficulty assessments that support different validation approaches[2][8][9]:\nCategory 1: Infrastructure software - This includes \"established or commercially available layered software\" and \"infrastructure software tools\" that are themselves validated from within rather than from the infrastructure.\nCategory 3: Non-configured products - This includes \"software that is used as installed\" and potentially \"software that is configurable (category 4) but is used either unconfigured or with the standard defaults provided by the software supplier.\"\nCategory 4: Configured products - This includes products where \"the user has the means and knowledge to change the functionality of the device in a way that changes the results outputted by the device. As a direct consequence, this triggers increased validation effort.\"\nCategory 5: Custom applications - This includes any \"application, module, user-defined program, or macro\" that has been written in-house or by a third party that \"needs to be specified, version controlled, built, and tested (including integration testing with the commercial application, as applicable) as a minimum to ensure the quality of the software.\"\n\nOther guides \nAs of February 2015, the ISPE has 13 guides, the latest published in October 2014, titled A Risk-Based Approach to Regulated Mobile Applications.[10]\n\nExternal links \n International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE) website\n GAMP 4 guide (PDF)\n GAMP 5 guide\nReferences \n\n\u2191 \"ISPE Glossary of Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology Terminology - Good Automated Manufacturing Practice (GAMP)\". International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering. 25 September 2011. http:\/\/www.ispe.org\/glossary?term=Good+Automated+Manufacturing+Practice+%28GAMP%29 . Retrieved 28 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 \"GAMP 5: Are you up to date with the latest Validation Best Practices?\". Dataworks Ltd. 15 October 2014. http:\/\/www.dataworks.ie\/blog\/are_you_up_to_date_with_the_latest_validation_best_practices_read_about_gam . Retrieved 10 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Forrest, David (01 September 2013). \"What is GAMP and how did GAMP start?\". Controlling Compliance Matters. http:\/\/www.controlling-compliance-matters.com\/?p=190 . Retrieved 09 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 Smith, Paul (1 December 2008). \"20th Anniversary Special Feature: Validation and qualification\". Pharmaceutical Technology Europe 20 (2). http:\/\/www.pharmtech.com\/pharmtech\/Validation\/20th-Anniversary-Special-Feature-Validation-and-qu\/ArticleStandard\/Article\/detail\/574642 . Retrieved 28 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Maruccia, Danilo (21 March 2006). \"GAMP Guideline & Validation Documentation\" (PDF). Pharma Quality Europe. http:\/\/www.ssfa.it\/allegati\/GDL_GIQAR_GCP_GampGuidelineMilano06.pdf . Retrieved 09 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 DeSpautz, Joseph; Kenneth S. Kovacs; Gerhard Werling (11 March 2008). \"GAMP Standards For Validation Of Automated Systems\". Pharmaceutical Processing. http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/Articles\/2008\/03\/GAMP-Standards-For-Validation-Of-Automated-Systems\/ . Retrieved 28 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"GAMP 5: A Risk-Based Approach to Compliant GxP Computerized Systems\". International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering. http:\/\/www.ispe.org\/gamp5 . Retrieved 28 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 John, Jim (17 April 2013). \"Overview of Computerized System Compliance Using the GAMP 5 Guide\". ProPharma Group. http:\/\/www.slideshare.net\/ProPharmaGroup\/overview-of-computerized-systems-compliance-using-the-gamp-5-guide . Retrieved 09 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 McDowall, R. D. (01 June 2009). \"Understanding and Interpreting the New GAMP 5 Software Categories\". SpectroscopyOnline.com. Advanstar Communications Inc. http:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/understanding-and-interpreting-new-gamp-5-software-categories . Retrieved 10 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"GAMP Good Practice Guides\". International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering. http:\/\/www.ispe.org\/gamp-good-practice-guides . Retrieved 09 February 2015 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Production standards\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 25 March 2016, at 17:22.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 13,736 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Good Automated Manufacturing Practice<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Pharma-production.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"6430d82f38dca1b4aee4ee2c96312a6e\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2b\/Pharma-production.jpg\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Pharma-production.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"6430d82f38dca1b4aee4ee2c96312a6e\"><\/a><\/div>The area of automated pharmaceutical manufacturing is influenced in part by GAMP and its associated guidelines.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Good Automated Manufacturing Practice<\/b> (<b>GAMP<\/b>) is both a technical subcommittee of the International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE) and a set of guidelines for manufacturers and users of automated systems in the pharmaceutical industry.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISPEGlossary1_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISPEGlossary1-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> One of the core principles of GAMP is that quality cannot be tested into a batch of product but must be built into each stage of the manufacturing process. As a result, GAMP covers all aspects of production; from the raw materials, facility and equipment to the training and hygiene of staff.\n<\/p><p>GAMP is largely about automated system validation. In October 2014, Irish tech company Dataworks Ltd. described it as such<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DWDef_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DWDef-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote>It is a formal process of thorough documentation, testing, and logical process steps that validate clients' required specifications. The process begins with a user requirements specification for the machine, from which a functional requirement and a design specification are created. These documents then form the basis for the traceability matrix and for the formal testing of internal acceptance, factory acceptance, and site acceptance. Categorising software is used to support the approach to validation based on the difficulty and individuality of the computerised system.<\/blockquote>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>GAMP's origins can be traced to the United Kingdom in 1988, when software developers David Forrest and Colin Jones, through their company FJ Systems, developed real-time control and production information management control systems for pharmaceutical manufacturers. They worked with ICI Pharmaceuticals' Tony Margetts on the problem of validating systems that were increasingly becoming more software-based than mechanical- and electrical-based. This culminated in a five-page document called <i>VMAN I<\/i>, mapping the older installation qualification (IQ), operational qualification (OQ), and performance qualification (PQ) phases of equipment validation to a more modern software validation lifecycle. A second version was created upon additional feedback.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Forrest_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Forrest-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>GAMP itself was eventually founded in 1991 (with the previously mentioned Margetts as chairman of the editorial board) to deal with the evolving U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2be8927071ac419c0929f7aa1ede7fe\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> expectations for (GMP) compliance of manufacturing and related systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Smith20th_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Smith20th-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> GAMP published its first draft guidance in February 1994, with version 1.0 of it arriving in March 1995. Soon afterwards the organization entered into a partnership with ISPE, formally becoming part of ISPE in 2000. GAMP 4 was released a year later, followed by GAMP 5 in 2008.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GGuide_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GGuide-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> GAMP has enjoyed the support of numerous regulatory authorities over the years spanning the United States, Europe, and Japan and is now a recognized good practice worldwide.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeSpautzGAMP_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeSpautzGAMP-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Publications\">Publications<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"GAMP_5\">GAMP 5<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>ISPE has published a series of good practice guides for the industry on several topics involved in drug manufacturing. The most well-known is <i>The Good Automated Manufacturing Practice (GAMP) Guide for Validation of Automated Systems in Pharmaceutical Manufacture<\/i>. The last major revision (GAMP 5) was released in February 2008.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GAMP5_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GAMP5-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The guidance generally states that pharmaceutical computer systems should be built with several key ideas in mind<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JohnsPre_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JohnsPre-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p><p>1. Make product and process understanding clear.\n<\/p><p>2. Approach the life cycle from the standpoint of a quality management system.\n<\/p><p>3. Make life cycle activities scalable.\n<\/p><p>4. Ensure quality risk management is science-based.\n<\/p><p>5. Leverage supplier involvement into the system.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"System_categorization\">System categorization<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Software systems borne from these principles can be categorized into one of four GAMP 5 categories. (<b>Note<\/b>: \"Category 2: Firmware\" was removed from GAMP with revision five.) These classifications act as built-in risk and difficulty assessments that support different validation approaches<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DWDef_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DWDef-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JohnsPre_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JohnsPre-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GAMPCats_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GAMPCats-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p><p>Category 1: Infrastructure software - This includes \"established or commercially available layered software\" and \"infrastructure software tools\" that are themselves validated from within rather than from the infrastructure.\n<\/p><p>Category 3: Non-configured products - This includes \"software that is used as installed\" and potentially \"software that is configurable (category 4) but is used either unconfigured or with the standard defaults provided by the software supplier.\"\n<\/p><p>Category 4: Configured products - This includes products where \"the user has the means and knowledge to change the functionality of the device in a way that changes the results outputted by the device. As a direct consequence, this triggers increased validation effort.\"\n<\/p><p>Category 5: Custom applications - This includes any \"application, module, user-defined program, or macro\" that has been written in-house or by a third party that \"needs to be specified, version controlled, built, and tested (including integration testing with the commercial application, as applicable) as a minimum to ensure the quality of the software.\"\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_guides\">Other guides<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As of February 2015, the ISPE has 13 guides, the latest published in October 2014, titled <i>A Risk-Based Approach to Regulated Mobile Applications<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GAMPPubs_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GAMPPubs-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ispe.org\" target=\"_blank\">International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering (ISPE) website<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ssfa.it\/allegati\/GDL_GIQAR_GCP_GampGuidelineMilano06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">GAMP 4 guide<\/a> (PDF)<\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.slideshare.net\/ProPharmaGroup\/overview-of-computerized-systems-compliance-using-the-gamp-5-guide\" target=\"_blank\">GAMP 5 guide<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ISPEGlossary1-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ISPEGlossary1_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ispe.org\/glossary?term=Good+Automated+Manufacturing+Practice+%28GAMP%29\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISPE Glossary of Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology Terminology - Good Automated Manufacturing Practice (GAMP)\"<\/a>. International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering. 25 September 2011<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ispe.org\/glossary?term=Good+Automated+Manufacturing+Practice+%28GAMP%29\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ispe.org\/glossary?term=Good+Automated+Manufacturing+Practice+%28GAMP%29<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ISPE+Glossary+of+Pharmaceutical+and+Biotechnology+Terminology+-+Good+Automated+Manufacturing+Practice+%28GAMP%29&rft.atitle=&rft.date=25+September+2011&rft.pub=International+Society+for+Pharmaceutical+Engineering&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ispe.org%2Fglossary%3Fterm%3DGood%2BAutomated%2BManufacturing%2BPractice%2B%2528GAMP%2529&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DWDef-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-DWDef_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-DWDef_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dataworks.ie\/blog\/are_you_up_to_date_with_the_latest_validation_best_practices_read_about_gam\" target=\"_blank\">\"GAMP 5: Are you up to date with the latest Validation Best Practices?\"<\/a>. Dataworks Ltd. 15 October 2014<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dataworks.ie\/blog\/are_you_up_to_date_with_the_latest_validation_best_practices_read_about_gam\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.dataworks.ie\/blog\/are_you_up_to_date_with_the_latest_validation_best_practices_read_about_gam<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 10 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=GAMP+5%3A+Are+you+up+to+date+with+the+latest+Validation+Best+Practices%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.date=15+October+2014&rft.pub=Dataworks+Ltd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dataworks.ie%2Fblog%2Fare_you_up_to_date_with_the_latest_validation_best_practices_read_about_gam&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Forrest-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Forrest_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Forrest, David (01 September 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.controlling-compliance-matters.com\/?p=190\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is GAMP and how did GAMP start?\"<\/a>. <i>Controlling Compliance Matters<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.controlling-compliance-matters.com\/?p=190\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.controlling-compliance-matters.com\/?p=190<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 09 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=What+is+GAMP+and+how+did+GAMP+start%3F&rft.atitle=Controlling+Compliance+Matters&rft.aulast=Forrest%2C+David&rft.au=Forrest%2C+David&rft.date=01+September+2013&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.controlling-compliance-matters.com%2F%3Fp%3D190&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Smith20th-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Smith20th_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Smith, Paul (1 December 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pharmtech.com\/pharmtech\/Validation\/20th-Anniversary-Special-Feature-Validation-and-qu\/ArticleStandard\/Article\/detail\/574642\" target=\"_blank\">\"20th Anniversary Special Feature: Validation and qualification\"<\/a>. <i>Pharmaceutical Technology Europe<\/i> <b>20<\/b> (2)<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pharmtech.com\/pharmtech\/Validation\/20th-Anniversary-Special-Feature-Validation-and-qu\/ArticleStandard\/Article\/detail\/574642\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pharmtech.com\/pharmtech\/Validation\/20th-Anniversary-Special-Feature-Validation-and-qu\/ArticleStandard\/Article\/detail\/574642<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=20th+Anniversary+Special+Feature%3A+Validation+and+qualification&rft.jtitle=Pharmaceutical+Technology+Europe&rft.aulast=Smith%2C+Paul&rft.au=Smith%2C+Paul&rft.date=1+December+2008&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pharmtech.com%2Fpharmtech%2FValidation%2F20th-Anniversary-Special-Feature-Validation-and-qu%2FArticleStandard%2FArticle%2Fdetail%2F574642&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GGuide-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GGuide_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Maruccia, Danilo (21 March 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ssfa.it\/allegati\/GDL_GIQAR_GCP_GampGuidelineMilano06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"GAMP Guideline & Validation Documentation\"<\/a> (PDF). Pharma Quality Europe<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ssfa.it\/allegati\/GDL_GIQAR_GCP_GampGuidelineMilano06.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ssfa.it\/allegati\/GDL_GIQAR_GCP_GampGuidelineMilano06.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 09 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=GAMP+Guideline+%26+Validation+Documentation&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Maruccia%2C+Danilo&rft.au=Maruccia%2C+Danilo&rft.date=21+March+2006&rft.pub=Pharma+Quality+Europe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ssfa.it%2Fallegati%2FGDL_GIQAR_GCP_GampGuidelineMilano06.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DeSpautzGAMP-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DeSpautzGAMP_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">DeSpautz, Joseph; Kenneth S. Kovacs; Gerhard Werling (11 March 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/Articles\/2008\/03\/GAMP-Standards-For-Validation-Of-Automated-Systems\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"GAMP Standards For Validation Of Automated Systems\"<\/a>. Pharmaceutical Processing<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/Articles\/2008\/03\/GAMP-Standards-For-Validation-Of-Automated-Systems\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/Articles\/2008\/03\/GAMP-Standards-For-Validation-Of-Automated-Systems\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=GAMP+Standards+For+Validation+Of+Automated+Systems&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=DeSpautz%2C+Joseph%3B++Kenneth+S.+Kovacs%3B+Gerhard+Werling&rft.au=DeSpautz%2C+Joseph%3B++Kenneth+S.+Kovacs%3B+Gerhard+Werling&rft.date=11+March+2008&rft.pub=Pharmaceutical+Processing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pharmpro.com%2FArticles%2F2008%2F03%2FGAMP-Standards-For-Validation-Of-Automated-Systems%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GAMP5-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GAMP5_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ispe.org\/gamp5\" target=\"_blank\">\"GAMP 5: A Risk-Based Approach to Compliant GxP Computerized Systems\"<\/a>. 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(01 June 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/understanding-and-interpreting-new-gamp-5-software-categories\" target=\"_blank\">\"Understanding and Interpreting the New GAMP 5 Software Categories\"<\/a>. <i>SpectroscopyOnline.com<\/i>. Advanstar Communications Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/understanding-and-interpreting-new-gamp-5-software-categories\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.spectroscopyonline.com\/understanding-and-interpreting-new-gamp-5-software-categories<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 10 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Understanding+and+Interpreting+the+New+GAMP+5+Software+Categories&rft.atitle=SpectroscopyOnline.com&rft.aulast=McDowall%2C+R.+D.&rft.au=McDowall%2C+R.+D.&rft.date=01+June+2009&rft.pub=Advanstar+Communications+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spectroscopyonline.com%2Funderstanding-and-interpreting-new-gamp-5-software-categories&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GAMPPubs-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GAMPPubs_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ispe.org\/gamp-good-practice-guides\" target=\"_blank\">\"GAMP Good Practice Guides\"<\/a>. International Society for Pharmaceutical Engineering<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ispe.org\/gamp-good-practice-guides\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ispe.org\/gamp-good-practice-guides<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 09 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=GAMP+Good+Practice+Guides&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=International+Society+for+Pharmaceutical+Engineering&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ispe.org%2Fgamp-good-practice-guides&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203026\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.244 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.120 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5995\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 15873\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 42318\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 17595\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 168.440 1 - -total\n 90.08% 151.729 10 - Template:Citation\/core\n 87.05% 146.620 9 - Template:Cite_web\n 12.23% 20.604 1 - Template:Cite_journal\n 5.61% 9.448 12 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3373-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403203025 and revision id 24823\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2b\/Pharma-production.jpg"],"a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb_timestamp":1554323425,"bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6_type":"article","bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6_title":"Good Automated Laboratory Practices","bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices","bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tGood Automated Laboratory Practices\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Good Automated Laboratory Practices (GALP) was a U.S. EPA-based conglomeration of \"regulations, policies, and guidance documents establishing a uniform set of procedures to ensure the reliability and credibility of laboratory data.\"[1] GALP is considered an expired policy by the EPA, though the true expiration date is not know.[2]\n\nHistory \nWork on GALP was first started by the EPA in 1989 as an extension of its pre-existing good laboratory practice (GLP) requirements to what they saw as a state of increasing automation in laboratories.[3] An additional revision was released in 1995 by the EPA.[4]\nThe GALP's creation was based on six principles[5]:\n1. The system must provide a method of assuring the integrity of all entered data.\n2. The formulas and decision algorithms employed by the system must be accurate and appropriate.\n3. An audit trail that tracks data entry and modifications to the responsible individual is a critical element in the control process.\n4. A consistent and appropriate change-control procedure capable of tracking the system operation and application software is a critical element in the control process.\n5. Control of even the most carefully designed and implemented system will be thwarted if appropriate user procedures are not followed.\n6. Consistent control of a system requires the development of alternative plans for system failure, disaster recovery, and unauthorized access.\n\nImpact \nGALP had a variable regulatory impact on laboratories and organizations early on. Pharmaceutical and biologics laboratories could practically ignore the regulations while the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and EPA used GALP as a key guiding factor in its standards and contract renewal considerations.[3] The Department of Energy and Superfund programs tightly followed GALP's standards while others viewed GALP as something to be loosely interpreted.[3]\n\r\n\n\nReferences \n\n\u2191 Paszko, Christine; Paszko Turner; Elizabeth Turner (2001). \"Chapter 6: Regulatory Requirements\". Laboratory Information Management Systems. CRC Press. pp. 59. ISBN 0824741412. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ycEqnzPl2lYC .   \n\n\u2191 \"Expired Policies\/Directives - Office of Environmental Information - US EPA\". U.S. EPA. http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/index.html . Retrieved 28 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 3.2 Weinberg, Spelton & Sax, Inc. (1994). \"Chapter 1: Why GALPs???\". GALP Regulatory Handbook. CRC Press. pp. 2\u20134. ISBN 1566700256. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC .   \n\n\u2191 United States Environmental Protection Agency (1995). \"Good Automated Laboratory Practices - Principles and Guidance to Regulations for Ensuring Data Integrity in Automated Laboratory Operations\". U.S. EPA, Office of Information Resources Management. http:\/\/cfpub.epa.gov\/ols\/catalog\/catalog_display.cfm?&FIELD1=SUBJECT&INPUT1=Automation&TYPE1=EXACT&item_count=45 . Retrieved 25 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Weinberg, Spelton & Sax, Inc. (1994). \"Chapter 1: Why GALPs???\". GALP Regulatory Handbook. CRC Press. pp. 8\u20139. ISBN 1566700256. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Regulatory information\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 2 March 2012, at 23:33.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 4,477 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Good Automated Laboratory Practices<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><p>The <b>Good Automated Laboratory Practices<\/b> (<b>GALP<\/b>) was a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency\" title=\"United States Environmental Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"877b052e12328aa52f6f7c3f2d56f99a\">U.S. EPA-based<\/a> conglomeration of \"regulations, policies, and guidance documents establishing a uniform set of procedures to ensure the reliability and credibility of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> data.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LIMSPaszko_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LIMSPaszko-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> GALP is considered an expired policy by the EPA, though the true expiration date is not know.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Work on GALP was first started by the EPA in 1989 as an extension of its pre-existing (GLP) requirements to what they saw as a state of increasing automation in laboratories.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GALPBook1_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GALPBook1-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> An additional revision was released in 1995 by the EPA.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPAGALP_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPAGALP-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The GALP's creation was based on six principles<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GALPBook2_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GALPBook2-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p><p>1. The system must provide a method of assuring the integrity of all entered data.\n<\/p><p>2. The formulas and decision algorithms employed by the system must be accurate and appropriate.\n<\/p><p>3. An <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d184d528c3d8bec99c88b45a9e026379\">audit trail<\/a> that tracks data entry and modifications to the responsible individual is a critical element in the control process.\n<\/p><p>4. A consistent and appropriate change-control procedure capable of tracking the system operation and application software is a critical element in the control process.\n<\/p><p>5. Control of even the most carefully designed and implemented system will be thwarted if appropriate user procedures are not followed.\n<\/p><p>6. Consistent control of a system requires the development of alternative plans for system failure, disaster recovery, and unauthorized access.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Impact\">Impact<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>GALP had a variable regulatory impact on laboratories and organizations early on. Pharmaceutical and biologics laboratories could practically ignore the regulations while the U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2be8927071ac419c0929f7aa1ede7fe\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> (FDA) and EPA used GALP as a key guiding factor in its standards and contract renewal considerations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GALPBook1_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GALPBook1-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The and Superfund programs tightly followed GALP's standards while others viewed GALP as something to be loosely interpreted.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GALPBook1_3-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GALPBook1-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-LIMSPaszko-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LIMSPaszko_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Paszko, Christine; Paszko Turner; Elizabeth Turner (2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ycEqnzPl2lYC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 6: Regulatory Requirements\"<\/a>. <i>Laboratory Information Management Systems<\/i>. CRC Press. pp. 59. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 0824741412<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ycEqnzPl2lYC\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ycEqnzPl2lYC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+6%3A+Regulatory+Requirements&rft.atitle=Laboratory+Information+Management+Systems&rft.aulast=Paszko%2C+Christine%3B+Paszko+Turner%3B+Elizabeth+Turner&rft.au=Paszko%2C+Christine%3B+Paszko+Turner%3B+Elizabeth+Turner&rft.date=2001&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B59&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.isbn=0824741412&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DycEqnzPl2lYC&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Expired Policies\/Directives - Office of Environmental Information - US EPA\"<\/a>. U.S. EPA<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/irmpoli8\/expiredpolicies\/index.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Expired+Policies%2FDirectives+-+Office+of+Environmental+Information+-+US+EPA&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+EPA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Firmpoli8%2Fexpiredpolicies%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GALPBook1-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GALPBook1_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GALPBook1_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GALPBook1_3-2\">3.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Weinberg, Spelton & Sax, Inc. (1994). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Why GALPs???\"<\/a>. <i>GALP Regulatory Handbook<\/i>. CRC Press. pp. 2\u20134. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 1566700256<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Why+GALPs%3F%3F%3F&rft.atitle=GALP+Regulatory+Handbook&rft.aulast=Weinberg%2C+Spelton+%26+Sax%2C+Inc.&rft.au=Weinberg%2C+Spelton+%26+Sax%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1994&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B2%E2%80%934&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.isbn=1566700256&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRfzlSKm581EC&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EPAGALP-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EPAGALP_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency\" title=\"United States Environmental Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"877b052e12328aa52f6f7c3f2d56f99a\">United States Environmental Protection Agency<\/a> (1995). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/cfpub.epa.gov\/ols\/catalog\/catalog_display.cfm?&FIELD1=SUBJECT&INPUT1=Automation&TYPE1=EXACT&item_count=45\" target=\"_blank\">\"Good Automated Laboratory Practices - Principles and Guidance to Regulations for Ensuring Data Integrity in Automated Laboratory Operations\"<\/a>. U.S. EPA, Office of Information Resources Management<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/cfpub.epa.gov\/ols\/catalog\/catalog_display.cfm?&FIELD1=SUBJECT&INPUT1=Automation&TYPE1=EXACT&item_count=45\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/cfpub.epa.gov\/ols\/catalog\/catalog_display.cfm?&FIELD1=SUBJECT&INPUT1=Automation&TYPE1=EXACT&item_count=45<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 25 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Good+Automated+Laboratory+Practices+-+Principles+and+Guidance+to+Regulations+for+Ensuring+Data+Integrity+in+Automated+Laboratory+Operations&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=%5B%5BUnited+States+Environmental+Protection+Agency%5D%5D&rft.au=%5B%5BUnited+States+Environmental+Protection+Agency%5D%5D&rft.date=1995&rft.pub=U.S.+EPA%2C+Office+of+Information+Resources+Management&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcfpub.epa.gov%2Fols%2Fcatalog%2Fcatalog_display.cfm%3F%26FIELD1%3DSUBJECT%26INPUT1%3DAutomation%26TYPE1%3DEXACT%26item_count%3D45&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GALPBook2-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GALPBook2_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Weinberg, Spelton & Sax, Inc. (1994). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Why GALPs???\"<\/a>. <i>GALP Regulatory Handbook<\/i>. CRC Press. pp. 8\u20139. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 1566700256<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=RfzlSKm581EC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Why+GALPs%3F%3F%3F&rft.atitle=GALP+Regulatory+Handbook&rft.aulast=Weinberg%2C+Spelton+%26+Sax%2C+Inc.&rft.au=Weinberg%2C+Spelton+%26+Sax%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1994&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B8%E2%80%939&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.isbn=1566700256&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRfzlSKm581EC&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203025\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.122 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.139 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 3367\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 16229\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 23567\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 9080\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 11\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 111.820 1 - -total\n 88.77% 99.262 5 - Template:Citation\/core\n 70.69% 79.050 3 - Template:Cite_book\n 28.89% 32.300 2 - Template:Cite_web\n 8.63% 9.645 3 - Template:Citation\/identifier\n 6.43% 7.189 8 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 2.28% 2.554 3 - Template:Only_in_print\n 2.20% 2.459 6 - Template:Hide_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3372-0!*!0!!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203025 and revision id 7679\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6_images":[],"bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6_timestamp":1554323424,"64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_type":"article","64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_title":"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments","64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments","64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tClinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \nThe Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA) of 1988 is a United States federal statute and regulatory standards program that applies to all clinical laboratory testing performed on humans in the United States, except clinical trials and basic research.[1] \n\r\n\n\nContents\n\n1 History \n2 CLIA program \n3 CLIA waived tests \n\n3.1 List of tests \n\n\n4 See also \n5 Further reading \n6 External links \n7 Notes \n8 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nOn December 5, 1967, the U.S. enacted Public Law 90-174, which included in Section 5 the \"Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967.\" CLIA '67 set regulations on the licensing of clinical laboratories and the movement of samples in and out of them across state lines. Laboratories would be eligible for a full, partial, or exempt CLIA-67 license, depending on the laboratory's conducted tests.[2] \nHowever, by the mid-1980s the relevancy of CLIA '67 to a vastly changed procedural and technological clinical laboratory landscape began to be questioned. The Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health for Planning\nand Evaluation (ASPE) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services commissioned a study to assess the effectiveness of federal regulations affecting clinical laboratories and their goal of protecting the public health. On April 8, 1986, the Final Report on Assessment of Clinical Laboratory Regulations by Michael L. Kenney and Don P. Greenberg was submitted to the ASPE.[3]\n\nThe analysis found that many federal regulations are technically obsolescent and many may be operationally unnecessary as a result of changing laboratory technology and changed federal reimbursement policies. Among changes recommended by the HHS-funded analysis are: (a) the regulatory classification system based upon physical location of laboratories is no longer appropriate and should be replaced with a classification system reflecting laboratory functions; (b) a single, uniform set of federal regulations should be developed that covers all civilian laboratories receiving federal reimbursement or operating in interstate commerce; (c) a revised federal regulatory system should emphasize measures of performance such as personnel and inspection requirements; and (d) clinical laboratory regulations should be based upon objective data to the maximum extent possible.[3]\nOn August 5, 1988, a new set of proposed regulations were put forth by the Health Care Financing Administration as Medicare, Medicaid and CLIA Programs; Revision of the Clinical Laboratory Regulations for the Medicare, Medicaid, and Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967 Programs. The proposal aspired \"to remove outdated, obsolete and redundant requirements, make provision for new technologies, place increased reliance on outcome measures of performance, and emphasize the responsibilities and duties of personnel rather than the formal credentialing requirements and detailed personnel standards in existing regulations.\"[4] This ultimately led to the proposal becoming law on October 31, 1988 under Public Law 100-578 as the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988.[5] \nRegulations for implementing CLIA continued to be developed afterwards, with the Department of Health and Human Services considering thousands of comments to the proposed regulations. The final regulations were published February 28, 1992, set to be effective on September 1 of the same year. The new CLIA '88 put into place regulations concerning test complexity, certification, proficiency testing, patient test management, personnel requirements, quality assurance, and other processes in the clinical laboratory.[6] However, phase-in effective dates were extended on several occasions afterwards: on December 6, 1994 in the Federal Register (59 FR 62606), May 12, 1997 in the Federal Register (62 FR 25855), October 14, 1998 in the Federal Register (63 FR 55031), and December 29, 2000 in the Federal Register (65 FR 82941).[7]\nOn January 24, 2003, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services submitted their final rule (68 FR 3639), effective April 24, 2003, affecting QC requirements for laboratories and qualification requirements for lab directors. The final rule also made revisions to 42 CFR 493, including the renaming, reorganizing, and consolidation of similar requirements into one section, the deletion of duplicate requirements, and the rewording of the requirements to better clarify their original intent. It also addressed requirements regarding the entire testing process, making those requirement better correlate with the workflow of a lab specimen in the laboratory, from acquisition to reporting of results, including the subdivision of testing into pre-analytic, analytic, and post-analytic phases.[7][8]\n\nCLIA program \nThe CLIA program sets standards and issues certificates for clinical laboratory testing. CLIA defines a clinical laboratory as any facility which performs laboratory testing on specimens derived from humans for the purpose of providing information for:\n\n diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of disease or impairment.\n health assessments.\nThe CLIA program is designed to ensure the accuracy, reliability, and timeliness of test results regardless of where the test was performed. Each specific laboratory system, assay, and examination is graded for level of complexity by assigning scores of \"1,\" \"2,\" or \"3\" for each of seven criteria. A test scored as a \"1\" is the lowest level of complexity, while a test scored \"3\" indicates the highest level. A score of \"2\" is assigned when the characteristics for a particular test are ranked primarily between low- and high-level in description.[9]\nThe seven criteria for categorization are:\n\n Knowledge\n Training and experience\n Reagents and materials preparation\n Characteristics of operational steps\n Calibration, quality control, and proficiency testing materials\n Test system troubleshooting and equipment maintenance\n Interpretation and judgment\nThe Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) has the primary responsibility for the operation of the CLIA program. Within CMS, the program is implemented by the Center for Medicaid and State Operations, Survey and Certification Group, and the Division of Laboratory Services.\nThe CLIA Program is funded by user fees collected from over 244,000 laboratories[10], most located in the United States.[11]\n\nCLIA waived tests \nUnder CLIA, tests and test systems that meet risk, error, and complexity requirements are issued a CLIA certificate of waiver.[12][11] In its 2014 document Administrative Procedures for CLIA Categorization - Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advises its staff that a medical testing device originally rated moderately complex could receive a waiver \"if the device is simple to use and the sponsor demonstrates in studies conducted at the intended use sites that the test is accurate and poses an insignificant risk of erroneous results.\"[13]\nWhile a waived test is deemed to have an acceptably low level of risk, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reminds administrators and recipients of such tests that no test is 100 percent safe[12]:\n\nAlthough CLIA requires that waived tests must be simple and have a low risk for erroneous results, this does not mean that waived tests are completely error-proof. Errors can occur anywhere in the testing process, particularly when the manufacturer's instructions are not followed and when testing personnel are not familiar with all aspects of the test system. Some waived tests have potential for serious health impacts if performed incorrectly... To decrease the risk of erroneous results, the test needs to be performed correctly, by trained personnel and in an environment where good laboratory practices are followed. \nIn November 2007, the CLIA waiver provisions were revised by the United States Congress to make it clear that tests approved by the FDA for home use automatically qualify for CLIA waiver.[14]\n\nList of tests \nA list of tests categorized by the FDA as waived since 2000 can be found at the FDA website. As of February 17, 2015, the list included 6,669 separate test devices.\n\nSee also \n Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services\n Clinical laboratory\nFurther reading \n Kenney, Michael L. (February 1987). \"Quality Assurance in Changing Times: Proposals for Reform and Research in the Clinical Laboratory Field\" (PDF). Clinical Chemistry 33 (2): 328\u2013336. PMID 3542302. http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf .   \nExternal links \n 42 CFR 493 at the U.S. Government Printing Office\n CLIA Law & Regulations at CDC\n Chronology of CLIA Related Documents in the Federal Register & Code of Federal Regulations\nNotes \nA couple elements of this article are reused from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\u2191 \"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)\". Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. http:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/index.html . Retrieved 23 March 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Public Law 90-174\" (PDF). United States Statutes at Large, Volume 81. 1967. http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/STATUTE-81\/pdf\/STATUTE-81-Pg533.pdf . Retrieved 24 March 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 Kenney, Michael L. (February 1987). \"Quality Assurance in Changing Times: Proposals for Reform and Research in the Clinical Laboratory Field\" (PDF). Clinical Chemistry 33 (2): 328\u2013336. PMID 3542302. http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf .   \n\n\u2191 Singer, Donald C.; Upton, Ronald P. (1993). \"Appendix F: Proposed Revision of the Clinical Laboratory Regulations for Medicare, Medicaid, and Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967 - Department of Health and Human Services: Health Care Financing Administration\". Guidelines for Laboratory Quality Auditing. CRC Press. pp. 273\u2013402. ISBN 9780824787844. http:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?id=tTm3hfom96sC&pg=PA273&lpg=PA273 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Public Law 100-578\" (PDF). United States Statutes at Large, Volume 102. 1988. http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/STATUTE-102\/pdf\/STATUTE-102-Pg2903.pdf . Retrieved 24 March 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Regulations for Implementing the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988: A Summary\". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 41 (RR-2): 1\u201317. 28 February 1992. PMID 1538689. http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/preview\/mmwrhtml\/00016177.htm . Retrieved 24 March 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 7.0 7.1 \"Medicare, Medicaid, and CLIA Programs; Laboratory Requirements Relating to Quality Systems and Certain Personnel Qualifications; Final Rule\". Federal Register 68 (16): 3639\u20133714. 24 January 2003. PMID 12545998. http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/FR-2003-01-24\/html\/03-1230.htm . Retrieved 24 March 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Act (CLIA) - Legislative History\". New Mexico Department of Health. http:\/\/dhi.health.state.nm.us\/CLIA\/clia_history.php . Retrieved 24 March 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"CLIA Categorization Criteria\". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 6 March 2014. http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/MedicalDevices\/DeviceRegulationandGuidance\/IVDRegulatoryAssistance\/ucm124208.htm . Retrieved 23 March 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"CLIA Update \u2013 December 2013 - Laboratories by Type of Facility\" (PDF). Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. December 2013. https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/downloads\/factype.pdf . Retrieved 23 March 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 11.0 11.1 \"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)\" (PDF). Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. May 2013. https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Outreach-and-Education\/Medicare-Learning-Network-MLN\/MLNProducts\/downloads\/CLIABrochure.pdf . Retrieved 23 March 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 12.0 12.1 \"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA) - CLIA Waived Tests\". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 14 March 2014. http:\/\/wwwn.cdc.gov\/clia\/Resources\/WaivedTests\/default.aspx . Retrieved 23 March 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Administrative Procedures for CLIA Categorization - Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff\". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 12 March 2014. http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/MedicalDevices\/DeviceRegulationandGuidance\/GuidanceDocuments\/ucm070762.htm . Retrieved 17 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"IVD Regulatory Assistance - CLIA Waivers\". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 19 June 2009. http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/ivdregulatoryassistance\/ucm124202.htm . Retrieved 23 March 2014 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Health standardsRegulatory information\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 19 May 2015, at 17:29.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 20,021 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:252px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:CLIA_Logo.gif\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"95937dc5e763206f7c10a9d5e85eb6d9\"><img alt=\"CLIA Logo.gif\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/8\/8b\/CLIA_Logo.gif\" width=\"250\" height=\"250\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:CLIA_Logo.gif\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"95937dc5e763206f7c10a9d5e85eb6d9\"><\/a><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The <b>Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments<\/b> (<b>CLIA<\/b>) of 1988 is a United States federal statute and regulatory standards program that applies to all <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_laboratory\" title=\"Clinical laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"307bcdf1bdbcd1bb167cee435b7a5463\">clinical laboratory<\/a> testing performed on humans in the United States, except clinical trials and basic research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CMSAboutCLIA_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CMSAboutCLIA-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>On December 5, 1967, the U.S. enacted Public Law 90-174, which included in Section 5 the \"Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967.\" CLIA '67 set regulations on the licensing of clinical laboratories and the movement of samples in and out of them across state lines. Laboratories would be eligible for a full, partial, or exempt CLIA-67 license, depending on the laboratory's conducted tests.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIA67Doc_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIA67Doc-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>However, by the mid-1980s the relevancy of CLIA '67 to a vastly changed procedural and technological clinical laboratory landscape began to be questioned. The Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health for Planning\nand Evaluation (ASPE) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services commissioned a study to assess the effectiveness of federal regulations affecting clinical laboratories and their goal of protecting the public health. On April 8, 1986, the <i>Final Report on Assessment of Clinical Laboratory Regulations<\/i> by Michael L. Kenney and Don P. Greenberg was submitted to the ASPE.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KenneyQACLIA_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KenneyQACLIA-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<blockquote>The analysis found that many federal regulations are technically obsolescent and many may be operationally unnecessary as a result of changing laboratory technology and changed federal reimbursement policies. Among changes recommended by the HHS-funded analysis are: (a) the regulatory classification system based upon physical location of laboratories is no longer appropriate and should be replaced with a classification system reflecting laboratory functions; (b) a single, uniform set of federal regulations should be developed that covers all civilian laboratories receiving federal reimbursement or operating in interstate commerce; (c) a revised federal regulatory system should emphasize measures of performance such as personnel and inspection requirements; and (d) clinical laboratory regulations should be based upon objective data to the maximum extent possible.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KenneyQACLIA_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KenneyQACLIA-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><\/blockquote>\n<p>On August 5, 1988, a new set of proposed regulations were put forth by the Health Care Financing Administration as <i>Medicare, Medicaid and CLIA Programs; Revision of the Clinical Laboratory Regulations for the Medicare, Medicaid, and Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967 Programs<\/i>. The proposal aspired \"to remove outdated, obsolete and redundant requirements, make provision for new technologies, place increased reliance on outcome measures of performance, and emphasize the responsibilities and duties of personnel rather than the formal credentialing requirements and detailed personnel standards in existing regulations.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SingerGLQA_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SingerGLQA-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> This ultimately led to the proposal becoming law on October 31, 1988 under Public Law 100-578 as the <i>Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIA88Doc_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIA88Doc-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Regulations for implementing CLIA continued to be developed afterwards, with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services\" title=\"United States Department of Health and Human Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efa106bcbb93039b1a6c3c596daedec3\">Department of Health and Human Services<\/a> considering thousands of comments to the proposed regulations. The final regulations were published February 28, 1992, set to be effective on September 1 of the same year. The new CLIA '88 put into place regulations concerning test complexity, certification, proficiency testing, patient test management, personnel requirements, quality assurance, and other processes in the clinical laboratory.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MMERFeb2892_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MMERFeb2892-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> However, phase-in effective dates were extended on several occasions afterwards: on December 6, 1994 in the Federal Register (59 FR 62606), May 12, 1997 in the Federal Register (62 FR 25855), October 14, 1998 in the Federal Register (63 FR 55031), and December 29, 2000 in the Federal Register (65 FR 82941).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68FR3639_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68FR3639-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On January 24, 2003, the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Medicare_and_Medicaid_Services\" title=\"Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"654b4449e4816e190325b420c264df1a\">Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services<\/a> submitted their final rule (68 FR 3639), effective April 24, 2003, affecting QC requirements for laboratories and qualification requirements for lab directors. The final rule also made revisions to 42 CFR 493, including the renaming, reorganizing, and consolidation of similar requirements into one section, the deletion of duplicate requirements, and the rewording of the requirements to better clarify their original intent. It also addressed requirements regarding the entire testing process, making those requirement better correlate with the workflow of a lab specimen in the laboratory, from acquisition to reporting of results, including the subdivision of testing into pre-analytic, analytic, and post-analytic phases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68FR3639_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68FR3639-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NewMexH_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NewMexH-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"CLIA_program\">CLIA program<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The CLIA program sets standards and issues certificates for clinical laboratory testing. CLIA defines a clinical laboratory as any facility which performs <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> testing on specimens derived from humans for the purpose of providing information for:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of disease or impairment.<\/li>\n<li> health assessments.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The CLIA program is designed to ensure the accuracy, reliability, and timeliness of test results regardless of where the test was performed. Each specific laboratory system, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Assay\" title=\"Assay\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea17cf4415e898e1838538495235ef71\">assay<\/a>, and examination is graded for level of complexity by assigning scores of \"1,\" \"2,\" or \"3\" for each of seven criteria. A test scored as a \"1\" is the lowest level of complexity, while a test scored \"3\" indicates the highest level. A score of \"2\" is assigned when the characteristics for a particular test are ranked primarily between low- and high-level in description.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDAIVDReg_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDAIVDReg-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The seven criteria for categorization are:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li> Knowledge<\/li>\n<li> Training and experience<\/li>\n<li> Reagents and materials preparation<\/li>\n<li> Characteristics of operational steps<\/li>\n<li> Calibration, quality control, and proficiency testing materials<\/li>\n<li> Test system troubleshooting and equipment maintenance<\/li>\n<li> Interpretation and judgment<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Medicare_and_Medicaid_Services\" title=\"Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"654b4449e4816e190325b420c264df1a\">Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services<\/a> (CMS) has the primary responsibility for the operation of the CLIA program. Within CMS, the program is implemented by the Center for Medicaid and State Operations, Survey and Certification Group, and the Division of Laboratory Services.\n<\/p><p>The CLIA Program is funded by user fees collected from over 244,000 laboratories<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIADec13_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIADec13-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>, most located in the United States.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIABroch_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIABroch-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"CLIA_waived_tests\">CLIA waived tests<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Under CLIA, tests and test systems that meet risk, error, and complexity requirements are issued a CLIA certificate of waiver.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDCWaived_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDCWaived-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CLIABroch_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CLIABroch-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> In its 2014 document <i>Administrative Procedures for CLIA Categorization - Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff<\/i>, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advises its staff that a medical testing device originally rated moderately complex could receive a waiver \"if the device is simple to use and the sponsor demonstrates in studies conducted at the intended use sites that the test is accurate and poses an insignificant risk of erroneous results.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APCC_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APCC-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While a waived test is deemed to have an acceptably low level of risk, the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention\" title=\"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"176aa9c9513251c328d864d1e724e814\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<\/a> (CDC) reminds administrators and recipients of such tests that no test is 100 percent safe<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDCWaived_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDCWaived-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote>Although CLIA requires that waived tests must be simple and have a low risk for erroneous results, this does not mean that waived tests are completely error-proof. Errors can occur anywhere in the testing process, particularly when the manufacturer's instructions are not followed and when testing personnel are not familiar with all aspects of the test system. Some waived tests have potential for serious health impacts if performed incorrectly... To decrease the risk of erroneous results, the test needs to be performed correctly, by trained personnel and in an environment where good laboratory practices are followed. <\/blockquote>\n<p>In November 2007, the CLIA waiver provisions were revised by the United States Congress to make it clear that tests approved by the FDA for home use automatically qualify for CLIA waiver.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDAWaivers_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDAWaivers-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"List_of_tests\">List of tests<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A list of tests categorized by the FDA as waived since 2000 can be found at the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfClia\/testswaived.cfm\" target=\"_blank\">FDA website<\/a>. As of February 17, 2015, the list included 6,669 separate test devices.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Medicare_and_Medicaid_Services\" title=\"Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"654b4449e4816e190325b420c264df1a\">Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_laboratory\" title=\"Clinical laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"307bcdf1bdbcd1bb167cee435b7a5463\">Clinical laboratory<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation Journal\">Kenney, Michael L. (February 1987). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quality Assurance in Changing Times: Proposals for Reform and Research in the Clinical Laboratory Field\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>Clinical Chemistry<\/i> <b>33<\/b> (2): 328\u2013336. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/3542302\" target=\"_blank\">3542302<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Quality+Assurance+in+Changing+Times%3A+Proposals+for+Reform+and+Research+in+the+Clinical+Laboratory+Field&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Chemistry&rft.aulast=Kenney%2C+Michael+L.&rft.au=Kenney%2C+Michael+L.&rft.date=February+1987&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=328%E2%80%93336&rft_id=info:pmid\/3542302&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clinchem.org%2Fcontent%2F33%2F2%2F328.full.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/granule\/CFR-2011-title42-vol5\/CFR-2011-title42-vol5-part493\/content-detail.html\" target=\"_blank\">42 CFR 493 at the U.S. Government Printing Office<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wwwn.cdc.gov\/clia\/Regulatory\/default.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">CLIA Law & Regulations at CDC<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wwwn.cdc.gov\/CLIA\/Regulatory\/Chronology.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Chronology of CLIA Related Documents in the Federal Register & Code of Federal Regulations<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A couple elements of this article are reused from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\" data-key=\"cc21651b526d1d786eba7c2121aea200\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-CMSAboutCLIA-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CMSAboutCLIA_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)\"<\/a>. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/index.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 March 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Amendments+%28CLIA%29&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Centers+for+Medicare+and+Medicaid+Services&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cms.gov%2FRegulations-and-Guidance%2FLegislation%2FCLIA%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIA67Doc-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIA67Doc_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/STATUTE-81\/pdf\/STATUTE-81-Pg533.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Law 90-174\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>United States Statutes at Large, Volume 81<\/i>. 1967<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/STATUTE-81\/pdf\/STATUTE-81-Pg533.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/STATUTE-81\/pdf\/STATUTE-81-Pg533.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 24 March 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Public+Law+90-174&rft.atitle=United+States+Statutes+at+Large%2C+Volume+81&rft.date=1967&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gpo.gov%2Ffdsys%2Fpkg%2FSTATUTE-81%2Fpdf%2FSTATUTE-81-Pg533.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KenneyQACLIA-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KenneyQACLIA_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KenneyQACLIA_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Kenney, Michael L. (February 1987). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quality Assurance in Changing Times: Proposals for Reform and Research in the Clinical Laboratory Field\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>Clinical Chemistry<\/i> <b>33<\/b> (2): 328\u2013336. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/3542302\" target=\"_blank\">3542302<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.clinchem.org\/content\/33\/2\/328.full.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Quality+Assurance+in+Changing+Times%3A+Proposals+for+Reform+and+Research+in+the+Clinical+Laboratory+Field&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Chemistry&rft.aulast=Kenney%2C+Michael+L.&rft.au=Kenney%2C+Michael+L.&rft.date=February+1987&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=328%E2%80%93336&rft_id=info:pmid\/3542302&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clinchem.org%2Fcontent%2F33%2F2%2F328.full.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SingerGLQA-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SingerGLQA_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Singer, Donald C.; Upton, Ronald P. (1993). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?id=tTm3hfom96sC&pg=PA273&lpg=PA273\" target=\"_blank\">\"Appendix F: Proposed Revision of the Clinical Laboratory Regulations for Medicare, Medicaid, and Clinical Laboratories Improvement Act of 1967 - Department of Health and Human Services: Health Care Financing Administration\"<\/a>. <i>Guidelines for Laboratory Quality Auditing<\/i>. CRC Press. pp. 273\u2013402. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 9780824787844<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?id=tTm3hfom96sC&pg=PA273&lpg=PA273\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.ca\/books?id=tTm3hfom96sC&pg=PA273&lpg=PA273<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Appendix+F%3A+Proposed+Revision+of+the+Clinical+Laboratory+Regulations+for+Medicare%2C+Medicaid%2C+and+Clinical+Laboratories+Improvement+Act+of+1967+-+Department+of+Health+and+Human+Services%3A+Health+Care+Financing+Administration&rft.atitle=Guidelines+for+Laboratory+Quality+Auditing&rft.aulast=Singer%2C+Donald+C.%3B+Upton%2C+Ronald+P.&rft.au=Singer%2C+Donald+C.%3B+Upton%2C+Ronald+P.&rft.date=1993&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B273%E2%80%93402&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.isbn=9780824787844&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.ca%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtTm3hfom96sC%26pg%3DPA273%26lpg%3DPA273&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIA88Doc-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIA88Doc_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/STATUTE-102\/pdf\/STATUTE-102-Pg2903.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Law 100-578\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>United States Statutes at Large, Volume 102<\/i>. 1988<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/STATUTE-102\/pdf\/STATUTE-102-Pg2903.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/STATUTE-102\/pdf\/STATUTE-102-Pg2903.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 24 March 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Public+Law+100-578&rft.atitle=United+States+Statutes+at+Large%2C+Volume+102&rft.date=1988&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gpo.gov%2Ffdsys%2Fpkg%2FSTATUTE-102%2Fpdf%2FSTATUTE-102-Pg2903.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MMERFeb2892-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MMERFeb2892_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/preview\/mmwrhtml\/00016177.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Regulations for Implementing the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments of 1988: A Summary\"<\/a>. <i>Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report<\/i> <b>41<\/b> (RR-2): 1\u201317. 28 February 1992. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/1538689\" target=\"_blank\">1538689<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/preview\/mmwrhtml\/00016177.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/preview\/mmwrhtml\/00016177.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 24 March 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Regulations+for+Implementing+the+Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Amendments+of+1988%3A+A+Summary&rft.jtitle=Morbidity+and+Mortality+Weekly+Report&rft.date=28+February+1992&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=RR-2&rft.pages=1%E2%80%9317&rft_id=info:pmid\/1538689&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fmmwr%2Fpreview%2Fmmwrhtml%2F00016177.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-68FR3639-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-68FR3639_7-0\">7.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-68FR3639_7-1\">7.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/FR-2003-01-24\/html\/03-1230.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Medicare, Medicaid, and CLIA Programs; Laboratory Requirements Relating to Quality Systems and Certain Personnel Qualifications; Final Rule\"<\/a>. <i>Federal Register<\/i> <b>68<\/b> (16): 3639\u20133714. 24 January 2003. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/12545998\" target=\"_blank\">12545998<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/FR-2003-01-24\/html\/03-1230.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.gpo.gov\/fdsys\/pkg\/FR-2003-01-24\/html\/03-1230.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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New Mexico Department of Health<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/dhi.health.state.nm.us\/CLIA\/clia_history.php\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/dhi.health.state.nm.us\/CLIA\/clia_history.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 24 March 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Act+%28CLIA%29+-+Legislative+History&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=New+Mexico+Department+of+Health&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdhi.health.state.nm.us%2FCLIA%2Fclia_history.php&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDAIVDReg-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDAIVDReg_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/MedicalDevices\/DeviceRegulationandGuidance\/IVDRegulatoryAssistance\/ucm124208.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"CLIA Categorization Criteria\"<\/a>. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 6 March 2014<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/MedicalDevices\/DeviceRegulationandGuidance\/IVDRegulatoryAssistance\/ucm124208.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/MedicalDevices\/DeviceRegulationandGuidance\/IVDRegulatoryAssistance\/ucm124208.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 March 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=CLIA+Categorization+Criteria&rft.atitle=&rft.date=6+March+2014&rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2FMedicalDevices%2FDeviceRegulationandGuidance%2FIVDRegulatoryAssistance%2Fucm124208.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIADec13-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIADec13_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/downloads\/factype.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CLIA Update \u2013 December 2013 - Laboratories by Type of Facility\"<\/a> (PDF). Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. December 2013<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/downloads\/factype.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Regulations-and-Guidance\/Legislation\/CLIA\/downloads\/factype.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 March 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=CLIA+Update+%E2%80%93+December+2013+-+Laboratories+by+Type+of+Facility&rft.atitle=&rft.date=December+2013&rft.pub=Centers+for+Medicare+and+Medicaid+Services&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cms.gov%2FRegulations-and-Guidance%2FLegislation%2FCLIA%2Fdownloads%2Ffactype.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CLIABroch-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIABroch_11-0\">11.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CLIABroch_11-1\">11.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Outreach-and-Education\/Medicare-Learning-Network-MLN\/MLNProducts\/downloads\/CLIABrochure.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)\"<\/a> (PDF). 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Retrieved 23 March 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Amendments+%28CLIA%29&rft.atitle=&rft.date=May+2013&rft.pub=Centers+for+Medicare+and+Medicaid+Services&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cms.gov%2FOutreach-and-Education%2FMedicare-Learning-Network-MLN%2FMLNProducts%2Fdownloads%2FCLIABrochure.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDCWaived-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDCWaived_12-0\">12.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDCWaived_12-1\">12.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wwwn.cdc.gov\/clia\/Resources\/WaivedTests\/default.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA) - CLIA Waived Tests\"<\/a>. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 14 March 2014<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/wwwn.cdc.gov\/clia\/Resources\/WaivedTests\/default.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/wwwn.cdc.gov\/clia\/Resources\/WaivedTests\/default.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 March 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Clinical+Laboratory+Improvement+Amendments+%28CLIA%29+-+CLIA+Waived+Tests&rft.atitle=&rft.date=14+March+2014&rft.pub=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwwwn.cdc.gov%2Fclia%2FResources%2FWaivedTests%2Fdefault.aspx&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-APCC-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-APCC_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/MedicalDevices\/DeviceRegulationandGuidance\/GuidanceDocuments\/ucm070762.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Administrative Procedures for CLIA Categorization - Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff\"<\/a>. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 12 March 2014<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/MedicalDevices\/DeviceRegulationandGuidance\/GuidanceDocuments\/ucm070762.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/MedicalDevices\/DeviceRegulationandGuidance\/GuidanceDocuments\/ucm070762.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 17 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Administrative+Procedures+for+CLIA+Categorization+-+Guidance+for+Industry+and+Food+and+Drug+Administration+Staff&rft.atitle=&rft.date=12+March+2014&rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2FMedicalDevices%2FDeviceRegulationandGuidance%2FGuidanceDocuments%2Fucm070762.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDAWaivers-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDAWaivers_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/ivdregulatoryassistance\/ucm124202.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"IVD Regulatory Assistance - CLIA Waivers\"<\/a>. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 19 June 2009<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/ivdregulatoryassistance\/ucm124202.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/medicaldevices\/deviceregulationandguidance\/ivdregulatoryassistance\/ucm124202.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 23 March 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=IVD+Regulatory+Assistance+-+CLIA+Waivers&rft.atitle=&rft.date=19+June+2009&rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fmedicaldevices%2Fdeviceregulationandguidance%2Fivdregulatoryassistance%2Fucm124202.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203024\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.290 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.313 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 9264\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 21015\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 68358\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 27017\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 257.495 1 - -total\n 87.24% 224.635 15 - Template:Citation\/core\n 52.85% 136.095 10 - Template:Cite_web\n 35.47% 91.324 4 - Template:Cite_journal\n 8.45% 21.756 1 - Template:Cite_book\n 5.01% 12.891 18 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 4.75% 12.241 5 - Template:Citation\/identifier\n 1.21% 3.128 10 - Template:Hide_in_print\n 1.10% 2.832 5 - Template:Only_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:4907-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403203024 and revision id 21625\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_Laboratory_Improvement_Amendments<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_images":["https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/8\/8b\/CLIA_Logo.gif"],"64bdae1dc17c40c28e0c560396a6ae35_timestamp":1554323424,"74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_type":"article","74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_title":"ASTM E1578","74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578","74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tASTM E1578\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tASTM E1578 (titled Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics) is an active standard developed by ASTM International, specifically Subcommittee E13.15 on Analytical Data. According to a 2012 press release from the committee, the standard exists primarily because \"the use of electronic laboratory notebooks, cloud computing, and the adoption of lean principles has lead to an evolution in the use of LIMS and related analytics currently employed across laboratory environments.\"[1] \nAs of March 2019[update], seven goals are associates with the standard as it relates to laboratory information management systems and other laboratory informatics applications[2]:\n\n to provide educational material to those new to laboratory informatics\n to provide educational material to those already applying laboratory informatics to laboratories and associated areas \n to provide educational material to those who develop and distribute laboratory informatics applications and instrumentation\n to describe and recommend a standardized body of terminology to both developers and users\n to describe and recommend a body of requirements that are essential to system functions\n to provide recommendations for tasks and documentation secondarily related to laboratory informatics, including costing, implementation, and training\n to provide recommendations for integrating laboratory informatics applications and processes into workflow\nHistory \nThe standard was previously released as E1578-93 (1993), E1578-93(1999) (1999), E1578-06 (2006), and E1578-13 (2013).[2] The current standard E1578-18 was approved in mid-2018. The 2018 update added new insights into laboratory informatics tools and how to integrate them into workflow and with other hardware and software. And though relatively in their infancy in laboratory application, the revision added content about internet of things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), and smart objects.\n\nExternal links \n ASTM E1578-18 at ASTM International\nReferences \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM Molecular Spectroscopy Committee Invites Participation in Revision of Laboratory Information Management Systems Standard\". ASTM International. 07 March 2012. http:\/\/www.astmnewsroom.org\/default.aspx?pageid=2721 . Retrieved 17 November 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 \"ASTM E1578 - 13: Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\". ASTM International. http:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm . Retrieved 01 March 2019 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Articles containing potentially dated statements from March 2019Articles with invalid date parameter in templateAll articles containing potentially dated statementsDesign and development standardsLaboratory informatics standards\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 1 March 2019, at 19:54.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 1,819 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-ASTM_E1578 skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">ASTM E1578<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><p><b>ASTM E1578<\/b> (titled <i>Standard Guide for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">Laboratory Informatics<\/a><\/i>) is an active standard developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_International\" title=\"ASTM International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfeafbac63fa786e77b472c3f86d07ed\">ASTM International<\/a>, specifically Subcommittee E13.15 on Analytical Data. According to a 2012 press release from the committee, the standard exists primarily because \"the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebooks<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f\">cloud computing<\/a>, and the adoption of lean principles has lead to an evolution in the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS\" title=\"LIMS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"21b7bfebbba300be00cdbb84cddb338d\">LIMS<\/a> and related analytics currently employed across <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> environments.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME13.15_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME13.15-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>As of March 2019<sup class=\"plainlinks noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, seven goals are associates with the standard as it relates to laboratory information management systems and other laboratory informatics applications<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> to provide educational material to those new to laboratory informatics<\/li>\n<li> to provide educational material to those already applying laboratory informatics to laboratories and associated areas <\/li>\n<li> to provide educational material to those who develop and distribute laboratory informatics applications and instrumentation<\/li>\n<li> to describe and recommend a standardized body of terminology to both developers and users<\/li>\n<li> to describe and recommend a body of requirements that are essential to system functions<\/li>\n<li> to provide recommendations for tasks and documentation secondarily related to laboratory informatics, including costing, implementation, and training<\/li>\n<li> to provide recommendations for integrating laboratory informatics applications and processes into workflow<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The standard was previously released as E1578-93 (1993), E1578-93(1999) (1999), E1578-06 (2006), and E1578-13 (2013).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTME1578-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> The current standard E1578-18 was approved in mid-2018. The 2018 update added new insights into laboratory informatics tools and how to integrate them into workflow and with other hardware and software. And though relatively in their infancy in laboratory application, the revision added content about internet of things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), and smart objects.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">ASTM E1578-18 at ASTM International<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTME13.15-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME13.15_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.astmnewsroom.org\/default.aspx?pageid=2721\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM Molecular Spectroscopy Committee Invites Participation in Revision of Laboratory Information Management Systems Standard\"<\/a>. ASTM International. 07 March 2012<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.astmnewsroom.org\/default.aspx?pageid=2721\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.astmnewsroom.org\/default.aspx?pageid=2721<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 17 November 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ASTM+Molecular+Spectroscopy+Committee+Invites+Participation+in+Revision+of+Laboratory+Information+Management+Systems+Standard&rft.atitle=&rft.date=07+March+2012&rft.pub=ASTM+International&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astmnewsroom.org%2Fdefault.aspx%3Fpageid%3D2721&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ASTM_E1578\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTME1578-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTME1578_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E1578 - 13: Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>. ASTM International<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 01 March 2019<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ASTM+E1578+-+13%3A+Standard+Guide+for+Laboratory+Informatics&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=ASTM+International&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FE1578.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:ASTM_E1578\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203024\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.063 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.080 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1265\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 12590\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 8536\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 3164\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 66.819 1 - -total\n 66.24% 44.264 2 - Template:Cite_web\n 58.87% 39.340 2 - Template:Citation\/core\n 24.43% 16.327 1 - Template:As_of\n 18.17% 12.140 1 - Template:DMCA\n 15.08% 10.079 1 - Template:Dated_maintenance_category\n 7.48% 4.996 1 - Template:FULLROOTPAGENAME\n 4.31% 2.880 2 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 4.02% 2.685 1 - Template:Ns_has_subpages\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:6343-0!*!0!!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203024 and revision id 35050\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_E1578<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_images":[],"74b64479a39bee791aacc4605b78a061_timestamp":1554323424,"f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_type":"article","f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_title":"40 CFR Part 3","f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3","f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t40 CFR Part 3\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations Part 3 (40 CFR Part 3) \u2014 sometimes referred to as the Cross-Media Electronic Reporting Rule (CROMERR) \u2014 provides for electronic reporting (in lieu of a paper document) to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Within this part, requirements are created to ensure that electronic reporting to the EPA is enacted in a satisfactory way to satisfy federal or authorized program reporting requirements, including those requiring an electronic signature.[1]\n\nContents\n\n1 History \n2 Structure \n\n2.1 Subpart A \n2.2 Subpart B \n2.3 Subpart C \n2.4 Subpart D \n\n\n3 Central Data Exchange \n4 Further reading \n5 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nOn August 31, 2001, the EPA \"published a notice of proposed rulemaking, announcing the goal of making electronic reporting and electronic recordkeeping available under EPA regulatory programs.\"[2] However, the EPA had been working on plans related to such a proposal (referred to as Cross-Media Electronic Reporting) well before, stating in its review of its final rule that the process actually \"reflects more than ten years of interaction with stakeholders,\" including \"electronic reporting pilot projects conducted with state agency partners, including the States of Pennsylvania, New York, Arizona, and several others.\"[2] This also involved collaboration with more than half of U.S. states in May 1997 on the State Electronic Commerce\/Electronic Data Interchange Steering Committee (SEES) and a series of conferences starting in 1999 to acquire stakeholders' thoughts. Public commenting closed on February 27, 2002, with the EPA receiving 184 collection of written comments. The EPA made additional adjustments to the proposal, which culminated in a final version of CROMERR that was codified into Title 40 as Part 3 on October 13, 2005 and made effective January 11, 2006.[2]\nOn December 24, 2008, minor adjustments were made to CROMERR that extended compliance dates for existing systems making the transition to electronic filing to the EPA.[3]\n\nStructure \nThe structure of Part 3 is as follows:\nSubpart A \u2014 General Provisions\n\n\u00a7 3.1 Who does this part apply to?\n\u00a7 3.2 How does this part provide for electronic reporting?\n\u00a7 3.3 What definitions are applicable to this part?\n\u00a7 3.4 How does this part affect enforcement and compliance provisions of Title 40?\nSubpart B \u2014 Electronic Reporting to EPA\n\n\u00a7 3.10 What are the requirements for electronic reporting to EPA?\n\u00a7 3.20 How will EPA provide notice of changes to the Central Data Exchange?\nSubpart C \u2014 [Reserved]\nSubpart D \u2014 Electronic Reporting Under EPA-Authorized State, Tribe, and Local Programs\n\n\u00a7 3.1000 How does a state, tribe, or local government revise or modify its authorized program to allow electronic reporting?\n\u00a7 3.2000 What are the requirements authorized state, tribe, and local programs' reporting systems must meet?\nAppendix 1 to Part 3 Priority Reports\nSubpart A \nThis is essentially the preamble of the regulations, explaining to what and who the regulations apply as well as how they'll apply. Definitions of common terms appearing in the regulations can also be found here, including a description of electronic signature devices.\n\nSubpart B \nThis section covers the requirements applicable to electronic record formats and their submission to the EPA's Central Data Exchange (CDX) or other related EPA systems. It also provides guidelines on how the EPA will notify CDX users of hardware and software changes that affect transmission.\n\nSubpart C \nSubpart C is blank, \"reserved for future EPA electronic recordkeeping requirements.\"[2]\n\nSubpart D \nThis final section provides in-depth requirements for revising state, local, and tribal government programs for electronic submissions as well as outlining the reporting system requirements. In particular it lays out a list of requirements for data generated from electronic document receiving systems, including security, audit trail, quality control, and electronic signatures.\n\nCentral Data Exchange \nThe EPA's Central Data Exchange (CDX) is used by EPA offices, local and state governments, private industries, and Indian tribes required to submit environmental data related to more than 60 programs in the United States, including the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program, the RadNet program, and the Verify engine and vehicle compliance program.[4][5] The EPA touts CDX as an important component of operations as well as meeting 40 CFR Part 3 compliance, claiming reductions in reporting burdens, cost, and data transfer times as well as increases in data quality and compliance.[6]\nAs of mid-February 2015, the CDX had more than 296,000 registered users submitting data to 63 data feeds, with 10 additional data flows in development.[7]\n\nFurther reading \n CROMERR Fact Sheet (PDF)\n \"Cross-Media Electronic Reporting\". Federal Register. OFR\/GPO. 13 October 2005. https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/articles\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting .   \n \"CROMERR 101: Fundamentals for States, Tribes, and Local Governments\" (PDF). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cromerr\/training\/cromerr101\/cromerr_course_summary.pdf .   \nReferences \n\n\u2191 \"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 40: Protection of Environment - Part 3: Cross-media Electronic Reporting\". U.S. Government Printing Office. http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=40:1.0.1.1.3&idno=40 . Retrieved 02 March 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 \"Cross-Media Electronic Reporting\". Federal Register. OFR\/GPO. 13 October 2005. https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/articles\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting . Retrieved 06 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"CROMERR 101: Fundamentals for States, Tribes, and Local Governments\" (PDF). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cromerr\/training\/cromerr101\/cromerr_course_summary.pdf . Retrieved 09 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"About CDX\". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/about\/index.htm . Retrieved 09 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Production Data Flows\". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141017114023\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/projects\/production.htm . Retrieved 09 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"CDX Benefits\". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/benefits\/index.htm . Retrieved 09 February 2015 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Central Data Exchange\". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original on 09 February 2015. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209185915\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/ . Retrieved 09 February 2015 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Regulatory information\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 9 February 2015, at 20:23.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 3,398 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-40_CFR_Part_3 skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">40 CFR Part 3<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><p>The <b>Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations Part 3<\/b> (<b>40 CFR Part 3<\/b>) \u2014 sometimes referred to as the Cross-Media Electronic Reporting Rule (CROMERR) \u2014 provides for electronic reporting (in lieu of a paper document) to the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency\" title=\"United States Environmental Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"877b052e12328aa52f6f7c3f2d56f99a\">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency<\/a> (EPA). Within this part, requirements are created to ensure that electronic reporting to the EPA is enacted in a satisfactory way to satisfy federal or authorized program reporting requirements, including those requiring an electronic signature.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>On August 31, 2001, the EPA \"published a notice of proposed rulemaking, announcing the goal of making electronic reporting and electronic recordkeeping available under EPA regulatory programs.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70FR59848_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70FR59848-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> However, the EPA had been working on plans related to such a proposal (referred to as Cross-Media Electronic Reporting) well before, stating in its review of its final rule that the process actually \"reflects more than ten years of interaction with stakeholders,\" including \"electronic reporting pilot projects conducted with state agency partners, including the States of Pennsylvania, New York, Arizona, and several others.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70FR59848_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70FR59848-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> This also involved collaboration with more than half of U.S. states in May 1997 on the State Electronic Commerce\/Electronic Data Interchange Steering Committee (SEES) and a series of conferences starting in 1999 to acquire stakeholders' thoughts. Public commenting closed on February 27, 2002, with the EPA receiving 184 collection of written comments. The EPA made additional adjustments to the proposal, which culminated in a final version of CROMERR that was codified into Title 40 as Part 3 on October 13, 2005 and made effective January 11, 2006.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70FR59848_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70FR59848-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On December 24, 2008, minor adjustments were made to CROMERR that extended compliance dates for existing systems making the transition to electronic filing to the EPA.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CROMERRTrain_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CROMERRTrain-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The structure of Part 3 is as follows:\n<\/p><p><b>Subpart A \u2014 General Provisions<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 3.1 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=40:1.0.1.1.3&idno=40#se40.1.3_11\" target=\"_blank\">Who does this part apply to?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 3.2 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=40:1.0.1.1.3&idno=40#se40.1.3_12\" target=\"_blank\">How does this part provide for electronic reporting?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 3.3 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=40:1.0.1.1.3&idno=40#se40.1.3_13\" target=\"_blank\">What definitions are applicable to this part?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 3.4 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=40:1.0.1.1.3&idno=40#se40.1.3_14\" target=\"_blank\">How does this part affect enforcement and compliance provisions of Title 40?<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Subpart B \u2014 Electronic Reporting to EPA<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 3.10 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=40:1.0.1.1.3&idno=40#se40.1.3_110\" target=\"_blank\">What are the requirements for electronic reporting to EPA?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 3.20 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=40:1.0.1.1.3&idno=40#se40.1.3_120\" target=\"_blank\">How will EPA provide notice of changes to the Central Data Exchange?<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Subpart C \u2014 [Reserved]<\/b>\n<\/p><p><b>Subpart D \u2014 Electronic Reporting Under EPA-Authorized State, Tribe, and Local Programs<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 3.1000 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=40:1.0.1.1.3&idno=40#se40.1.3_11000\" target=\"_blank\">How does a state, tribe, or local government revise or modify its authorized program to allow electronic reporting?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 3.2000 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=40:1.0.1.1.3&idno=40#se40.1.3_12000\" target=\"_blank\">What are the requirements authorized state, tribe, and local programs' reporting systems must meet?<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>Appendix 1 to Part 3 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=40:1.0.1.1.3&idno=40#ap40.1.3_12000.1\" target=\"_blank\">Priority Reports<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_A\">Subpart A<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This is essentially the preamble of the regulations, explaining to what and who the regulations apply as well as how they'll apply. Definitions of common terms appearing in the regulations can also be found here, including a description of electronic signature devices.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_B\">Subpart B<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section covers the requirements applicable to electronic record formats and their submission to the EPA's Central Data Exchange (CDX) or other related EPA systems. It also provides guidelines on how the EPA will notify CDX users of hardware and software changes that affect transmission.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_C\">Subpart C<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Subpart C is blank, \"reserved for future EPA electronic recordkeeping requirements.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70FR59848_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70FR59848-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_D\">Subpart D<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This final section provides in-depth requirements for revising state, local, and tribal government programs for electronic submissions as well as outlining the reporting system requirements. In particular it lays out a list of requirements for data generated from electronic document receiving systems, including security, audit trail, quality control, and electronic signatures.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Central_Data_Exchange\">Central Data Exchange<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The EPA's Central Data Exchange (CDX) is used by EPA offices, local and state governments, private industries, and Indian tribes required to submit environmental data related to more than 60 programs in the United States, including the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program, the RadNet program, and the Verify engine and vehicle compliance program.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDXAbout_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDXAbout-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDXProd_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDXProd-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> The EPA touts CDX as an important component of operations as well as meeting 40 CFR Part 3 compliance, claiming reductions in reporting burdens, cost, and data transfer times as well as increases in data quality and compliance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDXBenis_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDXBenis-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As of mid-February 2015, the CDX had more than 296,000 registered users submitting data to 63 data feeds, with 10 additional data flows in development.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDXArchFeb15_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDXArchFeb15-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/CROMERR\/documents\/cromerr_fact_sheet.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">CROMERR Fact Sheet<\/a> (PDF)<\/li>\n<li> <span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/articles\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cross-Media Electronic Reporting\"<\/a>. <i>Federal Register<\/i>. OFR\/GPO. 13 October 2005<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/articles\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/articles\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Cross-Media+Electronic+Reporting&rft.atitle=Federal+Register&rft.date=13+October+2005&rft.pub=OFR%2FGPO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.federalregister.gov%2Farticles%2F2005%2F10%2F13%2F05-19601%2Fcross-media-electronic-reporting&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li> <span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cromerr\/training\/cromerr101\/cromerr_course_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CROMERR 101: Fundamentals for States, Tribes, and Local Governments\"<\/a> (PDF). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cromerr\/training\/cromerr101\/cromerr_course_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cromerr\/training\/cromerr101\/cromerr_course_summary.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=CROMERR+101%3A+Fundamentals+for+States%2C+Tribes%2C+and+Local+Governments&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fcromerr%2Ftraining%2Fcromerr101%2Fcromerr_course_summary.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=40:1.0.1.1.3&idno=40\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 40: Protection of Environment - Part 3: Cross-media Electronic Reporting\"<\/a>. U.S. Government Printing Office<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=40:1.0.1.1.3&idno=40\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=40:1.0.1.1.3&idno=40<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 02 March 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Electronic+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+-+Title+40%3A+Protection+of+Environment+-+Part+3%3A+Cross-media+Electronic+Reporting&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecfr.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Ftext-idx%3Fc%3Decfr%26sid%3D5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2%26rgn%3Ddiv5%26view%3Dtext%26node%3D40%3A1.0.1.1.3%26idno%3D40&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-70FR59848-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-70FR59848_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-70FR59848_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-70FR59848_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-70FR59848_2-3\">2.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/articles\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cross-Media Electronic Reporting\"<\/a>. <i>Federal Register<\/i>. OFR\/GPO. 13 October 2005<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/articles\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.federalregister.gov\/articles\/2005\/10\/13\/05-19601\/cross-media-electronic-reporting<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Cross-Media+Electronic+Reporting&rft.atitle=Federal+Register&rft.date=13+October+2005&rft.pub=OFR%2FGPO&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.federalregister.gov%2Farticles%2F2005%2F10%2F13%2F05-19601%2Fcross-media-electronic-reporting&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CROMERRTrain-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CROMERRTrain_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cromerr\/training\/cromerr101\/cromerr_course_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CROMERR 101: Fundamentals for States, Tribes, and Local Governments\"<\/a> (PDF). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cromerr\/training\/cromerr101\/cromerr_course_summary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cromerr\/training\/cromerr101\/cromerr_course_summary.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 09 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=CROMERR+101%3A+Fundamentals+for+States%2C+Tribes%2C+and+Local+Governments&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fcromerr%2Ftraining%2Fcromerr101%2Fcromerr_course_summary.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDXAbout-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDXAbout_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/about\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"About CDX\"<\/a>. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/about\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/about\/index.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 09 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=About+CDX&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fcdx%2Fabout%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDXProd-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDXProd_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141017114023\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/projects\/production.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Production Data Flows\"<\/a>. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141017114023\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/projects\/production.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141017114023\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/projects\/production.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 09 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Production+Data+Flows&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20141017114023%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fcdx%2Fprojects%2Fproduction.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDXBenis-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDXBenis_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/benefits\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"CDX Benefits\"<\/a>. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/benefits\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/benefits\/index.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 09 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=CDX+Benefits&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fcdx%2Fbenefits%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDXArchFeb15-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDXArchFeb15_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209185915\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Central Data Exchange\"<\/a>. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 09 February 2015<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209185915\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150209185915\/http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/cdx\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 09 February 2015<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Central+Data+Exchange&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20150209185915%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fcdx%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:40_CFR_Part_3\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203023\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.164 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.176 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5137\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 12455\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 31469\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 13292\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 11\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 149.402 1 - -total\n 95.56% 142.770 9 - Template:Cite_web\n 89.50% 133.710 9 - Template:Citation\/core\n 6.37% 9.510 12 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3393-0!*!0!!en!*!* and timestamp 20190403203023 and revision id 20401\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_images":[],"f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef_timestamp":1554323423,"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_type":"article","0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_title":"21 CFR Part 11","0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11","0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t21 CFR Part 11\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations Part 11 (21 CFR Part 11) provides compliance information regarding the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) guidelines on electronic records and electronic signatures. Within this part, requirements are created to help ensure security, integrity, and confidentially of electronic records and to ensure electronic signatures are as legally binding as hand-written signatures.[1]\nPractically speaking, Part 11 requires drug makers, medical device manufacturers, biotech and biologics companies, contract research organizations, and other FDA-regulated industries, with some specific exceptions, to implement controls, including audits, system validations, audit trails, electronic signatures, and documentation for closed and open software and systems involved in processing specific electronic data. This primarily includes data to be maintained by the FDA predicate rules and data used to demonstrate compliance to a predicate rule. A predicate rule is any requirement set forth in the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, the Public Health Service Act, or any FDA regulation other than Part 11.[2] The rule also applies to submissions made to the FDA in electronic format, but not to paper submissions by electronic methods, though paper submissions may eventually be prohibited by the FDA.[3]\n\nContents\n\n1 History \n2 Structure \n\n2.1 Subpart A \n2.2 Subpart B \n2.3 Subpart C \n\n\n3 Audit guidelines and checklist \n4 Further reading \n5 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nBy the early 1990s, food and drug manufacturers approached the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) about the possibility of electronic submissions with electronic signatures. However, at that time the government did not allow for digital signatures. In July 1992, the FDA began soliciting comments about the process of using electronic signatures.[4]\nIn March 1997, the FDA issued Part 11 regulations which, in the words of the FDA, were \"intended to permit the widest possible use of electronic technology, compatible with FDA's responsibility to protect the public health.\"[2] Various keynote speeches by FDA insiders early in the 21st century (in addition to compliance guides and draft guidance documents)[2] as well as strong efforts by the FDA to motivate industry to move to e-filing[5] resulted in many companies like Eli Lilly[6], Agilent Technologies[7], and other businesses rapidly being forced to change their methods and systems to adapt to the new standards.[2][8]\nHowever, many entities expressed concerns about the Title 11 conditions, including concerns the regulations would \"unnecessarily restrict\" the use of technology, add significant compliance costs beyond what was intended, and stifle technological innovation while reducing public health benefit.[2] In November 2002, the FDA released the guidance document \"Guidance for Industry 21 CFR Part 11; Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures, Electronic Copies of Electronic Records\" to the public for commenting.[9] On February 3, 2003, the FDA withdrew that document, stating \"we wanted to minimize industry time spent reviewing and commenting on the draft guidance when that draft guidance may no longer represent our approach under the [current good manufacturing practice] initiative,\" adding it would afterwards \"intend to exercise enforcement discretion with regard to certain Part 11 requirements.\"[2] Further guidance documents were withdrawn later that month, culminating in a final guidance document in August 2003 stating the government body would re-examine Part 11 and make necessary changes.[2][10] However, the FDA reiterated despite its retraction of the guidance documents \"21 CFR Part 11 is not going away, and neither is the agency's demand for electronic record integrity.\"[11] The retraction of guidance and change in policy, however, led many IT members in the pharmaceutical and life sciences industry in late 2004 to state one of the key problems they face as the lack of clear guidelines from the FDA about what is required for compliance.[12]\nThe FDA had indicated it would produce a revised version of Part 11 by the end of 2006, after its Third Annual FDA Information Management Summit had concluded.[13] Those revisions never arrived, and little in the way of updates on the topic arrived.[14] On July 8, 2010, the FDA announced it would begin to audit facilities working with drugs \"in an effort to evaluate industry's compliance and understanding of Part 11 in light of the enforcement discretion,\"[15] leaving some to wonder if this was an indicator the regulation and\/or its guidance would finally see a revision.[16][17]\n\nStructure \nThe structure of Part 11 is as follows:\nSubpart A \u2014 General Provisions\n\n\u00a7 11.1 Scope\n\u00a7 11.2 Implementation\n\u00a7 11.3 Definitions\nSubpart B \u2014 Electronic Records\n\n\u00a7 11.10 Controls for closed systems\n\u00a7 11.30 Controls for open systems\n\u00a7 11.50 Signature manifestations\n\u00a7 11.70 Signature\/record linking\nSubpart C \u2014 Electronic Signatures\n\n\u00a7 11.100 General requirements\n\u00a7 11.200 Electronic signature components and controls\n\u00a7 11.300 Controls for identification codes\/passwords\nSubpart A \nThis is essentially the preamble of the regulations, explaining to what and who the regulations apply as well as how they'll apply. Definitions of common terms appearing in the regulations can also be found here, including a clarification in the difference between a digital and electronic signature.\n\nSubpart B \nThis section covers the requirements applicable to electronic records and their management. Several requirements are addressed, including \"how to ensure the authenticity, integrity, and, when appropriate, the confidentiality of electronic records\"; what content a signature should contain; and how electronic records and their signatures should be linked. It also covers topics like system validation, data traceability, audit control, and version control. \n\nSubpart C \nThis final section addresses the requirements specific to electronic signatures and their use. General requirements for electronic signatures, their components and controls, and password controls are all addressed. Additionally, this section addresses requirements for more advanced biometric-based signatures.\n\nAudit guidelines and checklist \nMain article: 21 CFR Part 11\/Audit guidelines and checklist\nFor those auditing computer systems and IT environments for their compliance with 21 CFR Part 11 and other regulations, a set of guidelines and checklist items may be useful. \n\r\n\nClick the link above for the full set of guidelines and checklist items.\n\nFurther reading \n \"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21: Food and Drugs - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\". U.S. Government Printing Office. http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/retrieveECFR?gp=&SID=04a3cb63d1d72ce40e56ee2e7513cca3&r=PART&n=21y1.0.1.1.8 .   \n \"CFR - Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21 - Part 11 Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/cfrsearch.cfm?cfrpart=11 .   \n Huber, Ludwig (15 November 2012). \"Tutorial: 21 CFR Part 11 - Electronic Records and Electronic Signatures\". LabCompliance. http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/ .   \nReferences \n\n\u2191 \"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21: Food and Drugs - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\". U.S. Government Printing Office. http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/retrieveECFR?gp=&SID=04a3cb63d1d72ce40e56ee2e7513cca3&r=PART&n=21y1.0.1.1.8 . Retrieved 02 March 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 \"Part 11, Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures \u2014 Scope and Application\". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. August 2003. http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatoryinformation\/guidances\/ucm125067.htm . Retrieved 06 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Huber, Ludwig (15 November 2012). \"Tutorial: 21 CFR Part 11 - Electronic Records and Electronic Signatures\". LabCompliance. http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/ . Retrieved 10 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Jackson, William (01 June 2000). \"FDA offers electronic option\". GCN. http:\/\/gcn.com\/Articles\/2000\/06\/01\/FDA-offers-electronic-option.aspx?Page=2 . Retrieved 06 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Greenemeier, Larry (25 February 2002). \"FDA Moving To E-Filing\". InformationWeek. http:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/fda-moving-to-e-filing\/6500937 . Retrieved 06 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Greenemeier, Larry (18 February 2002). \"Lilly Cures Inefficiency With IT\". InformationWeek. http:\/\/www.informationweek.com\/lilly-cures-inefficiency-with-it\/6501017 . Retrieved 06 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Agilent Introduces Security Pack for Analytical Laboratories\". Laboratory Network. 20 June 2000. http:\/\/www.laboratorynetwork.com\/doc\/Agilent-Introduces-Security-Pack-for-Analytic-0001 . Retrieved 06 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Harrold, Dave (01 April 2002). \"'I'm from the Government, and I'm Here to Help You!'\". Control Engineering. http:\/\/www.controleng.com\/single-article\/i-m-from-the-government-and-i-m-here-to-help-you\/61fedbc69297fc6965c6d8840871e085.html . Retrieved 06 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"FDA releases 21 CFR Part 11 guidance document\". Control Engineering. 03 January 2003. http:\/\/www.controleng.com\/search\/search-single-display\/fda-releases-21-cfr-part-11-guidance-document\/5edbb001e1.html . Retrieved 06 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"FDA plans to amend 21 CFR Part 11 rules\". in-Pharma Technologist. 05 September 2003. http:\/\/www.in-pharmatechnologist.com\/Drug-Delivery\/FDA-plans-to-amend-21-CFR-Part-11-rules . Retrieved 06 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 June, Tamar M. (July 2003). \"Quality Assurance, Safety and 21 CFR Part 11: These three old friends are here to stay\". Quality Digest. http:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/july03\/articles\/04_article.shtml . Retrieved 10 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Complying with US Food and Drug Administration(FDA) data regulations is proving a struggle for IT departments in pharmaceutical and life science companies\". Storage Networking Solutions. 17 November 2004. http:\/\/snseurope.info\/article\/12833\/Complying-with-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration(FDA)-data-regulations-is-proving-a-struggle-for-IT-departments-in-pharmaceutical-and-life-science-companies . Retrieved 06 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Reymond, Emilie (24 October 2006). \"FDA to review electronic signature regulation\". in-Pharma Technologist. http:\/\/www.in-pharmatechnologist.com\/Regulatory-Safety\/FDA-to-review-electronic-signature-regulation . Retrieved 06 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Miller, George (13 November 2009). \"Don't sweat the Part 11 stuff\". FierceBiotechIT. http:\/\/www.fiercebiotechit.com\/story\/dont-sweat-part-11-stuff\/2009-11-13 . Retrieved 06 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"FDA To Conduct Inspections Focusing on 21 CFR 11 (Part 11) requirements relating to human drugs\". U.S. FDA. 08 July 2010. http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/OfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco\/CDER\/ucm204012.htm . Retrieved 06 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Barsky, Emma; Grunbaum, Len (25 July 2010). \"Part 11: How Will FDA Enforce?\". GxP Perspectives. http:\/\/gxpperspectives.com\/2010\/07\/25\/part-11-how-will-fda-enforce\/ . Retrieved 06 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Appel, Ken (28 July 2010). \"Audit Alert! - Clarity on e-Records: FDA to Re-Evaluate 21 CFR 11\". Pharmaceutical Processing. http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/blogs\/2010\/07\/audit-alert-clarity-e-records-fda-re-evaluate-21-cfr-11 . Retrieved 06 April 2013 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Regulatory information\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 6 February 2015, at 18:23.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 20,892 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-21_CFR_Part_11 skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">21 CFR Part 11<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><p>The <b>Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations Part 11<\/b> (<b>21 CFR Part 11<\/b>) provides <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"Regulatory compliance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dbc9be278a8efda25a4b592ee6ef0ca\">compliance<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> regarding the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) guidelines on electronic records and . Within this part, requirements are created to help ensure security, integrity, and confidentially of electronic records and to ensure electronic signatures are as legally binding as hand-written signatures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21CFR11.40ecfr_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21CFR11.40ecfr-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Practically speaking, Part 11 requires drug makers, medical device manufacturers, biotech and biologics companies, contract research organizations, and other FDA-regulated industries, with some specific exceptions, to implement controls, including audits, system validations, audit trails, electronic signatures, and documentation for closed and open software and systems involved in processing specific electronic data. This primarily includes data to be maintained by the FDA predicate rules and data used to demonstrate compliance to a predicate rule. A predicate rule is any requirement set forth in the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, the Public Health Service Act, or any FDA regulation other than Part 11.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> The rule also applies to submissions made to the FDA in electronic format, but not to paper submissions by electronic methods, though paper submissions may eventually be prohibited by the FDA.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tut21CFR11_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tut21CFR11-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>By the early 1990s, food and drug manufacturers approached the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) about the possibility of electronic submissions with electronic signatures. However, at that time the government did not allow for digital signatures. In July 1992, the FDA began soliciting comments about the process of using electronic signatures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GCN00Art_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GCN00Art-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In March 1997, the FDA issued Part 11 regulations which, in the words of the FDA, were \"intended to permit the widest possible use of electronic technology, compatible with FDA's responsibility to protect the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_informatics\" title=\"Public health informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd\">public health<\/a>.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Various keynote speeches by FDA insiders early in the 21st century (in addition to compliance guides and draft guidance documents)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> as well as strong efforts by the FDA to motivate industry to move to e-filing<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IWEfilingFDA_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IWEfilingFDA-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> resulted in many companies like Eli Lilly<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IWLillyPart11_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IWLillyPart11-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Agilent_Technologies,_Inc.\" title=\"Agilent Technologies, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dcea1a676a012bcbe3af9562dd17f8a0\">Agilent Technologies<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabNetAgilent00_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabNetAgilent00-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>, and other businesses rapidly being forced to change their methods and systems to adapt to the new standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CEPart11Art_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CEPart11Art-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, many entities expressed concerns about the Title 11 conditions, including concerns the regulations would \"unnecessarily restrict\" the use of technology, add significant compliance costs beyond what was intended, and stifle technological innovation while reducing public health benefit.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> In November 2002, the FDA released the guidance document \"Guidance for Industry 21 CFR Part 11; Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures, Electronic Copies of Electronic Records\" to the public for commenting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CEGuideDocFDA1_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CEGuideDocFDA1-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> On February 3, 2003, the FDA withdrew that document, stating \"we wanted to minimize industry time spent reviewing and commenting on the draft guidance when that draft guidance may no longer represent our approach under the [current good manufacturing practice] initiative,\" adding it would afterwards \"intend to exercise enforcement discretion with regard to certain Part 11 requirements.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Further guidance documents were withdrawn later that month, culminating in a final guidance document in August 2003 stating the government body would re-examine Part 11 and make necessary changes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-inPharmaFDAFinal03_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-inPharmaFDAFinal03-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> However, the FDA reiterated despite its retraction of the guidance documents \"21 CFR Part 11 is not going away, and neither is the agency's demand for electronic record integrity.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-QDPart11StillEnforced_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-QDPart11StillEnforced-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> The retraction of guidance and change in policy, however, led many IT members in the pharmaceutical and life sciences industry in late 2004 to state one of the key problems they face as the lack of clear guidelines from the FDA about what is required for compliance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SNSSurveyUKIT_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SNSSurveyUKIT-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The FDA had indicated it would produce a revised version of Part 11 by the end of 2006, after its Third Annual FDA <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">Information Management<\/a> Summit had concluded.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-inPharmaFDA2006_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-inPharmaFDA2006-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> Those revisions never arrived, and little in the way of updates on the topic arrived.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FBFDA09_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FBFDA09-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> On July 8, 2010, the FDA announced it would begin to audit facilities working with drugs \"in an effort to evaluate industry's compliance and understanding of Part 11 in light of the enforcement discretion,\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDAAnnounceJul8_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDAAnnounceJul8-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> leaving some to wonder if this was an indicator the regulation and\/or its guidance would finally see a revision.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GxPEnforce_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GxPEnforce-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PharmProcEnforce_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PharmProcEnforce-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The structure of Part 11 is as follows:\n<\/p><p><b>Subpart A \u2014 General Provisions<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 11.1 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.1\" target=\"_blank\">Scope<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.2 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.2\" target=\"_blank\">Implementation<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.3 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.3\" target=\"_blank\">Definitions<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Subpart B \u2014 Electronic Records<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 11.10 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.10\" target=\"_blank\">Controls for closed systems<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.30 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.30\" target=\"_blank\">Controls for open systems<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.50 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.50\" target=\"_blank\">Signature manifestations<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.70 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.70\" target=\"_blank\">Signature\/record linking<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p><b>Subpart C \u2014 Electronic Signatures<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>\u00a7 11.100 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.100\" target=\"_blank\">General requirements<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.200 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.200\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic signature components and controls<\/a><\/dd>\n<dd>\u00a7 11.300 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=11.300\" target=\"_blank\">Controls for identification codes\/passwords<\/a><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_A\">Subpart A<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This is essentially the preamble of the regulations, explaining to what and who the regulations apply as well as how they'll apply. Definitions of common terms appearing in the regulations can also be found here, including a clarification in the difference between a digital and electronic signature.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_B\">Subpart B<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This section covers the requirements applicable to electronic records and their management. Several requirements are addressed, including \"how to ensure the authenticity, integrity, and, when appropriate, the confidentiality of electronic records\"; what content a signature should contain; and how electronic records and their signatures should be linked. It also covers topics like system validation, data traceability, audit control, and version control. \n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Subpart_C\">Subpart C<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This final section addresses the requirements specific to electronic signatures and their use. General requirements for electronic signatures, their components and controls, and password controls are all addressed. Additionally, this section addresses requirements for more advanced biometric-based signatures.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\">Audit guidelines and checklist<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"rellink relarticle mainarticle\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\/Audit_guidelines_and_checklist\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\/Audit guidelines and checklist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe02b08755967e133508d460928f12c2\">21 CFR Part 11\/Audit guidelines and checklist<\/a><\/div>\n<p>For those auditing computer systems and IT environments for their compliance with 21 CFR Part 11 and other regulations, a set of guidelines and checklist items may be useful. \n<br \/>\n<\/p><p>Click the link above for the full set of guidelines and checklist items.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/retrieveECFR?gp=&SID=04a3cb63d1d72ce40e56ee2e7513cca3&r=PART&n=21y1.0.1.1.8\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21: Food and Drugs - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>. U.S. Government Printing Office<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/retrieveECFR?gp=&SID=04a3cb63d1d72ce40e56ee2e7513cca3&r=PART&n=21y1.0.1.1.8\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/retrieveECFR?gp=&SID=04a3cb63d1d72ce40e56ee2e7513cca3&r=PART&n=21y1.0.1.1.8<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Electronic+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+-+Title+21%3A+Food+and+Drugs+-+Part+11%3A+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecfr.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2FretrieveECFR%3Fgp%3D%26SID%3D04a3cb63d1d72ce40e56ee2e7513cca3%26r%3DPART%26n%3D21y1.0.1.1.8&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/cfrsearch.cfm?cfrpart=11\" target=\"_blank\">\"CFR - Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21 - Part 11 Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>. U.S. Food and Drug Administration<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/cfrsearch.cfm?cfrpart=11\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/cfrsearch.cfm?cfrpart=11<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=CFR+-+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+-+Title+21+-+Part+11+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcdrh%2Fcfdocs%2Fcfcfr%2Fcfrsearch.cfm%3Fcfrpart%3D11&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation web\">Huber, Ludwig (15 November 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tutorial: 21 CFR Part 11 - Electronic Records and Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>. LabCompliance<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Tutorial%3A+21+CFR+Part+11+-+Electronic+Records+and+Electronic+Signatures&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Huber%2C+Ludwig&rft.au=Huber%2C+Ludwig&rft.date=15+November+2012&rft.pub=LabCompliance&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.labcompliance.com%2Ftutorial%2Fpart11%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-21CFR11.40ecfr-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-21CFR11.40ecfr_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/retrieveECFR?gp=&SID=04a3cb63d1d72ce40e56ee2e7513cca3&r=PART&n=21y1.0.1.1.8\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21: Food and Drugs - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>. U.S. Government Printing Office<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/retrieveECFR?gp=&SID=04a3cb63d1d72ce40e56ee2e7513cca3&r=PART&n=21y1.0.1.1.8\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/retrieveECFR?gp=&SID=04a3cb63d1d72ce40e56ee2e7513cca3&r=PART&n=21y1.0.1.1.8<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 02 March 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Electronic+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+-+Title+21%3A+Food+and+Drugs+-+Part+11%3A+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecfr.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2FretrieveECFR%3Fgp%3D%26SID%3D04a3cb63d1d72ce40e56ee2e7513cca3%26r%3DPART%26n%3D21y1.0.1.1.8&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RegInfo_Part11_FDA-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-3\">2.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-4\">2.4<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-5\">2.5<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-RegInfo_Part11_FDA_2-6\">2.6<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatoryinformation\/guidances\/ucm125067.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Part 11, Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures \u2014 Scope and Application\"<\/a>. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. August 2003<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatoryinformation\/guidances\/ucm125067.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/regulatoryinformation\/guidances\/ucm125067.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Part+11%2C+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures+%E2%80%94+Scope+and+Application&rft.atitle=&rft.date=August+2003&rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fregulatoryinformation%2Fguidances%2Fucm125067.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Tut21CFR11-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Tut21CFR11_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Huber, Ludwig (15 November 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tutorial: 21 CFR Part 11 - Electronic Records and Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>. LabCompliance<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.labcompliance.com\/tutorial\/part11\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 10 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Tutorial%3A+21+CFR+Part+11+-+Electronic+Records+and+Electronic+Signatures&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Huber%2C+Ludwig&rft.au=Huber%2C+Ludwig&rft.date=15+November+2012&rft.pub=LabCompliance&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.labcompliance.com%2Ftutorial%2Fpart11%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GCN00Art-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GCN00Art_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jackson, William (01 June 2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/gcn.com\/Articles\/2000\/06\/01\/FDA-offers-electronic-option.aspx?Page=2\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA offers electronic option\"<\/a>. GCN<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/gcn.com\/Articles\/2000\/06\/01\/FDA-offers-electronic-option.aspx?Page=2\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/gcn.com\/Articles\/2000\/06\/01\/FDA-offers-electronic-option.aspx?Page=2<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Control Engineering<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.controleng.com\/single-article\/i-m-from-the-government-and-i-m-here-to-help-you\/61fedbc69297fc6965c6d8840871e085.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.controleng.com\/single-article\/i-m-from-the-government-and-i-m-here-to-help-you\/61fedbc69297fc6965c6d8840871e085.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Control Engineering. 03 January 2003<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.controleng.com\/search\/search-single-display\/fda-releases-21-cfr-part-11-guidance-document\/5edbb001e1.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.controleng.com\/search\/search-single-display\/fda-releases-21-cfr-part-11-guidance-document\/5edbb001e1.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=FDA+releases+21+CFR+Part+11+guidance+document&rft.atitle=&rft.date=03+January+2003&rft.pub=Control+Engineering&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.controleng.com%2Fsearch%2Fsearch-single-display%2Ffda-releases-21-cfr-part-11-guidance-document%2F5edbb001e1.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-inPharmaFDAFinal03-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-inPharmaFDAFinal03_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.in-pharmatechnologist.com\/Drug-Delivery\/FDA-plans-to-amend-21-CFR-Part-11-rules\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA plans to amend 21 CFR Part 11 rules\"<\/a>. in-Pharma Technologist. 05 September 2003<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.in-pharmatechnologist.com\/Drug-Delivery\/FDA-plans-to-amend-21-CFR-Part-11-rules\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.in-pharmatechnologist.com\/Drug-Delivery\/FDA-plans-to-amend-21-CFR-Part-11-rules<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=FDA+plans+to+amend+21+CFR+Part+11+rules&rft.atitle=&rft.date=05+September+2003&rft.pub=in-Pharma+Technologist&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.in-pharmatechnologist.com%2FDrug-Delivery%2FFDA-plans-to-amend-21-CFR-Part-11-rules&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-QDPart11StillEnforced-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-QDPart11StillEnforced_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">June, Tamar M. (July 2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.qualitydigest.com\/july03\/articles\/04_article.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quality Assurance, Safety and 21 CFR Part 11: These three old friends are here to stay\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved 10 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Quality+Assurance%2C+Safety+and+21+CFR+Part+11%3A+These+three+old+friends+are+here+to+stay&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=June%2C+Tamar+M.&rft.au=June%2C+Tamar+M.&rft.date=July+2003&rft.pub=Quality+Digest&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qualitydigest.com%2Fjuly03%2Farticles%2F04_article.shtml&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SNSSurveyUKIT-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SNSSurveyUKIT_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/snseurope.info\/article\/12833\/Complying-with-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration(FDA)-data-regulations-is-proving-a-struggle-for-IT-departments-in-pharmaceutical-and-life-science-companies\" target=\"_blank\">\"Complying with US Food and Drug Administration(FDA) data regulations is proving a struggle for IT departments in pharmaceutical and life science companies\"<\/a>. Storage Networking Solutions. 17 November 2004<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/snseurope.info\/article\/12833\/Complying-with-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration(FDA)-data-regulations-is-proving-a-struggle-for-IT-departments-in-pharmaceutical-and-life-science-companies\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/snseurope.info\/article\/12833\/Complying-with-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration(FDA)-data-regulations-is-proving-a-struggle-for-IT-departments-in-pharmaceutical-and-life-science-companies<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Complying+with+US+Food+and+Drug+Administration%28FDA%29+data+regulations+is+proving+a+struggle+for+IT+departments+in+pharmaceutical+and+life+science+companies&rft.atitle=&rft.date=17+November+2004&rft.pub=Storage+Networking+Solutions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsnseurope.info%2Farticle%2F12833%2FComplying-with-US-Food-and-Drug-Administration%28FDA%29-data-regulations-is-proving-a-struggle-for-IT-departments-in-pharmaceutical-and-life-science-companies&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-inPharmaFDA2006-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-inPharmaFDA2006_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Reymond, Emilie (24 October 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.in-pharmatechnologist.com\/Regulatory-Safety\/FDA-to-review-electronic-signature-regulation\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA to review electronic signature regulation\"<\/a>. in-Pharma Technologist<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.in-pharmatechnologist.com\/Regulatory-Safety\/FDA-to-review-electronic-signature-regulation\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.in-pharmatechnologist.com\/Regulatory-Safety\/FDA-to-review-electronic-signature-regulation<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=FDA+to+review+electronic+signature+regulation&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Reymond%2C+Emilie&rft.au=Reymond%2C+Emilie&rft.date=24+October+2006&rft.pub=in-Pharma+Technologist&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.in-pharmatechnologist.com%2FRegulatory-Safety%2FFDA-to-review-electronic-signature-regulation&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FBFDA09-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FBFDA09_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Miller, George (13 November 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fiercebiotechit.com\/story\/dont-sweat-part-11-stuff\/2009-11-13\" target=\"_blank\">\"Don't sweat the Part 11 stuff\"<\/a>. FierceBiotechIT<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fiercebiotechit.com\/story\/dont-sweat-part-11-stuff\/2009-11-13\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.fiercebiotechit.com\/story\/dont-sweat-part-11-stuff\/2009-11-13<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Don%27t+sweat+the+Part+11+stuff&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Miller%2C+George&rft.au=Miller%2C+George&rft.date=13+November+2009&rft.pub=FierceBiotechIT&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fiercebiotechit.com%2Fstory%2Fdont-sweat-part-11-stuff%2F2009-11-13&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDAAnnounceJul8-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDAAnnounceJul8_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/OfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco\/CDER\/ucm204012.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"FDA To Conduct Inspections Focusing on 21 CFR 11 (Part 11) requirements relating to human drugs\"<\/a>. U.S. FDA. 08 July 2010<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/OfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco\/CDER\/ucm204012.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/AboutFDA\/CentersOffices\/OfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco\/CDER\/ucm204012.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=FDA+To+Conduct+Inspections+Focusing+on+21+CFR+11+%28Part+11%29+requirements+relating+to+human+drugs&rft.atitle=&rft.date=08+July+2010&rft.pub=U.S.+FDA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2FAboutFDA%2FCentersOffices%2FOfficeofMedicalProductsandTobacco%2FCDER%2Fucm204012.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GxPEnforce-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GxPEnforce_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Barsky, Emma; Grunbaum, Len (25 July 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/gxpperspectives.com\/2010\/07\/25\/part-11-how-will-fda-enforce\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Part 11: How Will FDA Enforce?\"<\/a>. GxP Perspectives<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/gxpperspectives.com\/2010\/07\/25\/part-11-how-will-fda-enforce\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/gxpperspectives.com\/2010\/07\/25\/part-11-how-will-fda-enforce\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Part+11%3A+How+Will+FDA+Enforce%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Barsky%2C+Emma%3B+Grunbaum%2C+Len&rft.au=Barsky%2C+Emma%3B+Grunbaum%2C+Len&rft.date=25+July+2010&rft.pub=GxP+Perspectives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgxpperspectives.com%2F2010%2F07%2F25%2Fpart-11-how-will-fda-enforce%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PharmProcEnforce-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PharmProcEnforce_17-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Appel, Ken (28 July 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/blogs\/2010\/07\/audit-alert-clarity-e-records-fda-re-evaluate-21-cfr-11\" target=\"_blank\">\"Audit Alert! - Clarity on e-Records: FDA to Re-Evaluate 21 CFR 11\"<\/a>. Pharmaceutical Processing<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/blogs\/2010\/07\/audit-alert-clarity-e-records-fda-re-evaluate-21-cfr-11\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pharmpro.com\/blogs\/2010\/07\/audit-alert-clarity-e-records-fda-re-evaluate-21-cfr-11<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Audit+Alert%21+-+Clarity+on+e-Records%3A+FDA+to+Re-Evaluate+21+CFR+11&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Appel%2C+Ken&rft.au=Appel%2C+Ken&rft.date=28+July+2010&rft.pub=Pharmaceutical+Processing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pharmpro.com%2Fblogs%2F2010%2F07%2Faudit-alert-clarity-e-records-fda-re-evaluate-21-cfr-11&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:21_CFR_Part_11\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203023\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.339 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.355 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 11649\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 15062\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 80092\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 34392\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 10\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 306.613 1 - -total\n 94.77% 290.572 20 - Template:Cite_web\n 89.60% 274.730 20 - Template:Citation\/core\n 4.59% 14.087 20 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 2.49% 7.642 1 - Template:Main\n 1.23% 3.759 1 - Template:Rellink\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:38-0!*!0!!en!*!* and timestamp 20190403203022 and revision id 20352\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_images":[],"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a_timestamp":1554323422,"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_type":"article","92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_title":"Workflow","92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow","92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tWorkflow\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t Wikimedia developer workflow\n An IMRAD model for developing research articles\nA workflow consists of an orchestrated and repeatable pattern of business activity enabled by the systematic organization of resources into processes that transform materials, provide services, or process information.[1] It can be depicted as a sequence of operations, the work of a person or group,[2] the work of an organization of staff, or one or more simple or complex mechanisms.\nFrom a more abstract or higher-level perspective, workflow may be considered a view or representation of real work.[3] The flow being described may refer to a document, service, or product that is being transferred from one step to another.\nWorkflows may be viewed as one fundamental building block to be combined with other parts of an organization's structure such as information technology, teams, projects and hierarchies.[4]\n\nContents \n\n1 Historical development \n\n1.1 Beginnings in manufacturing \n1.2 Maturation and growth \n1.3 Quality era \n\n\n2 Workflow management system \n3 Related concepts \n4 Examples \n5 Features and phenomenology \n6 Workflow improvement theories \n7 Components \n8 Applications \n9 See also \n10 References \n11 Further reading \n12 External links \n\n\nHistorical development \nThe development of the concept of workflow occurred above a series of loosely defined, overlapping eras.\n\nBeginnings in manufacturing \nThe modern history of workflows can be traced to Frederick Taylor[5] and Henry Gantt, although the term \"workflow\" was not in usage as such during their lifetimes.[6] One of the earliest usages of the term \"work flow\" was in a railway engineering journal from 1921.[7]\nTaylor and Gantt launched the study of the deliberate, rational organization of work, primarily in the context of manufacturing. This gave rise to time and motion studies.[8] Related concepts include job shops and queuing systems (Markov chains).[9][10]\nThe 1948 book Cheaper by the Dozen introduced the emerging concepts to the context of family life.\n\nMaturation and growth \nThe invention of the typewriter and the copier helped spread the study of the rational organization of labor from the manufacturing shop floor to the office. Filing systems and other sophisticated systems for managing physical information flows evolved. Several events likely contributed to the development of formalized information workflows. First, the field of optimization theory matured and developed mathematical optimization techniques. For example, Soviet mathematician and economist Leonid Kantorovich developed the seeds of linear programming in 1939 through efforts to solve a plywood manufacturer's production optimization issues.[11][12] Second, World War II and the Apollo program drove process improvement forward with their demands for the rational organization of work.[13][14][15]\n\nQuality era \nIn the post-war era, the work of W. Edwards Deming and Joseph M. Juran led to a focus on quality, initially in Japanese companies, and from the 1980s on a more global level, giving rise to a variety of movements ranging from total quality management to Six Sigma, then to more qualitative notions of business process re-engineering.[16] Under the influence of the quality movement, workflows, in knowledge economy sectors[17][18] as well as in manufacturing, became the subject of further scrutiny and optimization efforts. Acknowledgement of the dynamic and changing nature of the demands on workflows came in the form of recognition of the phenomena associated with critical paths and moving bottlenecks.[19]\n\nWorkflow management system \nMain article: Workflow management system\nA workflow management system (WfMS) is a software system for setting up, performing, and monitoring of a defined sequence of processes and tasks, with the broad goals of increasing productivity, reducing costs, becoming more agile, and improving information exchange within an organization.[20] These systems may be process-centric or data-centric, and they may represent the workflow as graphical maps. The workflow management system may also include an extensible interface so that external software applications can be integrated and provide support for wide area workflows that provide faster response times and improved productivity.[20]\n\nRelated concepts \nThe concept of workflow is closely related to several fields in operations research and other areas that study the nature of work, either quantitatively or qualitatively, such as artificial intelligence (in particular, the sub-discipline of AI planning) and ethnography. The term \"workflow\" is more commonly used in particular industries, such as in printing or professional domains such as clinical laboratories, where it may have particular specialized meanings.\n\nProcesses: A process is a more general notion than workflow and can apply to, for example, physical or biological processes, whereas a workflow is typically a process or collection of processes described in the context of work, such as all processes occurring in a machine shop.\nPlanning and scheduling: A plan is a description of the logically necessary, partially ordered set of activities required to accomplish a specific goal given certain starting conditions. A plan, when augmented with a schedule and resource allocation calculations, completely defines a particular instance of systematic processing in pursuit of a goal. A workflow may be viewed as an often optimal or near-optimal realization of the mechanisms required to execute the same plan repeatedly.[21]\nFlow control: This is a control concept applied to workflows, to distinguish from static control of buffers of material or orders, to mean a more dynamic control of flow speed and flow volumes in motion and in process. Such orientation to dynamic aspects is the basic foundation to prepare for more advanced job shop controls, such as just-in-time or just-in-sequence.\nIn-transit visibility: This monitoring concept applies to transported material as well as to work in process or work in progress, i.e., workflows.\nExamples \n Business Process Modelling\nThe following examples illustrate the variety of workflows seen in various contexts:\n\nIn machine shops, particularly job shops and flow shops, the flow of a part through the various processing stations is a workflow.\nInsurance claims processing is an example of an information-intensive, document-driven workflow.[22]\nWikipedia editing can be modeled as a stochastic workflow.\nThe Getting Things Done system is a model of personal workflow management for information workers.\nIn software development, support and other industries, the concept of follow-the-sun describes a process of passing unfinished work across time zones.[23]\nIn traditional offset and digital printing, the concept of workflow represents the process, people, and usually software technology (RIPs raster image processors or DFE digital front end) controllers that play a part in pre\/post processing of print-related files, e.g., PDF pre-flight checking to make certain that fonts are embedded or that the imaging output to plate or digital press will be able to render the document intent properly for the image-output capabilities of the press that will print the final image.\nIn scientific experiments, the overall process (tasks and data flow) can be described as a directed acyclic graph (DAG). This DAG is referred to as a workflow, e.g., Brain Imaging workflows.[24][25]\nIn healthcare data analysis, a workflow can be used to represent a sequence of steps which compose a complex data analysis (data-search and data-manipulation steps).[26]\nIn service-oriented architectures an application can be represented through an executable workflow, where different, possibly geographically distributed, service components interact to provide the corresponding functionality under the control of a workflow management system.[27]\nFeatures and phenomenology \nModeling: Workflow problems can be modeled and analyzed using graph-based formalisms like Petri nets.\nMeasurement: Many of the concepts used to measure scheduling systems in operations research are useful for measuring general workflows. These include throughput, processing time, and other regular metrics.\nSpecialized connotations: The term \"workflow\" has specialized connotations in information technology, document management, and imaging. Since 1993, one trade consortium specifically focused on workflow management and the interoperability of workflow management systems, the Workflow Management Coalition.[28]\nScientific workflow systems: Have found wide acceptance in the fields of bioinformatics and cheminformatics in the early 2000s, where they successfully meet the need for multiple interconnected tools that handle multiple data formats and large data quantities. Also, the paradigm of scientific workflows resembles the well-established tradition of Perl programming in life science research organizations, making this adoption a natural step towards more structured infrastructure setup.\nHuman-machine interaction: Several conceptualizations of mixed-initiative workflows have been studied, particularly in the military, where automated agents play roles just as humans do. For innovative, adaptive, and collaborative human work, the techniques of human interaction management are required.\nWorkflow analysis: Workflow systems allow users to develop executable processes with no familiarity with formal programming concepts. Automated workflow analysis techniques can help users analyze the properties of user workflows to conduct verification of certain properties before executing them, e.g., analyzing flow control or data flow. Examples of tools based on formal analysis frameworks have been developed and used for the analysis of scientific workflows and can be extended to the analysis of other types of workflows.[29]\nWorkflow improvement theories \nSeveral workflow improvement theories have been proposed and implemented in the modern workplace. These include:\n\nSix Sigma\nTotal Quality Management\nBusiness Process Reengineering\nLean systems\nTheory of Constraints\nEvaluation of resources, both physical and human, is essential to evaluate hand-off points and potential to create smoother transitions between tasks.[30]\n\nComponents \nA workflow can usually be described using formal or informal flow diagramming techniques, showing directed flows between processing steps. Single processing steps or components of a workflow can basically be defined by three parameters:\n\ninput description: the information, material and energy required to complete the step\ntransformation rules: algorithms which may be carried out by people or machines, or both\noutput description: the information, material, and energy produced by the step and provided as input to downstream steps\nComponents can only be plugged together if the output of one previous (set of) component(s) is equal to the mandatory input requirements of the following component(s). Thus, the essential description of a component actually comprises only input and output that are described fully in terms of data types and their meaning (semantics). The algorithms' or rules' descriptions need only be included when there are several alternative ways to transform one type of input into one type of output \u2013 possibly with different accuracy, speed, etc.\nWhen the components are non-local services that are invoked remotely via a computer network, such as Web services, additional descriptors (such as QoS and availability) also must be considered.[31]\n\nApplications \nMain article: Workflow application\nThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.\r\nFind sources: \"Workflow\" \u2013 news \u00b7 newspapers \u00b7 books \u00b7 scholar \u00b7 JSTOR (January 2018 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nMany software systems exist to support workflows in particular domains. Such systems manage tasks such as automatic routing, partially automated processing, and integration between different functional software applications and hardware systems that contribute to the value-addition process underlying the workflow. There are also software suppliers using the technology process driven messaging service based upon three elements[citation needed ]:\n\nStandard Objects\nWorkflow Objects\nWorkflow\nSee also \nBioinformatics workflow management systems\nBusiness process automation\nBusiness process management\nBusiness process modeling\nComputer-supported collaboration\nDRAKON visual language for business process modeling\nEnterprise content management\nProcess architecture\nProcess-driven application\nWorkforce automation\nWorkflow engine\nWorkforce modeling\nReferences \n\n\n^ webmaster@ftb.ca.gov (27 October 2009). \"Business Process Management Center of Excellence Glossary\" (PDF) . Retrieved 31 March 2015 . \n\n^ See e.g., ISO 12052:2006, ISO.org \n\n^ See e.g., ISO\/TR 16044:2004, ISO.org \n\n^ \"Work Flow Automation\". Archived from the original on 2013-09-07. Retrieved 31 March 2015 . \n\n^ Taylor, 1919 \n\n^ Ngram Viewer \n\n^ Lawrence Saunders; S. R. Blundstone (1921). The Railway Engineer. \n\n^ Michael Chatfield; Richard Vangermeersch (5 February 2014). The History of Accounting (RLE Accounting): An International Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 269\u2013. ISBN 978-1-134-67545-6. \n\n^ Michael L. Pinedo (7 January 2012). Scheduling: Theory, Algorithms, and Systems. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4614-2361-4. \n\n^ Ngram Viewer \n\n^ Katseneliboigen, A. (1990). \"Chapter 17: Nobel and Lenin Prize Laureate L.V. Kantorovich: The Political Dilemma in Scientific Creativity\". The Soviet Union: Empire, Nation, and System. Transaction Publishers. pp. 405\u2013424. ISBN 978-0887383328. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Choudhury, K. (2002). \"Chapter 11: Leonid Kantorovich (1912\u20131986): A Pioneer of the Theory of Optimum Resource Allocation and a Laureate of 1975\". In Wahid, A.N.M. Frontiers of Economics: Nobel Laureates of the Twentieth Century. Greenwood Press. pp. 93\u201398. ISBN 978-0313320736. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Smith, J.L. (July 2009). \"The History of Modern Quality\". PeoriaMagazines.com. Central Illinois Business Publishers, Inc. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Shrader, C.R. (2009). \"Chapter 9: ORSA and the Army, 1942\u20131995 - An Assessment\" (PDF) . History of Operations Research in the United States Army: Volume III, 1973\u20131995. 3. United States Army. pp. 277\u2013288. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Robins Jr., C.H. (2007). \"Program and Project Management Improvement Initiatives\" (PDF) . ASK Magazine. 26: 50\u201354. \n\n^ Michael Hammer; James Champy (13 October 2009). Reengineering the Corporation: Manifesto for Business Revolution, A. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-180864-7. \n\n^ Pharma\/biotech workflows \"Pharma-specific workflows\" \n\n^ Media workflows \"Media-specific workflows\" \n\n^ Goldratt, Eliyahu M.\"My saga to improve production.\" MANAGEMENT TODAY-LONDON- (1996). \n\n^ a b Elmagarmid, A.; Di, W. (2012). \"Chapter 1: Workflow Management: State of the Art Versus State of the Products\". In Dogac, A.; Kalinichenko, L.; \u00d6zsu, T.; Sheth, A. Workflow Management Systems and Interoperability. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1\u201317. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Artem M. Chirkin, Sergey V. Kovalchuk (2014). \"Towards Better Workflow Execution Time Estimation\". IERI Procedia. 10: 216\u2013223. doi:10.1016\/j.ieri.2014.09.080. \n\n^ Havey, M. (2005). \"Chapter 10: Example: Human Workflow in Insurance Claims Processing\". Essential Business Process Modeling. O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 255\u2013284. ISBN 9780596008437. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . \n\n^ ftp:\/\/ftp.hp.com\/pub\/services\/hardware\/info\/hw_globalsupportctr_59829873EN.pdf \n\n^ Brain Image Registration Analysis Workflow for fMRI Studies on Global Grids, Computer.org \n\n^ A grid workflow environment for brain imaging analysis on distributed systems, Wiley.com \n\n^ Huser, V.; Rasmussen, L. V.; Oberg, R.; Starren, J. B. (2011). \"Implementation of workflow engine technology to deliver basic clinical decision support functionality\". BMC Medical Research Methodology. 11: 43. doi:10.1186\/1471-2288-11-43. PMC 3079703 . PMID 21477364. \n\n^ Service-Oriented Architecture and Business Process Choreography in an Order Management Scenario: Rationale, Concepts, Lessons Learned, ACM.org \n\n^ \"Introduction to the Workflow Management Coalition\". Workflow Management Coalition. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . \n\n^ Curcin, V.; Ghanem, M.; Guo, Y. (2010). \"The design and implementation of a workflow analysis tool\" (PDF) . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 368 (1926): 4193\u2013208. Bibcode:2010RSPTA.368.4193C. doi:10.1098\/rsta.2010.0157. PMID 20679131. \n\n^ Alvord, Brice (2013). Creating A Performance Based Culture In Your Workplace. ISBN 978-1105576072. \n\n^ D. Kyriazis; et al. (June 2008). \"An innovative workflow mapping mechanism for Grids in the frame of Quality of Service\". Future Generation Computer Systems. 24 (6): 498\u2013511. doi:10.1016\/j.future.2007.07.009. \n\n\nFurther reading \nRyan K. L. Ko, Stephen S. G. Lee, Eng Wah Lee (2009) Business Process Management (BPM) Standards: A Survey. In: Business Process Management Journal, Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Volume 15 Issue 5. ISSN 1463-7154. PDF\nKhalid Belhajjame, Christine Collet, Genoveva Vargas-Solar: A Flexible Workflow Model for Process-Oriented Applications. WISE (1) 2001, IEEE CS, 2001.\nMarlon Dumas, Wil van der Aalst, Arthur ter Hofstede: Process-Aware Information Systems, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-66306-9\nLayna Fischer (ed.): 2007 BPM and Workflow Handbook, Future Strategies Inc., ISBN 978-0-9777527-1-3\nLayna Fischer: Workflow Handbook 2005, Future Strategies, ISBN 0-9703509-8-8\nLayna Fischer: Excellence in Practice, Volume V: Innovation and Excellence in Workflow and Business Process Management, ISBN 0-9703509-5-3\nThomas L. Friedman: The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, ISBN 0-374-29288-4\nKeith Harrison-Broninski. Human Interactions: The Heart and Soul of Business Process Management. ISBN 0-929652-44-4\nHolly Yu: Content and Work Flow Management for Library Websites: Case Studies, Information Science Publishing, ISBN 1-59140-534-3\nWil van der Aalst, Kees van Hee: Workflow Management: Models, Methods, and Systems, B&T, ISBN 0-262-72046-9\nSetrag Khoshafian, Marek Buckiewicz: Introduction to Groupware, Workflow and Workgroup Computing, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-02946-7\nRashid N. Kahn: Understanding Workflow Automation: A Guide to Enhancing Customer Loyalty, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-061918-3\nDan C. Marinescu: Internet-Based Workflow Management: Towards a Semantic Web, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-43962-2\nFrank Leymann, Dieter Roller: Production Workflow: Concepts and Techniques, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-021753-0\nMichael Jackson, Graham Twaddle: Business Process Implementation: Building Workflow Systems, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-17768-4\nAlec Sharp, Patrick McDermott: Workflow Modeling, Artech House Publishers, ISBN 1-58053-021-4\nToni Hupp: Designing Work Groups, Jobs, and Work Flow, Pfeiffer & Company, ISBN 0-7879-0063-X\nGary Poyssick, Steve Hannaford: Workflow Reengineering, Adobe, ISBN 1-56830-265-7\nDave Chaffey: Groupware, Workflow and Intranets: Reengineering the Enterprise with Collaborative Software, Digital Press, ISBN 1-55558-184-6\nWolfgang Gruber: Modeling and Transformation of Workflows With Temporal Constraints, IOS Press, ISBN 1-58603-416-2\nAndrzej Cichocki, Marek Rusinkiewicz, Darrell Woelk: Workflow and Process Automation Concepts and Technology, Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 0-7923-8099-1\nAlan R. Simon, William Marion: Workgroup Computing: Workflow, Groupware, and Messaging, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-057628-9\nPenny Ann Dolin: Exploring Digital Workflow, Delmar Thomson Learning, ISBN 1-4018-9654-5\nGary Poyssick: Managing Digital Workflow, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-010911-8\nFrank J. Romano: PDF Printing & Workflow, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-020837-X\nJames G. Kobielus: Workflow Strategies, Hungry Minds, ISBN 0-7645-3012-7\nAlan Rickayzen, Jocelyn Dart, Carsten Brennecke: Practical Workflow for SAP, Galileo, ISBN 1-59229-006-X\nAlan Pelz-Sharpe, Angela Ashenden: E-process: Workflow for the E-business, Ovum, ISBN 1-902566-65-3\nStanislaw Wrycza: Systems Development Methods for Databases, Enterprise Modeling, and Workflow Management, Kluwer Academic\/Plenum Publishers, ISBN 0-306-46299-0\nDatabase Support for Workflow Management, Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 0-7923-8414-8\nMatthew Searle: Developing With Oracle Workflow\nV. Curcin and M. Ghanem Scientific workflow systems - can one size fit all? paper in CIBEC'08 comparing scientific workflow systems.\nExternal links \n\n\n\nLook up workflow in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\nWorkflow Patterns\nWorkflow Management Coalition\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Testing terminologyHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 26 January 2018, at 01:32.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 3,246 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Workflow skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Workflow<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:172px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:MediaWiki-Wikimedia_Git-Gerrit_workflow.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7edcac1398387c54f466abe25a06172\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/31\/MediaWiki-Wikimedia_Git-Gerrit_workflow.svg\/170px-MediaWiki-Wikimedia_Git-Gerrit_workflow.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"170\" height=\"203\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:MediaWiki-Wikimedia_Git-Gerrit_workflow.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"e7edcac1398387c54f466abe25a06172\"><\/a><\/div><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikimedia_Foundation\" title=\"Wikimedia Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cb17db82e9c5b860e6af82a8fee456f\">Wikimedia<\/a> developer workflow<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wineglass_model_for_IMRaD_structure..png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"eaa68e1096b240b43e879fdcb7dc08b1\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/75\/Wineglass_model_for_IMRaD_structure..png\/220px-Wineglass_model_for_IMRaD_structure..png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"163\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wineglass_model_for_IMRaD_structure..png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"eaa68e1096b240b43e879fdcb7dc08b1\"><\/a><\/div>An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IMRAD\" title=\"IMRAD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f269efe59296b7963fb1e609a5f748e4\">IMRAD<\/a> model for developing research articles<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>A <b>workflow<\/b> consists of an orchestrated and repeatable pattern of business activity enabled by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System\" title=\"System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca080f9487afe3b315fe16a2d522534\">systematic<\/a> organization of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource\" title=\"Resource\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c7cd6da7942777a503a806b9efabd61\">resources<\/a> into processes that transform materials, provide services, or process information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ca_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ca-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> It can be depicted as a sequence of operations, the work of a person or group,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> the work of an organization of staff, or one or more simple or complex mechanisms.\n<\/p><p>From a more abstract or higher-level perspective, workflow may be considered a view or representation of real work.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The flow being described may refer to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document\" title=\"Document\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f0fd03f08b691946949dcab005c763f\">document<\/a>, service, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_(business)\" title=\"Product (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56bd07708a3bfd57d684969dc2feb35e\">product<\/a> that is being transferred from one step to another.\n<\/p><p>Workflows may be viewed as one fundamental building block to be combined with other parts of an organization's structure such as information technology, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Team\" title=\"Team\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21e1148cb2114293f9acd673a7a947ef\">teams<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project\" title=\"Project\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f05b38496b9578ab9149bf3fa7c4ea82\">projects<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchical_organization\" title=\"Hierarchical organization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6314ecef4610d5ae2357fbb4b50a182d\">hierarchies<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-nocsmart_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nocsmart-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Historical_development\">Historical development<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The development of the concept of workflow occurred above a series of loosely defined, overlapping eras.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Beginnings_in_manufacturing\">Beginnings in manufacturing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The modern history of workflows can be traced to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor\" title=\"Frederick Winslow Taylor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9757851a201d8a90bd3a3089cd00f759\">Frederick Taylor<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Henry_Gantt\" title=\"Henry Gantt\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48b9c4f8cc94b1e02d99c57c412a5211\">Henry Gantt<\/a>, although the term \"workflow\" was not in usage as such during their lifetimes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> One of the earliest usages of the term \"work flow\" was in a railway engineering journal from 1921.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaundersBlundstone1921_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaundersBlundstone1921-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Taylor and Gantt launched the study of the deliberate, rational organization of work, primarily in the context of manufacturing. This gave rise to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_and_motion_studies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Time and motion studies\" data-key=\"98b054d970c1b7a4bac61754c3d7c571\">time and motion studies<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChatfieldVangermeersch2014_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChatfieldVangermeersch2014-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> Related concepts include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Job_shop\" title=\"Job shop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01876bd39213b05f8431b397e6ec612b\">job shops<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Queuing_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Queuing systems\" data-key=\"a6aac17ea02f087216dbcb9b1295561e\">queuing systems<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markov_chain\" title=\"Markov chain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb093cd2ce513984e63cc1e4890c5da8\">Markov chains<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Pinedo2012_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pinedo2012-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The 1948 book <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cheaper_by_the_Dozen\" title=\"Cheaper by the Dozen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b88c12e16c038b2c9c350d8375c6934e\">Cheaper by the Dozen<\/a><\/i> introduced the emerging concepts to the context of family life.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Maturation_and_growth\">Maturation and growth<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The invention of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Typewriter\" title=\"Typewriter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25504ba78ea90d5a3043a8a990848eed\">typewriter<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Copier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Copier\" data-key=\"f9db9a9d4fe3e32f3495a9eb0717d22e\">copier<\/a> helped spread the study of the rational organization of labor from the manufacturing shop floor to the office. Filing systems and other sophisticated systems for managing physical <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a> flows evolved. Several events likely contributed to the development of formalized information workflows. First, the field of optimization theory matured and developed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">mathematical optimization<\/a> techniques. For example, Soviet mathematician and economist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leonid_Kantorovich\" title=\"Leonid Kantorovich\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96cc33e762dd442da550d8d0636f6b0f\">Leonid Kantorovich<\/a> developed the seeds of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_programming\" title=\"Linear programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"606d72e648726085146059985274aa49\">linear programming<\/a> in 1939 through efforts to solve a plywood manufacturer's production optimization issues.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KatseneliboigenTheSoviet90_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KatseneliboigenTheSoviet90-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WahidFrontiers02_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WahidFrontiers02-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Second, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_War_II\" title=\"World War II\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e84fed64df8fb7b478f5e52dbb470eb\">World War II<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apollo_program\" title=\"Apollo program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1114d4f4adc7157ee79700d1824c6cdd\">Apollo program<\/a> drove process improvement forward with their demands for the rational organization of work.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SmithTheHist09_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SmithTheHist09-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShraderHistory06_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShraderHistory06-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RobinsJrProgram07_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RobinsJrProgram07-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quality_era\">Quality era<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the post-war era, the work of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W._Edwards_Deming\" title=\"W. Edwards Deming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"674575ae1283fd24f50baa51bbb92ff5\">W. Edwards Deming<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joseph_M._Juran\" title=\"Joseph M. Juran\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"609b315e0f4990a7662cb2256c0694e3\">Joseph M. Juran<\/a> led to a focus on quality, initially in Japanese companies, and from the 1980s on a more global level, giving rise to a variety of movements ranging from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Total_quality_management\" title=\"Total quality management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7ff8974e0ed3e523301170d7548c0c5\">total quality management<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Six_Sigma\" title=\"Six Sigma\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0be577435c2e3aecd2fbb7a226eb9558\">Six Sigma<\/a>, then to more qualitative notions of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_re-engineering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business process re-engineering\" data-key=\"3477a9bef35b8abeeac0c56d503205a4\">business process re-engineering<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HammerChampy2009_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HammerChampy2009-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> Under the influence of the quality movement, workflows, in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_economy\" title=\"Knowledge economy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"132c5811eb564506dfc4214e98c5de15\">knowledge economy<\/a> sectors<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> as well as in manufacturing, became the subject of further scrutiny and optimization efforts. Acknowledgement of the dynamic and changing nature of the demands on workflows came in the form of recognition of the phenomena associated with critical paths and moving bottlenecks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Workflow_management_system\">Workflow management system<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_management_system\" title=\"Workflow management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6431e43c8af23358c867106d508ce082\">Workflow management system<\/a><\/div>\n<p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_management_system\" title=\"Workflow management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6431e43c8af23358c867106d508ce082\">workflow management system<\/a> (WfMS) is a software system for setting up, performing, and monitoring of a defined sequence of processes and tasks, with the broad goals of increasing productivity, reducing costs, becoming more agile, and improving information exchange within an organization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ElmagarmidWorkflow12_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ElmagarmidWorkflow12-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> These systems may be process-centric or data-centric, and they may represent the workflow as graphical maps. The workflow management system may also include an extensible interface so that external software applications can be integrated and provide support for wide area workflows that provide faster response times and improved productivity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ElmagarmidWorkflow12_20-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ElmagarmidWorkflow12-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Related_concepts\">Related concepts<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The concept of workflow is closely related to several fields in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operations_research\" title=\"Operations research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea13bd10effe5b252bd593334c52b8a8\">operations research<\/a> and other areas that study the nature of work, either quantitatively or qualitatively, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (in particular, the sub-discipline of AI planning) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethnography\" title=\"Ethnography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee4fa43ce4b93ba4cc1cd87abdc06ccd\">ethnography<\/a>. The term \"workflow\" is more commonly used in particular industries, such as in printing or professional domains such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_laboratory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Clinical laboratory\" data-key=\"612f93fa53c0d870cd26f542ee0b88a9\">clinical laboratories<\/a>, where it may have particular specialized meanings.\n<\/p>\n<ol><li><b>Processes<\/b>: A process is a more general notion than workflow and can apply to, for example, physical or biological processes, whereas a workflow is typically a process or collection of processes described in the context of work, such as all processes occurring in a machine shop.<\/li>\n<li><b>Planning and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Schedule_(project_management)\" title=\"Schedule (project management)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d53f71ae2c15d03d19ad3ec274c61949\">scheduling<\/a><\/b>: A plan is a description of the logically necessary, partially ordered set of activities required to accomplish a specific goal given certain starting conditions. A plan, when augmented with a schedule and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource_allocation\" title=\"Resource allocation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea0c5c883dd45b5f0cc1b26dec7b26f7\">resource allocation<\/a> calculations, completely defines a particular <i>instance<\/i> of systematic processing in pursuit of a goal. A workflow may be viewed as an often optimal or near-optimal realization of the mechanisms required to execute the same plan repeatedly.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flow_control_(data)\" title=\"Flow control (data)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1278bc31551cbe1aa5afb731a18e6593\">Flow control<\/a><\/b>: This is a control concept applied to workflows, to distinguish from static control of buffers of material or orders, to mean a more dynamic control of flow speed and flow volumes in motion and in process. Such orientation to dynamic aspects is the basic foundation to prepare for more advanced job shop controls, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Just-in-time_(business)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Just-in-time (business)\" data-key=\"f1b36ec1934b52e33f2dba237b5c565c\">just-in-time<\/a> or just-in-sequence.<\/li>\n<li><b>In-transit visibility<\/b>: This monitoring concept applies to transported material as well as to work in process or work in progress, i.e., workflows.<\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Examples\">Examples<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Business_Process_Modelling_Workflow_Schematic.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ad0eab6fda6bfcda483641005d0ae1e\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/74\/Business_Process_Modelling_Workflow_Schematic.svg\/220px-Business_Process_Modelling_Workflow_Schematic.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"118\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Business_Process_Modelling_Workflow_Schematic.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"9ad0eab6fda6bfcda483641005d0ae1e\"><\/a><\/div>Business Process Modelling<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The following examples illustrate the variety of workflows seen in various contexts:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>In machine shops, particularly <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Job_shop\" title=\"Job shop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01876bd39213b05f8431b397e6ec612b\">job shops<\/a> and flow shops, the flow of a part through the various processing stations is a workflow.<\/li>\n<li>Insurance claims processing is an example of an information-intensive, document-driven workflow.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HaveyEssential05_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HaveyEssential05-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Wikipedia editing can be modeled as a stochastic workflow.<\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Getting_Things_Done\" title=\"Getting Things Done\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9433a83ac723bae83b8f83290255a11\">Getting Things Done<\/a> system is a model of personal workflow management for information workers.<\/li>\n<li>In software development, support and other industries, the concept of <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Follow-the-sun\" title=\"Follow-the-sun\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ef29d3fb68227343b21366955d0abce\">follow-the-sun<\/a><\/i> describes a process of passing unfinished work across time zones.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In traditional offset and digital printing, the concept of workflow represents the process, people, and usually software technology (RIPs raster image processors or DFE digital front end) controllers that play a part in pre\/post processing of print-related files, e.g., PDF pre-flight checking to make certain that fonts are embedded or that the imaging output to plate or digital press will be able to render the document intent properly for the image-output capabilities of the press that will print the final image.<\/li>\n<li>In scientific experiments, the overall process (tasks and data flow) can be described as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Directed_acyclic_graph\" title=\"Directed acyclic graph\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ffc54b1becafa75ddce26d12f6300ea0\">directed acyclic graph<\/a> (DAG). This DAG is referred to as a workflow, e.g., Brain Imaging workflows.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In healthcare data analysis, a workflow can be used to represent a sequence of steps which compose a complex data analysis (data-search and data-manipulation steps).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hf2010_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hf2010-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Service-oriented_architecture\" title=\"Service-oriented architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baeda155bcadf284dc1b57450100a5e3\">service-oriented architectures<\/a> an application can be represented through an executable workflow, where different, possibly geographically distributed, service components interact to provide the corresponding functionality under the control of a workflow management system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Features_and_phenomenology\">Features and phenomenology<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol><li>Modeling: Workflow problems can be modeled and analyzed using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graph_theory\" title=\"Graph theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66494bef3c8b6c132b662abbb64de32f\">graph<\/a>-based formalisms like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Petri_net\" title=\"Petri net\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"451973638a098a0bccb09eafc97b3f43\">Petri nets<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Measurement: Many of the concepts used to measure scheduling systems in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operations_research\" title=\"Operations research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea13bd10effe5b252bd593334c52b8a8\">operations research<\/a> are useful for measuring general workflows. These include throughput, processing time, and other regular metrics.<\/li>\n<li>Specialized connotations: The term \"workflow\" has specialized connotations in information technology, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Document management\" data-key=\"84ae20341cf0be32bb34be5744d7caec\">document management<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_imaging\" title=\"Document imaging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d01584651c6799bcace84955d063f1b\">imaging<\/a>. Since 1993, one trade consortium specifically focused on workflow management and the interoperability of workflow management systems, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_Management_Coalition\" title=\"Workflow Management Coalition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdf473ab608cb3d0eec71818a66de801\">Workflow Management Coalition<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_workflow_system\" title=\"Scientific workflow system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42a462e48db2620295aa9c7896bdd969\">Scientific workflow systems<\/a>: Have found wide acceptance in the fields of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics\" title=\"Bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01737c6289ef7671d2c932a51babe26b\">bioinformatics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cheminformatics\" title=\"Cheminformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c23d43efab9d8b91d88fac55cfcad92\">cheminformatics<\/a> in the early 2000s, where they successfully meet the need for multiple interconnected tools that handle multiple data formats and large data quantities. Also, the paradigm of scientific workflows resembles the well-established tradition of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perl\" title=\"Perl\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0289e790706647de3328232cc36b6867\">Perl<\/a> programming in life science research organizations, making this adoption a natural step towards more structured infrastructure setup.<\/li>\n<li>Human-machine interaction: Several conceptualizations of mixed-initiative workflows have been studied, particularly in the military, where automated agents play roles just as humans do. For innovative, adaptive, and collaborative human work, the techniques of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_interaction_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Human interaction management\" data-key=\"5aaac8142f7b6008b53ce27c300ee9c3\">human interaction management<\/a> are required.<\/li>\n<li>Workflow analysis: Workflow systems allow users to develop executable processes with no familiarity with formal programming concepts. Automated workflow analysis techniques can help users analyze the properties of user workflows to conduct verification of certain properties before executing them, e.g., analyzing flow control or data flow. Examples of tools based on formal analysis frameworks have been developed and used for the analysis of scientific workflows and can be extended to the analysis of other types of workflows.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Workflow_improvement_theories\">Workflow improvement theories<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Several workflow improvement theories have been proposed and implemented in the modern workplace. These include:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Six_Sigma\" title=\"Six Sigma\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0be577435c2e3aecd2fbb7a226eb9558\">Six Sigma<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Total_Quality_Management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Total Quality Management\" data-key=\"b2de7e31ba49c51c58b3be3fe8e9599c\">Total Quality Management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_Process_Reengineering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business Process Reengineering\" data-key=\"9aafe1ae52a0c79824ebee24ff308dcc\">Business Process Reengineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lean_manufacturing\" title=\"Lean manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b188b1c560ee0ed6744b64fbdcfd8a8\">Lean<\/a> systems<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory_of_Constraints\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Theory of Constraints\" data-key=\"4e6adbc97e28c28645329207054f0343\">Theory of Constraints<\/a><\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Evaluation of resources, both physical and human, is essential to evaluate hand-off points and potential to create smoother transitions between tasks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Components\">Components<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A workflow can usually be described using formal or informal flow diagramming techniques, showing directed flows between processing steps. Single processing steps or components of a workflow can basically be defined by three parameters:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>input description: the information, material and energy required to complete the step<\/li>\n<li>transformation rules: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithm\" title=\"Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b91430604726f884a846b998f41902e\">algorithms<\/a> which may be carried out by people or machines, or both<\/li>\n<li>output description: the information, material, and energy produced by the step and provided as input to downstream steps<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Components can only be plugged together if the output of one previous (set of) component(s) is equal to the mandatory input requirements of the following component(s). Thus, the essential description of a component actually comprises only input and output that are described fully in terms of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_type\" title=\"Data type\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3beae0a1a0ef5c72cb4cf9a31d42812f\">data types<\/a> and their meaning (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantics\" title=\"Semantics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74dfd4c30b765f279ab114a98bb29fbc\">semantics<\/a>). The algorithms' or rules' descriptions need only be included when there are several alternative ways to transform one type of input into one type of output \u2013 possibly with different accuracy, speed, etc.\n<\/p><p>When the components are non-local services that are invoked remotely via a computer network, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_service\" title=\"Web service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e72dffc79d570a758fb072280ae0ca6e\">Web services<\/a>, additional descriptors (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_of_service\" title=\"Quality of service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c56f9ddc8bd39c0b2e32a48b0f5bc004\">QoS<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability\" title=\"Availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"852165c687e5f61ae873818e8645f987\">availability<\/a>) also must be considered.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications\">Applications<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_application\" title=\"Workflow application\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"510f7737f87ae24c068911ecc007f35f\">Workflow application<\/a><\/div>\n\n<p>Many software systems exist to support workflows in particular domains. Such systems manage tasks such as automatic routing, partially automated processing, and integration between different functional software applications and hardware systems that contribute to the value-addition process underlying the workflow. There are also software suppliers using the technology <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_driven_messaging_service\" title=\"Process driven messaging service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7abf08bb4827019c112424ddc1b69be\">process driven messaging service<\/a> based upon three elements<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"Couldn't find a source for any of this, and main article has no citations as well. (January 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Standard Objects<\/li>\n<li>Workflow Objects<\/li>\n<li>Workflow<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics_workflow_management_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bioinformatics workflow management systems\" data-key=\"9783f5c223a56336056479c3cba51832\">Bioinformatics workflow management systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_automation\" title=\"Business process automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6961c6e95c105b9a05bf46f6e116c7d\">Business process automation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">Business process management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_modeling\" title=\"Business process modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9715c2f913e0cf460e06594cdf1926de\">Business process modeling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer-supported_collaboration\" title=\"Computer-supported collaboration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dface0bc80d9b5201bfe89720e0c1143\">Computer-supported collaboration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DRAKON\" title=\"DRAKON\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81691cc325aff5c9ccefa112a414ae72\">DRAKON visual language for business process modeling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_content_management\" title=\"Enterprise content management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c41c797e73c520a9ca95ccbdf23ca7e\">Enterprise content management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_architecture\" title=\"Process architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1cae545f7bdb9d10abfdbfc3571c7e9a\">Process architecture<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process-driven_application\" title=\"Process-driven application\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d3b7d4ac36909c2706b7b4437e23426\">Process-driven application<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.totalebizsolutions.com\/technology\/k2-workflow\/\" target=\"_blank\">Workforce automation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_engine\" title=\"Workflow engine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c3b45676d701747ace4f17b7e735f19\">Workflow engine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workforce_modeling\" title=\"Workforce modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6ca6d5cc5a94d5e4ac4503a6b33241a\">Workforce modeling<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ca-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ca_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">webmaster@ftb.ca.gov (27 October 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ftb.ca.gov\/aboutFTB\/Projects\/ITSP\/BPM_Glossary.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Business Process Management Center of Excellence Glossary\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 March<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Business+Process+Management+Center+of+Excellence+Glossary&rft.date=2009-10-27&rft.au=webmaster%40ftb.ca.gov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ftb.ca.gov%2FaboutFTB%2FProjects%2FITSP%2FBPM_Glossary.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See e.g., ISO 12052:2006, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\" target=\"_blank\">ISO.org<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See e.g., ISO\/TR 16044:2004, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\" target=\"_blank\">ISO.org<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-nocsmart-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-nocsmart_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130907014418\/http:\/\/nocsmart.com\/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=17&Itemid=135\" target=\"_blank\">\"Work Flow Automation\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nocsmart.com\/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=17&Itemid=135\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2013-09-07<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 March<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Work+Flow+Automation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nocsmart.com%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26view%3Darticle%26id%3D17%26Itemid%3D135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Taylor, 1919<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/ngrams\/graph?content=workflow%2Cwork+flow%2C+work-flow&year_start=1800&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cworkflow%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cwork%20flow%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cwork%20-%20flow%3B%2Cc0\" target=\"_blank\">Ngram Viewer <\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SaundersBlundstone1921-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaundersBlundstone1921_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Lawrence Saunders; S. R. Blundstone (1921). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=nBbnAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Railway Engineer<\/i><\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Railway+Engineer&rft.date=1921&rft.au=Lawrence+Saunders&rft.au=S.+R.+Blundstone&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnBbnAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChatfieldVangermeersch2014-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChatfieldVangermeersch2014_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_Chatfield\" title=\"Michael Chatfield\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5557d9bb5890fc3120f0d583c63963\">Michael Chatfield<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Richard_Vangermeersch\" title=\"Richard Vangermeersch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43ff03719831dd1bf783d0e44ea00212\">Richard Vangermeersch<\/a> (5 February 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=DmnMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA269\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The History of Accounting (RLE Accounting): An International Encyclopedia<\/i><\/a>. Routledge. pp. 269\u2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-134-67545-6.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Accounting+%28RLE+Accounting%29%3A+An+International+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=269-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-02-05&rft.isbn=978-1-134-67545-6&rft.au=Michael+Chatfield&rft.au=Richard+Vangermeersch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDmnMAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA269&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Pinedo2012-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Pinedo2012_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Michael L. Pinedo (7 January 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QRiDnuXSnVwC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Scheduling: Theory, Algorithms, and Systems<\/i><\/a>. Springer. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-4614-2361-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scheduling%3A+Theory%2C+Algorithms%2C+and+Systems&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012-01-07&rft.isbn=978-1-4614-2361-4&rft.au=Michael+L.+Pinedo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQRiDnuXSnVwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/ngrams\/graph?content=job+shops%2Cflow+shops%2Cqueuing+systems&year_start=1800&year_end=2000&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cjob%20shops%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cflow%20shops%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cqueuing%20systems%3B%2Cc0\" target=\"_blank\">Ngram Viewer<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KatseneliboigenTheSoviet90-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KatseneliboigenTheSoviet90_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Katseneliboigen, A. (1990). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=r3bYoKUYXaYC&pg=PA410\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 17: Nobel and Lenin Prize Laureate L.V. Kantorovich: The Political Dilemma in Scientific Creativity\"<\/a>. <i>The Soviet Union: Empire, Nation, and System<\/i>. Transaction Publishers. pp. 405\u2013424. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0887383328<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+17%3A+Nobel+and+Lenin+Prize+Laureate+L.V.+Kantorovich%3A+The+Political+Dilemma+in+Scientific+Creativity&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Union%3A+Empire%2C+Nation%2C+and+System&rft.pages=405-424&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0887383328&rft.au=Katseneliboigen%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr3bYoKUYXaYC%26pg%3DPA410&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WahidFrontiers02-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WahidFrontiers02_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Choudhury, K. (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=J9CwoSxpHXYC&pg=PA95\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 11: Leonid Kantorovich (1912\u20131986): A Pioneer of the Theory of Optimum Resource Allocation and a Laureate of 1975\"<\/a>. In Wahid, A.N.M. <i>Frontiers of Economics: Nobel Laureates of the Twentieth Century<\/i>. Greenwood Press. pp. 93\u201398. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0313320736<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+11%3A+Leonid+Kantorovich+%281912%E2%80%931986%29%3A+A+Pioneer+of+the+Theory+of+Optimum+Resource+Allocation+and+a+Laureate+of+1975&rft.btitle=Frontiers+of+Economics%3A+Nobel+Laureates+of+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pages=93-98&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0313320736&rft.au=Choudhury%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ9CwoSxpHXYC%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SmithTheHist09-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SmithTheHist09_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Smith, J.L. (July 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.peoriamagazines.com\/ibi\/2009\/jul\/history-modern-quality\" target=\"_blank\">\"The History of Modern Quality\"<\/a>. <i>PeoriaMagazines.com<\/i>. Central Illinois Business Publishers, Inc<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PeoriaMagazines.com&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Modern+Quality&rft.date=2009-07&rft.au=Smith%2C+J.L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.peoriamagazines.com%2Fibi%2F2009%2Fjul%2Fhistory-modern-quality&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShraderHistory06-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ShraderHistory06_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Shrader, C.R. (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/history.army.mil\/html\/books\/operations_research_vol3\/CMH_70-110-1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 9: ORSA and the Army, 1942\u20131995 - An Assessment\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>History of Operations Research in the United States Army: Volume III, 1973\u20131995<\/i>. <b>3<\/b>. United States Army. pp. 277\u2013288<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+9%3A+ORSA+and+the+Army%2C+1942%E2%80%931995+-+An+Assessment&rft.btitle=History+of+Operations+Research+in+the+United+States+Army%3A+Volume+III%2C+1973%E2%80%931995&rft.pages=277-288&rft.pub=United+States+Army&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Shrader%2C+C.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Fbooks%2Foperations_research_vol3%2FCMH_70-110-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RobinsJrProgram07-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-RobinsJrProgram07_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Robins Jr., C.H. (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/appel.nasa.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2013\/05\/NASA_APPEL_ASK_26po_program.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Program and Project Management Improvement Initiatives\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>ASK Magazine<\/i>. <b>26<\/b>: 50\u201354.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ASK+Magazine&rft.atitle=Program+and+Project+Management+Improvement+Initiatives&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=50-54&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Robins+Jr.%2C+C.H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fappel.nasa.gov%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F2%2F2013%2F05%2FNASA_APPEL_ASK_26po_program.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HammerChampy2009-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HammerChampy2009_16-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Michael Hammer; James Champy (13 October 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=mjvGTXgFl6cC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Reengineering the Corporation: Manifesto for Business Revolution, A<\/i><\/a>. HarperCollins. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-06-180864-7.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reengineering+the+Corporation%3A+Manifesto+for+Business+Revolution%2C+A&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2009-10-13&rft.isbn=978-0-06-180864-7&rft.au=Michael+Hammer&rft.au=James+Champy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmjvGTXgFl6cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Pharma\/biotech workflows <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.integrify.com\/workflow-pharmaceuticals-biotech\" target=\"_blank\">\"Pharma-specific workflows\"<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Media workflows <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#Media-Specific\">\"Media-specific workflows\"<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Goldratt, Eliyahu M.<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.toc-goldratt.com\/content\/My-Saga-to-Improve-Production\" target=\"_blank\">\"My saga to improve production.\" MANAGEMENT TODAY-LONDON- (1996).<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ElmagarmidWorkflow12-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ElmagarmidWorkflow12_20-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ElmagarmidWorkflow12_20-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Elmagarmid, A.; Di, W. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FgSrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Workflow Management: State of the Art Versus State of the Products\"<\/a>. In Dogac, A.; Kalinichenko, L.; \u00d6zsu, T.; Sheth, A. <i>Workflow Management Systems and Interoperability<\/i>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1\u201317<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Workflow+Management%3A+State+of+the+Art+Versus+State+of+the+Products&rft.btitle=Workflow+Management+Systems+and+Interoperability&rft.pages=1-17&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Elmagarmid%2C+A.%3B+Di%2C+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFgSrCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Artem M. Chirkin, Sergey V. Kovalchuk (2014). \"Towards Better Workflow Execution Time Estimation\". <i>IERI Procedia<\/i>. <b>10<\/b>: 216\u2013223. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.ieri.2014.09.080\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.ieri.2014.09.080<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IERI+Procedia&rft.atitle=Towards+Better+Workflow+Execution+Time+Estimation&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=216-223&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ieri.2014.09.080&rft.au=Artem+M.+Chirkin%2C+Sergey+V.+Kovalchuk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HaveyEssential05-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HaveyEssential05_22-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Havey, M. (2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=KtabAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA255\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 10: Example: Human Workflow in Insurance Claims Processing\"<\/a>. <i>Essential Business Process Modeling<\/i>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 255\u2013284. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780596008437<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+10%3A+Example%3A+Human+Workflow+in+Insurance+Claims+Processing&rft.btitle=Essential+Business+Process+Modeling&rft.pages=255-284&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780596008437&rft.au=Havey%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKtabAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"ftp:\/\/ftp.hp.com\/pub\/services\/hardware\/info\/hw_globalsupportctr_59829873EN.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">ftp:\/\/ftp.hp.com\/pub\/services\/hardware\/info\/hw_globalsupportctr_59829873EN.pdf<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Brain Image Registration Analysis Workflow for fMRI Studies on Global Grids, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www2.computer.org\/portal\/web\/csdl\/doi\/10.1109\/AINA.2009.13\" target=\"_blank\">Computer.org<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">A grid workflow environment for brain imaging analysis on distributed systems, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/cpe.1461\" target=\"_blank\">Wiley.com<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-hf2010-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-hf2010_26-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Huser, V.; Rasmussen, L. V.; Oberg, R.; Starren, J. B. (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3079703\" target=\"_blank\">\"Implementation of workflow engine technology to deliver basic clinical decision support functionality\"<\/a>. <i>BMC Medical Research Methodology<\/i>. <b>11<\/b>: 43. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186%2F1471-2288-11-43\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/1471-2288-11-43<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" title=\"PubMed Central\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63771bf92616f7746c20a676c8bc36e6\">PMC<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3079703\" target=\"_blank\">3079703<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/21477364\" target=\"_blank\">21477364<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Medical+Research+Methodology&rft.atitle=Implementation+of+workflow+engine+technology+to+deliver+basic+clinical+decision+support+functionality&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=43&rft.date=2011&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3079703&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21477364&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1471-2288-11-43&rft.aulast=Huser&rft.aufirst=V.&rft.au=Rasmussen%2C+L.+V.&rft.au=Oberg%2C+R.&rft.au=Starren%2C+J.+B.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3079703&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Service-Oriented Architecture and Business Process Choreography in an Order Management Scenario: Rationale, Concepts, Lessons Learned, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/doi.acm.org\/10.1145\/1094855.1094965\" target=\"_blank\">ACM.org<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/index.php\/about-us\" target=\"_blank\">\"Introduction to the Workflow Management Coalition\"<\/a>. Workflow Management Coalition<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Workflow+Management+Coalition&rft.pub=Workflow+Management+Coalition&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wfmc.org%2Findex.php%2Fabout-us&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Curcin, V.; Ghanem, M.; Guo, Y. (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/kclpure.kcl.ac.uk\/portal\/files\/60972131\/4193.full.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The design and implementation of a workflow analysis tool\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences<\/i>. <b>368<\/b> (1926): 4193\u2013208. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode\" title=\"Bibcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8d53091b41d79b165d88661365dde91\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2010RSPTA.368.4193C\" target=\"_blank\">2010RSPTA.368.4193C<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098%2Frsta.2010.0157\" target=\"_blank\">10.1098\/rsta.2010.0157<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/20679131\" target=\"_blank\">20679131<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+A%3A+Mathematical%2C+Physical+and+Engineering+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+design+and+implementation+of+a+workflow+analysis+tool&rft.volume=368&rft.issue=1926&rft.pages=4193-208&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20679131&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsta.2010.0157&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010RSPTA.368.4193C&rft.aulast=Curcin&rft.aufirst=V.&rft.au=Ghanem%2C+M.&rft.au=Guo%2C+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkclpure.kcl.ac.uk%2Fportal%2Ffiles%2F60972131%2F4193.full.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Alvord, Brice (2013). <i>Creating A Performance Based Culture In Your Workplace<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1105576072.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creating+A+Performance+Based+Culture+In+Your+Workplace&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1105576072&rft.aulast=Alvord&rft.aufirst=Brice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">D. Kyriazis; et al. (June 2008). \"An innovative workflow mapping mechanism for Grids in the frame of Quality of Service\". <i>Future Generation Computer Systems<\/i>. <b>24<\/b> (6): 498\u2013511. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.future.2007.07.009\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.future.2007.07.009<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Future+Generation+Computer+Systems&rft.atitle=An+innovative+workflow+mapping+mechanism+for+Grids+in+the+frame+of+Quality+of+Service&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=498-511&rft.date=2008-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.future.2007.07.009&rft.au=D.+Kyriazis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWorkflow\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Ryan K. L. Ko, Stephen S. G. Lee, Eng Wah Lee (2009) Business Process Management (BPM) Standards: A Survey. In: Business Process Management Journal, Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Volume 15 Issue 5. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1463-7154\" target=\"_blank\">1463-7154<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wayback.archive-it.org\/all\/20120917072604\/http:\/\/ryanko.files.wordpress.com\/2008\/03\/bpm-journal-koleelee-bpms-survey.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">PDF<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Khalid Belhajjame, Christine Collet, Genoveva Vargas-Solar: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/xpls\/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=996468\" target=\"_blank\">A Flexible Workflow Model for Process-Oriented Applications<\/a>. WISE (1) 2001, IEEE CS, 2001.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marlon_Dumas\" title=\"Marlon Dumas\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c16273e7823520c2c9d575d7dfebf6b8\">Marlon Dumas<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wil_van_der_Aalst\" title=\"Wil van der Aalst\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d40c12880cf948846760975c0f4f3852\">Wil van der Aalst<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arthur_ter_Hofstede\" title=\"Arthur ter Hofstede\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c6f796a651a28bca82979ed480ce724\">Arthur ter Hofstede<\/a>: <i>Process-Aware Information Systems<\/i>, Wiley, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-471-66306-9<\/li>\n<li>Layna Fischer (ed.): 2007 BPM and Workflow Handbook, Future Strategies Inc., <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-9777527-1-3<\/li>\n<li>Layna Fischer: <i>Workflow Handbook 2005<\/i>, Future Strategies, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-9703509-8-8<\/li>\n<li>Layna Fischer: <i>Excellence in Practice, Volume V: Innovation and Excellence in Workflow and Business Process Management<\/i>, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-9703509-5-3<\/li>\n<li>Thomas L. Friedman: <i>The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century<\/i>, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-374-29288-4<\/li>\n<li>Keith Harrison-Broninski. <i>Human Interactions: The Heart and Soul of Business Process Management<\/i>. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-929652-44-4<\/li>\n<li>Holly Yu: <i>Content and Work Flow Management for Library Websites: Case Studies<\/i>, Information Science Publishing, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 1-59140-534-3<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wil_van_der_Aalst\" title=\"Wil van der Aalst\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d40c12880cf948846760975c0f4f3852\">Wil van der Aalst<\/a>, Kees van Hee: <i>Workflow Management: Models, Methods, and Systems<\/i>, B&T, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-262-72046-9<\/li>\n<li>Setrag Khoshafian, Marek Buckiewicz: <i>Introduction to Groupware, Workflow and Workgroup Computing<\/i>, John Wiley & Sons, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-471-02946-7<\/li>\n<li>Rashid N. Kahn: <i>Understanding Workflow Automation: A Guide to Enhancing Customer Loyalty<\/i>, Prentice Hall, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-13-061918-3<\/li>\n<li>Dan C. Marinescu: <i>Internet-Based Workflow Management: Towards a Semantic Web<\/i>, John Wiley & Sons, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-471-43962-2<\/li>\n<li>Frank Leymann, Dieter Roller: <i>Production Workflow: Concepts and Techniques<\/i>, Prentice Hall, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-13-021753-0<\/li>\n<li>Michael Jackson, Graham Twaddle: <i>Business Process Implementation: Building Workflow Systems<\/i>, Addison-Wesley, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-201-17768-4<\/li>\n<li>Alec Sharp, Patrick McDermott: <i>Workflow Modeling<\/i>, Artech House Publishers, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 1-58053-021-4<\/li>\n<li>Toni Hupp: <i>Designing Work Groups, Jobs, and Work Flow<\/i>, Pfeiffer & Company, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-7879-0063-X<\/li>\n<li>Gary Poyssick, Steve Hannaford: <i>Workflow Reengineering<\/i>, Adobe, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 1-56830-265-7<\/li>\n<li>Dave Chaffey: <i>Groupware, Workflow and Intranets: Reengineering the Enterprise with Collaborative Software<\/i>, Digital Press, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 1-55558-184-6<\/li>\n<li>Wolfgang Gruber: <i>Modeling and Transformation of Workflows With Temporal Constraints<\/i>, IOS Press, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 1-58603-416-2<\/li>\n<li>Andrzej Cichocki, Marek Rusinkiewicz, Darrell Woelk: <i>Workflow and Process Automation Concepts and Technology<\/i>, Kluwer Academic Publishers, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-7923-8099-1<\/li>\n<li>Alan R. Simon, William Marion: <i>Workgroup Computing: Workflow, Groupware, and Messaging<\/i>, McGraw-Hill, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-07-057628-9<\/li>\n<li>Penny Ann Dolin: <i>Exploring Digital Workflow<\/i>, Delmar Thomson Learning, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 1-4018-9654-5<\/li>\n<li>Gary Poyssick: <i>Managing Digital Workflow<\/i>, Prentice Hall, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-13-010911-8<\/li>\n<li>Frank J. Romano: <i>PDF Printing & Workflow<\/i>, Prentice Hall, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-13-020837-X<\/li>\n<li>James G. Kobielus: <i>Workflow Strategies<\/i>, Hungry Minds, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-7645-3012-7<\/li>\n<li>Alan Rickayzen, Jocelyn Dart, Carsten Brennecke: <i>Practical Workflow for SAP<\/i>, Galileo, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 1-59229-006-X<\/li>\n<li>Alan Pelz-Sharpe, Angela Ashenden: <i>E-process: Workflow for the E-business<\/i>, Ovum, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 1-902566-65-3<\/li>\n<li>Stanislaw Wrycza: <i>Systems Development Methods for Databases, Enterprise Modeling, and Workflow Management<\/i>, Kluwer Academic\/Plenum Publishers, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-306-46299-0<\/li>\n<li><i>Database Support for Workflow Management<\/i>, Kluwer Academic Publishers, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-7923-8414-8<\/li>\n<li>Matthew Searle: <i>Developing With Oracle Workflow<\/i><\/li>\n<li>V. Curcin and M. Ghanem <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/xpl\/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=4786077\" target=\"_blank\">Scientific workflow systems - can one size fit all?<\/a> paper in CIBEC'08 comparing scientific workflow systems.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.workflowpatterns.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Workflow Patterns<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Workflow Management Coalition<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1275\nCached time: 20190330235043\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.556 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.683 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 6694\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 83486\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 13577\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 5\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 119455\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 3\/400\nLua time usage: 0.278\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6.57 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 576.869 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>39.40% 227.302 1 Template:Reflist\n24.69% 142.418 28 Template:ISBN\n15.15% 87.395 1 Template:Refimprove_section\n13.99% 80.721 4 Template:Cite_web\n13.54% 78.120 1 Template:More_citations_needed\n12.75% 73.535 1 Template:Ambox\n11.92% 68.754 29 Template:Catalog_lookup_link\n10.25% 59.123 5 Template:Cite_journal\n 8.63% 49.787 10 Template:Cite_book\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:76656-1!canonical and timestamp 20190330235042 and revision id 887600332\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow\" data-key=\"9a7b055462a00234621920f7bd77834c\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203022\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.012 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.171 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 162.681 1 - wikipedia:Workflow\n100.00% 162.681 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:133-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203022 and revision id 32421\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/31\/MediaWiki-Wikimedia_Git-Gerrit_workflow.svg\/340px-MediaWiki-Wikimedia_Git-Gerrit_workflow.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/75\/Wineglass_model_for_IMRaD_structure..png\/440px-Wineglass_model_for_IMRaD_structure..png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/74\/Business_Process_Modelling_Workflow_Schematic.svg\/440px-Business_Process_Modelling_Workflow_Schematic.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/9\/99\/Question_book-new.svg\/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png"],"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8_timestamp":1554323422,"b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_type":"article","b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_title":"Systems development life cycle","b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Systems_development_life_cycle","b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tSystems development life cycle\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tSystems engineering term\n\n\n Model of the systems development life cycle, highlighting the maintenance phase\nThe systems development life cycle (SDLC), also referred to as the application development life-cycle, is a term used in systems engineering, information systems and software engineering to describe a process for planning, creating, testing, and deploying an information system.[1] The systems development lifecycle concept applies to a range of hardware and software configurations, as a system can be composed of hardware only, software only, or a combination of both.[2] There are usually six stages in this cycle: analysis, design, development and testing, implementation, documentation, and evaluation.\n\nContents \n\n1 Overview \n2 History and details \n3 Phases \n\n3.1 System investigation \n3.2 Analysis \n3.3 Design \n3.4 Environments \n3.5 Testing \n3.6 Training and transition \n3.7 Operations and maintenance \n3.8 Evaluation \n\n\n4 Systems analysis and design \n5 Object-oriented analysis \n6 Life cycle \n\n6.1 Management and control \n6.2 Work breakdown structured organization \n6.3 Baselines \n6.4 Complementary methodologies \n\n\n7 Strengths and weaknesses \n8 System lifecycle \n\n8.1 Conceptual design \n8.2 Preliminary system design \n8.3 Detail design and development \n8.4 Production and construction \n8.5 Utilization and support \n8.6 Phase-out and disposal \n\n\n9 See also \n10 References \n11 Further reading \n12 External links \n\n\nOverview \nA systems development life cycle is composed of a number of clearly defined and distinct work phases which are used by systems engineers and systems developers to plan for, design, build, test, and deliver information systems. Like anything that is manufactured on an assembly line, an SDLC aims to produce high-quality systems that meet or exceed customer expectations, based on customer requirements, by delivering systems which move through each clearly defined phase, within scheduled time frames and cost estimates.[3]\nComputer systems are complex and often (especially with the recent rise of service-oriented architecture) link multiple traditional systems potentially supplied by different software vendors. To manage this level of complexity, a number of SDLC models or methodologies have been created, such as waterfall, spiral, Agile software development, rapid prototyping, incremental, and synchronize and stabilize.[4]\nSDLC can be described along a spectrum of agile to iterative to sequential methodologies. Agile methodologies, such as XP and Scrum, focus on lightweight processes which allow for rapid changes (without necessarily following the pattern of SDLC approach) along the development cycle. Iterative methodologies, such as Rational Unified Process and dynamic systems development method, focus on limited project scope and expanding or improving products by multiple iterations. Sequential or big-design-up-front (BDUF) models, such as waterfall, focus on complete and correct planning to guide large projects and risks to successful and predictable results.[citation needed ] Other models, such as anamorphic development, tend to focus on a form of development that is guided by project scope and adaptive iterations of feature development.\nIn project management a project can be defined both with a project life cycle (PLC) and an SDLC, during which slightly different activities occur. According to Taylor (2004), \"the project life cycle encompasses all the activities of the project, while the systems development life cycle focuses on realizing the product requirements\".[5]\nSDLC is used during the development of an IT project, it describes the different stages involved in the project from the drawing board, through the completion of the project.\nThe SDLC is not a methodology per se, but rather a description of the phases in the life cycle of a software application. These phases (broadly speaking) are, investigation, analysis, design, build, test, implement, and maintenance and support. All software development methodologies (such as the more commonly known waterfall and scrum methodologies) follow the SDLC phases but the method of doing that varies vastly between methodologies. In the Scrum methodology, for example, one could say a single user story goes through all the phases of the SDLC within a single two-week sprint. Contrast this to the waterfall methodology, as another example, where every business requirement (recorded in the analysis phase of the SDLC in a document called the Business Requirements Specification) is translated into feature\/functional descriptions (recorded in the design phase in a document called the Functional Specification) which are then all built in one go as a collection of solution features typically over a period of three to nine months, or more. These methodologies are obviously quite different approaches, yet they both contain the SDLC phases in which a requirement is born, then travels through the life cycle phases ending in the final phase of maintenance and support, after-which (typically) the whole life cycle starts again for a subsequent version of the software application.\n\nHistory and details \nThe product life cycle describes the process for building information systems in a very deliberate, structured and methodical way, reiterating each stage of the product's life. The systems development life cycle, according to Elliott & Strachan & Radford (2004), \"originated in the 1960s, to develop large scale functional business systems in an age of large scale business conglomerates. Information systems activities revolved around heavy data processing and number crunching routines\".[6]\nSeveral systems development frameworks have been partly based on SDLC, such as the structured systems analysis and design method (SSADM) produced for the UK government Office of Government Commerce in the 1980s. Ever since, according to Elliott (2004), \"the traditional life cycle approaches to systems development have been increasingly replaced with alternative approaches and frameworks, which attempted to overcome some of the inherent deficiencies of the traditional SDLC\".[6]\n\nPhases \nThe system development life cycle framework provides a sequence of activities for system designers and developers to follow. It consists of a set of steps or phases in which each phase of the SDLC uses the results of the previous one.[7][8]\nThe SDLC adheres to important phases that are essential for developers\u2014such as planning, analysis, design, and implementation\u2014and are explained in the section below. This includes evaluation of the currently used system, information gathering, feasibility studies, and request approval. A number of SDLC models have been created, including waterfall, fountain, spiral, build and fix, rapid prototyping, incremental, synchronize, and stabilize.[9][10] The oldest of these, and the best known, is the waterfall model, a sequence of stages in which the output of each stage becomes the input for the next.[8] These stages can be characterized and divided up in different ways, including the following:[7][8][11][12]\n\n A ten-phase version of the systems development life cycle[7]\nPreliminary analysis: Begin with a preliminary analysis, propose alternative solutions, describe costs and benefits, and submit a preliminary plan with recommendations.\nConduct the preliminary analysis: Discover the organization's objectives and the nature and scope of the problem under study. Even if a problem refers only to a small segment of the organization itself, find out what the objectives of the organization itself are. Then see how the problem being studied fits in with them.\nPropose alternative solutions: After digging into the organization's objectives and specific problems, several solutions may have been discovered. However, alternate proposals may still come from interviewing employees, clients, suppliers, and\/or consultants. Insight may also be gained by researching what competitors are doing.\nCost benefit analysis: Analyze and describe the costs and benefits of implementing the proposed changes. In the end, the ultimate decision on whether to leave the system as is, improve it, or develop a new system will be guided by this and the rest of the preliminary analysis data.\nSystems analysis, requirements definition: Define project goals into defined functions and operations of the intended application. This involves the process of gathering and interpreting facts, diagnosing problems, and recommending improvements to the system. Project goals will be further aided by analysis of end-user information needs and the removal of any inconsistencies and incompleteness in these requirements.\nA series of steps followed by the developer include:[13]\nCollection of facts: Obtain end user requirements through documentation, client interviews, observation, and questionnaires.\nScrutiny of the existing system: Identify pros and cons of the current system in-place, so as to carry forward the pros and avoid the cons in the new system.\nAnalysis of the proposed system: Find solutions to the shortcomings described in step two and prepare the specifications using any specific user proposals.\nSystems design: At this step desired features and operations are described in detail, including screen layouts, business rules, process diagrams, pseudocode, and other documentation.\nDevelopment: The real code is written here.\nIntegration and testing: All the pieces are brought together into a special testing environment, then checked for errors, bugs, and interoperability.\nAcceptance, installation, deployment: This is the final stage of initial development, where the software is put into production and runs actual business.\nMaintenance: During the maintenance stage of the SDLC, the system is assessed\/evaluated to ensure it does not become obsolete. This is also where changes are made to initial software.\nEvaluation: Some companies do not view this as an official stage of the SDLC, while others consider it to be an extension of the maintenance stage, and may be referred to in some circles as post-implementation review. This is where the system that was developed, as well as the entire process, is evaluated. Some of the questions that need to be answered include if the newly implemented system meets the initial business requirements and objectives, if the system is reliable and fault-tolerant, and if it functions according to the approved functional requirements. In addition to evaluating the software that was released, it is important to assess the effectiveness of the development process. If there are any aspects of the entire process (or certain stages) that management is not satisfied with, this is the time to improve.\nDisposal: In this phase, plans are developed for discontinuing the use of system information, hardware, and software and making the transition to a new system. The purpose here is to properly move, archive, discard, or destroy information, hardware, and software that is being replaced, in a manner that prevents any possibility of unauthorized disclosure of sensitive data. The disposal activities ensure proper migration to a new system. Particular emphasis is given to proper preservation and archiving of data processed by the previous system. All of this should be done in accordance with the organization's security requirements.[14]\nIn the following diagram, these stages of the systems development life cycle are divided in ten steps, from definition to creation and modification of IT work products:\nNot every project will require that the phases be sequentially executed. However, the phases are interdependent. Depending upon the size and complexity of the project, phases may be combined or may overlap.[7]\n\nSystem investigation \nFirst the IT system proposal is investigated. During this step, consider all current priorities that would be affected and how they should be handled. Before any system planning is done, a feasibility study should be conducted to determine if creating a new or improved system is a viable solution. This will help to determine the costs, benefits, resource requirements, and specific user needs required for completion. The development process can only continue once management approves of the recommendations from the feasibility study.[15]\nThe following represent different components of the feasibility study:\n\nOperational feasibility\nEconomic feasibility\nTechnical feasibility\nHuman factors feasibility\nLegal\/Political feasibility\nAnalysis \nThe goal of analysis is to determine where the problem is, in an attempt to fix the system. This step involves breaking down the system in different pieces to analyze the situation, analyzing project goals, breaking down what needs to be created, and attempting to engage users so that definite requirements can be defined.\n\nDesign \nIn systems design, the design functions and operations are described in detail, including screen layouts, business rules, process diagrams, and other documentation. The output of this stage will describe the new system as a collection of modules or subsystems.\nThe design stage takes as its initial input the requirements identified in the approved requirements document. For each requirement, a set of one or more design elements will be produced as a result of interviews, workshops, and\/or prototype efforts.\nDesign elements describe the desired system features in detail, and they generally include functional hierarchy diagrams, screen layout diagrams, tables of business rules, business process diagrams, pseudo-code, and a complete entity-relationship diagram with a full data dictionary. These design elements are intended to describe the system in sufficient detail, such that skilled developers and engineers may develop and deliver the system with minimal additional input design.\n\nEnvironments \nEnvironments are controlled areas where systems developers can build, distribute, install, configure, test, and execute systems that move through the SDLC. Each environment is aligned with different areas of the SDLC and is intended to have specific purposes. Examples of such environments include the:\n\ndevelopment environment, where developers can work independently of each other before trying to merge their work with the work of others;\ncommon build environment, where merged work can be built, together, as a combined system;\nsystems integration testing environment, where basic testing of a system's integration points to other upstream or downstream systems can be tested;\nuser acceptance testing environment, where business stakeholders can test against their original business requirements; and\nproduction environment, where systems finally get deployed for final use by their intended end users.\nTesting \nThe code is tested at various levels in software testing. Unit, system, and user acceptance testings are often performed. This is a grey area as many different opinions exist as to what the stages of testing are and how much, if any iteration occurs. Iteration is not generally part of the waterfall model, but the means to rectify defects and validate fixes prior to deployment is incorporated into this phase.\nThe following are types of testing that may be relevant, depending on the type of system under development:\n\nDefect testing the failed scenarios, including defect tracking\nPath testing\nData set testing\nUnit testing\nSystem testing\nIntegration testing\nBlack-box testing\nWhite-box testing\nRegression testing\nAutomation testing\nUser acceptance testing\nSoftware performance testing\nTraining and transition \nOnce a system has been stabilized through adequate testing, the SDLC ensures that proper training on the system is performed or documented before transitioning the system to its support staff and end users. Training usually covers operational training for those people who will be responsible for supporting the system as well as training for those end users who will be using the system after its delivery to a production operating environment.\nAfter training has been successfully completed, systems engineers and developers transition the system to its final production environment, where it is intended to be used by its end users and supported by its support and operations staff.\n\nOperations and maintenance \nThe deployment of the system includes changes and enhancements before the decommissioning or sunset of the system. Maintaining the system is an important aspect of SDLC. As key personnel change positions in the organization, new changes will be implemented. There are two approaches to system development: the traditional approach (structured) and object oriented. Information engineering includes the traditional system approach, which is also called the structured analysis and design technique. The object oriented approach views information system as a collection of objects that are integrated with each other to make a full and complete information system.\n\nEvaluation \nThe final phase of the SDLC is to measure the effectiveness of the system and evaluate potential enhancements.\n\nSystems analysis and design \nThe systems analysis and design (SAD) is the process of developing information systems (IS) that effectively use hardware, software, data, processes, and people to support the company's businesses objectives. System analysis and design can be considered the meta-development activity, which serves to set the stage and bound the problem. SAD can be leveraged to set the correct balance among competing high-level requirements in the functional and non-functional analysis domains. System analysis and design interacts strongly with distributed enterprise architecture, enterprise I.T. Architecture, and business architecture, and relies heavily on concepts such as partitioning, interfaces, personae and roles, and deployment\/operational modeling to arrive at a high-level system description. This high level description is then further broken down into the components and modules which can be analyzed, designed, and constructed separately and integrated to accomplish the business goal. SDLC and SAD are cornerstones of full life cycle product and system planning.\n\nObject-oriented analysis \nObject-oriented analysis (OOA) is the process of analyzing a task (also known as a problem domain), to develop a conceptual model that can then be used to complete the task. A typical OOA model would describe computer software that could be used to satisfy a set of customer-defined requirements. During the analysis phase of problem-solving, a programmer might consider a written requirements statement, a formal vision document, or interviews with stakeholders or other interested parties. The task to be addressed might be divided into several subtasks (or domains), each representing a different business, technological, or other areas of interest. Each subtask would be analyzed separately. Implementation constraints, (e.g., concurrency, distribution, persistence, or how the system is to be built) are not considered during the analysis phase; rather, they are addressed during object-oriented design (OOD).\nThe conceptual model that results from OOA will typically consist of a set of use cases, one or more UML class diagrams, and a number of interaction diagrams. It may also include some kind of user interface mock-up.\nThe input for object-oriented design is provided by the output of object-oriented analysis. Realize that an output artifact does not need to be completely developed to serve as input of object-oriented design; analysis and design may occur in parallel, and in practice the results of one activity can feed the other in a short feedback cycle through an iterative process. Both analysis and design can be performed incrementally, and the artifacts can be continuously grown instead of completely developed in one shot.\nSome typical (but common to all types of design analysis) input artifacts for object-oriented:\n\nConceptual model: Conceptual model is the result of object-oriented analysis, it captures concepts in the problem domain. The conceptual model is explicitly chosen to be independent of implementation details, such as concurrency or data storage.\nUse case: Use case is a description of sequences of events that, taken together, lead to a system doing something useful. Each use case provides one or more scenarios that convey how the system should interact with the users called actors to achieve a specific business goal or function. Use case actors may be end users or other systems. In many circumstances use cases are further elaborated into use case diagrams. Use case diagrams are used to identify the actor (users or other systems) and the processes they perform.\nSystem Sequence Diagram: System Sequence diagram (SSD) is a picture that shows, for a particular scenario of a use case, the events that external actors generate, their order, and possible inter-system events.\nUser interface documentations (if applicable): Document that shows and describes the look and feel of the end product's user interface. It is not mandatory to have this, but it helps to visualize the end-product and therefore helps the designer.\nRelational data model (if applicable): A data model is an abstract model that describes how data is represented and used. If an object database is not used, the relational data model should usually be created before the design, since the strategy chosen for object-relational mapping is an output of the OO design process. However, it is possible to develop the relational data model and the object-oriented design artifacts in parallel, and the growth of an artifact can stimulate the refinement of other artifacts.\nLife cycle \nManagement and control \n SPIU phases related to management controls[16]\nThe SDLC phases serve as a programmatic guide to project activity and provide a flexible but consistent way to conduct projects to a depth matching the scope of the project. Each of the SDLC phase objectives are described in this section with key deliverables, a description of recommended tasks, and a summary of related control objectives for effective management. It is critical for the project manager to establish and monitor control objectives during each SDLC phase while executing projects. Control objectives help to provide a clear statement of the desired result or purpose and should be used throughout the entire SDLC process. Control objectives can be grouped into major categories (domains), and relate to the SDLC phases as shown in the figure.[16]\nTo manage and control any SDLC initiative, each project will be required to establish some degree of a work breakdown structure (WBS) to capture and schedule the work necessary to complete the project. The WBS and all programmatic material should be kept in the \"project description\" section of the project notebook. The WBS format is mostly left to the project manager to establish in a way that best describes the project work.\nThere are some key areas that must be defined in the WBS as part of the SDLC policy. The following diagram describes three key areas that will be addressed in the WBS in a manner established by the project manager.[16] The diagram shows coverage spans numerous phases of the SDLC but the associated MCD has a subset of primary mappings to the SDLC phases. For example, Analysis and Design is primarily performed as part of the Acquisition and Implementation Domain and System Build and Prototype is primarily performed as part of delivery and support.\n\nWork breakdown structured organization \n Work breakdown structure[16]\nThe upper section of the work breakdown structure (WBS) should identify the major phases and milestones of the project in a summary fashion. In addition, the upper section should provide an overview of the full scope and timeline of the project and will be part of the initial project description effort leading to project approval. The middle section of the WBS is based on the seven systems development life cycle phases as a guide for WBS task development. The WBS elements should consist of milestones and \"tasks\" as opposed to \"activities\" and have a definitive period (usually two weeks or more). Each task must have a measurable output (e.x. document, decision, or analysis). A WBS task may rely on one or more activities (e.g. software engineering, systems engineering) and may require close coordination with other tasks, either internal or external to the project. Any part of the project needing support from contractors should have a statement of work (SOW) written to include the appropriate tasks from the SDLC phases. The development of a SOW does not occur during a specific phase of SDLC but is developed to include the work from the SDLC process that may be conducted by external resources such as contractors.[16]\n\nBaselines \nBaselines are an important part of the systems development life cycle. These baselines are established after four of the five phases of the SDLC and are critical to the iterative nature of the model .[17] Each baseline is considered as a milestone in the SDLC.\n\nfunctional baseline: established after the conceptual design phase.\nallocated baseline: established after the preliminary design phase.\nproduct baseline: established after the detail design and development phase.\nupdated product baseline: established after the production construction phase.\nComplementary methodologies \nComplementary software development methods to systems development life cycle are:\n\nSoftware prototyping\nJoint applications development (JAD)\nRapid application development (RAD)\nExtreme programming (XP);\nOpen-source development\nEnd-user development\nObject-oriented programming\n\nComparison of Methodology Approaches (Post, & Anderson 2006)[18]\n\n\n\n\nSDLC\n\nRAD\n\nOpen source\n\nObjects\n\nJAD\n\nPrototyping\n\nEnd User\n\n\nControl\n\nFormal\n\nMIS\n\nWeak\n\nStandards\n\nJoint\n\nUser\n\nUser\n\n\nTime frame\n\nLong\n\nShort\n\nMedium\n\nAny\n\nMedium\n\nShort\n\nShort\n\u2013\n\n\n\nUsers\n\nMany\n\nFew\n\nFew\n\nVaries\n\nFew\n\nOne or two\n\nOne\n\n\nMIS staff\n\nMany\n\nFew\n\nHundreds\n\nSplit\n\nFew\n\nOne or two\n\nNone\n\n\nTransaction\/DSS\n\nTransaction\n\nBoth\n\nBoth\n\nBoth\n\nDSS\n\nDSS\n\nDSS\n\n\nInterface\n\nMinimal\n\nMinimal\n\nWeak\n\nWindows\n\nCrucial\n\nCrucial\n\nCrucial\n\n\nDocumentation and training\n\nVital\n\nLimited\n\nInternal\n\nIn Objects\n\nLimited\n\nWeak\n\nNone\n\n\nIntegrity and security\n\nVital\n\nVital\n\nUnknown\n\nIn Objects\n\nLimited\n\nWeak\n\nWeak\n\n\nReusability\n\nLimited\n\nSome\n\nMaybe\n\nVital\n\nLimited\n\nWeak\n\nNone\n\nStrengths and weaknesses \nFew people in the modern computing world would use a strict waterfall model for their SDLC as many modern methodologies have superseded this thinking. Some will argue that the SDLC no longer applies to models like Agile computing, but it is still a term widely in use in technology circles. The SDLC practice has advantages in traditional models of systems development that lends itself more to a structured environment. The disadvantages to using the SDLC methodology is when there is need for iterative development or (i.e. web development or e-commerce) where stakeholders need to review on a regular basis the software being designed.\nA comparison of the strengths and weaknesses of SDLC:\n\n\nStrength and Weaknesses of SDLC\n[18]\n\n\nStrengths\n\nWeaknesses\n\n\nControl\n\nIncreased development time\n\n\nMonitor large projects\n\nIncreased development cost\n\n\nDetailed steps\n\nSystems must be defined up front\n\n\nEvaluate costs and completion targets\n\nRigidity\n\n\nDocumentation\n\nHard to estimate costs, project overruns\n\n\nWell defined user input\n\nUser input is sometimes limited\n\n\nEase of maintenance\n\nLittle parallelism\n\n\nDevelopment and design standards\n\nAutomation of documentation and standards is limited\n\n\nTolerates changes in MIS of staffing\n\nDoes not tolerate changes in requirements\n\n\n\n\nProjects canned early on the result in little or no value\n\nAn alternative to the SDLC is rapid application development, which combines prototyping, joint application development and implementation of CASE tools. The advantages of RAD are speed, reduced development cost, and active user involvement in the development process.\n\nSystem lifecycle \nThe system lifecycle in systems engineering is a view of a system or proposed system that addresses all phases of its existence to include system conception, design and development, production and\/or construction, distribution, operation, maintenance and support, retirement, phase-out and disposal.[19]\n\nConceptual design \nThe conceptual design stage is the stage where an identified need is examined, requirements for potential solutions are defined, potential solutions are evaluated and a system specification is developed. The system specification represents the technical requirements that will provide overall guidance for system design. Because this document determines all future development, the stage cannot be completed until a conceptual design review has determined that the system specification properly addresses the motivating need.\nKey steps within the conceptual design stage include:\n\nNeed identification\nFeasibility analysis\nSystem requirements analysis\nSystem specification\nConceptual design review\nPreliminary system design \nDuring this stage of the system lifecycle, subsystems that perform the desired system functions are designed and specified in compliance with the system specification. Interfaces between subsystems are defined, as well as overall test and evaluation requirements.[20] At the completion of this stage, a development specification is produced that is sufficient to perform detailed design and development.\nKey steps within the preliminary design stage include:\n\nFunctional analysis\nRequirements allocation\nDetailed trade-off studies\nSynthesis of system options\nPreliminary design of engineering models\nDevelopment specification\nPreliminary design review\nFor example, as the system analyst of Viti Bank, you have been tasked to examine the current information system. Viti Bank is a fast growing bank in Fiji. Customers in remote rural areas are finding difficulty to access the bank services. It takes them days or even weeks to travel to a location to access the bank services. With the vision of meeting the customers needs, the bank has requested your services to examine the current system and to come up with solutions or recommendations of how the current system can be provided to meet its needs.\n\nDetail design and development \nThis stage includes the development of detailed designs that brings initial design work into a completed with form of specifications. This work includes the specification of interfaces between the system and its intended environment and a comprehensive evaluation of the systems logistical, maintenance and support requirements. The detail design and development is responsible for producing the product, process and material specifications and may result in substantial changes to the development specification.\nKey steps within the detail design and development stage include:\n\nDetailed design\nDetailed synthesis\nDevelopment of engineering and prototype models\nRevision of development specification\nProduct, process and material specification\nCritical design review\nProduction and construction \nDuring the production and\/or construction stage the product is built or assembled in accordance with the requirements specified in the product, process and material specifications and is deployed and tested within the operational target environment. System assessments are conducted in order to correct deficiencies and adapt the system for continued improvement.\nKey steps within the product construction stage include:\n\nProduction and\/or construction of system components\nAcceptance testing\nSystem distribution and operation\nOperational testing and evaluation\nSystem assessment\nUtilization and support \nOnce fully deployed, the system is used for its intended operational role and maintained within its operational environment.\nKey steps within the utilization and support stage include:\n\nSystem operation in the user environment\nChange management\nSystem modifications for improvement\nSystem assessment\nPhase-out and disposal \nEffectiveness and efficiency of the system must be continuously evaluated to determine when the product has met its maximum effective lifecycle[21]. Considerations include: Continued existence of operational need, matching between operational requirements and system performance, feasibility of system phase-out versus maintenance, and availability of alternative systems.\n\nSee also \nApplication lifecycle management\nDecision cycle\nIPO Model\nSoftware development methodologies\nReferences \n\n\n^ SELECTING A DEVELOPMENT APPROACH. Retrieved 17 July 2014. \n\n^ Parag C. Pendharkara; James A. Rodgerb; Girish H. Subramanian (November 2008). \"An empirical study of the Cobb\u2013Douglas production function properties of software development effort\". Information and Software Technology. 50 (12): 1181\u20131188. doi:10.1016\/j.infsof.2007.10.019. \n\n^ \"Systems Development Life Cycle from\". FOLDOC. Retrieved 2013-06-14 . \n\n^ \"Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)\". \n\n^ Taylor, James (2004). Managing Information Technology Projects. p. 39. \n\n^ a b Geoffrey Elliott & Josh Strachan (2004) Global Business Information Technology. p.87. \n\n^ a b c d US Department of Justice (2003). INFORMATION RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Chapter 1. Introduction. \n\n^ a b c Everatt, G.D.; McLeod Jr., R. (2007). \"Chapter 2: The Software Development Life Cycle\". Software Testing: Testing Across the Entire Software Development Life Cycle. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 29\u201358. ISBN 9780470146347. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Unhelkar, B. (2016). The Art of Agile Practice: A Composite Approach for Projects and Organizations. CRC Press. pp. 56\u201359. ISBN 9781439851197. \n\n^ Land, S.K.; Smith, D.B.; Walz, J.W. (2012). Practical Support for Lean Six Sigma Software Process Definition: Using IEEE Software Engineering Standards. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 341\u20133. ISBN 9780470289952. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Kay, Russell (May 14, 2002). \"QuickStudy: System Development Life Cycle\". ComputerWorld. \n\n^ Taylor, G.D. (2008). Introduction to Logistics Engineering. CRC Press. pp. 12.6\u201312.18. ISBN 9781420088571. \n\n^ Control and Audit, Information Systems. SDLC (August 2013 ed.). Chapter 5: Institute of Chartered Accountants of India. p. 5.28. \n\n^ Radack, S. (n.d.). \"The system development life cycle (SDLC)\" (PDF) . National Institute of Standards and Technology. \n\n^ Marakas, James A. O'Brien, George M. (2010). Management information systems (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill\/Irwin. pp. 485\u2013489. ISBN 0073376817. \n\n^ a b c d e U.S. House of Representatives (1999). Systems Development Life-Cycle Policy. p.13. \n\n^ Blanchard, B. S., & Fabrycky, W. J.(2006) Systems engineering and analysis (4th ed.) New Jersey: Prentice Hall. p.31 \n\n^ a b Post, G., & Anderson, D., (2006). Management information systems: Solving business problems with information technology. (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin. \n\n^ Blanchard and Fabrycky (2006). Systems Engineering and Analysis, Fourth Edition. Prentice Hall. p. 19. \n\n^ Dr. Joahn Gouws (2007). Introduction to Engineering, System Engineering. Melikon Pty Ltd. \n\n^ Cunningham, James. \"HERC Maintenance\". Fargo. XXI (North Avenue): 49. Retrieved 13 May 2009 . \n\n\nFurther reading \nCummings, Haag (2006). Management Information Systems for the Information Age. Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson\nBeynon-Davies P. (2009). Business Information Systems. Palgrave, Basingstoke. ISBN 978-0-230-20368-6\nComputer World, 2002, Retrieved on June 22, 2006 from the World Wide Web:\nManagement Information Systems, 2005, Retrieved on June 22, 2006 from the World Wide Web:\nThis article is based on material taken from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing  prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the \"relicensing\" terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later. \nExternal links \n\n\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Systems Development Life Cycle.\nThe Agile System Development Lifecycle\nPension Benefit Guaranty Corporation \u2013 Information Technology Solutions Lifecycle Methodology\nFSA Life Cycle Framework\nHHS Enterprise Performance Life Cycle Framework\nThe Open Systems Development Life Cycle\nSystem Development Life Cycle Evolution Modeling\nZero Deviation Life Cycle\nIntegrated Defense AT&L Life Cycle Management Chart, the U.S. DoD form of this concept.\nvteSoftware engineeringFields\nComputer programming\nRequirements engineering\nSoftware deployment\nSoftware design\nSoftware maintenance\nSoftware testing\nSystems analysis\nFormal methods\nConcepts\nData modeling\nEnterprise architecture\nFunctional specification\nModeling language\nOrthogonality\nProgramming paradigm\nSoftware\nSoftware archaeology\nSoftware architecture\nSoftware configuration management\nSoftware development methodology\nSoftware development process\nSoftware quality\nSoftware quality assurance\nSoftware verification and validation\nStructured analysis\nOrientations\nAgile\nAspect-oriented\nObject orientation\nOntology\nService orientation\nSDLC\nModelsDevelopmental\nAgile\nEUP\nExecutable UML\nIncremental model\nIterative model\nPrototype model\nRAD\nUP\nScrum\nSpiral model\nV-Model\nWaterfall model\nXP\nOther\nSPICE\nCMMI\nData model\nER model\nFunction model\nInformation model\nMetamodeling\nObject model\nSystems model\nView model\nLanguages\nIDEF\nUML\nUSL\nSysML\nSoftware\r\nengineers\nVictor Basili\nKent Beck\nGrady Booch\nFred Brooks\nBarry Boehm\nPeter Chen\nDanese Cooper\nWard Cunningham\nTom DeMarco\nEdsger W. 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id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Systems development life cycle<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Systems engineering term<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SDLC-Maintenance-Highlighted.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"91c28787ec92778ae2b770bf701ee79c\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7e\/SDLC-Maintenance-Highlighted.png\/220px-SDLC-Maintenance-Highlighted.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SDLC-Maintenance-Highlighted.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"91c28787ec92778ae2b770bf701ee79c\"><\/a><\/div>Model of the systems development life cycle, highlighting the maintenance phase<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The <b>systems development life cycle<\/b> (<b>SDLC<\/b>), also referred to as the <b>application development life-cycle<\/b>, is a term used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_engineering\" title=\"Systems engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"885b515a488c426b86f7a85a9f80cb67\">systems engineering<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_system\" title=\"Information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142b46020d5e573e81dabce3b59c33ec\">information systems<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_engineering\" title=\"Software engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe0adbaec2a85b6f2d492710b645f017\">software engineering<\/a> to describe a process for planning, creating, testing, and deploying an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_system\" title=\"Information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142b46020d5e573e81dabce3b59c33ec\">information system<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The systems development lifecycle concept applies to a range of hardware and software configurations, as a system can be composed of hardware only, software only, or a combination of both.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> There are usually six stages in this cycle: analysis, design, development and testing, implementation, documentation, and evaluation.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Overview\">Overview<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A systems development life cycle is composed of a number of clearly defined and distinct work phases which are used by systems engineers and systems developers to plan for, design, build, test, and deliver <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_system\" title=\"Information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142b46020d5e573e81dabce3b59c33ec\">information systems<\/a>. Like anything that is manufactured on an assembly line, an SDLC aims to produce high-quality systems that meet or exceed customer expectations, based on customer requirements, by delivering systems which move through each clearly defined phase, within scheduled time frames and cost estimates.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\nComputer systems are complex and often (especially with the recent rise of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Service-oriented_architecture\" title=\"Service-oriented architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baeda155bcadf284dc1b57450100a5e3\">service-oriented architecture<\/a>) link multiple traditional systems potentially supplied by different software vendors. To manage this level of complexity, a number of SDLC models or methodologies have been created, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waterfall_model\" title=\"Waterfall model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3620830d6a51d6e00c633413607669be\">waterfall<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spiral_model\" title=\"Spiral model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53bef74020b192441e4b51e38bf200e3\">spiral<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agile_software_development\" title=\"Agile software development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afb817ba63b0b8da391f83df1b40c5cd\">Agile software development<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_prototyping#Throwaway_prototyping\" title=\"Software prototyping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f628d9b201369ac55d966c437f904427\">rapid prototyping<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Incremental_development\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Incremental development\" data-key=\"c2b2956457855f64d50d11a13f997271\">incremental<\/a>, and synchronize and stabilize.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>SDLC can be described along a spectrum of agile to iterative to sequential methodologies. Agile methodologies, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extreme_Programming\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Extreme Programming\" data-key=\"27d0edb7137aac3aff89baf841791881\">XP<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scrum_(development)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Scrum (development)\" data-key=\"38a5201e9b89c26c15883fd2f5f71568\">Scrum<\/a>, focus on lightweight processes which allow for rapid changes (without necessarily following the pattern of SDLC approach) along the development cycle. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iterative_and_incremental_development\" title=\"Iterative and incremental development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b8e7e8bb1f287db8598b470bfef65a\">Iterative<\/a> methodologies, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rational_Unified_Process\" title=\"Rational Unified Process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd3eeda6b841e263596633fdca9ecd27\">Rational Unified Process<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_systems_development_method\" title=\"Dynamic systems development method\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7aab8eba8f46a6dc5d26c10db014b640\">dynamic systems development method<\/a>, focus on limited project scope and expanding or improving products by multiple iterations. Sequential or big-design-up-front (BDUF) models, such as waterfall, focus on complete and correct planning to guide large projects and risks to successful and predictable results.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2009)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Other models, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anamorphic_development\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Anamorphic development\" data-key=\"d8df5baa6bdcecdf301ec15dad6f2494\">anamorphic development<\/a>, tend to focus on a form of development that is guided by project scope and adaptive iterations of feature development.\n<\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_management\" title=\"Project management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6eafec51967ae43f1d3054bbbbcb85a\">project management<\/a> a project can be defined both with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_life_cycle\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Project life cycle\" data-key=\"500b6b7253cdee114cf6a7125d10b5dc\">project life cycle<\/a> (PLC) and an SDLC, during which slightly different activities occur. According to Taylor (2004), \"the project life cycle encompasses all the activities of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project\" title=\"Project\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f05b38496b9578ab9149bf3fa7c4ea82\">project<\/a>, while the systems development life cycle focuses on realizing the product <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Requirement\" title=\"Requirement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cdea397fcb94d23297315ebbb313654d\">requirements<\/a>\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>SDLC is used during the development of an IT project, it describes the different stages involved in the project from the drawing board, through the completion of the project.\n<\/p><p>The SDLC is not a methodology per se, but rather a description of the phases in the life cycle of a software application. These phases (broadly speaking) are, investigation, analysis, design, build, test, implement, and maintenance and support. All software development methodologies (such as the more commonly known waterfall and scrum methodologies) follow the SDLC phases but the method of doing that varies vastly between methodologies. In the Scrum methodology, for example, one could say a single user story goes through all the phases of the SDLC within a single two-week sprint. Contrast this to the waterfall methodology, as another example, where every business requirement (recorded in the analysis phase of the SDLC in a document called the Business Requirements Specification) is translated into feature\/functional descriptions (recorded in the design phase in a document called the Functional Specification) which are then all built in one go as a collection of solution features typically over a period of three to nine months, or more. These methodologies are obviously quite different approaches, yet they both contain the SDLC phases in which a requirement is born, then travels through the life cycle phases ending in the final phase of maintenance and support, after-which (typically) the whole life cycle starts again for a subsequent version of the software application.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_and_details\">History and details<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_life_cycle_(engineering)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Product life cycle (engineering)\" data-key=\"b87f47fd525953841f0f8bd93bf8c7e0\">product life cycle<\/a> describes the process for building information systems in a very deliberate, structured and methodical way, reiterating each stage of the product's life. The systems development life cycle, according to Elliott & Strachan & Radford (2004), \"originated in the 1960s, to develop large scale functional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business systems\" data-key=\"1ad67dad4b99bf245709500cd8d36dda\">business systems<\/a> in an age of large scale <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_conglomerate\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business conglomerate\" data-key=\"5c799574e84d2c057310fc0111dcf672\">business conglomerates<\/a>. Information systems activities revolved around heavy <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_processing\" title=\"Data processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b36e7bb8fd1d63549fc55ba60d8729fe\">data processing<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Number_crunching\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Number crunching\" data-key=\"87121aca25491688ee44a358fd49984e\">number crunching<\/a> routines\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ell04_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ell04-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Several systems development frameworks have been partly based on SDLC, such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Structured_systems_analysis_and_design_method\" title=\"Structured systems analysis and design method\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76c699afcea3ea869ee3195b821c8f8a\">structured systems analysis and design method<\/a> (SSADM) produced for the UK government <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Office_of_Government_Commerce\" title=\"Office of Government Commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d84da40d333819f9f7b991516fe003e0\">Office of Government Commerce<\/a> in the 1980s. Ever since, according to Elliott (2004), \"the traditional life cycle approaches to systems development have been increasingly replaced with alternative approaches and frameworks, which attempted to overcome some of the inherent deficiencies of the traditional SDLC\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ell04_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ell04-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Phases\">Phases<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The system development life cycle framework provides a sequence of activities for system designers and developers to follow. It consists of a set of steps or phases in which each phase of the SDLC uses the results of the previous one.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-US_DJ03_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-US_DJ03-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EverettSoftware07_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EverettSoftware07-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The SDLC adheres to important phases that are essential for developers\u2014such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Planning\" title=\"Planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92c4f966837eaf2919da86f8cd081592\">planning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analysis\" title=\"Analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0858ca1e55b7f7afda1db5540ff50668\">analysis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Design\" title=\"Design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74da4d273d6923b9b34302da2e8f1e6b\">design<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Implementation\" title=\"Implementation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ba461a45254e02267625e8444f40493\">implementation<\/a>\u2014and are explained in the section below. This includes evaluation of the currently used system, information gathering, feasibility studies, and request approval. A number of SDLC models have been created, including waterfall, fountain, spiral, build and fix, rapid prototyping, incremental, synchronize, and stabilize.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UnhelkarTheArt16_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UnhelkarTheArt16-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LandPract12_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LandPract12-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> The oldest of these, and the best known, is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waterfall_model\" title=\"Waterfall model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3620830d6a51d6e00c633413607669be\">waterfall model<\/a>, a sequence of stages in which the output of each stage becomes the input for the next.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EverettSoftware07_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EverettSoftware07-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> These stages can be characterized and divided up in different ways, including the following:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-US_DJ03_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-US_DJ03-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EverettSoftware07_8-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EverettSoftware07-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TaylorIntro08_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TaylorIntro08-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:801px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Systems_Development_Life_Cycle.gif\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ccbda47bc9c274d7151a3b37604a353\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/66\/Systems_Development_Life_Cycle.gif\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Systems_Development_Life_Cycle.gif\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"1ccbda47bc9c274d7151a3b37604a353\"><\/a><\/div>A ten-phase version of the systems development life cycle<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-US_DJ03_7-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-US_DJ03-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<ul><li><b>Preliminary analysis<\/b>: Begin with a preliminary analysis, propose alternative solutions, describe costs and benefits, and submit a preliminary plan with recommendations.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dd><ol><li>Conduct the preliminary analysis: Discover the organization's objectives and the nature and scope of the problem under study. Even if a problem refers only to a small segment of the organization itself, find out what the objectives of the organization itself are. Then see how the problem being studied fits in with them.<\/li>\n<li>Propose alternative solutions: After digging into the organization's objectives and specific problems, several solutions may have been discovered. However, alternate proposals may still come from interviewing employees, clients, suppliers, and\/or consultants. Insight may also be gained by researching what competitors are doing.<\/li>\n<li>Cost benefit analysis: Analyze and describe the costs and benefits of implementing the proposed changes. In the end, the ultimate decision on whether to leave the system as is, improve it, or develop a new system will be guided by this and the rest of the preliminary analysis data.<\/li><\/ol><\/dd><\/dl>\n<ul><li><b>Systems analysis, requirements definition<\/b>: Define project goals into defined functions and operations of the intended application. This involves the process of gathering and interpreting facts, diagnosing problems, and recommending improvements to the system. Project goals will be further aided by analysis of end-user information needs and the removal of any inconsistencies and incompleteness in these requirements.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dd>A series of steps followed by the developer include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<ol><li>Collection of facts: Obtain end user requirements through documentation, client interviews, observation, and questionnaires.<\/li>\n<li>Scrutiny of the existing system: Identify pros and cons of the current system in-place, so as to carry forward the pros and avoid the cons in the new system.<\/li>\n<li>Analysis of the proposed system: Find solutions to the shortcomings described in step two and prepare the specifications using any specific user proposals.<\/li><\/ol><\/dd><\/dl>\n<ul><li><b>Systems design<\/b>: At this step desired features and operations are described in detail, including screen layouts, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_rule\" title=\"Business rule\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f412bd3fc4aceb48e21c42e6cdb72ade\">business rules<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_Diagram\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Process Diagram\" data-key=\"e6065a12d3a8c0767b88bd6020888120\">process diagrams<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pseudocode\" title=\"Pseudocode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41e89f004a2fafd5f4ca3cb3db6d160e\">pseudocode<\/a>, and other documentation.<\/li>\n<li><b>Development<\/b>: The real code is written here.<\/li>\n<li><b>Integration and testing<\/b>: All the pieces are brought together into a special testing environment, then checked for errors, bugs, and interoperability.<\/li>\n<li><b>Acceptance, installation, deployment<\/b>: This is the final stage of initial development, where the software is put into production and runs actual business.<\/li>\n<li><b>Maintenance<\/b>: During the maintenance stage of the SDLC, the system is assessed\/evaluated to ensure it does not become obsolete. This is also where changes are made to initial software.<\/li>\n<li><b>Evaluation<\/b>: Some companies do not view this as an official stage of the SDLC, while others consider it to be an extension of the maintenance stage, and may be referred to in some circles as post-implementation review. This is where the system that was developed, as well as the entire process, is evaluated. Some of the questions that need to be answered include if the newly implemented system meets the initial business requirements and objectives, if the system is reliable and fault-tolerant, and if it functions according to the approved functional requirements. In addition to evaluating the software that was released, it is important to assess the effectiveness of the development process. If there are any aspects of the entire process (or certain stages) that management is not satisfied with, this is the time to improve.<\/li>\n<li><b>Disposal: <\/b>In this phase, plans are developed for discontinuing the use of system information, hardware, and software and making the transition to a new system. The purpose here is to properly move, archive, discard, or destroy information, hardware, and software that is being replaced, in a manner that prevents any possibility of unauthorized disclosure of sensitive data. The disposal activities ensure proper migration to a new system. Particular emphasis is given to proper preservation and archiving of data processed by the previous system. All of this should be done in accordance with the organization's security requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In the following diagram, these stages of the systems development life cycle are divided in ten steps, from definition to creation and modification of IT work products:\n<\/p><p>Not every project will require that the phases be sequentially executed. However, the phases are interdependent. Depending upon the size and complexity of the project, phases may be combined or may overlap.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-US_DJ03_7-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-US_DJ03-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"System_investigation\">System investigation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>First the IT system proposal is investigated. During this step, consider all current priorities that would be affected and how they should be handled. Before any system planning is done, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feasibility_study\" title=\"Feasibility study\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd96744b20c644c274fce2e70f3b6fde\">feasibility study<\/a> should be conducted to determine if creating a new or improved system is a viable solution. This will help to determine the costs, benefits, resource requirements, and specific user needs required for completion. The development process can only continue once management approves of the recommendations from the feasibility study.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The following represent different components of the feasibility study:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feasibility_study#Operational_feasibility\" title=\"Feasibility study\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a5867fe8e28430fe7dedf6ada4ba0f8\">Operational feasibility<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feasibility_study#Economic_Feasibility\" title=\"Feasibility study\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca680e8f760055ea77369907db8687be\">Economic feasibility<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feasibility_study#Technical_Feasibility\" title=\"Feasibility study\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96138badde036377b36541c13a1f88b8\">Technical feasibility<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Human factors feasibility<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feasibility_study#Legal_feasibility\" title=\"Feasibility study\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33d93bc5fee7d318707752c34c112e93\">Legal\/Political feasibility<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Analysis\">Analysis<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The goal of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analysis\" title=\"Analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0858ca1e55b7f7afda1db5540ff50668\">analysis<\/a> is to determine where the problem is, in an attempt to fix the system. This step involves <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Work_breakdown_structure\" title=\"Work breakdown structure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7c55c9c136597ba3428436e987a9bb1\">breaking down<\/a> the system in different pieces to analyze the situation, analyzing project goals, breaking down what needs to be created, and attempting to engage users so that definite requirements can be defined.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Design\">Design<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_design\" title=\"Systems design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a62509a84df9ee03fe1230b9df8b84e\">systems design<\/a>, the design functions and operations are described in detail, including screen layouts, business rules, process diagrams, and other documentation. The output of this stage will describe the new system as a collection of modules or subsystems.\n<\/p><p>The design stage takes as its initial input the requirements identified in the approved requirements document. For each requirement, a set of one or more design elements will be produced as a result of interviews, workshops, and\/or prototype efforts.\n<\/p><p>Design elements describe the desired system features in detail, and they generally include functional hierarchy diagrams, screen layout diagrams, tables of business rules, business process diagrams, pseudo-code, and a complete entity-relationship diagram with a full data dictionary. These design elements are intended to describe the system in sufficient detail, such that skilled developers and engineers may develop and deliver the system with minimal additional input design.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Environments\">Environments<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Environments are controlled areas where systems developers can build, distribute, install, configure, test, and execute systems that move through the SDLC. Each environment is aligned with different areas of the SDLC and is intended to have specific purposes. Examples of such environments include the:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i>development environment<\/i>, where developers can work independently of each other before trying to merge their work with the work of others;<\/li>\n<li><i>common build environment<\/i>, where merged work can be built, together, as a combined system;<\/li>\n<li><i>systems integration testing environment<\/i>, where basic testing of a system's integration points to other upstream or downstream systems can be tested;<\/li>\n<li><i>user acceptance testing environment<\/i>, where business stakeholders can test against their original business requirements; and<\/li>\n<li><i>production environment<\/i>, where systems finally get deployed for final use by their intended end users.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Testing\">Testing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The code is tested at various levels in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_testing\" title=\"Software testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1f063d549d38c63342218d62a80c724\">software testing<\/a>. Unit, system, and user acceptance testings are often performed. This is a grey area as many different opinions exist as to what the stages of testing are and how much, if any iteration occurs. Iteration is not generally part of the waterfall model, but the means to rectify defects and validate fixes prior to deployment is incorporated into this phase.\n<\/p><p>The following are types of testing that may be relevant, depending on the type of system under development:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i>Defect testing<\/i> the failed scenarios, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defect_tracking\" title=\"Defect tracking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36c8efb29f581718479c25b0f6ecb347\">defect tracking<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Model-based_testing\" title=\"Model-based testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ea1670efabdce430c5fa965a285baee\">Path testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test_data\" title=\"Test data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b9b3afdd5c6745d84e3e220da9d98dc\">Data set testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unit_testing\" title=\"Unit testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccd96295ece3bd8cce89bb756eedce3f\">Unit testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_testing\" title=\"System testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"779eb70baf35bbdec954caf8fc209b76\">System testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integration_testing\" title=\"Integration testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fad9ca4fe33fe8ee6d541f0b4b070b38\">Integration testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black-box_testing\" title=\"Black-box testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdf147e38381ccbe9b93d84a39e7fa54\">Black-box testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/White-box_testing\" title=\"White-box testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86458edb2c0cf54347b9f06aa6501df6\">White-box testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_testing\" title=\"Regression testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd5595feea9b213fc3d856c6298ab9d2\">Regression testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automation_testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automation testing\" data-key=\"a0bb94e89a478c23b67a4becdda75321\">Automation testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_acceptance_testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"User acceptance testing\" data-key=\"f1dfea5f339a4a5c7da0af9166f22b47\">User acceptance testing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_performance_testing\" title=\"Software performance testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8b06eaf2197c724cc32195cf9eac5d2\">Software performance testing<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Training_and_transition\">Training and transition<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Once a system has been stabilized through adequate testing, the SDLC ensures that proper training on the system is performed or documented before transitioning the system to its support staff and end users. Training usually covers operational training for those people who will be responsible for supporting the system as well as training for those end users who will be using the system after its delivery to a production operating environment.\n<\/p><p>After training has been successfully completed, systems engineers and developers transition the system to its final production environment, where it is intended to be used by its end users and supported by its support and operations staff.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Operations_and_maintenance\">Operations and maintenance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_deployment\" title=\"Software deployment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0247a722ad0bd01d6c8643e0796a2b61\">deployment<\/a> of the system includes changes and enhancements before the decommissioning or sunset of the system. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_maintenance\" title=\"Software maintenance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8211caab69059eb6d3deb30cdd8be3c9\">Maintaining<\/a> the system is an important aspect of SDLC. As key personnel change positions in the organization, new changes will be implemented. There are two approaches to system development: the traditional approach (structured) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object_oriented\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Object oriented\" data-key=\"01eac955d06ac1c1fa333da07710d993\">object oriented<\/a>. Information engineering includes the traditional system approach, which is also called the structured analysis and design technique. The object oriented approach views information system as a collection of objects that are integrated with each other to make a full and complete information system.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Evaluation\">Evaluation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The final phase of the SDLC is to measure the effectiveness of the system and evaluate potential enhancements.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Systems_analysis_and_design\">Systems analysis and design<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The <b>systems analysis and design (SAD)<\/b> is the process of developing information systems (IS) that effectively use hardware, software, data, processes, and people to support the company's businesses objectives. System analysis and design can be considered the meta-development activity, which serves to set the stage and bound the problem. SAD can be leveraged to set the correct balance among competing high-level requirements in the functional and non-functional analysis domains. System analysis and design interacts strongly with distributed enterprise architecture, enterprise I.T. Architecture, and business architecture, and relies heavily on concepts such as partitioning, interfaces, personae and roles, and deployment\/operational modeling to arrive at a high-level system description. This high level description is then further broken down into the components and modules which can be analyzed, designed, and constructed separately and integrated to accomplish the business goal. SDLC and SAD are cornerstones of full life cycle product and system planning.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Object-oriented_analysis\">Object-oriented analysis<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Object-oriented analysis (OOA) is the process of analyzing a task (also known as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Problem_domain\" title=\"Problem domain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f63831cac920c351b5c7125f5e6463b\">problem domain<\/a>), to develop a conceptual model that can then be used to complete the task. A typical OOA model would describe computer software that could be used to satisfy a set of customer-defined requirements. During the analysis phase of problem-solving, a programmer might consider a written requirements statement, a formal vision document, or interviews with stakeholders or other interested parties. The task to be addressed might be divided into several subtasks (or domains), each representing a different business, technological, or other areas of interest. Each subtask would be analyzed separately. Implementation constraints, (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concurrency_(computer_science)\" title=\"Concurrency (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce6a23a9887a695cf55aaadfcda455b9\">concurrency<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_computing\" title=\"Distributed computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee813a1918606cd02eedc78a4439660f\">distribution<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Persistence_(computer_science)\" title=\"Persistence (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e1b3fb355925599ba6f7f937fad87b6\">persistence<\/a>, or how the system is to be built) are not considered during the analysis phase; rather, they are addressed during object-oriented design (OOD).\n<\/p><p>The conceptual model that results from OOA will typically consist of a set of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Use_cases\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Use cases\" data-key=\"71f04ecf97df238577aeecfd594ba0d8\">use cases<\/a>, one or more <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unified_Modeling_Language\" title=\"Unified Modeling Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4f7a5ac247bdf246e28ae68e11e58e5\">UML<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Class_diagram\" title=\"Class diagram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6fe3ceaaf8a9cbfd4d148c7cf482606\">class diagrams<\/a>, and a number of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interaction_diagram\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Interaction diagram\" data-key=\"e3c7c82571155513454c2c6462510edb\">interaction diagrams<\/a>. It may also include some kind of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_interface\" title=\"User interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d20341f81dd69148536f2ceacaafe0b\">user interface<\/a> mock-up.\n<\/p><p>The input for object-oriented design is provided by the output of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object-oriented_analysis_and_design\" title=\"Object-oriented analysis and design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48e5969782667aa0f8fe0e8c23e336ac\">object-oriented analysis<\/a>. Realize that an output artifact does not need to be completely developed to serve as input of object-oriented design; analysis and design may occur in parallel, and in practice the results of one activity can feed the other in a short feedback cycle through an iterative process. Both analysis and design can be performed incrementally, and the artifacts can be continuously grown instead of completely developed in one shot.\n<\/p><p>Some typical (but common to all types of design analysis) input artifacts for object-oriented:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conceptual_model_(computer_science)\" title=\"Conceptual model (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbf79945e85753f3f7ad68c2e25cafd5\">Conceptual model<\/a>: Conceptual model is the result of object-oriented analysis, it captures concepts in the problem domain. The conceptual model is explicitly chosen to be independent of implementation details, such as concurrency or data storage.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Use_case\" title=\"Use case\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea8169026907b838539a5aaa195db254\">Use case<\/a>: Use case is a description of sequences of events that, taken together, lead to a system doing something useful. Each use case provides one or more <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scenario_(computing)\" title=\"Scenario (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccb11b323c85c4cd252899e4c53f77ff\">scenarios<\/a> that convey how the system should interact with the users called actors to achieve a specific business goal or function. Use case actors may be end users or other systems. In many circumstances use cases are further elaborated into use case diagrams. Use case diagrams are used to identify the actor (users or other systems) and the processes they perform.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_Sequence_Diagram\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"System Sequence Diagram\" data-key=\"615efef90e61affb4902d78a54ac88dc\">System Sequence Diagram<\/a>: System Sequence diagram (SSD) is a picture that shows, for a particular scenario of a use case, the events that external actors generate, their order, and possible inter-system events.<\/li>\n<li>User interface documentations (if applicable): Document that shows and describes the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Look_and_feel\" title=\"Look and feel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"070be5c9cd4f0086eb0fd640b389f0bd\">look and feel<\/a> of the end product's user interface. It is not mandatory to have this, but it helps to visualize the end-product and therefore helps the designer.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relational_data_model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Relational data model\" data-key=\"12e846d09313866b6d05c7716f780019\">Relational data model<\/a> (if applicable): A data model is an abstract model that describes how data is represented and used. If an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object_database\" title=\"Object database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"75a555fb603ae431a8b88241014c909e\">object database<\/a> is not used, the relational data model should usually be created before the design, since the strategy chosen for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object-relational_mapping\" title=\"Object-relational mapping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc883250ed0184f1168edaefd1ae8ccd\">object-relational mapping<\/a> is an output of the OO design process. However, it is possible to develop the relational data model and the object-oriented design artifacts in parallel, and the growth of an artifact can stimulate the refinement of other artifacts.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Life_cycle\">Life cycle<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Management_and_control\">Management and control<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SDLC_Phases_Related_to_Management_Controls.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d4fb2c5413d3c1baf1efc78952842cc\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a2\/SDLC_Phases_Related_to_Management_Controls.jpg\/220px-SDLC_Phases_Related_to_Management_Controls.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"156\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SDLC_Phases_Related_to_Management_Controls.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"9d4fb2c5413d3c1baf1efc78952842cc\"><\/a><\/div>SPIU phases related to management controls<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-USHR99_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-USHR99-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The SDLC phases serve as a programmatic guide to project activity and provide a flexible but consistent way to conduct projects to a depth matching the scope of the project. Each of the SDLC phase objectives are described in this section with key deliverables, a description of recommended tasks, and a summary of related control objectives for effective management. It is critical for the project manager to establish and monitor control objectives during each SDLC phase while executing projects. Control objectives help to provide a clear statement of the desired result or purpose and should be used throughout the entire SDLC process. Control objectives can be grouped into major categories (domains), and relate to the SDLC phases as shown in the figure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-USHR99_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-USHR99-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>To manage and control any SDLC initiative, each project will be required to establish some degree of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Work_breakdown_structure\" title=\"Work breakdown structure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7c55c9c136597ba3428436e987a9bb1\">work breakdown structure<\/a> (WBS) to capture and schedule the work necessary to complete the project. The WBS and all programmatic material should be kept in the \"project description\" section of the project notebook. The WBS format is mostly left to the project manager to establish in a way that best describes the project work.\n<\/p><p>There are some key areas that must be defined in the WBS as part of the SDLC policy. The following diagram describes three key areas that will be addressed in the WBS in a manner established by the project manager.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-USHR99_16-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-USHR99-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> The diagram shows coverage spans numerous phases of the SDLC but the associated MCD has a subset of primary mappings to the SDLC phases. For example, Analysis and Design is primarily performed as part of the Acquisition and Implementation Domain and System Build and Prototype is primarily performed as part of delivery and support.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Work_breakdown_structured_organization\">Work breakdown structured organization<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SDLC_Work_Breakdown_Structure.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"18e79605c570040709b1f5a6d45c5d99\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/82\/SDLC_Work_Breakdown_Structure.jpg\/220px-SDLC_Work_Breakdown_Structure.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"100\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SDLC_Work_Breakdown_Structure.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"18e79605c570040709b1f5a6d45c5d99\"><\/a><\/div>Work breakdown structure<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-USHR99_16-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-USHR99-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The upper section of the work breakdown structure (WBS) should identify the major phases and milestones of the project in a summary fashion. In addition, the upper section should provide an overview of the full scope and timeline of the project and will be part of the initial project description effort leading to project approval. The middle section of the WBS is based on the seven systems development life cycle phases as a guide for WBS task development. The WBS elements should consist of milestones and \"tasks\" as opposed to \"activities\" and have a definitive period (usually two weeks or more). Each task must have a measurable output (e.x. document, decision, or analysis). A WBS task may rely on one or more activities (e.g. software engineering, systems engineering) and may require close coordination with other tasks, either internal or external to the project. Any part of the project needing support from contractors should have a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statement_of_work\" title=\"Statement of work\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fe76353fb884c936d36ad6159921e16\">statement of work<\/a> (SOW) written to include the appropriate tasks from the SDLC phases. The development of a SOW does not occur during a specific phase of SDLC but is developed to include the work from the SDLC process that may be conducted by external resources such as contractors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-USHR99_16-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-USHR99-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Baselines\">Baselines<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Baselines are an important part of the systems development life cycle. These baselines are established after four of the five phases of the SDLC and are critical to the iterative nature of the model .<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> Each baseline is considered as a milestone in the SDLC.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>functional baseline: established after the conceptual design phase.<\/li>\n<li>allocated baseline: established after the preliminary design phase.<\/li>\n<li>product baseline: established after the detail design and development phase.<\/li>\n<li>updated product baseline: established after the production construction phase.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Complementary_methodologies\">Complementary methodologies<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Complementary <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_development_process\" title=\"Software development process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b625ec27484d01f1edaa461ce66ec0a\">software development methods<\/a> to systems development life cycle are:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_prototyping\" title=\"Software prototyping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b003714abb717c03faab963b17ada033\">Software prototyping<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joint_applications_development\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Joint applications development\" data-key=\"4d91bf761551a3b3f5a9e6b37f15af79\">Joint applications development<\/a> (JAD)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rapid_application_development\" title=\"Rapid application development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14b2f65fdf2844bed431bbfc1c2d7dc3\">Rapid application development<\/a> (RAD)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extreme_programming\" title=\"Extreme programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76957492e64467025cc1867689408a4a\">Extreme programming<\/a> (XP);<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open-source_software_development\" title=\"Open-source software development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be4b0b1f8ecfdbac2e752fbbaecaa712\">Open-source development<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/End-user_development\" title=\"End-user development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aacc610cfe098b693f6a10efb4b1f014\">End-user development<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object-oriented_programming\" title=\"Object-oriented programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89f19c8e4c919ea2942014fec0ff7a8d\">Object-oriented programming<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<table class=\"wikitable\" style=\"margin:auto;\">\n<caption>Comparison of Methodology Approaches (Post, & Anderson 2006)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Post,_G._2006_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Post,_G._2006-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/caption>\n<tbody><tr>\n<th style=\"background:#ffdead;\">\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"background:#ffdead;\">SDLC\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"background:#ffdead;\">RAD\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"background:#ffdead;\">Open source\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"background:#ffdead;\">Objects\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"background:#ffdead;\">JAD\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"background:#ffdead;\">Prototyping\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"background:#ffdead;\">End User\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width:5%;\">Control\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"width:5%;\">Formal\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"width:5%;\">MIS\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"width:5%;\">Weak\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"width:5%;\">Standards\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"width:5%;\">Joint\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"width:5%;\">User\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"width:5%;\">User\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Time frame\n<\/td>\n<td>Long\n<\/td>\n<td>Short\n<\/td>\n<td>Medium\n<\/td>\n<td>Any\n<\/td>\n<td>Medium\n<\/td>\n<td>Short\n<\/td>\n<td>Short\n<p>\u2013\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Users\n<\/td>\n<td>Many\n<\/td>\n<td>Few\n<\/td>\n<td>Few\n<\/td>\n<td>Varies\n<\/td>\n<td>Few\n<\/td>\n<td>One or two\n<\/td>\n<td>One\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>MIS staff\n<\/td>\n<td>Many\n<\/td>\n<td>Few\n<\/td>\n<td>Hundreds\n<\/td>\n<td>Split\n<\/td>\n<td>Few\n<\/td>\n<td>One or two\n<\/td>\n<td>None\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Transaction\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_support_system\" title=\"Decision support system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"440a63a58b5307b2eb863ee65180b6e8\">DSS<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>Transaction\n<\/td>\n<td>Both\n<\/td>\n<td>Both\n<\/td>\n<td>Both\n<\/td>\n<td>DSS\n<\/td>\n<td>DSS\n<\/td>\n<td>DSS\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Interface\n<\/td>\n<td>Minimal\n<\/td>\n<td>Minimal\n<\/td>\n<td>Weak\n<\/td>\n<td>Windows\n<\/td>\n<td>Crucial\n<\/td>\n<td>Crucial\n<\/td>\n<td>Crucial\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Documentation and training\n<\/td>\n<td>Vital\n<\/td>\n<td>Limited\n<\/td>\n<td>Internal\n<\/td>\n<td>In Objects\n<\/td>\n<td>Limited\n<\/td>\n<td>Weak\n<\/td>\n<td>None\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Integrity and security\n<\/td>\n<td>Vital\n<\/td>\n<td>Vital\n<\/td>\n<td>Unknown\n<\/td>\n<td>In Objects\n<\/td>\n<td>Limited\n<\/td>\n<td>Weak\n<\/td>\n<td>Weak\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Reusability\n<\/td>\n<td>Limited\n<\/td>\n<td>Some\n<\/td>\n<td>Maybe\n<\/td>\n<td>Vital\n<\/td>\n<td>Limited\n<\/td>\n<td>Weak\n<\/td>\n<td>None\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Strengths_and_weaknesses\">Strengths and weaknesses<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Few people in the modern computing world would use a strict waterfall model for their SDLC as many modern methodologies have superseded this thinking. Some will argue that the SDLC no longer applies to models like Agile computing, but it is still a term widely in use in technology circles. The SDLC practice has advantages in traditional models of systems development that lends itself more to a structured environment. The disadvantages to using the SDLC methodology is when there is need for iterative development or (i.e. web development or e-commerce) where stakeholders need to review on a regular basis the software being designed.\n<\/p><p>A comparison of the strengths and weaknesses of SDLC:\n<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable\" style=\"margin:auto;\">\n<caption>Strength and Weaknesses of SDLC\n<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Post,_G._2006_18-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Post,_G._2006-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/caption>\n<tbody><tr>\n<th style=\"background:#ffdead;\">Strengths\n<\/th>\n<th style=\"background:#ffdead;\">Weaknesses\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Control\n<\/td>\n<td>Increased development time\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Monitor large projects\n<\/td>\n<td>Increased development cost\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Detailed steps\n<\/td>\n<td>Systems must be defined up front\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Evaluate costs and completion targets\n<\/td>\n<td>Rigidity\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Documentation\n<\/td>\n<td>Hard to estimate costs, project overruns\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Well defined user input\n<\/td>\n<td>User input is sometimes limited\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Ease of maintenance\n<\/td>\n<td>Little parallelism\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Development and design standards\n<\/td>\n<td>Automation of documentation and standards is limited\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Tolerates changes in MIS of staffing\n<\/td>\n<td>Does not tolerate changes in requirements\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>Projects canned early on the result in little or no value\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p>An alternative to the SDLC is rapid application development, which combines prototyping, joint application development and implementation of CASE tools. The advantages of RAD are speed, reduced development cost, and active user involvement in the development process.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"System_lifecycle\">System lifecycle<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The system lifecycle in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_engineering\" title=\"Systems engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"885b515a488c426b86f7a85a9f80cb67\">systems engineering<\/a> is a view of a system or proposed system that addresses all phases of its existence to include system conception, design and development, production and\/or construction, distribution, operation, maintenance and support, retirement, phase-out and disposal.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Conceptual_design\">Conceptual design<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conceptual_design\" title=\"Conceptual design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13eb2d5d46d1c7b401570fe2af0cd305\">conceptual design<\/a> stage is the stage where an identified need is examined, requirements for potential solutions are defined, potential solutions are evaluated and a system specification is developed. The system specification represents the technical requirements that will provide overall guidance for system design. Because this document determines all future development, the stage cannot be completed until a conceptual <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Design_review\" title=\"Design review\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6742512b5234858f1eaca7d08b9e76eb\">design review<\/a> has determined that the system specification properly addresses the motivating need.\n<\/p><p>Key steps within the conceptual design stage include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Need identification<\/li>\n<li>Feasibility analysis<\/li>\n<li>System requirements analysis<\/li>\n<li>System specification<\/li>\n<li>Conceptual design review<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Preliminary_system_design\">Preliminary system design<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>During this stage of the system lifecycle, subsystems that perform the desired system functions are designed and specified in compliance with the system specification. Interfaces between subsystems are defined, as well as overall test and evaluation requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> At the completion of this stage, a development specification is produced that is sufficient to perform detailed design and development.\n<\/p><p>Key steps within the preliminary design stage include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Functional analysis<\/li>\n<li>Requirements allocation<\/li>\n<li>Detailed trade-off studies<\/li>\n<li>Synthesis of system options<\/li>\n<li>Preliminary design of engineering models<\/li>\n<li>Development specification<\/li>\n<li>Preliminary design review<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>For example, as the system analyst of Viti Bank, you have been tasked to examine the current information system. Viti Bank is a fast growing bank in Fiji. Customers in remote rural areas are finding difficulty to access the bank services. It takes them days or even weeks to travel to a location to access the bank services. With the vision of meeting the customers needs, the bank has requested your services to examine the current system and to come up with solutions or recommendations of how the current system can be provided to meet its needs.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Detail_design_and_development\">Detail design and development<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This stage includes the development of detailed designs that brings initial design work into a completed with form of specifications. This work includes the specification of interfaces between the system and its intended environment and a comprehensive evaluation of the systems logistical, maintenance and support requirements. The detail design and development is responsible for producing the product, process and material specifications and may result in substantial changes to the development specification.\n<\/p><p>Key steps within the detail design and development stage include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Detailed design<\/li>\n<li>Detailed synthesis<\/li>\n<li>Development of engineering and prototype models<\/li>\n<li>Revision of development specification<\/li>\n<li>Product, process and material specification<\/li>\n<li>Critical design review<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Production_and_construction\">Production and construction<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>During the production and\/or construction stage the product is built or assembled in accordance with the requirements specified in the product, process and material specifications and is deployed and tested within the operational target environment. System assessments are conducted in order to correct deficiencies and adapt the system for continued improvement.\n<\/p><p>Key steps within the product construction stage include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Production and\/or construction of system components<\/li>\n<li>Acceptance testing<\/li>\n<li>System distribution and operation<\/li>\n<li>Operational testing and evaluation<\/li>\n<li>System assessment<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Utilization_and_support\">Utilization and support<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Once fully deployed, the system is used for its intended operational role and maintained within its operational environment.\n<\/p><p>Key steps within the utilization and support stage include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>System operation in the user environment<\/li>\n<li>Change management<\/li>\n<li>System modifications for improvement<\/li>\n<li>System assessment<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Phase-out_and_disposal\">Phase-out and disposal<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Effectiveness and efficiency of the system must be continuously evaluated to determine when the product has met its maximum effective lifecycle<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>. Considerations include: Continued existence of operational need, matching between operational requirements and system performance, feasibility of system phase-out versus maintenance, and availability of alternative systems.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_lifecycle_management\" title=\"Application lifecycle management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9d9f4c6462e3a8a0f95da56303d789\">Application lifecycle management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_cycle\" title=\"Decision cycle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea4254e4342a92482937ef49b0811a18\">Decision cycle<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPO_Model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IPO Model\" data-key=\"f6ea68e7b3633ee8016e777383dd2508\">IPO Model<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_development_methodologies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software development methodologies\" data-key=\"15197fdbe946f8afaa98920d00c2e4a2\">Software development methodologies<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cms.gov\/Research-Statistics-Data-and-Systems\/CMS-Information-Technology\/XLC\/Downloads\/SelectingDevelopmentApproach.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">SELECTING A DEVELOPMENT APPROACH<\/a>. Retrieved 17 July 2014.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Parag C. Pendharkara; James A. Rodgerb; Girish H. Subramanian (November 2008). \"An empirical study of the Cobb\u2013Douglas production function properties of software development effort\". <i>Information and Software Technology<\/i>. <b>50<\/b> (12): 1181\u20131188. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.infsof.2007.10.019\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.infsof.2007.10.019<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Information+and+Software+Technology&rft.atitle=An+empirical+study+of+the+Cobb%E2%80%93Douglas+production+function+properties+of+software+development+effort&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1181-1188&rft.date=2008-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.infsof.2007.10.019&rft.au=Parag+C.+Pendharkara&rft.au=James+A.+Rodgerb&rft.au=Girish+H.+Subramanian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+development+life+cycle\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/foldoc.org\/Systems+Development+Life+Cycle\" target=\"_blank\">\"Systems Development Life Cycle from\"<\/a>. FOLDOC<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-06-14<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Systems+Development+Life+Cycle+from&rft.pub=FOLDOC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffoldoc.org%2FSystems%2BDevelopment%2BLife%2BCycle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+development+life+cycle\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/condor.depaul.edu\/~jpetlick\/extra\/394\/Session2.ppt\" target=\"_blank\">\"Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Software+Development+Life+Cycle+%28SDLC%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcondor.depaul.edu%2F~jpetlick%2Fextra%2F394%2FSession2.ppt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+development+life+cycle\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Taylor, James (2004). <i>Managing Information Technology Projects<\/i>. p. 39.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Managing+Information+Technology+Projects&rft.pages=39&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+development+life+cycle\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Ell04-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Ell04_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Ell04_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Geoffrey Elliott & Josh Strachan (2004) <i>Global Business Information Technology<\/i>. p.87.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-US_DJ03-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-US_DJ03_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-US_DJ03_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-US_DJ03_7-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-US_DJ03_7-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">US Department of Justice (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.justice.gov\/archive\/jmd\/irm\/lifecycle\/table.htm\" target=\"_blank\">INFORMATION RESOURCES MANAGEMENT<\/a> Chapter 1. Introduction.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EverettSoftware07-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-EverettSoftware07_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EverettSoftware07_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EverettSoftware07_8-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Everatt, G.D.; McLeod Jr., R. (2007). \"Chapter 2: The Software Development Life Cycle\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=z8UdPmvkBHEC&pg=PA29\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Software Testing: Testing Across the Entire Software Development Life Cycle<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 29\u201358. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780470146347.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+The+Software+Development+Life+Cycle&rft.btitle=Software+Testing%3A+Testing+Across+the+Entire+Software+Development+Life+Cycle&rft.pages=29-58&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780470146347&rft.au=Everatt%2C+G.D.%3B+McLeod+Jr.%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz8UdPmvkBHEC%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+development+life+cycle\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-UnhelkarTheArt16-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-UnhelkarTheArt16_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Unhelkar, B. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ZqnMBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA56\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Art of Agile Practice: A Composite Approach for Projects and Organizations<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp. 56\u201359. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781439851197.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Agile+Practice%3A+A+Composite+Approach+for+Projects+and+Organizations&rft.pages=56-59&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781439851197&rft.au=Unhelkar%2C+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZqnMBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+development+life+cycle\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LandPract12-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LandPract12_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Land, S.K.; Smith, D.B.; Walz, J.W. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=SsBF_lVbK_gC&pg=PA341\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Practical Support for Lean Six Sigma Software Process Definition: Using IEEE Software Engineering Standards<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 341\u20133. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780470289952.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Practical+Support+for+Lean+Six+Sigma+Software+Process+Definition%3A+Using+IEEE+Software+Engineering+Standards&rft.pages=341-3&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780470289952&rft.au=Land%2C+S.K.%3B+Smith%2C+D.B.%3B+Walz%2C+J.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSsBF_lVbK_gC%26pg%3DPA341&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+development+life+cycle\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Kay, Russell (May 14, 2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/s\/article\/71151\/System_Development_Life_Cycle\" target=\"_blank\">\"QuickStudy: System Development Life Cycle\"<\/a>. <i>ComputerWorld<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ComputerWorld&rft.atitle=QuickStudy%3A+System+Development+Life+Cycle&rft.date=2002-05-14&rft.aulast=Kay&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Fs%2Farticle%2F71151%2FSystem_Development_Life_Cycle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+development+life+cycle\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TaylorIntro08-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TaylorIntro08_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Taylor, G.D. (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=gqpZDNc5_Y4C&pg=SA12-PA6\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Introduction to Logistics Engineering<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp. 12.6\u201312.18. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781420088571.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Logistics+Engineering&rft.pages=12.6-12.18&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781420088571&rft.au=Taylor%2C+G.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgqpZDNc5_Y4C%26pg%3DSA12-PA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+development+life+cycle\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Control and Audit, Information Systems. <i>SDLC<\/i> (August 2013 ed.). Chapter 5: Institute of Chartered Accountants of India. p. 5.28.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SDLC&rft.place=Chapter+5&rft.pages=5.28&rft.edition=August+2013&rft.pub=Institute+of+Chartered+Accountants+of+India&rft.aulast=Control+and+Audit&rft.aufirst=Information+Systems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+development+life+cycle\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Radack, S. (n.d.). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/publications\/nistbul\/april2009_system-development-life-cycle.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The system development life cycle (SDLC)\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. National Institute of Standards and Technology.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+system+development+life+cycle+%28SDLC%29&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&rft.aulast=Radack&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcsrc.nist.gov%2Fpublications%2Fnistbul%2Fapril2009_system-development-life-cycle.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+development+life+cycle\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Marakas, James A. O'Brien, George M. (2010). <i>Management information systems<\/i> (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill\/Irwin. pp. 485\u2013489. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0073376817.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Management+information+systems&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=485-489&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill%2FIrwin&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=0073376817&rft.aulast=Marakas&rft.aufirst=James+A.+O%27Brien%2C+George+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+development+life+cycle\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-USHR99-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-USHR99_16-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-USHR99_16-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-USHR99_16-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-USHR99_16-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-USHR99_16-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">U.S. House of Representatives (1999). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.house.gov\/content\/cao\/procurement\/ref-docs\/SDLCPOL.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Systems Development Life-Cycle Policy<\/i><\/a>. p.13.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">, & <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fabrycky,_W._J.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fabrycky, W. J.\" data-key=\"737a19529ab8beef0b09db2a9c2bd972\">Fabrycky, W. J.<\/a>(2006) <i>Systems engineering and analysis<\/i> (4th ed.) New Jersey: Prentice Hall. p.31<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Post,_G._2006-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Post,_G._2006_18-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Post,_G._2006_18-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Post, G., & Anderson, D., (2006). <i>Management information systems: Solving business problems with information technology<\/i>. (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Blanchard and Fabrycky (2006). <i>Systems Engineering and Analysis, Fourth Edition<\/i>. Prentice Hall. p. 19.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Systems+Engineering+and+Analysis%2C+Fourth+Edition&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Blanchard+and+Fabrycky&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+development+life+cycle\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Dr. Joahn Gouws (2007). <i>Introduction to Engineering, System Engineering<\/i>. Melikon Pty Ltd.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Engineering%2C+System+Engineering&rft.pub=Melikon+Pty+Ltd&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Dr.+Joahn+Gouws&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+development+life+cycle\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Cunningham, James. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hercbpm.com.au\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"HERC Maintenance\"<\/a>. <i>Fargo<\/i>. <b>XXI<\/b> (North Avenue): 49<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 May<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fargo&rft.atitle=HERC+Maintenance&rft.volume=XXI&rft.issue=North+Avenue&rft.pages=49&rft.aulast=Cunningham&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hercbpm.com.au%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystems+development+life+cycle\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Cummings, Haag (2006). <i>Management Information Systems for the Information Age<\/i>. Toronto, McGraw-Hill Ryerson<\/li>\n<li>Beynon-Davies P. (2009). <i>Business Information Systems<\/i>. Palgrave, Basingstoke. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-230-20368-6<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/developmenttopics\/development\/story\/0,10801,71151,00.html\" target=\"_blank\">Computer World, 2002<\/a>, Retrieved on June 22, 2006 from the World Wide Web:<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20060901145404\/http:\/\/www.cbe.wwu.edu\/misclasses\/MIS320_Spring06_Bajwa\/Chap006.ppt\" target=\"_blank\">Management Information Systems, 2005<\/a>, Retrieved on June 22, 2006 from the World Wide Web:<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"citation foldoc\"><small>This article is based on material taken from the <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing\" title=\"Free On-line Dictionary of Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f25dc30e42da039ce152c302096e6108\">Free On-line Dictionary of Computing<\/a><\/i>  prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the \"relicensing\" terms of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GNU_Free_Documentation_License\" title=\"GNU Free Documentation License\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6a042b82bc31ee57108d20154569426\">GFDL<\/a>, version 1.3 or later.<\/small><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ambysoft.com\/essays\/agileLifecycle.html\" target=\"_blank\">The Agile System Development Lifecycle<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pbgc.gov\/docs\/ITSLCM%20V2007.1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation \u2013 Information Technology Solutions Lifecycle Methodology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100707055603\/http:\/\/federalstudentaid.ed.gov\/static\/gw\/docs\/lcm\/FSALCMFrameworkOverview.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">FSA Life Cycle Framework<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ocio\/eplc\/eplc_framework_v1point2.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">HHS Enterprise Performance Life Cycle Framework<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/OpenSDLC.org\" target=\"_blank\">The Open Systems Development Life Cycle<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scribd.com\/doc\/103966748\/SDLC-Evolution-Model\" target=\"_blank\">System Development Life Cycle Evolution Modeling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130217023015\/http:\/\/0deviation.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Zero Deviation Life Cycle<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/spacese.spacegrant.org\/uploads\/Project%20Life%20Cycle\/DAU_wallChart.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Integrated Defense AT&L Life Cycle Management Chart<\/a>, the U.S. DoD form of this concept.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1332\nCached time: 20190401150117\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.444 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.604 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1651\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 66176\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 1871\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 3\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 50077\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\nLua time usage: 0.189\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4.81 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 473.560 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>46.55% 220.437 1 Template:Reflist\n26.63% 126.107 2 Template:Cite_journal\n 9.46% 44.821 3 Template:Navbox\n 9.21% 43.601 1 Template:Citation_needed\n 8.69% 41.157 1 Template:Commons_category\n 8.63% 40.882 9 Template:Cite_book\n 8.63% 40.846 1 Template:Software_engineering\n 8.33% 39.455 1 Template:Fix\n 8.30% 39.317 1 Template:ISBN\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:573528-1!canonical and timestamp 20190401150117 and revision id 890468615\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_development_life_cycle\" data-key=\"3e10b60754dcc11d1f32334e2f41a76e\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203021\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.014 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.177 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 167.728 1 - wikipedia:Systems_development_life_cycle\n100.00% 167.728 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10685-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203021 and revision id 33574\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Systems_development_life_cycle\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Systems_development_life_cycle<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7e\/SDLC-Maintenance-Highlighted.png\/440px-SDLC-Maintenance-Highlighted.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/66\/Systems_Development_Life_Cycle.gif","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a2\/SDLC_Phases_Related_to_Management_Controls.jpg\/440px-SDLC_Phases_Related_to_Management_Controls.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/82\/SDLC_Work_Breakdown_Structure.jpg\/440px-SDLC_Work_Breakdown_Structure.jpg"],"b96939e19621960ee123770c13fa1a84_timestamp":1554323421,"738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_type":"article","738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_title":"Stakeholder analysis","738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Stakeholder_analysis","738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tStakeholder analysis\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tStakeholder analysis (in conflict resolution, business administration, environmental health sciences decision making[1], Industrial ecology, and project management) is the process of assessing a system and potential changes to it as they relate to relevant and interested parties (stakeholders). This information is used to assess how the interests of those stakeholders should be addressed in a project plan, policy, program, or other action.[2] Stakeholder analysis is a key part of stakeholder management. A stakeholder analysis of an issue consists of weighing and balancing all of the competing demands on a firm by each of those who have a claim on it, in order to arrive at the firm's obligation in a particular case. A stakeholder analysis does not preclude the interests of the stakeholders overriding the interests of the other stakeholders affected, but it ensures that all affected will be considered.[3]\nStakeholder analysis is frequently used during the preparation phase of a project to assess the attitudes of the stakeholders regarding the potential changes. Stakeholder analysis can be done once or on a regular basis to track changes in stakeholder attitudes over time.\n\nContents \n\n1 Stakeholder types \n2 Methods of stakeholder mapping \n3 Benefits \n4 See also \n5 References \n\n\nStakeholder types \nTypes of stakeholders include:[4]\n\nPrimary stakeholders: those ultimately most affected, either positively or negatively by an organization's actions\nSecondary stakeholders: the \"intermediaries,\" that is, persons or organizations who are indirectly affected by an organization's actions\nTertiary stakeholders: those who will be impacted the least\nKey stakeholders: those with significant influence upon or importance within an organization; can also belong to the other groups\nMethods of stakeholder mapping \n A stakeholders matrix showing which strategies to use.\nThe following list identifies some of the best known and most commonly used methods for stakeholder mapping:\n\nCameron et al. defined a process for ranking stakeholders based on needs and the relative importance of stakeholders to others in the network.[5]\nFletcher et al. defined a process for mapping stakeholder expectations based on value hierarchies and key performance indicators.[6]\nMitchell et al. proposed a classification of stakeholders based on power to influence, the legitimacy of each stakeholder\u2019s relationship with the organization, and the urgency of the stakeholder\u2019s claim on the organization. The results of this classification may assess the fundamental question of \"which groups are stakeholders deserving or requiring manager's attention, and which are not?\" This is salience - \"the degree to which managers give priority to competing stakeholder claims.\"[7]\nSavage et al. offer a way to classify stakeholders according to potential for threat and potential for cooperation.[8]\nTurner et al. have developed a process of identification, assessment of awareness, support, and influence, leading to strategies for communicating and assessing stakeholder satisfaction, and determining who is aware or ignorant and whether their attitude is supportive or opposing.[9]\nMapping techniques include the following analysis techniques being used by aid agencies, governments, or consultant groups:\n\nBourne's Stakeholder Circle, \"a five-step methodology that provides a flexible approach to understanding and managing the relationships within and around the activity\"; involves identification, prioritization, visualization, engagement, and monitoring of stakeholder aspects[10]\nMendelow's power-interest grid, which considers stakeholder \"power and expectations (and therefore their likely interest) ... to determine the potential influence of stakeholder groups\"[11]\nMurray-Webster and Simon's three-dimensional grid mapping power, interest, and attitude, for better \"stimulating thought and informing the project or program manager in a truly meaningful way\"[12]\nImperial College London's influence-interest grid, \"plotting stakeholders on a graph in terms of their influence over the project and their interest in the project\"[13]\nThe former Office of Government Commerce's power-impact grid, mapping \"the level of impact of the change on [stakeholder] and the importance these stakeholders [have] to the success of the change project\"[14]\nThe first step in building any stakeholder map is to develop a categorised list of the members of the stakeholder community. Once the list is reasonably complete it is then possible to assign priorities in some way, and then to translate the highest priority stakeholders into a table or a picture.[8][15] list The potential list of stakeholders for any project often exceeds both the time available for analysis and the capability of the mapping tool to sensibly display the results.[16] The challenge is to focus on the right stakeholders who are currently important and to use the tool to visualise this critical sub-set of the total community.[16]\nThe most common presentation styles use a matrix to represent two dimensions of interest with frequently a third dimension shown by the colour or size of the symbol representing the individual stakeholders. Some of the commonly used \"dimensions\" include:[4][11][12][13][14][15]\n\nPower (high, medium, low)\nInfluence (high or low)\nInterest\/Need (high, medium, low)\nSupport\/Attitude (positive, neutral, negative)\nBenefits \nStakeholder analysis helps with the identification of:[15][17][18]\n\nstakeholders' interests\npotential risks and misunderstandings\nmechanisms to positively influence other stakeholders\nkey people to be informed about the project during the execution phase\nnegative stakeholders as well as their adverse effects on the project\nSee also \nActor analysis\nCrowdsourcing\nDepartment of Defense Architecture Framework\nParticipation (decision making)\nPublic consultation\nResponsibility assignment matrix\nStakeholder theory\nStakeholder management\nReferences \n\n^ https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK50712\/. Missing or empty |title= (help) \n\n^ Ketema, D.M.; Chisholm, N.; Enright, P. (2017). \"Chapter 20: Examining the Characteristics of Stakeholders in Lake Tana Sub-basin Resource Use, Management and Governance\". In Stave, K.; Goshu, G.; Aynalem, S. Social and Ecological System Dynamics. Springer. p. 318. ISBN 9783319457550. \n\n^ DeGeorge, R.T. (2010). Business Ethics. Pearson Education, Inc. p. 192. ISBN 9780205015108. \n\n^ a b De Mascia, S. (2016). Project Psychology: Using Psychological Models and Techniques to Create a Successful Project. CRC Press. pp. 73\u201374. ISBN 9781317075011. \n\n^ Cameron, B.G.; Seher, T.; Crawley, E.F. (2011). \"Goals for space exploration based on stakeholder value network considerations\". Acta Astronautica. 68 (11\u201312): 2088\u201397. doi:10.1016\/j.actaastro.2010.11.003. \n\n^ Fletcher, A.; Guthrie, J.; Steane, P.; et al. (2003). \"Mapping stakeholder perceptions for a third sector organization\". Journal of Intellectual Capital. 4 (4): 505\u201327. doi:10.1108\/14691930310504536. \n\n^ Mitchell, R.K.; Agle, B.R.; Wood, D.J. (1997). \"Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What Really Counts\". The Academy of Management Review. 22 (4): 853\u201386. doi:10.2307\/259247. \n\n^ a b Savage, G.T.; Nix, T.W.; Whitehead, C.J.; Blair, J.D. (1991). \"Strategies for Assessing and Managing Organizational Stakeholders\". The Executive. 5 (2): 61\u201375. JSTOR 4165008. \n\n^ Turner, J.R.; Grude, K.V.; Thurloway, L. (1999). The Project Manager As Change Agent: Leadership, Influence and Negotiation. McGraw-Hill Book Co Ltd. ISBN 9780077077419. \n\n^ Bourne, L. (2012). Stakeholder Relationship Management: A Maturity Model for Organisational Implementation. Gower Publishing, Ltd. p. PT61. ISBN 9780566091933. \n\n^ a b Botten, N. (2006). Management Accounting - Business Strategy. CIMA Publishing. pp. 3\u20134. ISBN 9780750680431. Once the power and expectations (and therefore their likely interest) has been established we can use a power interest matrix to assist the analysis. Mendelow (1991) has proposed such a matrix (Figure 1.4). If the stakeholders are plotted regularly this matrix can be used to determine the potential influence of stakeholder groups. \n\n^ a b Murray-Webster, R.; Simon, P. (2006). \"Making Sense of Stakeholder Mapping\" (PDF) . PM World Today. 8 (11): 1\u20134. \n\n^ a b \"Stakeholder management\" (PDF) . Imperial College London. 21 June 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2018 . \n\n^ a b \"Stakeholder Management Plan\" (PDF) . Office of Government Commerce. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 June 2008. Retrieved 6 July 2018 . \n\n^ a b c Babou, S. (12 March 2008). \"What Is Stakeholder Analysis?\". The Project Management Hut. PM Hut. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2018 . \n\n^ a b Eden, C.; Ackermann, F. (2013). Making Strategy: The Journey of Strategic Management. SAGE. p. 123. ISBN 9781446265192. \n\n^ Kimmich, C.; Janetschek, H.; Meyer-Ohlendorf, L.; et al. (2012). Methods for Stakeholder Analysis. Europaeischer Hochschulverlag GmbH & Co KG. pp. 3\u20134. ISBN 9783867417808. \n\n^ Dwyer, J.; Hopwood, N. (2013). Management Strategies and Skills. McGraw-Hill Education Australia. p. 360. ISBN 9781743764930. \n\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Stakeholder_analysis\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Stakeholder_analysis<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Business and data managementSoftware developmentHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 6 July 2018, at 20:44.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 442 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Stakeholder_analysis skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Stakeholder analysis<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Stakeholder analysis<\/b> (in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conflict_resolution\" title=\"Conflict resolution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a32384edaeb87ea97d1edd719d1c3393\">conflict resolution<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_administration\" title=\"Business administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afab518c5ddf262ef4313681f22ca944\">business administration<\/a>, environmental health sciences decision making<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_ecology\" title=\"Industrial ecology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93d6c290ffec75fabb97f5eec3aee10d\">Industrial ecology<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_management\" title=\"Project management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6eafec51967ae43f1d3054bbbbcb85a\">project management<\/a>) is the process of assessing a system and potential changes to it as they relate to relevant and interested parties (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_stakeholder\" title=\"Project stakeholder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f020ef5f57bcf75aae14e3df0beec1a\">stakeholders<\/a>). This information is used to assess how the interests of those stakeholders should be addressed in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project\" title=\"Project\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f05b38496b9578ab9149bf3fa7c4ea82\">project<\/a> plan, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Policy\" title=\"Policy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1e53cac97ac6a1bb336545f75a474b3\">policy<\/a>, program, or other action.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KetemaExam17_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KetemaExam17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Stakeholder analysis is a key part of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_management\" title=\"Stakeholder management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8deb9061aab534803a05f37f98626fbc\">stakeholder management<\/a>. A stakeholder analysis of an issue consists of weighing and balancing all of the competing demands on a firm by each of those who have a claim on it, in order to arrive at the firm's obligation in a particular case. A stakeholder analysis does not preclude the interests of the stakeholders overriding the interests of the other stakeholders affected, but it ensures that all affected will be considered.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeGeorgeBusiness10_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeGeorgeBusiness10-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Stakeholder analysis is frequently used during the preparation phase of a project to assess the attitudes of the stakeholders regarding the potential changes. Stakeholder analysis can be done once or on a regular basis to track changes in stakeholder attitudes over time.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Stakeholder_types\">Stakeholder types<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Types of stakeholders include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeMasciaProject16_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeMasciaProject16-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Primary stakeholders: those ultimately most affected, either positively or negatively by an organization's actions<\/li>\n<li>Secondary stakeholders: the \"intermediaries,\" that is, persons or organizations who are indirectly affected by an organization's actions<\/li>\n<li>Tertiary stakeholders: those who will be impacted the least<\/li>\n<li>Key stakeholders: those with significant influence upon or importance within an organization; can also belong to the other groups<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Methods_of_stakeholder_mapping\">Methods of stakeholder mapping<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:252px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Stakeholders_matrix.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"25a864e94e2e5b789fb9f6d6fa7b4378\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/77\/Stakeholders_matrix.svg\/250px-Stakeholders_matrix.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"250\" height=\"248\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Stakeholders_matrix.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"25a864e94e2e5b789fb9f6d6fa7b4378\"><\/a><\/div>A stakeholders matrix showing which strategies to use.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The following list identifies some of the best known and most commonly used methods for stakeholder mapping:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Cameron <i>et al.<\/i> defined a process for ranking stakeholders based on needs and the relative importance of stakeholders to others in the network.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CameronGoals11_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CameronGoals11-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Fletcher <i>et al.<\/i> defined a process for mapping stakeholder expectations based on value hierarchies and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Performance_indicator\" title=\"Performance indicator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86a826562de559a457428c6d38607c4f\">key performance indicators<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FletcherMapping03_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FletcherMapping03-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Mitchell <i>et al.<\/i> proposed a classification of stakeholders based on power to influence, the legitimacy of each stakeholder\u2019s relationship with the organization, and the urgency of the stakeholder\u2019s claim on the organization. The results of this classification may assess the fundamental question of \"which groups are stakeholders deserving or requiring manager's attention, and which are not?\" This is salience - \"the degree to which managers give priority to competing stakeholder claims.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MitchellToward97_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MitchellToward97-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Savage <i>et al.<\/i> offer a way to classify stakeholders according to potential for threat and potential for cooperation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SavageStrat91_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SavageStrat91-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Turner <i>et al.<\/i> have developed a process of identification, assessment of awareness, support, and influence, leading to strategies for communicating and assessing stakeholder satisfaction, and determining who is aware or ignorant and whether their attitude is supportive or opposing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TurnerTheProject99_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TurnerTheProject99-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Mapping techniques include the following analysis techniques being used by aid agencies, governments, or consultant groups:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Bourne's Stakeholder Circle, \"a five-step methodology that provides a flexible approach to understanding and managing the relationships within and around the activity\"; involves identification, prioritization, visualization, engagement, and monitoring of stakeholder aspects<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BourneStakeholder12_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BourneStakeholder12-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Mendelow's power-interest grid, which considers stakeholder \"power and expectations (and therefore their likely interest) ... to determine the potential influence of stakeholder groups\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BottenManage06_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BottenManage06-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Murray-Webster and Simon's three-dimensional grid mapping power, interest, and attitude, for better \"stimulating thought and informing the project or program manager in a truly meaningful way\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Murray-WebsterMaking06_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Murray-WebsterMaking06-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Imperial_College_London\" title=\"Imperial College London\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5ddeea653bcb35db739cf341c6eefeb\">Imperial College London<\/a>'s influence-interest grid, \"plotting stakeholders on a graph in terms of their influence over the project and their interest in the project\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ICLStake17_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ICLStake17-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The former <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Office_of_Government_Commerce\" title=\"Office of Government Commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d84da40d333819f9f7b991516fe003e0\">Office of Government Commerce<\/a>'s power-impact grid, mapping \"the level of impact of the change on [stakeholder] and the importance these stakeholders [have] to the success of the change project\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OGCArch06_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OGCArch06-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The first step in building any stakeholder map is to develop a categorised list of the members of the stakeholder community. Once the list is reasonably complete it is then possible to assign priorities in some way, and then to translate the highest priority stakeholders into a table or a picture.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SavageStrat91_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SavageStrat91-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BabouArchWhat08-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> list The potential list of stakeholders for any project often exceeds both the time available for analysis and the capability of the mapping tool to sensibly display the results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EdenMaking13_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EdenMaking13-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> The challenge is to focus on the right stakeholders who are currently important and to use the tool to visualise this critical sub-set of the total community.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EdenMaking13_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EdenMaking13-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The most common presentation styles use a matrix to represent two dimensions of interest with frequently a third dimension shown by the colour or size of the symbol representing the individual stakeholders. Some of the commonly used \"dimensions\" include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeMasciaProject16_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeMasciaProject16-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BottenManage06_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BottenManage06-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Murray-WebsterMaking06_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Murray-WebsterMaking06-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ICLStake17_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ICLStake17-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OGCArch06_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OGCArch06-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BabouArchWhat08-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Power (high, medium, low)<\/li>\n<li>Influence (high or low)<\/li>\n<li>Interest\/Need (high, medium, low)<\/li>\n<li>Support\/Attitude (positive, neutral, negative)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Benefits\">Benefits<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Stakeholder analysis helps with the identification of:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_15-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BabouArchWhat08-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KimmichMethods12_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KimmichMethods12-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DwyerManage13_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DwyerManage13-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>stakeholders' interests<\/li>\n<li>potential risks and misunderstandings<\/li>\n<li>mechanisms to positively influence other stakeholders<\/li>\n<li>key people to be informed about the project during the execution phase<\/li>\n<li>negative stakeholders as well as their adverse effects on the project<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Actor_analysis\" title=\"Actor analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faba4d71cd821ea225a531a67a9acd6e\">Actor analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crowdsourcing\" title=\"Crowdsourcing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48733729f7e2ec744b3fa4dd8a984584\">Crowdsourcing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Department_of_Defense_Architecture_Framework\" title=\"Department of Defense Architecture Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ef211a8a414fe8fbe436f1a72e42d1d\">Department of Defense Architecture Framework<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Participation_(decision_making)\" title=\"Participation (decision making)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47d97dacc610306752ecb445c78e6a5a\">Participation (decision making)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_consultation\" title=\"Public consultation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a315eca59bdb3513a86995c2a93a0f2\">Public consultation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Responsibility_assignment_matrix\" title=\"Responsibility assignment matrix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2abd9787d1955d00fd1fa72357532438\">Responsibility assignment matrix<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_theory\" title=\"Stakeholder theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24c8c95953ba6394708767e0d32210d6\">Stakeholder theory<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_management\" title=\"Stakeholder management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8deb9061aab534803a05f37f98626fbc\">Stakeholder management<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK50712\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK50712\/<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK50712%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error error citation-comment\">Missing or empty <code class=\"cs1-code\">|title=<\/code> (<a href=\"#citation_missing_title\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KetemaExam17-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KetemaExam17_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Ketema, D.M.; Chisholm, N.; Enright, P. (2017). \"Chapter 20: Examining the Characteristics of Stakeholders in Lake Tana Sub-basin Resource Use, Management and Governance\". In Stave, K.; Goshu, G.; Aynalem, S. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vNifDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA318\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Social and Ecological System Dynamics<\/i><\/a>. Springer. p. 318. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783319457550.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+20%3A+Examining+the+Characteristics+of+Stakeholders+in+Lake+Tana+Sub-basin+Resource+Use%2C+Management+and+Governance&rft.btitle=Social+and+Ecological+System+Dynamics&rft.pages=318&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9783319457550&rft.au=Ketema%2C+D.M.&rft.au=Chisholm%2C+N.&rft.au=Enright%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvNifDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DeGeorgeBusiness10-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DeGeorgeBusiness10_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">DeGeorge, R.T. (2010). <i>Business Ethics<\/i>. Pearson Education, Inc. p. 192. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780205015108.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Business+Ethics&rft.pages=192&rft.pub=Pearson+Education%2C+Inc&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780205015108&rft.au=DeGeorge%2C+R.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DeMasciaProject16-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-DeMasciaProject16_4-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DeMasciaProject16_4-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">De Mascia, S. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=G5XsCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Project Psychology: Using Psychological Models and Techniques to Create a Successful Project<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp. 73\u201374. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781317075011.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Project+Psychology%3A+Using+Psychological+Models+and+Techniques+to+Create+a+Successful+Project&rft.pages=73-74&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781317075011&rft.au=De+Mascia%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG5XsCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CameronGoals11-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CameronGoals11_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Cameron, B.G.; Seher, T.; Crawley, E.F. (2011). \"Goals for space exploration based on stakeholder value network considerations\". <i>Acta Astronautica<\/i>. <b>68<\/b> (11\u201312): 2088\u201397. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.actaastro.2010.11.003\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.actaastro.2010.11.003<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Astronautica&rft.atitle=Goals+for+space+exploration+based+on+stakeholder+value+network+considerations&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=11%E2%80%9312&rft.pages=2088-97&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.actaastro.2010.11.003&rft.au=Cameron%2C+B.G.&rft.au=Seher%2C+T.&rft.au=Crawley%2C+E.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FletcherMapping03-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FletcherMapping03_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Fletcher, A.; Guthrie, J.; Steane, P.; et al. (2003). \"Mapping stakeholder perceptions for a third sector organization\". <i>Journal of Intellectual Capital<\/i>. <b>4<\/b> (4): 505\u201327. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108%2F14691930310504536\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/14691930310504536<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Intellectual+Capital&rft.atitle=Mapping+stakeholder+perceptions+for+a+third+sector+organization&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=505-27&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2F14691930310504536&rft.au=Fletcher%2C+A.&rft.au=Guthrie%2C+J.&rft.au=Steane%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MitchellToward97-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MitchellToward97_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Mitchell, R.K.; Agle, B.R.; Wood, D.J. (1997). \"Toward a Theory of Stakeholder Identification and Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What Really Counts\". <i>The Academy of Management Review<\/i>. <b>22<\/b> (4): 853\u201386. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307%2F259247\" target=\"_blank\">10.2307\/259247<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Academy+of+Management+Review&rft.atitle=Toward+a+Theory+of+Stakeholder+Identification+and+Salience%3A+Defining+the+Principle+of+Who+and+What+Really+Counts&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=853-86&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F259247&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+R.K.&rft.au=Agle%2C+B.R.&rft.au=Wood%2C+D.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SavageStrat91-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-SavageStrat91_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SavageStrat91_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Savage, G.T.; Nix, T.W.; Whitehead, C.J.; Blair, J.D. (1991). \"Strategies for Assessing and Managing Organizational Stakeholders\". <i>The Executive<\/i>. <b>5<\/b> (2): 61\u201375. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR\" title=\"JSTOR\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5a2011b7c1e7325af22d9508b7ded7b\">JSTOR<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/4165008\" target=\"_blank\">4165008<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Executive&rft.atitle=Strategies+for+Assessing+and+Managing+Organizational+Stakeholders&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=61-75&rft.date=1991&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4165008&rft.au=Savage%2C+G.T.&rft.au=Nix%2C+T.W.&rft.au=Whitehead%2C+C.J.&rft.au=Blair%2C+J.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TurnerTheProject99-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TurnerTheProject99_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Turner, J.R.; Grude, K.V.; Thurloway, L. (1999). <i>The Project Manager As Change Agent: Leadership, Influence and Negotiation<\/i>. McGraw-Hill Book Co Ltd. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780077077419.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Project+Manager+As+Change+Agent%3A+Leadership%2C+Influence+and+Negotiation&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Book+Co+Ltd&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780077077419&rft.au=Turner%2C+J.R.&rft.au=Grude%2C+K.V.&rft.au=Thurloway%2C+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BourneStakeholder12-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BourneStakeholder12_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Bourne, L. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=8VJ2OzigQj4C&pg=PT61\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Stakeholder Relationship Management: A Maturity Model for Organisational Implementation<\/i><\/a>. Gower Publishing, Ltd. p. PT61. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780566091933.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stakeholder+Relationship+Management%3A+A+Maturity+Model+for+Organisational+Implementation&rft.pages=PT61&rft.pub=Gower+Publishing%2C+Ltd&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780566091933&rft.au=Bourne%2C+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8VJ2OzigQj4C%26pg%3DPT61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BottenManage06-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-BottenManage06_11-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BottenManage06_11-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Botten, N. (2006). <i>Management Accounting - Business Strategy<\/i>. CIMA Publishing. pp. 3\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780750680431. <q>Once the power and expectations (and therefore their likely interest) has been established we can use a power interest matrix to assist the analysis. Mendelow (1991) has proposed such a matrix (Figure 1.4). If the stakeholders are plotted regularly this matrix can be used to determine the potential influence of stakeholder groups.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Management+Accounting+-+Business+Strategy&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=CIMA+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780750680431&rft.au=Botten%2C+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Murray-WebsterMaking06-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Murray-WebsterMaking06_12-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Murray-WebsterMaking06_12-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Murray-Webster, R.; Simon, P. (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/skat.ihmc.us\/rid=1JGD4CJZ4-F9CF0Y-1KM6\/SEMINAL%20stakeholder%20mapping%20in%203d.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Making Sense of Stakeholder Mapping\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>PM World Today<\/i>. <b>8<\/b> (11): 1\u20134.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PM+World+Today&rft.atitle=Making+Sense+of+Stakeholder+Mapping&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1-4&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Murray-Webster%2C+R.&rft.au=Simon%2C+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fskat.ihmc.us%2Frid%3D1JGD4CJZ4-F9CF0Y-1KM6%2FSEMINAL%2520stakeholder%2520mapping%2520in%25203d.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ICLStake17-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ICLStake17_13-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ICLStake17_13-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.imperial.ac.uk\/media\/imperial-college\/administration-and-support-services\/staff-development\/public\/impex\/Stakeholder-management-21jun17.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stakeholder management\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Imperial College London. 21 June 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stakeholder+management&rft.pub=Imperial+College+London&rft.date=2017-06-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imperial.ac.uk%2Fmedia%2Fimperial-college%2Fadministration-and-support-services%2Fstaff-development%2Fpublic%2Fimpex%2FStakeholder-management-21jun17.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OGCArch06-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-OGCArch06_14-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-OGCArch06_14-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080620102145\/https:\/\/www.ogc.gov.uk\/documents\/Stakeholder_Management_Plan.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stakeholder Management Plan\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Office of Government Commerce. 2006. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ogc.gov.uk\/documents\/Stakeholder_Management_Plan.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 20 June 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stakeholder+Management+Plan&rft.pub=Office+of+Government+Commerce&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ogc.gov.uk%2Fdocuments%2FStakeholder_Management_Plan.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BabouArchWhat08-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_15-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_15-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BabouArchWhat08_15-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Babou, S. (12 March 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150222033454\/http:\/\/www.pmhut.com\/what-is-stakeholder-analysis\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is Stakeholder Analysis?\"<\/a>. <i>The Project Management Hut<\/i>. PM Hut. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pmhut.com\/what-is-stakeholder-analysis\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 22 February 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Project+Management+Hut&rft.atitle=What+Is+Stakeholder+Analysis%3F&rft.date=2008-03-12&rft.au=Babou%2C+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pmhut.com%2Fwhat-is-stakeholder-analysis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EdenMaking13-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-EdenMaking13_16-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EdenMaking13_16-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Eden, C.; Ackermann, F. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=UnYWfXigU4UC&pg=PA123\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Making Strategy: The Journey of Strategic Management<\/i><\/a>. SAGE. p. 123. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781446265192.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Strategy%3A+The+Journey+of+Strategic+Management&rft.pages=123&rft.pub=SAGE&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781446265192&rft.au=Eden%2C+C.&rft.au=Ackermann%2C+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUnYWfXigU4UC%26pg%3DPA123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KimmichMethods12-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KimmichMethods12_17-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Kimmich, C.; Janetschek, H.; Meyer-Ohlendorf, L.; et al. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=o2ejrQc5qhkC&pg=PA4\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Methods for Stakeholder Analysis<\/i><\/a>. Europaeischer Hochschulverlag GmbH & Co KG. pp. 3\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783867417808.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Methods+for+Stakeholder+Analysis&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=Europaeischer+Hochschulverlag+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783867417808&rft.au=Kimmich%2C+C.&rft.au=Janetschek%2C+H.&rft.au=Meyer-Ohlendorf%2C+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do2ejrQc5qhkC%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DwyerManage13-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DwyerManage13_18-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Dwyer, J.; Hopwood, N. (2013). <i>Management Strategies and Skills<\/i>. McGraw-Hill Education Australia. p. 360. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781743764930.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Management+Strategies+and+Skills&rft.pages=360&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education+Australia&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781743764930&rft.au=Dwyer%2C+J.&rft.au=Hopwood%2C+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStakeholder+analysis\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1271\nCached time: 20190309012929\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.248 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.286 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 790\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 29602\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 3\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 2\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 57457\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 2\/400\nLua time usage: 0.161\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 3.66 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 212.947 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>52.33% 111.442 4 Template:Cite_web\n25.73% 54.784 5 Template:Cite_journal\n21.35% 45.456 9 Template:Cite_book\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:5838705-1!canonical and timestamp 20190309012929 and revision id 884637972\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_analysis\" data-key=\"e5774cb09de8217ab125b8d7d33a563c\">article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203021\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.009 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.153 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 147.059 1 - wikipedia:Stakeholder_analysis\n100.00% 147.059 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10668-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203021 and revision id 33524\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Stakeholder_analysis\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Stakeholder_analysis<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/77\/Stakeholders_matrix.svg\/500px-Stakeholders_matrix.svg.png"],"738d070b04a9e00d7048ca56c331458e_timestamp":1554323421,"e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_type":"article","e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_title":"Risk assessment","e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Risk_assessment","e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tRisk assessment\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t Estimation of risk associated with exposure to a given set of hazards \nBroadly speaking, a risk assessment is the combined effort of 1. identifying and analyzing potential (future) events that may negatively impact individuals, assets, and\/or the environment (i.e., risk analysis); and 2. making judgments \"on the tolerability of the risk on the basis of a risk analysis\" while considering influencing factors (i.e., risk evaluation).[1][2] Put in simpler terms, a risk assessment analyzes what can go wrong, how likely it is to happen, what the potential consequences are, and how tolerable the identified risk is.[1] As part of this process, the resulting determination of risk may be expressed in a quantitative or qualitative fashion. The risk assessment is an inherent part of an overall risk management strategy, which attempts to, after a risk assessment, \"introduce control measures to eliminate or reduce\" any potential risk-related consequences.[1][2]\n\nContents \n\n1 Need \n\n1.1 Individual risk assessment \n1.2 Systems risk assessment \n\n\n2 Concept \n\n2.1 Mathematical conceptualization \n\n2.1.1 Quantitative risk assessment \n\n\n\n\n3 Assessment of risk \n\n3.1 Dose dependent risk \n\n\n4 Dynamic risk assessment \n5 Fields of application \n\n5.1 General health \n\n5.1.1 Small sub-populations \n5.1.2 Acceptable risk criteria \n\n\n5.2 Auditing \n5.3 Public health \n5.4 Project management \n5.5 Information security \n5.6 Megaprojects \n5.7 Software evolution \n5.8 Shipping industry \n5.9 Underwater diving \n5.10 Outdoor and wilderness adventure \n5.11 Environment \n5.12 Biodiversity \n\n\n6 See also \n7 References \n\n7.1 Footnotes \n7.2 General references \n\n\n8 External links \n\n\nNeed \nIndividual risk assessment \nRisk assessment is necessary in individual cases, including patient and physician interactions.[3] Individual judgements or assessments of risk may be affected by psychological, ideological, religious or otherwise subjective factors, which impact rationality of the process.[3]\nA systematic review of patients and doctors from 2017 found that overstatement of benefits and understatement of risks occurred more often than the alternative.[3][4]\nThere is a tendency for individuals to be less rational when risks and exposures concern themselves as opposed to others.[3] There is also a tendency to underestimate risks that are voluntary or where the individual sees themselves as being in control, such as smoking.[3] A 2017 systematic review from the Cochrane collaboration suggests \u201cwell-documented decision aids\u201d are helpful in reducing effects of such tendencies or biases.[3][5] The ways statistics are expressed and communicated, both through words and numerically also impact the interpretation of benefit and harm. For example, a fatality rate may be interpreted as less benign than the corresponding survival rate.[3]\n\nSystems risk assessment \nRisk assessment can also be made on a much larger \"systems\" scale, for example assessing the risks of a nuclear power plant (an interactively complex mechanical, electronic, nuclear, and human system) or a hurricane (a complex meteorological and geographical system). Systems may be defined as linear and nonlinear (or complex), where linear systems are predictable and relatively easy to understand given a change in input, and non-linear systems unpredictable when inputs are changed.[6] As such, risk assessments of non-linear\/complex systems tend to be more challenging.\nIn the engineering of complex systems, sophisticated risk assessments are often made within safety engineering and reliability engineering when it concerns threats to life, environment, or machine functioning. The agriculture, nuclear, aerospace, oil, railroad, and military industries have a long history of dealing with risk assessment.[7] Also, medical, hospital, social service,[8] and food industries control risks and perform risk assessments on a continual basis. Methods for assessment of risk may differ between industries and whether it pertains to general financial decisions or environmental, ecological, or public health risk assessment.[7]\n\nConcept \nRapid technological change, increasing scale of industrial complexes, increased system integration, market competition, and other factors have been shown to increase societal risk in the past few decades.[1] As such, risk assessments become increasingly critical in mitigating accidents, improving safety, and improving outcomes. Risk assessment consists of an objective evaluation of risk in which assumptions and uncertainties are clearly considered and presented. This involves identification of risk (what can happen and why), the potential consequences, the probability of occurrence, the tolerability or acceptability of the risk, and ways to mitigate or reduce probability of the risk.[2] Optimally, it also involves documentation of the risk assessment and its findings, implementation of mitigation methods, and review of the assessment (or risk management plan), coupled with updates when necessary.[1] Sometimes risks can be deemed acceptable, meaning the risk \"is understood and tolerated ... usually because the cost or difficulty of implementing an effective countermeasure for the associated vulnerability exceeds the expectation of loss.\"[9]\nPart of the difficulty in managing risk is that both the quantities by which risk assessment is concerned\u2014potential loss and probability of occurrence\u2014can be very difficult to measure. The chance of error in measuring these two concepts is high. Risk with a large potential loss and a low probability of occurrence is often treated differently from one with a low potential loss and a high likelihood of occurrence. In theory, both are of near equal priority, but in practice it can be very difficult to manage when faced with the scarcity of resources\u2014especially time\u2014in which to conduct the risk management process.\n\nMathematical conceptualization \n Risk assessment from a financial point of view.\nTo see the risk management process expressed mathematically, one can define total risk as the sum over individual risks, \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{i}}\n \n , which can be computed as the product of potential losses, \n \n \n \n \n L\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle L_{i}}\n \n , and their probabilities, \n \n \n \n p\n (\n \n L\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p(L_{i})}\n \n :\n\n\n \n \n \n \n R\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n L\n \n i\n \n \n p\n (\n \n L\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{i}=L_{i}p(L_{i})\\,\\!}\n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n R\n \n t\n o\n t\n a\n l\n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n \n \n \n L\n \n i\n \n \n p\n (\n \n L\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{total}=\\sum _{i}L_{i}p(L_{i})\\,\\!}\n \n \nEven though for some risks \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n R\n \n j\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{i},R_{j}}\n \n , we might have \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n R\n \n j\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{i}=R_{j}}\n \n , if the probability \n \n \n \n p\n (\n \n L\n \n j\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p(L_{j})}\n \n is small compared to \n \n \n \n p\n (\n \n L\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p(L_{i})}\n \n , its estimation might be based only on a smaller number of prior events, and hence, more uncertain. On the other hand, since \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n R\n \n j\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{i}=R_{j}}\n \n , \n \n \n \n \n L\n \n j\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle L_{j}}\n \n must be larger than \n \n \n \n \n L\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle L_{i}}\n \n , so decisions based on this uncertainty would be more consequential, and hence, warrant a different approach.\nFinancial decisions, such as insurance, express loss in terms of dollar amounts. When risk assessment is used for public health or environmental decisions, loss can be quantified in a common metric such as a country's currency or some numerical measure of a location's quality of life. For public health and environmental decisions, loss is simply a verbal description of the outcome, such as increased cancer incidence or incidence of birth defects. In that case, the \"risk\" is expressed as\n\n\n \n \n \n \n R\n \n i\n \n \n =\n p\n (\n \n L\n \n i\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{i}=p(L_{i})\\,\\!}\n \n \nIf the risk estimate takes into account information on the number of individuals exposed, it is termed a \"population risk\" and is in units of expected increased cases per a time period. If the risk estimate does not take into account the number of individuals exposed, it is termed an \"individual risk\" and is in units of incidence rate per a time period. Population risks are of more use for cost\/benefit analysis; individual risks are of more use for evaluating whether risks to individuals are \"acceptable\".\n\nQuantitative risk assessment \nFurther information: Quantitative risk assessment software\nIn quantitative risk assessment an annualized loss expectancy (ALE) may be used to justify the cost of implementing countermeasures to protect an asset. This may be calculated by multiplying the single loss expectancy (SLE), which is the loss of value based on a single security incident, with the annualized rate of occurrence (ARO), which is an estimate of how often a threat would be successful in exploiting a vulnerability.\nThe usefulness of quantitative risk assessment has been questioned, however. Barry Commoner, Brian Wynne and other critics have expressed concerns that risk assessment tends to be overly quantitative and reductive. For example, they argue that risk assessments ignore qualitative differences among risks. Some charge that assessments may drop out important non-quantifiable or inaccessible information, such as variations among the classes of people exposed to hazards, or social amplification.[10] Furthermore, Commoner and O'Brien claim that quantitative approaches divert attention from precautionary or preventative measures.[11] Others, like Nassim Nicholas Taleb consider risk managers little more than \"blind users\" of statistical tools and methods.[12]\n\nAssessment of risk \nThe process of risk assessment may be somewhat informal at the individual social level, managing economic and household risks,[13][14] or a sophisticated process at the strategic corporal level. However, in both cases, ability to anticipate future events and create effective strategies for mitigating them when deemed unacceptable is vital.\nAt the individual level, a simple process of identifying objectives and risks, weighing their importance and creating plans, may be all that's necessary. At the strategic organisational level, more elaborate policies are necessary, specifying acceptable levels of risk, procedures to be followed within the organisation, priorities, and allocation of resources.[15]:10 At the systematic level, management involved with the project produce project level risk assessments with the assistance of the available expertise as part of the planning process, and set up systems to ensure that required actions to manage the assessed risk are in place. At the dynamic level, the personnel directly involved may be required to deal with unforeseen problems in real time. The tactical decisions made at this level should be reviewed after the operation to provide feedback on the effectiveness of both the planned procedures and decisions made in response to the contingency.\nThe first step in risk assessment is to establish the context. This restricts the range of hazards to be considered.\nThis is followed by identification of visible and implied hazards that may threaten the project, and determining the qualitative nature of the potential adverse consequences of each hazard. Without a potential adverse consequence, there is no hazard.\nIt is also necessary to identify the potential parties or assets which may be affected by the threat, and the potential consequences to them if the hazard is activated.\nIf the consequences are dependent on dose, i.e. the amount of exposure, the relationship between dose and severity of consequence must be established, and the risk depends on the probable dose, which may depend on concentration or amplitude and duration or frequency of exposure. This is the general case for many health hazards where the mechanism of injury is toxicity or repetitive injury, particularly where the effect is cumulative.\nFor other hazards, the consequences may either occur or not, and the severity may be extremely variable even when the triggering conditions are the same. This is typical of many biological hazards as well as a large range of safety hazards. Exposure to a pathogen may or may not result in actual infection, and the consequences of infection may also be variable. Similarly a fall from the same place may result in minor injury or death, depending on unpredictable details. In these cases estimates must be made of reasonably likely consequences and associated probability of occurrence.\nIn cases where statistical records are available they may be used to evaluate risk, but in many cases there are no data or insufficient data available to be useful. Mathematical or experimental models may provide useful input.\n\nDose dependent risk \n Food risk assessment nomogram\nDose-Response Analysis, is determining the relationship between dose and the type of adverse response and\/or probability or the incidence of effect (dose-response assessment). The complexity of this step in many contexts derives mainly from the need to extrapolate results from experimental animals (e.g. mouse, rat) to humans, and\/or from high to lower doses, including from high acute occupational levels to low chronic environmental levels. In addition, the differences between individuals due to genetics or other factors mean that the hazard may be higher for particular groups, called susceptible populations. An alternative to dose-response estimation is to determine a concentration unlikely to yield observable effects, that is, a no effect concentration. In developing such a dose, to account for the largely unknown effects of animal to human extrapolations, increased variability in humans, or missing data, a prudent approach is often adopted by including safety or uncertainty factors in the estimate of the \"safe\" dose, typically a factor of 10 for each unknown step.\nExposure Quantification, aims to determine the amount of a contaminant (dose) that individuals and populations will receive, either as a contact level (e.g., concentration in ambient air) or as intake (e.g., daily dose ingested from drinking water). This is done by examining the results of the discipline of exposure assessment. As different location, lifestyles and other factors likely influence the amount of contaminant that is received, a range or distribution of possible values is generated in this step. Particular care is taken to determine the exposure of the susceptible population(s).\nThe results of these steps are combined to produce an estimate of risk. Because of the different susceptibilities and exposures, this risk will vary within a population. An uncertainty analysis is usually included in a health risk assessment.\n\nDynamic risk assessment \nDuring an emergency response, the situation and hazards are often inherently less predictable than for planned activities (non-linear). In general, if the situation and hazards are predictable (linear), standard operating procedures should deal with them adequately. In some emergencies this may also hold true, with the prepared and trained responses being adequate to manage the situation. In these situations, the operator can manage risk without outside assistance, or with the assistance of a backup team who are prepared and available to step in at short notice.\nOther emergencies occur where there is no previously planned protocol, or when an outsider group is brought in to handle the situation, and they are not specifically prepared for the scenario that exists but must deal with it without undue delay. Examples include police, fire department, disaster response and other public service rescue teams. In these cases ongoing risk assessment by the involved personnel can advise appropriate action to reduce risk.[15] HM Fire Services Inspectorate has defined dynamic risk assessment (DRA) as:\n\nThe continuous assessment of risk in the rapidly changing circumstances of an operational incident, in order to implement the control measures necessary to ensure an acceptable level of safety.[15]\nDynamic risk assessment is the final stage of an integrated safety management system which can provide appropriate response during changing circumstances. It relies on experience, training and continuing education, including effective debriefing to analyse not only what went wrong, but also what went right, and why, and to share this with other members of the team and the personnel responsible for the planning level risk assessment.[15]\n\nFields of application \nApplication of risk assessment procedures is common in a wide range of fields, and these may have specific legal obligations, codes of practice and standardised procedures. Some of these are listed here.\n\nGeneral health \nThere are many resources that provide health risk information.\nThe National Library of Medicine provides risk assessment and regulation information tools for a varied audience.[16] These include:\n\nTOXNET (databases on hazardous chemicals, environmental health, and toxic releases),[17]\nthe Household Products Database (potential health effects of chemicals in over 10,000 common household products),[18]\nTOXMAP (maps of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Superfund and Toxics Release Inventory data).\nThe United States Environmental Protection Agency provides basic information about environmental health risk assessments for the public for a wide variety of possible environmental exposures.[19]\nThe Environmental Protection Agency began actively using risk assessment methods to protect drinking water in the United States after passage of the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974. The law required the National Academy of Sciences to conduct a study on drinking water issues, and in its report the NAS described some methodologies for doing risk assessments for chemicals that were suspected carcinogens, recommendations that top EPA officials have described as perhaps the study\u2019s most important part.[20]\nConsidering the increase in junk food and its toxicity, FDA required in 1973 that cancer-causing compounds must not be present in meat at concentrations that would cause a cancer risk greater than 1 in a million over a lifetime. The US Environmental Protection Agency provides extensive information about ecological and environmental risk assessments for the public via its risk assessment portal.[21] The Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) supports a qualitative risk framework for public health protection from chemicals that display environmental and biological persistence, bioaccumulation, toxicity (PBT) and long range transport; most global chemicals that meet this criteria have been previously assessed quantitatively by national and international health agencies.[22]\n\nSmall sub-populations \nWhen risks apply mainly to small sub-populations, there is uncertainty at which point intervention is necessary. For example, there may be a risk that is very low for everyone, other than 0.1% of the population. It is necessary to determine whether this 0.1% is represented by:\n\nall infants younger than X days or\nrecreational users of a particular product.\nIf the risk is higher for a particular sub-population because of abnormal exposure rather than susceptibility, strategies to further reduce the exposure of that subgroup are considered. If an identifiable sub-population is more susceptible due to inherent genetic or other factors, public policy choices must be made. The choices are:\n\nto set policies for protecting the general population that are protective of such groups, e.g. for children when data exists, the Clean Air Act for populations such as asthmatics or\nnot to set policies, because the group is too small, or the costs too high.\nAcceptable risk criteria \nThe idea of not increasing lifetime risk by more than one in a million has become commonplace in public health discourse and policy.[23] It is a heuristic measure. It provides a numerical basis for establishing a negligible increase in risk.\nEnvironmental decision making allows some discretion for deeming individual risks potentially \"acceptable\" if less than one in ten thousand chance of increased lifetime risk. Low risk criteria such as these provide some protection for a case where individuals may be exposed to multiple chemicals e.g. pollutants, food additives or other chemicals.\nIn practice, a true zero-risk is possible only with the suppression of the risk-causing activity.\nStringent requirements of 1 in a million may not be technologically feasible or may be so prohibitively expensive as to render the risk-causing activity unsustainable, resulting in the optimal degree of intervention being a balance between risks vs. benefit. For example, emissions from hospital incinerators result in a certain number of deaths per year. However, this risk must be balanced against the alternatives. There are public health risks, as well as economic costs, associated with all options. The risk associated with no incineration is potential spread of infectious diseases, or even no hospitals. Further investigation identifies options such as separating noninfectious from infectious wastes, or air pollution controls on a medical incinerator.\nIntelligent thought about a reasonably full set of options is essential. Thus, it is not unusual for there to be an iterative process between analysis, consideration of options, and follow up analysis.\n\nAuditing \nFor audits performed by an outside audit firm, risk assessment is a crucial stage before accepting an audit engagement. According to ISA315 Understanding the Entity and its Environment and Assessing the Risks of Material Misstatement, \"the auditor should perform risk assessment procedures to obtain an understanding of the entity and its environment, including its internal control\". Evidence relating to the auditor\u2019s risk assessment of a material misstatement in the client\u2019s financial statements. Then, the auditor obtains initial evidence regarding the classes of transactions at the client and the operating effectiveness of the client\u2019s internal controls. Audit risk is defined as the risk that the auditor will issue a clean unmodified opinion regarding the financial statements, when in fact the financial statements are materially misstated, and therefore do not qualify for a clean unmodified opinion. As a formula, audit risk is the product of two other risks: Risk of Material Misstatement and Detection risk. This formula can be further broken down as follows: inherent risk \u00d7 control risk \u00d7 detection risk.\n\nPublic health \nIn the context of public health, risk assessment is the process of characterizing the nature and likelihood of a harmful effect to individuals or populations from certain human activities. Health risk assessment can be mostly qualitative or can include statistical estimates of probabilities for specific populations. In most countries the use of specific chemicals or the operations of specific facilities (e.g. power plants, manufacturing plants) is not allowed unless it can be shown that they do not increase the risk of death or illness above a specific threshold. For example, the American Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates food safety through risk assessment.[24]\n\nProject management \nIn project management, risk assessment is an integral part of the risk management plan, studying the probability, the impact, and the effect of every known risk on the project, as well as the corrective action to take should an incident implied by a risk occur.[25] Of special consideration in this area are the relevant codes of practice that are enforced in the specific jurisdiction. Understanding the regime of regulations that risk management must abide by is integral to formulating safe and compliant risk assessment practices.\n\nInformation security \nMain article: IT risk management \u00a7 Risk assessment\nInformation technology risk assessment can be performed by a qualitative or quantitative approach, following different methodologies. One important difference[clarification needed ] in risk assessments in information security is modifying the threat model to account for the fact that any adversarial system connected to the Internet has access to threaten any other connected system.[26] Risk assessments may therefore need to be modified to account for the threats from all adversaries, instead of just those with reasonable access as is done in other fields.\n\nMegaprojects \nMegaprojects (sometimes also called \"major programs\") are extremely large-scale investment projects, typically costing more than US$1 billion per project. They include bridges, tunnels, highways, railways, airports, seaports, power plants, dams, wastewater projects, coastal flood protection, oil and natural gas extraction projects, public buildings, information technology systems, aerospace projects, and defence systems. Megaprojects have been shown to be particularly risky in terms of finance, safety, and social and environmental impacts.\n\nSoftware evolution \nStudies have shown that early parts of the system development cycle such as requirements and design specifications are especially prone to error. This effect is particularly notorious in projects involving multiple stakeholders with different points of view. Evolutionary software processes offer an iterative approach to requirement engineering to alleviate the problems of uncertainty, ambiguity and inconsistency inherent in software developments.[clarification needed ]\n\nShipping industry \nIn July 2010, shipping companies agreed to use standardized procedures in order to assess risk in key shipboard operation. These procedures were implemented as part of the amended ISM Code.[27]\n\nUnderwater diving \nSee also: List of diving hazards and precautions\nFormal risk assessment is a required component of most professional dive planning, but the format and methodology may vary. Consequences of an incident due to an identified hazard are generally chosen from a small number of standardised categories, and probability is estimated based on statistical data on the rare occasions when it is available, and on a best guess estimate based on personal experience and company policy in most cases. A simple matrix is often used to transform these inputs into a level of risk, generally expressed as unacceptable, marginal or acceptable. If unacceptable, measures must be taken to reduce the risk to an acceptable level, and the final outcome of the risk assessment must be accepted by the affected parties before a dive commences. Higher levels of risk may be acceptable in special circumstances, such as military or search and rescue operations when there is a chance of recovering a survivor. Diving supervisors are trained in the procedures of hazard identification and risk assessment, and it is part of their planning and operational responsibility. Both health and safety hazards must be considered. Several stages may be identified. There is risk assessment done as part of the diving project planning, on site risk assessment which takes into account the specific conditions of the day, and dynamic risk assessment which is ongoing during the operation by the members of the dive team, particularly the supervisor and the working diver.[28][29]\nIn recreational scuba diving, the extent of risk assessment expected of the diver is relatively basic, and is included in the pre-dive checks. Several mnemonics have been developed by diver certification agencies to remind the diver to pay some attention to risk, but the training is rudimentary. Diving service providers are expected to provide a higher level of care for their customers, and diving instructors and divemasters are expected to assess risk on behalf of their customers and warn them of site-specific hazards and the competence considered appropriate for the planned dive. Technical divers are expected to make a more thorough assessment of risk, but as they will be making an informed choice for a recreational activity, the level of acceptable risk may be considerably higher than that permitted for occupational divers under the direction of an employer.[30][31]\n\nOutdoor and wilderness adventure \nIn outdoor activities including commercial outdoor education, wilderness expeditioning and outdoor recreation, risk assessment refers to analysis of the probability and magnitude of unfavorable outcomes such as injury, illness, or property damage due to environmental and related causes, compared to the human development or other benefits of outdoor activity. This is of particular importance as school programs and others weigh the benefits of youth and adult participation in various outdoor learning activities against the inherent and other hazards present in those activities. Schools, corporate entities seeking team-building experiences, parents\/guardians, and others considering outdoor experiences expect or require[32] organizations to assess the hazards and risks of different outdoor activities\u2014such as sailing, mountaineering, or camping\u2014and select activities with acceptable risk profiles.\nOutdoor education, wilderness adventure, and other outdoor-related organizations should, and are in some jurisdictions required, to conduct risk assessments prior to offering programs for commercial purposes[33][34][35].\nSuch organizations are given guidance on how to provide their risk assessments[36] and external consultancy services provide these assessments as well[37][38][39].\n\nEnvironment \nEnvironmental Risk Assessment (ERA) aims at assessing the effects of stressors, often chemicals, on the local environment. A risk is an integrated assessment of likelihood and severity of an undesired event. In ERA, the undesired event often depends on the chemical of interest and on the risk assessment scenario.[40] This undesired event is usually a detrimental effect on organisms, populations or ecosystems. Current ERAs usually compare an exposure to a no-effect level, such as the Predicted Environmental Concentration\/Predicted No-Effect Concentration (PEC\/PNEC) ratio in Europe. Although this type of ratio is useful and often used in regulation purposes, it is only an indication of an exceeded apparent threshold.[41] New approaches start to be developed in ERA in order to quantifiy this risk and to communicate effectively on it with both the managers and the general public.[40]\n\nBiodiversity \nBiodiversity Risk Assessments evaluate risks to biological diversity, specially the risk of species extinction or the risk of ecosystem collapse. The units of assessments are the biological (species, subspecies or populations) or ecological entities (habitats, ecosystems, etc), and the risk are often related to human actions and interventions (threats and pressures). Regional and national protocols have been proposed by multiple academic or governmental institutions and working groups,[42] but global standards such as the Red List of Threatened Species and the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems have been widely adopted, and are recognized or proposed as official indicators of progress toward international policy targets and goals, such as the Aichi targets and the Sustainable Development Goals.[43][44]\n\nSee also \n\nAcceptable loss\nBenefit risk\nControl self-assessment\nCost risk\nDigital continuity\nDuty of Care\nEdwards v. National Coal Board\nExtreme risk\nFlood risk assessment\nForm 696\nGlobal catastrophic risk\nHACCP: hazard analysis and critical control points, risk assessment in food\nHazard (risk)\nHazard analysis\nHealth impact assessment\nInformation assurance\nList of auditing topics\nISO 28000\nISO 31000\nISSOW\nMegaprojects and Risk\nNetwork theory in risk assessment\nOptimism bias\nPIMEX a video exposure monitoring method\nProbabilistic risk assessment\nProbit model\nProject risk management\nReference class forecasting\nReliability engineering\nRisk\nRisk aversion\nRisk based auditing\nRisk management\nRisk management tools\nRisk matrix\nRisk (statistics)\nSafety engineering\nSecurity risk\nStrategic misrepresentation\nReferences \nFootnotes \n\n\n^ a b c d e Rausand, M. (2013). \"Chapter 1: Introduction\". Risk Assessment: Theory, Methods, and Applications. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1\u201328. ISBN 9780470637647. \n\n^ a b c Manuele, F.A. (2016). \"Chapter 1: Risk Assessments: Their Significance and the Role of the Safety Professional\". In Popov, G.; Lyon, B.K.; Hollcraft, B. Risk Assessment: A Practical Guide to Assessing Operational Risks. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1\u201322. ISBN 9781118911044. \n\n^ a b c d e f g Levi, Ragnar (June 1, 2018). \"Getting Real About Both Benefits and Risks\" (PDF) . Swedish Agency of Health Technology Assessment and Assessment of Social Services. pp. 8\u20139. ISSN 1104-1250. Retrieved 2018-06-14 – via Science & Practice, English Special 2018. \n\n^ Hoffmann, Tammy C.; Del Mar, Chris (2015). \"Patients' expectations of the benefits and harms of treatments, screening, and tests: a systematic review\" (PDF) . JAMA Internal Medicine. 175 (2): 274\u2013286. doi:10.1001\/jamainternmed.2014.6016. ISSN 2168-6114. PMID 25531451. \n\n^ Stacey, Dawn; L\u00e9gar\u00e9, France; Lewis, Krystina; Barry, Michael J.; Bennett, Carol L.; Eden, Karen B.; Holmes-Rovner, Margaret; Llewellyn-Thomas, Hilary; Lyddiatt, Anne (12 April 2017). \"Decision aids for people facing health treatment or screening decisions\". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 4: CD001431. doi:10.1002\/14651858.CD001431.pub5. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 28402085. \n\n^ Rausand, M. (2013). \"Chapter 6: Accident Models\". Risk Assessment: Theory, Methods, and Applications. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 137\u201376. ISBN 9780470637647. \n\n^ a b Vamanu, B.I.; Gheorghe, A.V.; Kaina, P.F. (2016). Critical Infrastructures: Risk and Vulnerability Assessment in Transportation of Dangerous Goods: Transportation by Road and Rail. Springer. p. 11. ISBN 9783319309316. \n\n^ Lacey, Peter (2011). \"An Application of Fault Tree Analysis to the Identification and Management of Risks in Government Funded Human Service Delivery\". Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Public Policy and Social Sciences. SSRN 2171117 . \n\n^ Shirey, R. (August 2007). \"Internet Security Glossary, Version 2\". Network Working Group. The IETF Trust. p. 9. Retrieved 19 July 2018 . \n\n^ Kasperson, R.E.; Renn, O.; Slovic, P.; Brown, H.S.; Emel, J.; Goble, R.; Kasperson, J.X.; Ratick, S. (1988). \"The social amplification of risk: A conceptual framework\". Risk Analysis. 8 (2): 177\u2013187. doi:10.1111\/j.1539-6924.1988.tb01168.x. \n\n^ Commoner, Barry. O'Brien, Mary. Shrader-Frechette and Westra 1997. \n\n^ The fourth quadrant: a map of the limits of statistics [9.15.08] Nassim Nicholas Taleb An Edge Original Essay \n\n^ Holzmann, R.; J\u00f8rgensen, S. (2001). \"Social Risk Management: A New Conceptual Framework for Social Protection, and Beyond\". International Tax and Public Finance. 8 (4): 529\u201356. doi:10.1023\/A:1011247814590. \n\n^ Naka\u0161, N. (21 November 2017). \"Three Lessons About Risk Management from Everyday Life\". Knowledge Hub. Center of Excellence in Finance. Retrieved 19 July 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d Lock, Gareth (June 2017). Phillips, Mark, ed. \"Public Safety Diving-Dynamic Risk Assessment\" (PDF) . PS Diver Magazine (116): 9. Retrieved 20 June 2017 . \n\n^ \"Risk Assessment and Regulation Information from the NLM\". NLM. Retrieved 9 June 2013 . \n\n^ \"Databases on toxicology, hazardous chemicals, environmental health, and toxic releases\". TOXNET. NLM. May 2012. Retrieved 9 June 2013 . \n\n^ \"Household Products Database\". U.S. Dept. of Health & Human Services. January 2013. Retrieved 9 June 2013 . \n\n^ \"Risk Assessment Portal\". EPA. 13 May 2013. Retrieved 9 June 2013 . \n\n^ EPA Alumni Association: Senior EPA officials discuss early implementation of the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, Video, Transcript (see pages 11,14). \n\n^ \"Risk Assessment\". www.epa.gov. US Environmental Protection Agency. 2013-09-26. Retrieved 2016-04-07 . \n\n^ Szabo DT, Loccisano AE (March 30, 2012). POPs and Human Health Risk Assessment. Dioxins and Persistent Organic Pollutants. 3rd. pp. 579\u2013618. doi:10.1002\/9781118184141.ch19. ISBN 9781118184141. \n\n^ Hunter, Paul R.; Fewtrell, Lorna (2001). \"Acceptable Risk\" (PDF) . World Health Organization. \n\n^ Merrill, Richard A. \"Food Safety Regulation: Reforming the Delaney Clause\" in Annual Review of Public Health, 1997, 18:313-40. This source includes a useful historical survey of prior food safety regulation. \n\n^ Managing Project Risks - Retrieved May 20th, 2010 \n\n^ Spring, J.; Kern, S.; Summers, A. (2015-05-01). Global adversarial capability modeling. 2015 APWG Symposium on Electronic Crime Research (eCrime). pp. 1\u201321. doi:10.1109\/ECRIME.2015.7120797. ISBN 978-1-4799-8909-6. \n\n^ \"ISM CODE \u2013 Amendments from 1st July 2010 Risk Assessment\". \n\n^ \"Diving Regulations 2009\". Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 \u2013 Regulations and Notices \u2013 Government Notice R41. Pretoria: Government Printer. Archived from the original on 4 November 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2016 – via Southern African Legal Information Institute. \n\n^ Staff (August 2016). \"15 - General safety requirements\". Guidance for diving supervisors IMCA D 022 (Revision 1 ed.). London, UK: International Marine Contractors Association. pp. 15&#45, 5. \n\n^ Staff (1977). \"The Diving at Work Regulations 1997\". Statutory Instruments 1997 No. 2776 Health and Safety. Kew, Richmond, Surrey: Her Majesty's Stationery Office (HMSO). Retrieved 6 November 2016 . \n\n^ Gurr, Kevin (August 2008). \"13: Operational Safety\". In Mount, Tom; Dituri, Joseph. Exploration and Mixed Gas Diving Encyclopedia (1st ed.). Miami Shores, Florida: International Association of Nitrox Divers. pp. 165\u2013180. ISBN 978-0-915539-10-9. \n\n^ https:\/\/www.nwais.org\/uploaded\/accreditation_resources\/2018_Membership_AccredRubric.pdf \n\n^ \"Adventure Activities Regulations | supportadventure.co.nz\". \n\n^ \"Health and Safety at Work (Adventure Activities) Regulations 2016 (LI 2016\/19) Contents \u2013 New Zealand Legislation\". \n\n^ \"Adventure Activities Licensing\". \n\n^ \"Adventure activities\". \n\n^ \"Risk Management Reviews | OUTDOOR SAFETY INSTITUTE\". \n\n^ https:\/\/www.viristar.com \n\n^ https:\/\/www.nols.edu\/en\/about\/risk-services\/ \n\n^ a b Goussen, Benoit; Price, Oliver R.; Rendal, Cecilie; Ashauer, Roman (2016-10-26). \"Integrated presentation of ecological risk from multiple stressors\". Scientific Reports. 6: 36004. doi:10.1038\/srep36004. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5080554 . PMID 27782171. \n\n^ Jager, Tjalling; Heugens, Evelyn H. W.; Kooijman, Sebastiaan A. L. M. (2006-04-20). \"Making Sense of Ecotoxicological Test Results: Towards Application of Process-based Models\". Ecotoxicology. 15 (3): 305\u2013314. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.453.1811 . doi:10.1007\/s10646-006-0060-x. ISSN 0963-9292. PMID 16739032. \n\n^ Nicholson, Emily; Regan, Tracey J.; Auld, Tony D.; Burns, Emma L.; Chisholm, Laurie A.; English, Valerie; Harris, Stephen; Harrison, Peter; Kingsford, Richard T.; Leishman, Michelle R.; Metcalfe, Daniel J.; Pisanu, Phil; Watson, Christopher J.; White, Matthew; White, Matt D.; Williams, Richard J.; Wilson, Bruce; Keith, David A. (2015). \"Towards consistency, rigour and compatibility of risk assessments for ecosystems and ecological communities\". Austral Ecology. 40 (4): 347\u2013363. doi:10.1111\/aec.12148. ISSN 1442-9985. \n\n^ Keith, David A.; Rodr\u00edguez, Jon Paul; Brooks, Thomas M.; Burgman, Mark A.; Barrow, Edmund G.; Bland, Lucie; Comer, Patrick J.; Franklin, Janet; Link, Jason; McCarthy, Michael A.; Miller, Rebecca M.; Murray, Nicholas J.; Nel, Jeanne; Nicholson, Emily; Oliveira-Miranda, Mar\u00eda A.; Regan, Tracey J.; Rodr\u00edguez-Clark, Kathryn M.; Rouget, Mathieu; Spalding, Mark D. (2015). \"The IUCN Red List of Ecosystems: Motivations, Challenges, and Applications\". Conservation Letters. 8 (3): 214\u2013226. doi:10.1111\/conl.12167. ISSN 1755-263X. \n\n^ Brooks, Thomas M.; Butchart, Stuart H.M.; Cox, Neil A.; Heath, Melanie; Hilton-Taylor, Craig; Hoffmann, Michael; Kingston, Naomi; Rodr\u00edguez, Jon Paul; Stuart, Simon N.; Smart, Jane (2015). \"Harnessing biodiversity and conservation knowledge products to track the Aichi Targets and Sustainable Development Goals\". Biodiversity. 16 (2\u20133): 157\u2013174. doi:10.1080\/14888386.2015.1075903. ISSN 1488-8386. \n\n\nGeneral references \nDorne, Jean-Lou C. M.; Kass, George E. N.; Bordajandi, Luisa R.; Amzal, Billy; Bertelsen, Ulla; Castoldi, Anna F.; Heppner, Claudia; Eskola, Mari; Fabiansson, Stefan; Ferrari, Pietro; Scaravelli, Elena; Dogliotti, Eugenia; Fuerst, Peter; Boobis, Alan R.; Verger, Philippe (2011). \"Chapter 2. Human Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals: Principles and Applications\". In Astrid Sigel; Helmut Sigel; Roland K O Sigel. Metal Ions in Toxicology. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. RSC Publishing. pp. 27\u201360. doi:10.1039\/9781849732116-00027. ISBN 978-1-84973-091-4. \nMumtaz, Moiz M.; Hansen, Hugh; Pohl, Hana R. (2011). \"Chapter 3. Mixtures and Their Risk Assessment in Toxicology\". In Astrid Sigel; Helmut Sigel; Roland K O Sigel. Metal Ions in Toxicology. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. RSC Publishing. pp. 61\u201380. doi:10.1039\/9781849732116-00061. ISBN 978-1-84973-091-4. \nCommittee on Risk Assessment of Hazardous Air Pollutants (1994), Science and judgment in risk assessment, Washington, D.C: National Academy Press, ISBN 978-0-309-04894-1, retrieved 27 September 2010 \nBarry Commoner. \"Comparing apples to oranges: Risk of cost\/benefit analysis\" from Contemporary moral controversies in technology, A. P. Iannone, ed., pp. 64\u201365.\nHallenbeck, William H. Quantitative risk assessment for environmental and occupational health. Chelsea, Mich.: Lewis Publishers, 1986\nHarremo\u00ebs, Poul, ed. Late lessons from early warnings: the precautionary principle 1896\u20132000.\nJohn M. Lachin. Biostatistical methods: the assessment of relative risks.\nLerche, Ian; Glaesser, Walter (2006), Environmental risk assessment : quantitative measures, anthropogenic influences, human impact., Berlin: Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-26249-7, retrieved 27 September 2010 \nKluger, Jeffrey (November 26, 2006), \"How Americans Are Living Dangerously\", Time, retrieved 27 September 2010 . Also published as December 4 cover title: \"Why We Worry About the Wrong Things: The Psychology of Risk\" |work=Time\nCongressional Research Service; Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology (1983), A Review of risk assessment methodologies, Washington: U.S: report \/ prepared by the Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress for the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology; transmitted to the Committee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, Ninety-eighth Congress, first session CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \nDeborah G. Mayo. \u201cSociological versus metascientific views of technological risk assessment\u201d in Shrader-Frechette and Westra.\nO'Brien, Mary (2002), Making better environmental decisions: an alternative to risk assessment, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-15051-4, retrieved 27 September 2010 . Paperback ISBN 0-262-65053-3\nShrader-Frechette, Kristin; Westra, Laura, eds. (1997), Technology and values, Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-0-8476-8631-5, retrieved 27 September 2010 \nExternal links \nGuideline from the Dutch Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management on Performance based Risk Assessment\nAuthority control \nNDL: 00982332 \n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Risk_assessment\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Risk_assessment<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 19 July 2018, at 20:01.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 229 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Risk_assessment skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Risk assessment<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\"> Estimation of risk associated with exposure to a given set of hazards <\/div>\n<p>Broadly speaking, a <b>risk assessment<\/b> is the combined effort of 1. identifying and analyzing potential (future) events that may negatively impact individuals, assets, and\/or the environment (i.e., risk analysis); and 2. making judgments \"on the tolerability of the risk on the basis of a risk analysis\" while considering influencing factors (i.e., risk evaluation).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RausandRisk13_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RausandRisk13-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PopovRisk16_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PopovRisk16-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Put in simpler terms, a risk assessment analyzes what can go wrong, how likely it is to happen, what the potential consequences are, and how tolerable the identified risk is.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RausandRisk13_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RausandRisk13-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> As part of this process, the resulting determination of risk may be expressed in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantitative_property\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Quantitative property\" data-key=\"87df6a9763574ec45479a11463d8abff\">quantitative<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qualitative_data\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Qualitative data\" data-key=\"65ae686beafef354150f812a965c98ff\">qualitative<\/a> fashion. The risk assessment is an inherent part of an overall <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_management\" title=\"Risk management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8dfffb6fe8cc680af34e88ec60c1c92\">risk management<\/a> strategy, which attempts to, after a risk assessment, \"introduce control measures to eliminate or reduce\" any potential risk-related consequences.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RausandRisk13_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RausandRisk13-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PopovRisk16_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PopovRisk16-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Need\">Need<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Individual_risk_assessment\">Individual risk assessment<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Risk assessment is necessary in individual cases, including patient and physician interactions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Individual judgements or assessments of risk may be affected by psychological, ideological, religious or otherwise subjective factors, which impact rationality of the process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systematic_review\" title=\"Systematic review\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2398449e0188c586e54459b28a04452b\">systematic review<\/a> of patients and doctors from 2017 found that overstatement of benefits and understatement of risks occurred more often than the alternative.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_3-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There is a tendency for individuals to be less rational when risks and exposures concern themselves as opposed to others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_3-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> There is also a tendency to underestimate risks that are voluntary or where the individual sees themselves as being in control, such as smoking.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_3-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> A 2017 systematic review from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cochrane_(organisation)\" title=\"Cochrane (organisation)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d2f5e63f5a212b84ae7e1d8396c7645\">Cochrane collaboration<\/a> suggests \u201cwell-documented decision aids\u201d are helpful in reducing effects of such tendencies or biases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_3-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> The ways statistics are expressed and communicated, both through words and numerically also impact the interpretation of benefit and harm. For example, a fatality rate may be interpreted as less benign than the corresponding survival rate.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_3-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Systems_risk_assessment\">Systems risk assessment<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Risk assessment can also be made on a much larger \"systems\" scale, for example assessing the risks of a nuclear power plant (an interactively complex mechanical, electronic, nuclear, and human system) or a hurricane (a complex meteorological and geographical system). Systems may be defined as linear and nonlinear (or complex), where linear systems are predictable and relatively easy to understand given a change in input, and non-linear systems unpredictable when inputs are changed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RausandRisk13-6_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RausandRisk13-6-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> As such, risk assessments of non-linear\/complex systems tend to be more challenging.\n<\/p><p>In the engineering of complex systems, sophisticated risk assessments are often made within <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Safety_engineering\" title=\"Safety engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3563c863ee119cfc6afbe6dd5c28d2f2\">safety engineering<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reliability_engineering\" title=\"Reliability engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"384ae6374764b52a30f1982c0b2f053b\">reliability engineering<\/a> when it concerns threats to life, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_environment\" title=\"Natural environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6df22bcb227fd5b784896598d50389d7\">environment<\/a>, or machine functioning. The agriculture, nuclear, aerospace, oil, railroad, and military industries have a long history of dealing with risk assessment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VamanuCritical16_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VamanuCritical16-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Also, medical, hospital, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_services\" title=\"Social services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc52e0ce214175da74cb366e1c0aed71\">social service<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LaceyAnApp11_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LaceyAnApp11-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> and food industries control risks and perform risk assessments on a continual basis. Methods for assessment of risk may differ between industries and whether it pertains to general financial decisions or environmental, ecological, or public health risk assessment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VamanuCritical16_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VamanuCritical16-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Concept\">Concept<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Rapid technological change, increasing scale of industrial complexes, increased system integration, market competition, and other factors have been shown to increase societal risk in the past few decades.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RausandRisk13_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RausandRisk13-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> As such, risk assessments become increasingly critical in mitigating accidents, improving safety, and improving outcomes. Risk assessment consists of an objective evaluation of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk\" title=\"Risk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d60a8dcf9b8240614ca9ddd55d2570ec\">risk<\/a> in which assumptions and uncertainties are clearly considered and presented. This involves identification of risk (what can happen and why), the potential consequences, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outcome_(probability)\" title=\"Outcome (probability)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1cce2b2968da879618c2688e30a7d800\">probability of occurrence<\/a>, the tolerability or acceptability of the risk, and ways to mitigate or reduce probability of the risk.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PopovRisk16_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PopovRisk16-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Optimally, it also involves documentation of the risk assessment and its findings, implementation of mitigation methods, and review of the assessment (or risk management plan), coupled with updates when necessary.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RausandRisk13_1-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RausandRisk13-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Sometimes risks can be deemed acceptable, meaning the risk \"is understood and tolerated ... usually because the cost or difficulty of implementing an effective countermeasure for the associated vulnerability exceeds the expectation of loss.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShireyInternet07_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShireyInternet07-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Part of the difficulty in managing risk is that both the quantities by which risk assessment is concerned\u2014potential loss and probability of occurrence\u2014can be very difficult to measure. The chance of error in measuring these two concepts is high. Risk with a large potential loss and a low probability of occurrence is often treated differently from one with a low potential loss and a high likelihood of occurrence. In theory, both are of near equal priority, but in practice it can be very difficult to manage when faced with the scarcity of resources\u2014especially time\u2014in which to conduct the risk management process.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Mathematical_conceptualization\">Mathematical conceptualization<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:322px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:RiskAssessment.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"41faa9fd73e57bdad09eebdffaaca7de\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/8\/81\/RiskAssessment.jpg\/320px-RiskAssessment.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"320\" height=\"293\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:RiskAssessment.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"41faa9fd73e57bdad09eebdffaaca7de\"><\/a><\/div>Risk assessment from a financial point of view.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>To see the risk management process expressed mathematically, one can define total risk as the sum over individual risks, <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/db421291be9d0103404ced7495b363437b67b6b1\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.564ex; height:2.509ex;\" alt=\"R_{i}\"\/><\/span>, which can be computed as the product of potential losses, <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/fbbedf9f5f71ca52f8f24392c3cc18fca6c420dc\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.383ex; height:2.509ex;\" alt=\"L_i\"\/><\/span>, and their probabilities, <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/fc5939284c57593fbac8d2e11ac4f37d9d4c1caa\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:5.451ex; height:2.843ex;\" alt=\"{\\displaystyle p(L_{i})}\"\/><\/span>:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd><span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/7b338eb11e600358e9931935a58503ef453d09af\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-right: -0.387ex; width:13.793ex; height:2.843ex;\" alt=\"R_{i}=L_{i}p(L_{i})\\,\\!\"\/><\/span><\/dd>\n<dd><span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/7efd89fd9333a9aa18de70f1eae5556a8479083c\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -3.005ex; margin-right: -0.387ex; width:20.312ex; height:5.509ex;\" alt=\"R_{{total}}=\\sum _{i}L_{i}p(L_{i})\\,\\!\"\/><\/span><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>Even though for some risks <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/4b201cb8ad9b36c5243eae66f514a654088308a2\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:6.271ex; height:2.843ex;\" alt=\"{\\displaystyle R_{i},R_{j}}\"\/><\/span>, we might have <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/2fa11b463f648e3177a701b7a6cf5ccf56b50114\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:8.336ex; height:2.843ex;\" alt=\"{\\displaystyle R_{i}=R_{j}}\"\/><\/span>, if the probability <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/ccc10dab5305be048485facc9bccfb8a33115421\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:5.561ex; height:3.009ex;\" alt=\"{\\displaystyle p(L_{j})}\"\/><\/span> is small compared to <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/fc5939284c57593fbac8d2e11ac4f37d9d4c1caa\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:5.451ex; height:2.843ex;\" alt=\"{\\displaystyle p(L_{i})}\"\/><\/span>, its estimation might be based only on a smaller number of prior events, and hence, more uncertain. On the other hand, since <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/2fa11b463f648e3177a701b7a6cf5ccf56b50114\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:8.336ex; height:2.843ex;\" alt=\"{\\displaystyle R_{i}=R_{j}}\"\/><\/span>, <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/63e5d0de7f7de1196da1f476d04e2360a9c3eed2\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.493ex; height:2.843ex;\" alt=\"L_j\"\/><\/span> must be larger than <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/fbbedf9f5f71ca52f8f24392c3cc18fca6c420dc\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.383ex; height:2.509ex;\" alt=\"L_i\"\/><\/span>, so decisions based on this uncertainty would be more consequential, and hence, warrant a different approach.\n<\/p><p>Financial decisions, such as insurance, express loss in terms of dollar amounts. When risk assessment is used for public health or environmental decisions, loss can be quantified in a common metric such as a country's currency or some numerical measure of a location's quality of life. For public health and environmental decisions, loss is simply a verbal description of the outcome, such as increased cancer incidence or incidence of birth defects. In that case, the \"risk\" is expressed as\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd><span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/ba90d45d807a9c14c7368d3c539490a6e6166a97\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.838ex; margin-right: -0.387ex; width:11.41ex; height:2.843ex;\" alt=\"R_{i}=p(L_{i})\\,\\!\"\/><\/span><\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>If the risk estimate takes into account information on the number of individuals exposed, it is termed a \"population risk\" and is in units of expected increased cases per a time period. If the risk estimate does not take into account the number of individuals exposed, it is termed an \"individual risk\" and is in units of incidence rate per a time period. Population risks are of more use for cost\/benefit analysis; individual risks are of more use for evaluating whether risks to individuals are \"acceptable\".\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quantitative_risk_assessment\">Quantitative risk assessment<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantitative_risk_assessment_software\" title=\"Quantitative risk assessment software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73effc02919bf1fc67a905865004d439\">Quantitative risk assessment software<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In quantitative risk assessment an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Annualized_loss_expectancy\" title=\"Annualized loss expectancy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcd24d060a21ca54e9f491c9245c8f36\">annualized loss expectancy<\/a> (ALE) may be used to justify the cost of implementing countermeasures to protect an asset. This may be calculated by multiplying the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Single_loss_expectancy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Single loss expectancy\" data-key=\"2861db3c24689cc312bf471f5fd519db\">single loss expectancy<\/a> (SLE), which is the loss of value based on a single security incident, with the (ARO), which is an estimate of how often a threat would be successful in exploiting a vulnerability.\n<\/p><p>The usefulness of quantitative risk assessment has been questioned, however. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barry_Commoner\" title=\"Barry Commoner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"262f1723f0056e2fcd9958fc695610dd\">Barry Commoner<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brian_Wynne\" title=\"Brian Wynne\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"763f71c34ec7bf591add8849a79fef19\">Brian Wynne<\/a> and other critics have expressed concerns that risk assessment tends to be overly quantitative and reductive. For example, they argue that risk assessments ignore qualitative differences among risks. Some charge that assessments may drop out important non-quantifiable or inaccessible information, such as variations among the classes of people exposed to hazards, or social amplification.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kasperson_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kasperson-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> Furthermore, Commoner and O'Brien claim that quantitative approaches divert attention from precautionary or preventative measures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> Others, like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nassim_Nicholas_Taleb\" title=\"Nassim Nicholas Taleb\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"163e651e154540f12bd61357fec969bb\">Nassim Nicholas Taleb<\/a> consider risk managers little more than \"blind users\" of statistical tools and methods.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Assessment_of_risk\">Assessment of risk<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The process of risk assessment may be somewhat informal at the individual social level, managing economic and household risks,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HolzmannSocial01_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HolzmannSocial01-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Naka\u0161Three17_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Naka\u0161Three17-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> or a sophisticated process at the strategic corporal level. However, in both cases, ability to anticipate future events and create effective strategies for mitigating them when deemed unacceptable is vital.\n<\/p><p>At the individual level, a simple process of identifying objectives and risks, weighing their importance and creating plans, may be all that's necessary. At the strategic organisational level, more elaborate policies are necessary, specifying acceptable levels of risk, procedures to be followed within the organisation, priorities, and allocation of resources.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Lock_2017_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Lock_2017-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">:<span>10<\/span><\/sup> At the systematic level, management involved with the project produce project level risk assessments with the assistance of the available expertise as part of the planning process, and set up systems to ensure that required actions to manage the assessed risk are in place. At the dynamic level, the personnel directly involved may be required to deal with unforeseen problems in real time. The tactical decisions made at this level should be reviewed after the operation to provide feedback on the effectiveness of both the planned procedures and decisions made in response to the contingency.\n<\/p><p>The first step in risk assessment is to establish the context. This restricts the range of hazards to be considered.\n<\/p><p>This is followed by <i>identification of visible and implied hazards<\/i> that may threaten the project, and <i>determining the qualitative nature of the potential adverse consequences<\/i> of each hazard. Without a potential adverse consequence, there is no hazard.\n<\/p><p>It is also necessary to identify the potential parties or assets which may be affected by the threat, and the potential consequences to them if the hazard is activated.\n<\/p><p>If the consequences are dependent on dose, i.e. the amount of exposure, the relationship between dose and severity of consequence must be established, and the risk depends on the probable dose, which may depend on concentration or amplitude and duration or frequency of exposure. This is the general case for many health hazards where the mechanism of injury is toxicity or repetitive injury, particularly where the effect is cumulative.\n<\/p><p>For other hazards, the consequences may either occur or not, and the severity may be extremely variable even when the triggering conditions are the same. This is typical of many biological hazards as well as a large range of safety hazards. Exposure to a pathogen may or may not result in actual infection, and the consequences of infection may also be variable. Similarly a fall from the same place may result in minor injury or death, depending on unpredictable details. In these cases estimates must be made of reasonably likely consequences and associated probability of occurrence.\n<\/p><p>In cases where statistical records are available they may be used to evaluate risk, but in many cases there are no data or insufficient data available to be useful. Mathematical or experimental models may provide useful input.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Dose_dependent_risk\">Dose dependent risk<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:202px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Risk_Based_Sampling_Nomogram_(3yr).png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e8c327f359fc11e9ffd39a89651be31\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/a\/a5\/Risk_Based_Sampling_Nomogram_%283yr%29.png\/200px-Risk_Based_Sampling_Nomogram_%283yr%29.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"280\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Risk_Based_Sampling_Nomogram_(3yr).png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"1e8c327f359fc11e9ffd39a89651be31\"><\/a><\/div>Food risk assessment <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nomogram\" title=\"Nomogram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"788c7a8cd6382ff4adc0f076f381cd02\">nomogram<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<ol><li><i>Dose-Response Analysis<\/i>, is determining the relationship between dose and the type of adverse response and\/or probability or the incidence of effect (dose-response assessment). The complexity of this step in many contexts derives mainly from the need to extrapolate results from experimental animals (e.g. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mouse\" title=\"Mouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3f789bd30906c0479a15a6e258d8940\">mouse<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rat\" title=\"Rat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2850b26d677f7a2cff278b86d3689500\">rat<\/a>) to humans, and\/or from high to lower doses, including from high acute occupational levels to low chronic environmental levels. In addition, the differences between individuals due to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetics\" title=\"Genetics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"834f9d7b521994ac1aad93f3037464d4\">genetics<\/a> or other factors mean that the hazard may be higher for particular groups, called susceptible populations. An alternative to dose-response estimation is to determine a concentration unlikely to yield observable effects, that is, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/No_effect_concentration\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"No effect concentration\" data-key=\"8c0c731c37cbee584fa31631fb31a3d1\">no effect concentration<\/a>. In developing such a dose, to account for the largely unknown effects of animal to human extrapolations, increased variability in humans, or missing data, a prudent approach is often adopted by including safety or uncertainty factors in the estimate of the \"safe\" dose, typically a factor of 10 for each unknown step.<\/li>\n<li><i>Exposure Quantification<\/i>, aims to determine the amount of a contaminant (dose) that individuals and populations will receive, either as a contact level (e.g., concentration in ambient air) or as intake (e.g., daily dose ingested from drinking water). This is done by examining the results of the discipline of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exposure_assessment\" title=\"Exposure assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9b6e3c2eec100b10f32f5cc3a8d0efb\">exposure assessment<\/a>. As different location, lifestyles and other factors likely influence the amount of contaminant that is received, a range or distribution of possible values is generated in this step. Particular care is taken to determine the exposure of the susceptible population(s).<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>The results of these steps are combined to produce an estimate of risk. Because of the different susceptibilities and exposures, this risk will vary within a population. An uncertainty analysis is usually included in a health risk assessment.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Dynamic_risk_assessment\">Dynamic risk assessment<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>During an emergency response, the situation and hazards are often inherently less predictable than for planned activities (non-linear). In general, if the situation and hazards are predictable (linear), standard operating procedures should deal with them adequately. In some emergencies this may also hold true, with the prepared and trained responses being adequate to manage the situation. In these situations, the operator can manage risk without outside assistance, or with the assistance of a backup team who are prepared and available to step in at short notice.\n<\/p><p>Other emergencies occur where there is no previously planned protocol, or when an outsider group is brought in to handle the situation, and they are not specifically prepared for the scenario that exists but must deal with it without undue delay. Examples include police, fire department, disaster response and other public service rescue teams. In these cases ongoing risk assessment by the involved personnel can advise appropriate action to reduce risk.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Lock_2017_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Lock_2017-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> HM Fire Services Inspectorate has defined dynamic risk assessment (DRA) as:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>The continuous assessment of risk in the rapidly changing circumstances of an operational incident, in order to implement the control measures necessary to ensure an acceptable level of safety.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Lock_2017_15-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Lock_2017-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Dynamic risk assessment is the final stage of an integrated safety management system which can provide appropriate response during changing circumstances. It relies on experience, training and continuing education, including effective debriefing to analyse not only what went wrong, but also what went right, and why, and to share this with other members of the team and the personnel responsible for the planning level risk assessment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Lock_2017_15-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Lock_2017-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Fields_of_application\">Fields of application<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Application of risk assessment procedures is common in a wide range of fields, and these may have specific legal obligations, codes of practice and standardised procedures. Some of these are listed here.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"General_health\">General health<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There are many resources that provide health risk information.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Library_of_Medicine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"National Library of Medicine\" data-key=\"e1cb1257cc0e0e55ca0b0d9a26eed992\">National Library of Medicine<\/a> provides risk assessment and regulation information tools for a varied audience.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> These include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>TOXNET (databases on hazardous chemicals, environmental health, and toxic releases),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>the Household Products Database (potential health effects of chemicals in over 10,000 common household products),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TOXMAP\" title=\"TOXMAP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3569488e4108598ea34138cd02b7d34c\">TOXMAP<\/a> (maps of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superfund\" title=\"Superfund\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dcfee4d4b1fe12def86a6fb864ecb4fd\">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Superfund<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toxics_Release_Inventory\" title=\"Toxics Release Inventory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d8c2f13e4867dd8cf56e3c3823d1252\">Toxics Release Inventory<\/a> data).<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency\" title=\"United States Environmental Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3e4c58eca1cdd38b19280e2fe2ec728\">United States Environmental Protection Agency<\/a> provides basic information about environmental health risk assessments for the public for a wide variety of possible environmental exposures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The Environmental Protection Agency began actively using risk assessment methods to protect drinking water in the United States after passage of the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974. The law required the National Academy of Sciences to conduct a study on drinking water issues, and in its report the NAS described some methodologies for doing risk assessments for chemicals that were suspected carcinogens, recommendations that top EPA officials have described as perhaps the study\u2019s most important part.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Considering the increase in junk food and its toxicity, FDA required in 1973 that cancer-causing compounds must not be present in meat at concentrations that would cause a cancer risk greater than 1 in a million over a lifetime. The US Environmental Protection Agency provides extensive information about ecological and environmental risk assessments for the public via its risk assessment portal.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stockholm_Convention\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Stockholm Convention\" data-key=\"455deed334af10704d433f4ca750321c\">Stockholm Convention<\/a> on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Persistent_organic_pollutants\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Persistent organic pollutants\" data-key=\"a6e320d171c8e8a07456f5dd7cd02d37\">persistent organic pollutants<\/a> (POPs) supports a qualitative risk framework for public health protection from chemicals that display environmental and biological persistence, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioaccumulation\" title=\"Bioaccumulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb77fbd7b9523306b127361251c7b15d\">bioaccumulation<\/a>, toxicity (PBT) and long range transport; most global chemicals that meet this criteria have been previously assessed quantitatively by national and international health agencies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Small_sub-populations\">Small sub-populations<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>When risks apply mainly to small sub-populations, there is uncertainty at which point intervention is necessary. For example, there may be a risk that is very low for everyone, other than 0.1% of the population. It is necessary to determine whether this 0.1% is represented by:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>all infants younger than <i>X<\/i> days or<\/li>\n<li>recreational users of a particular product.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>If the risk is higher for a particular sub-population because of abnormal exposure rather than susceptibility, strategies to further reduce the exposure of that subgroup are considered. If an identifiable sub-population is more susceptible due to inherent genetic or other factors, public policy choices must be made. The choices are:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>to set policies for protecting the general population that are protective of such groups, e.g. for children when data exists, the Clean Air Act for populations such as asthmatics or<\/li>\n<li>not to set policies, because the group is too small, or the costs too high.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Acceptable_risk_criteria\">Acceptable risk criteria<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The idea of not increasing lifetime risk by more than one in a million has become commonplace in public health discourse and policy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> It is a heuristic measure. It provides a numerical basis for establishing a negligible increase in risk.\n<\/p><p>Environmental decision making allows some discretion for deeming individual risks potentially \"acceptable\" if less than one in ten thousand chance of increased lifetime risk. Low risk criteria such as these provide some protection for a case where individuals may be exposed to multiple chemicals e.g. pollutants, food additives or other chemicals.\n<\/p><p>In practice, a true zero-risk is possible only with the suppression of the risk-causing activity.\n<\/p><p>Stringent requirements of 1 in a million may not be technologically feasible or may be so prohibitively expensive as to render the risk-causing activity unsustainable, resulting in the optimal degree of intervention being a balance between risks vs. benefit. For example, emissions from hospital incinerators result in a certain number of deaths per year. However, this risk must be balanced against the alternatives. There are public health risks, as well as economic costs, associated with all options. The risk associated with no <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Incineration\" title=\"Incineration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f94c6be3f14f5d2afd1483f3fea729ca\">incineration<\/a> is potential spread of infectious diseases, or even no hospitals. Further investigation identifies options such as separating noninfectious from infectious wastes, or air pollution controls on a medical incinerator.\n<\/p><p>Intelligent thought about a reasonably full set of options is essential. Thus, it is not unusual for there to be an iterative process between analysis, consideration of options, and follow up analysis.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Auditing\">Auditing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>For audits performed by an outside audit firm, risk assessment is a crucial stage before accepting an audit engagement. According to ISA315 <i>Understanding the Entity and its Environment and Assessing the Risks of Material Misstatement<\/i>, \"the auditor should perform risk assessment procedures to obtain an understanding of the entity and its environment, including its internal control\". Evidence relating to the auditor\u2019s risk assessment of a material misstatement in the client\u2019s financial statements. Then, the auditor obtains initial evidence regarding the classes of transactions at the client and the operating effectiveness of the client\u2019s internal controls. Audit risk is defined as the risk that the auditor will issue a clean unmodified opinion regarding the financial statements, when in fact the financial statements are materially misstated, and therefore do not qualify for a clean unmodified opinion. As a formula, audit risk is the product of two other risks: Risk of Material Misstatement and Detection risk. This formula can be further broken down as follows: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inherent_risk\" title=\"Inherent risk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0fbfb105b4ba4f4959826871714af104\">inherent risk<\/a> \u00d7 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_risk\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Control risk\" data-key=\"d29c4798de5ff3af32fcb10c8b405e28\">control risk<\/a> \u00d7 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Detection_risk\" title=\"Detection risk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d61531f315b0ef1f7418d0bb8d396495\">detection risk<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Public_health\">Public health<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the context of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_health\" title=\"Public health\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e1ee45048485ca6b9ab277584e2224a\">public health<\/a>, risk assessment is the process of characterizing the nature and likelihood of a harmful effect to individuals or populations from certain human activities. Health risk assessment can be mostly qualitative or can include statistical estimates of probabilities for specific populations. In most countries the use of specific chemicals or the operations of specific facilities (e.g. power plants, manufacturing plants) is not allowed unless it can be shown that they do not increase the risk of death or illness above a specific threshold. For example, the American <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> (FDA) regulates food safety through risk assessment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Project_management\">Project management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_management\" title=\"Project management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6eafec51967ae43f1d3054bbbbcb85a\">project management<\/a>, risk assessment is an integral part of the risk management plan, studying the probability, the impact, and the effect of every known risk on the project, as well as the corrective action to take should an incident implied by a risk occur.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> Of special consideration in this area are the relevant codes of practice that are enforced in the specific jurisdiction. Understanding the regime of regulations that risk management must abide by is integral to formulating safe and compliant risk assessment practices.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Information_security\">Information security<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_risk_management#Risk_assessment\" title=\"IT risk management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b853efe8c0f18f69332b447434d03d4\">IT risk management \u00a7 Risk assessment<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_risk\" title=\"IT risk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce3ce8706cab9a53b087faec87be3e38\">Information technology risk<\/a> assessment can be performed by a qualitative or quantitative approach, following different methodologies. One important difference<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Please_clarify\" title=\"Wikipedia:Please clarify\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42f809a0943a5d548f1a80f2e4a0f0bf\"><span title=\"difference from what? (June 2017)\">clarification needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> in risk assessments in information security is modifying the threat model to account for the fact that any adversarial system connected to the Internet has access to threaten any other connected system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> Risk assessments may therefore need to be modified to account for the threats from all adversaries, instead of just those with reasonable access as is done in other fields.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Megaprojects\">Megaprojects<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Megaprojects\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Megaprojects\" data-key=\"065dcb453fc12a393d266176f480e4a6\">Megaprojects<\/a> (sometimes also called \"major programs\") are extremely large-scale investment projects, typically costing more than US$1 billion per project. They include bridges, tunnels, highways, railways, airports, seaports, power plants, dams, wastewater projects, coastal flood protection, oil and natural gas extraction projects, public buildings, information technology systems, aerospace projects, and defence systems. Megaprojects have been shown to be particularly risky in terms of finance, safety, and social and environmental impacts.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Software_evolution\">Software evolution<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Studies have shown that early parts of the system development cycle such as requirements and design specifications are especially prone to error. This effect is particularly notorious in projects involving multiple <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_stakeholder\" title=\"Project stakeholder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f020ef5f57bcf75aae14e3df0beec1a\">stakeholders<\/a> with different points of view. Evolutionary software processes offer an iterative approach to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Requirements_engineering\" title=\"Requirements engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5073c9e1c90a88400623597823f539a9\">requirement engineering<\/a> to alleviate the problems of uncertainty, ambiguity and inconsistency inherent in software developments.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Please_clarify\" title=\"Wikipedia:Please clarify\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42f809a0943a5d548f1a80f2e4a0f0bf\"><span title=\"What does this have to do with risk assessment? (June 2017)\">clarification needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Shipping_industry\">Shipping industry<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In July 2010, shipping companies agreed to use standardized procedures in order to assess risk in key shipboard operation. These procedures were implemented as part of the amended <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Safety_Management_Code\" title=\"International Safety Management Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c72ef18272894330b4387779164fc560\">ISM Code<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Underwater_diving\">Underwater diving<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions\" title=\"List of diving hazards and precautions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3bef28ee4696ef0584f95bc7a032727\">List of diving hazards and precautions<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Formal risk assessment is a required component of most <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Professional_diving\" title=\"Professional diving\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b3852a113807ea749d86d1ff4db2c17\">professional dive planning<\/a>, but the format and methodology may vary. Consequences of an incident due to an identified hazard are generally chosen from a small number of standardised categories, and probability is estimated based on statistical data on the rare occasions when it is available, and on a best guess estimate based on personal experience and company policy in most cases. A simple matrix is often used to transform these inputs into a level of risk, generally expressed as unacceptable, marginal or acceptable. If unacceptable, measures must be taken to reduce the risk to an acceptable level, and the final outcome of the risk assessment must be accepted by the affected parties before a dive commences. Higher levels of risk may be acceptable in special circumstances, such as military or search and rescue operations when there is a chance of recovering a survivor. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diving_supervisor\" title=\"Diving supervisor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6780c5eda29cc07ec9cfd3625ed24461\">Diving supervisors<\/a> are trained in the procedures of , and it is part of their planning and operational responsibility. Both health and safety hazards must be considered. Several stages may be identified. There is risk assessment done as part of the diving project planning, on site risk assessment which takes into account the specific conditions of the day, and which is ongoing during the operation by the members of the dive team, particularly the supervisor and the working diver.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SA_Diving_Regulations_2009_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SA_Diving_Regulations_2009-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IMCA_D022_2016_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IMCA_D022_2016-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recreational_scuba_diving\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Recreational scuba diving\" data-key=\"1efef7d59ac8160b1ef071397c16d2d9\">recreational scuba diving<\/a>, the extent of risk assessment expected of the diver is relatively basic, and is included in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Buddy_check\" title=\"Buddy check\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f37ac76eb463d0e5ca0ccc64c1e8f5f\">pre-dive checks<\/a>. Several mnemonics have been developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diver_certification_agencies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Diver certification agencies\" data-key=\"6036cda95bde033293f546cdfc8864c3\">diver certification agencies<\/a> to remind the diver to pay some attention to risk, but the training is rudimentary. Diving service providers are expected to provide a higher level of care for their customers, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diving_instructor\" title=\"Diving instructor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63f19dfb1939fc8df23ac267d9026af7\">diving instructors<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Divemaster\" title=\"Divemaster\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21fc7cd615dfc0eeae4206b5bdc64960\">divemasters<\/a> are expected to assess risk on behalf of their customers and warn them of site-specific hazards and the competence considered appropriate for the planned dive. Technical divers are expected to make a more thorough assessment of risk, but as they will be making an informed choice for a recreational activity, the level of acceptable risk may be considerably higher than that permitted for occupational divers under the direction of an employer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Diving_at_Work_Regulations_1997_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Diving_at_Work_Regulations_1997-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gurr_2008_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gurr_2008-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Outdoor_and_wilderness_adventure\">Outdoor and wilderness adventure<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In outdoor activities including commercial outdoor education, wilderness expeditioning and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outdoor_recreation\" title=\"Outdoor recreation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae676b933e455e71d0132ad27587e8e7\"> outdoor recreation<\/a>, risk assessment refers to analysis of the probability and magnitude of unfavorable outcomes such as injury, illness, or property damage due to environmental and related causes, compared to the human development or other benefits of outdoor activity. This is of particular importance as school programs and others weigh the benefits of youth and adult participation in various outdoor learning activities against the inherent and other hazards present in those activities. Schools, corporate entities seeking team-building experiences, parents\/guardians, and others considering outdoor experiences expect or require<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> organizations to assess the hazards and risks of different outdoor activities\u2014such as sailing, mountaineering, or camping\u2014and select activities with acceptable risk profiles.\n<\/p><p>Outdoor education, wilderness adventure, and other outdoor-related organizations should, and are in some jurisdictions required, to conduct risk assessments prior to offering programs for commercial purposes<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup>.\n<\/p><p>Such organizations are given guidance on how to provide their risk assessments<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> and external consultancy services provide these assessments as well<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Environment\">Environment<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) aims at assessing the effects of stressors, often chemicals, on the local environment. A risk is an integrated assessment of likelihood and severity of an undesired event. In ERA, the undesired event often depends on the chemical of interest and on the risk assessment scenario.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Goussen_et_al_2016_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Goussen_et_al_2016-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup> This undesired event is usually a detrimental effect on organisms, populations or ecosystems. Current ERAs usually compare an exposure to a no-effect level, such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predicted_environmental_concentration\" title=\"Predicted environmental concentration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"386ac5b241c177da70fe967631f39f4b\">Predicted Environmental Concentration<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predicted_no-effect_concentration\" title=\"Predicted no-effect concentration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c1be714c49339ccbf9fff632837a776\">Predicted No-Effect Concentration<\/a> (PEC\/PNEC) ratio in Europe. Although this type of ratio is useful and often used in regulation purposes, it is only an indication of an exceeded apparent threshold.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> New approaches start to be developed in ERA in order to quantifiy this risk and to communicate effectively on it with both the managers and the general public.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Goussen_et_al_2016_40-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Goussen_et_al_2016-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Biodiversity\">Biodiversity<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Biodiversity Risk Assessments evaluate risks to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biological_diversity\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Biological diversity\" data-key=\"bfefc02af785b38a8bcb368dad44d882\">biological diversity<\/a>, specially the risk of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Species\" title=\"Species\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a79f673499553b4a0095adf91c93bef\">species<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extinction\" title=\"Extinction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eed5f6c4e3dfef5d8fa0597156896baa\">extinction<\/a> or the risk of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecosystem_collapse\" title=\"Ecosystem collapse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d854cac395c4683da15314df2b007242\">ecosystem collapse<\/a>. The units of assessments are the biological (species, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subspecies\" title=\"Subspecies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4beaa1c18958f652d4bcbd45a8ae47bb\">subspecies<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Population\" title=\"Population\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d48df5bc25d2120e8f0a069a578a2883\">populations<\/a>) or ecological entities (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Habitat\" title=\"Habitat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"988f72870bcadfbc93781ce36eb88319\">habitats<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecosystem\" title=\"Ecosystem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1039e556849de8f2a26580ff6d9403c9\">ecosystems<\/a>, etc), and the risk are often related to human actions and interventions (threats and pressures). Regional and national protocols have been proposed by multiple academic or governmental institutions and working groups,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NicholsonRegan2015_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NicholsonRegan2015-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> but global standards such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Red_List_of_Threatened_Species\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Red List of Threatened Species\" data-key=\"12671bacef9ff9d84d315db4ae24ea92\">Red List of Threatened Species<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IUCN_Red_List_of_Ecosystems\" title=\"IUCN Red List of Ecosystems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afa5e7827a51d9cb8c01cf415a2709fa\">IUCN Red List of Ecosystems<\/a> have been widely adopted, and are recognized or proposed as official indicators of progress toward international policy targets and goals, such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity\" title=\"Convention on Biological Diversity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f182e9ecea09c2faf2ed12414fb12411\">Aichi targets<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sustainable_Development_Goals\" title=\"Sustainable Development Goals\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e77b6ee20dda4170e5bebc0f61fce78a\">Sustainable Development Goals<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KeithRodr\u00edguez2015_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KeithRodr\u00edguez2015-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BrooksButchart2015_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BrooksButchart2015-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 22em; -webkit-column-width: 22em; column-width: 22em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acceptable_loss\" title=\"Acceptable loss\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3134b6daeb27653eb5692fc6c20ea621\">Acceptable loss<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benefit_risk\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Benefit risk\" data-key=\"2f0bbce40e759d58d35057dac9dbfbb0\">Benefit risk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_self-assessment\" title=\"Control self-assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac881cb29362fbcb4effb0687047001e\">Control self-assessment<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cost_risk\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cost risk\" data-key=\"5856f84e1d1299936a35df838c6f3094\">Cost risk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_continuity\" title=\"Digital continuity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc4674fb616f6fb95ea7ce0665a96b69\">Digital continuity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Duty_of_Care\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Duty of Care\" data-key=\"e8b86b652e3fe55318fd71fc41699758\">Duty of Care<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edwards_v._National_Coal_Board\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Edwards v. National Coal Board\" data-key=\"744af95b2c07d6f11a31f4cda9da7f4b\">Edwards v. National Coal Board<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extreme_risk\" title=\"Extreme risk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf84f7520bf57a3026fc7010337a5da0\">Extreme risk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flood_risk_assessment\" title=\"Flood risk assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b54755f9cd7b602f9d129185ba76ba5a\">Flood risk assessment<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Form_696\" title=\"Form 696\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72a0ec625335a79366460c0502cb1f6b\">Form 696<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_catastrophic_risk\" title=\"Global catastrophic risk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ee5b9ef3812086f707de9713dec1a0c\">Global catastrophic risk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HACCP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HACCP\" data-key=\"b870062afc1634e4ec568683d6b00d98\">HACCP<\/a>: hazard analysis and critical control points, risk assessment in food<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hazard_(risk)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hazard (risk)\" data-key=\"cd41932c1a063b6d2f05e292cc58d744\">Hazard (risk)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hazard_analysis\" title=\"Hazard analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb4a1f629a5ff214ba0e3f6d70953acd\">Hazard analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_impact_assessment\" title=\"Health impact assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f0a1d02ca0eb464d79e4f9fe1a48af2\">Health impact assessment<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_assurance\" title=\"Information assurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7b0a4f40d633e51fcc2dfa55fdb8529\">Information assurance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_auditing_topics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"List of auditing topics\" data-key=\"461dd18b4634e828a92952d2deb64292\">List of auditing topics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_28000\" title=\"ISO 28000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e55696fda8cd9bdde0458d15050fe6e4\">ISO 28000<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_31000\" title=\"ISO 31000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cad4e693c0f5cd913ff552f0a6e8522\">ISO 31000<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISSOW\" title=\"ISSOW\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89f751c7a3360e4fa5eb04d8b3f2a90f\">ISSOW<\/a><\/li>\n<li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Megaprojects_and_Risk\" title=\"Megaprojects and Risk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c850f822495624c621e5cb950a23f6f\">Megaprojects and Risk<\/a><\/i><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_theory_in_risk_assessment\" title=\"Network theory in risk assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7dace938dc7d24fb8bd3dc0175cf4db\">Network theory in risk assessment<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optimism_bias\" title=\"Optimism bias\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc6607d154aab1d6f58145277ed56e77\">Optimism bias<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PIMEX\" title=\"PIMEX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e302504e133d4d5884eb784f2ca6ec3\">PIMEX<\/a> a video exposure monitoring method<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probabilistic_risk_assessment\" title=\"Probabilistic risk assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cff867c591729e8d1e04f0965503a3fa\">Probabilistic risk assessment<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probit_model\" title=\"Probit model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56886e8990ac476cc68479012194a91f\">Probit model<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_risk_management\" title=\"Project risk management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e69566c0d80282539a6a39580f5048af\">Project risk management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reference_class_forecasting\" title=\"Reference class forecasting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a561d630f29fcbe35a37306072238ae9\">Reference class forecasting<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reliability_engineering\" title=\"Reliability engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"384ae6374764b52a30f1982c0b2f053b\">Reliability engineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk\" title=\"Risk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d60a8dcf9b8240614ca9ddd55d2570ec\">Risk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_aversion\" title=\"Risk aversion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63bc317a6c5ce322cae7ed1cd21a8ffd\">Risk aversion<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_based_auditing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Risk based auditing\" data-key=\"173df3281e235d73e78cf41dae9f6b31\">Risk based auditing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_management\" title=\"Risk management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8dfffb6fe8cc680af34e88ec60c1c92\">Risk management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_management_tools\" title=\"Risk management tools\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"025c279bb3ee694aa20e908887dcefdb\">Risk management tools<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_matrix\" title=\"Risk matrix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7142631695558048ba3676c93c9a4558\">Risk matrix<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_(statistics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Risk (statistics)\" data-key=\"53f2e7fa4b39705e0f91e2cb087af96e\">Risk (statistics)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Safety_engineering\" title=\"Safety engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3563c863ee119cfc6afbe6dd5c28d2f2\">Safety engineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_risk\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Security risk\" data-key=\"3abba562e847386b0738b7a807dc1c7b\">Security risk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strategic_misrepresentation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Strategic misrepresentation\" data-key=\"3124b896c297817580a37c7987b57cd6\">Strategic misrepresentation<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Footnotes\">Footnotes<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-RausandRisk13-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-RausandRisk13_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RausandRisk13_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RausandRisk13_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RausandRisk13_1-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RausandRisk13_1-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Rausand, M. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=9EHeLmbUVh8C&pg=PT21\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Introduction\"<\/a>. <i>Risk Assessment: Theory, Methods, and Applications<\/i>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1\u201328. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780470637647.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction&rft.btitle=Risk+Assessment%3A+Theory%2C+Methods%2C+and+Applications&rft.pages=1-28&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780470637647&rft.au=Rausand%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9EHeLmbUVh8C%26pg%3DPT21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PopovRisk16-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-PopovRisk16_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-PopovRisk16_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-PopovRisk16_2-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Manuele, F.A. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=zqjLCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Risk Assessments: Their Significance and the Role of the Safety Professional\"<\/a>. In Popov, G.; Lyon, B.K.; Hollcraft, B. <i>Risk Assessment: A Practical Guide to Assessing Operational Risks<\/i>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1\u201322. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781118911044.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Risk+Assessments%3A+Their+Significance+and+the+Role+of+the+Safety+Professional&rft.btitle=Risk+Assessment%3A+A+Practical+Guide+to+Assessing+Operational+Risks&rft.pages=1-22&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781118911044&rft.au=Manuele%2C+F.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzqjLCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_3-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_3-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_3-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_3-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_3-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Levi, Ragnar (June 1, 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sbu.se\/contentassets\/e7039ddba84c4eca9b474d6b15c9c9ac\/vop_eng_18_180521_lr.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Getting Real About Both Benefits and Risks\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Swedish Agency of Health Technology Assessment and Assessment of Social Services<\/i>. pp. 8\u20139. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1104-1250\" target=\"_blank\">1104-1250<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Del Mar, Chris (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/espace.library.uq.edu.au\/view\/UQ:351727\/UQ351727_OA.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Patients' expectations of the benefits and harms of treatments, screening, and tests: a systematic review\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>JAMA Internal Medicine<\/i>. <b>175<\/b> (2): 274\u2013286. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001%2Fjamainternmed.2014.6016\" target=\"_blank\">10.1001\/jamainternmed.2014.6016<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2168-6114\" target=\"_blank\">2168-6114<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/25531451\" target=\"_blank\">25531451<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAMA+Internal+Medicine&rft.atitle=Patients%27+expectations+of+the+benefits+and+harms+of+treatments%2C+screening%2C+and+tests%3A+a+systematic+review&rft.volume=175&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=274-286&rft.date=2015&rft.issn=2168-6114&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25531451&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjamainternmed.2014.6016&rft.aulast=Hoffmann&rft.aufirst=Tammy+C.&rft.au=Del+Mar%2C+Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fespace.library.uq.edu.au%2Fview%2FUQ%3A351727%2FUQ351727_OA.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Stacey, Dawn; L\u00e9gar\u00e9, France; Lewis, Krystina; Barry, Michael J.; Bennett, Carol L.; Eden, Karen B.; Holmes-Rovner, Margaret; Llewellyn-Thomas, Hilary; Lyddiatt, Anne (12 April 2017). \"Decision aids for people facing health treatment or screening decisions\". <i>The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews<\/i>. <b>4<\/b>: CD001431. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002%2F14651858.CD001431.pub5\" target=\"_blank\">10.1002\/14651858.CD001431.pub5<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1469-493X\" target=\"_blank\">1469-493X<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/28402085\" target=\"_blank\">28402085<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cochrane+Database+of+Systematic+Reviews&rft.atitle=Decision+aids+for+people+facing+health+treatment+or+screening+decisions&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=CD001431&rft.date=2017-04-12&rft.issn=1469-493X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28402085&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F14651858.CD001431.pub5&rft.aulast=Stacey&rft.aufirst=Dawn&rft.au=L%C3%A9gar%C3%A9%2C+France&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Krystina&rft.au=Barry%2C+Michael+J.&rft.au=Bennett%2C+Carol+L.&rft.au=Eden%2C+Karen+B.&rft.au=Holmes-Rovner%2C+Margaret&rft.au=Llewellyn-Thomas%2C+Hilary&rft.au=Lyddiatt%2C+Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RausandRisk13-6-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-RausandRisk13-6_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Rausand, M. 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John Wiley & Sons. pp. 137\u201376. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780470637647.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Accident+Models&rft.btitle=Risk+Assessment%3A+Theory%2C+Methods%2C+and+Applications&rft.pages=137-76&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780470637647&rft.au=Rausand%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9EHeLmbUVh8C%26pg%3DPT166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-VamanuCritical16-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-VamanuCritical16_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-VamanuCritical16_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Vamanu, B.I.; Gheorghe, A.V.; Kaina, P.F. 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Springer. p. 11. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783319309316.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Infrastructures%3A+Risk+and+Vulnerability+Assessment+in+Transportation+of+Dangerous+Goods%3A+Transportation+by+Road+and+Rail&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9783319309316&rft.au=Vamanu%2C+B.I.&rft.au=Gheorghe%2C+A.V.&rft.au=Kaina%2C+P.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LaceyAnApp11-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LaceyAnApp11_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Lacey, Peter (2011). \"An Application of Fault Tree Analysis to the Identification and Management of Risks in Government Funded Human Service Delivery\". <i>Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Public Policy and Social Sciences<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_Science_Research_Network\" title=\"Social Science Research Network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faf9d44135e3fc6107b00574c00f06ae\">SSRN<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=2171117\" target=\"_blank\">2171117<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+2nd+International+Conference+on+Public+Policy+and+Social+Sciences&rft.atitle=An+Application+of+Fault+Tree+Analysis+to+the+Identification+and+Management+of+Risks+in+Government+Funded+Human+Service+Delivery&rft.date=2011&rft_id=%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D2171117&rft.aulast=Lacey&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShireyInternet07-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ShireyInternet07_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Shirey, R. 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O'Brien, Mary. Shrader-Frechette and Westra 1997.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">The fourth quadrant: a map of the limits of statistics [9.15.08] Nassim Nicholas Taleb An Edge Original Essay<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HolzmannSocial01-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HolzmannSocial01_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Holzmann, R.; J\u00f8rgensen, S. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 November<\/span> 2016<\/span> – via Southern African Legal Information Institute.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Occupational+Health+and+Safety+Act+85+of+1993+%E2%80%93+Regulations+and+Notices+%E2%80%93+Government+Notice+R41&rft.atitle=Diving+Regulations+2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.saflii.org%2Fza%2Flegis%2Fconsol_reg%2Fohasa85o1993rangnr41716%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IMCA_D022_2016-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-IMCA_D022_2016_29-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Staff (August 2016). \"15 - General safety requirements\". <i>Guidance for diving supervisors IMCA D 022<\/i> (Revision 1 ed.). 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title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Adventure+Activities+Regulations+%26%23124%3B+supportadventure.co.nz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.supportadventure.co.nz%2Fadventure-activities-regulations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-34\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.legislation.govt.nz\/regulation\/public\/2016\/0019\/latest\/DLM6725703.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Health and Safety at Work (Adventure Activities) Regulations 2016 (LI 2016\/19) Contents \u2013 New Zealand Legislation\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Health+and+Safety+at+Work+%28Adventure+Activities%29+Regulations+2016+%28LI+2016%2F19%29+Contents+%E2%80%93+New+Zealand+Legislation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.govt.nz%2Fregulation%2Fpublic%2F2016%2F0019%2Flatest%2FDLM6725703.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hse.gov.uk\/aala\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Adventure Activities Licensing\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Adventure+Activities+Licensing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hse.gov.uk%2Faala%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/worksafe.govt.nz\/topic-and-industry\/adventure-activities\" target=\"_blank\">\"Adventure activities\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Adventure+activities&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworksafe.govt.nz%2Ftopic-and-industry%2Fadventure-activities&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.outdoorsafetyinstitute.com\/pages\/reviews\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Risk Management Reviews | OUTDOOR SAFETY INSTITUTE\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Risk+Management+Reviews+%26%23124%3B+OUTDOOR+SAFETY+INSTITUTE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.outdoorsafetyinstitute.com%2Fpages%2Freviews%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.viristar.com\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.viristar.com<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-39\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nols.edu\/en\/about\/risk-services\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.nols.edu\/en\/about\/risk-services\/<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Goussen_et_al_2016-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Goussen_et_al_2016_40-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Goussen_et_al_2016_40-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Goussen, Benoit; Price, Oliver R.; Rendal, Cecilie; Ashauer, Roman (2016-10-26). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/srep36004\" target=\"_blank\">\"Integrated presentation of ecological risk from multiple stressors\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific Reports<\/i>. <b>6<\/b>: 36004. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fsrep36004\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/srep36004<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2045-2322\" target=\"_blank\">2045-2322<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" title=\"PubMed Central\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63771bf92616f7746c20a676c8bc36e6\">PMC<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5080554\" target=\"_blank\">5080554<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/27782171\" target=\"_blank\">27782171<\/a>.<\/cite><span 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(2015). \"The IUCN Red List of Ecosystems: Motivations, Challenges, and Applications\". <i>Conservation Letters<\/i>. <b>8<\/b> (3): 214\u2013226. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111%2Fconl.12167\" target=\"_blank\">10.1111\/conl.12167<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1755-263X\" target=\"_blank\">1755-263X<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conservation+Letters&rft.atitle=The+IUCN+Red+List+of+Ecosystems%3A+Motivations%2C+Challenges%2C+and+Applications&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=214-226&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fconl.12167&rft.issn=1755-263X&rft.aulast=Keith&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft.au=Rodr%C3%ADguez%2C+Jon+Paul&rft.au=Brooks%2C+Thomas+M.&rft.au=Burgman%2C+Mark+A.&rft.au=Barrow%2C+Edmund+G.&rft.au=Bland%2C+Lucie&rft.au=Comer%2C+Patrick+J.&rft.au=Franklin%2C+Janet&rft.au=Link%2C+Jason&rft.au=McCarthy%2C+Michael+A.&rft.au=Miller%2C+Rebecca+M.&rft.au=Murray%2C+Nicholas+J.&rft.au=Nel%2C+Jeanne&rft.au=Nicholson%2C+Emily&rft.au=Oliveira-Miranda%2C+Mar%C3%ADa+A.&rft.au=Regan%2C+Tracey+J.&rft.au=Rodr%C3%ADguez-Clark%2C+Kathryn+M.&rft.au=Rouget%2C+Mathieu&rft.au=Spalding%2C+Mark+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BrooksButchart2015-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BrooksButchart2015_44-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Brooks, Thomas M.; Butchart, Stuart H.M.; Cox, Neil A.; Heath, Melanie; Hilton-Taylor, Craig; Hoffmann, Michael; Kingston, Naomi; Rodr\u00edguez, Jon Paul; Stuart, Simon N.; Smart, Jane (2015). \"Harnessing biodiversity and conservation knowledge products to track the Aichi Targets and Sustainable Development Goals\". <i>Biodiversity<\/i>. <b>16<\/b> (2\u20133): 157\u2013174. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F14888386.2015.1075903\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/14888386.2015.1075903<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1488-8386\" target=\"_blank\">1488-8386<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biodiversity&rft.atitle=Harnessing+biodiversity+and+conservation+knowledge+products+to+track+the+Aichi+Targets+and+Sustainable+Development+Goals&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=157-174&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14888386.2015.1075903&rft.issn=1488-8386&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=Thomas+M.&rft.au=Butchart%2C+Stuart+H.M.&rft.au=Cox%2C+Neil+A.&rft.au=Heath%2C+Melanie&rft.au=Hilton-Taylor%2C+Craig&rft.au=Hoffmann%2C+Michael&rft.au=Kingston%2C+Naomi&rft.au=Rodr%C3%ADguez%2C+Jon+Paul&rft.au=Stuart%2C+Simon+N.&rft.au=Smart%2C+Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"General_references\">General references<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><cite class=\"citation book\">Dorne, Jean-Lou C. M.; Kass, George E. N.; Bordajandi, Luisa R.; Amzal, Billy; Bertelsen, Ulla; Castoldi, Anna F.; Heppner, Claudia; Eskola, Mari; Fabiansson, Stefan; Ferrari, Pietro; Scaravelli, Elena; Dogliotti, Eugenia; Fuerst, Peter; Boobis, Alan R.; Verger, Philippe (2011). \"Chapter 2. Human Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals: Principles and Applications\". In Astrid Sigel; Helmut Sigel; Roland K O Sigel. <i>Metal Ions in Toxicology<\/i>. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. RSC Publishing. pp. 27\u201360. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039%2F9781849732116-00027\" target=\"_blank\">10.1039\/9781849732116-00027<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-84973-091-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2.+Human+Risk+Assessment+of+Heavy+Metals%3A+Principles+and+Applications&rft.btitle=Metal+Ions+in+Toxicology&rft.series=Metal+Ions+in+Life+Sciences&rft.pages=27-60&rft.pub=RSC+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2F9781849732116-00027&rft.isbn=978-1-84973-091-4&rft.aulast=Dorne&rft.aufirst=Jean-Lou+C.+M.&rft.au=Kass%2C+George+E.+N.&rft.au=Bordajandi%2C+Luisa+R.&rft.au=Amzal%2C+Billy&rft.au=Bertelsen%2C+Ulla&rft.au=Castoldi%2C+Anna+F.&rft.au=Heppner%2C+Claudia&rft.au=Eskola%2C+Mari&rft.au=Fabiansson%2C+Stefan&rft.au=Ferrari%2C+Pietro&rft.au=Scaravelli%2C+Elena&rft.au=Dogliotti%2C+Eugenia&rft.au=Fuerst%2C+Peter&rft.au=Boobis%2C+Alan+R.&rft.au=Verger%2C+Philippe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Mumtaz, Moiz M.; Hansen, Hugh; Pohl, Hana R. (2011). \"Chapter 3. Mixtures and Their Risk Assessment in Toxicology\". In Astrid Sigel; Helmut Sigel; Roland K O Sigel. <i>Metal Ions in Toxicology<\/i>. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. RSC Publishing. pp. 61\u201380. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1039%2F9781849732116-00061\" target=\"_blank\">10.1039\/9781849732116-00061<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-84973-091-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3.+Mixtures+and+Their+Risk+Assessment+in+Toxicology&rft.btitle=Metal+Ions+in+Toxicology&rft.series=Metal+Ions+in+Life+Sciences&rft.pages=61-80&rft.pub=RSC+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2F9781849732116-00061&rft.isbn=978-1-84973-091-4&rft.aulast=Mumtaz&rft.aufirst=Moiz+M.&rft.au=Hansen%2C+Hugh&rft.au=Pohl%2C+Hana+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCommittee_on_Risk_Assessment_of_Hazardous_Air_Pollutants1994\" class=\"citation\">Committee on Risk Assessment of Hazardous Air Pollutants (1994), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=k9mKUyfHakcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Science+and+judgment+in+risk+assessment#v=onepage&q&f=false\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Science and judgment in risk assessment<\/i><\/a>, Washington, D.C: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Academy_Press\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"National Academy Press\" data-key=\"14fd558f4e954a84174ba00d77a31fd5\">National Academy Press<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-309-04894-1<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 September<\/span> 2010<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+judgment+in+risk+assessment&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C&rft.pub=National+Academy+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-309-04894-1&rft.au=Committee+on+Risk+Assessment+of+Hazardous+Air+Pollutants&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dk9mKUyfHakcC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq%3DScience%2Band%2Bjudgment%2Bin%2Brisk%2Bassessment%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barry_Commoner\" title=\"Barry Commoner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"262f1723f0056e2fcd9958fc695610dd\">Barry Commoner<\/a>. \"Comparing apples to oranges: Risk of cost\/benefit analysis\" from <i>Contemporary moral <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Controversies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Controversies\" data-key=\"3fb663f7feaff7b9bb4dd43bbc21d104\">controversies<\/a> in technology<\/i>, A. P. Iannone, ed., pp. 64\u201365.<\/li>\n<li>Hallenbeck, William H. <i>Quantitative risk assessment for environmental and occupational health.<\/i> Chelsea, Mich.: Lewis Publishers, 1986<\/li>\n<li>Harremo\u00ebs, Poul, ed. <i>Late lessons from early warnings: the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Precautionary_principle\" title=\"Precautionary principle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f89c48a7ca3c9536db5aaaeef44671d8\">precautionary principle<\/a> 1896\u20132000<\/i>.<\/li>\n<li>John M. Lachin. <i>Biostatistical methods: the assessment of relative risks<\/i>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLerche,_IanGlaesser,_Walter2006\" class=\"citation\">Lerche, Ian; Glaesser, Walter (2006), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=qB54qgpA_fEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Environmental+risk+assessment#v=onepage&q&f=false\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Environmental risk assessment : quantitative measures, anthropogenic influences, human impact.<\/i><\/a>, Berlin: Springer, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-3-540-26249-7<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 September<\/span> 2010<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+risk+assessment+%3A+quantitative+measures%2C+anthropogenic+influences%2C+human+impact.&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-540-26249-7&rft.au=Lerche%2C+Ian&rft.au=Glaesser%2C+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqB54qgpA_fEC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq%3DEnvironmental%2Brisk%2Bassessment%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKluger,_Jeffrey2006\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jeffrey_Kluger\" title=\"Jeffrey Kluger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e773f317ccae26a4170da484b9a25d71\">Kluger, Jeffrey<\/a> (November 26, 2006), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.time.com\/time\/magazine\/article\/0,9171,1562978,00.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Americans Are Living Dangerously\"<\/a>, <i>Time<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 September<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=How+Americans+Are+Living+Dangerously&rft.date=2006-11-26&rft.au=Kluger%2C+Jeffrey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C1562978%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> Also published as December 4 cover title: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.time.com\/time\/magazine\/0,9263,7601061204,00.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why We Worry About the Wrong Things: The Psychology of Risk\"<\/a> |work=Time<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCongressional_Research_ServiceSubcommittee_on_Science,_Research,_and_Technology1983\" class=\"citation\">Congressional Research Service; Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology (1983), <i>A Review of risk assessment methodologies<\/i>, Washington: U.S: report \/ prepared by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Congressional_Research_Service\" title=\"Congressional Research Service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a3fe284b813761d4efffda1f6cbfd96\">Congressional Research Service<\/a>, Library of Congress for the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology; transmitted to the Committee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, Ninety-eighth Congress, first session<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Review+of+risk+assessment+methodologies&rft.place=Washington%3A+U.S&rft.pub=report+%2F+prepared+by+the+Congressional+Research+Service%2C+Library+of+Congress+for+the+Subcommittee+on+Science%2C+Research%2C+and+Technology%3B+transmitted+to+the+Committee+on+Science+and+Technology%2C+U.S.+House+of+Representatives%2C+Ninety-eighth+Congress%2C+first+session&rft.date=1983&rft.au=Congressional+Research+Service&rft.au=Subcommittee+on+Science%2C+Research%2C+and+Technology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li>Deborah G. Mayo. \u201cSociological versus metascientific views of technological risk assessment\u201d in Shrader-Frechette and Westra.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFO'Brien,_Mary2002\" class=\"citation\">O'Brien, Mary (2002), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=LtCOEN9HWIcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Making+better+environmental#v=onepage&q&f=false\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Making better environmental decisions: an alternative to risk assessment<\/i><\/a>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT_Press\" title=\"MIT Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"883c3b1bfd21448f57a290249876731b\">MIT Press<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-262-15051-4<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 September<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+better+environmental+decisions%3A+an+alternative+to+risk+assessment&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-262-15051-4&rft.au=O%27Brien%2C+Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLtCOEN9HWIcC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq%3DMaking%2Bbetter%2Benvironmental%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> Paperback <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-262-65053-3<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShrader-FrechetteWestra1997\" class=\"citation\">Shrader-Frechette, Kristin; Westra, Laura, eds. (1997), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=y5BfvU6uMQMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Technology+and+values#v=onepage&q&f=false\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Technology and values<\/i><\/a>, Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-8476-8631-5<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 September<\/span> 2010<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+and+values&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8476-8631-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy5BfvU6uMQMC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq%3DTechnology%2Band%2Bvalues%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARisk+assessment\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.leidraadse.nl\/pra_english\/\" target=\"_blank\">Guideline from the Dutch Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management on Performance based Risk Assessment<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1328\nCached time: 20190324232138\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.652 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.827 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 3181\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 105199\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 5769\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 7\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 136951\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 6\/400\nLua time usage: 0.367\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6.02 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 652.946 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>53.93% 352.158 1 Template:Reflist\n19.97% 130.398 10 Template:Cite_book\n15.56% 101.618 11 Template:Cite_journal\n14.06% 91.783 17 Template:Cite_web\n 8.28% 54.086 2 Template:Clarify\n 7.39% 48.272 2 Template:Fix-span\n 6.78% 44.300 1 Template:ISBN\n 6.60% 43.113 1 Template:Authority_control\n 5.29% 34.546 1 Template:Short_description\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:219072-1!canonical!math=5 and timestamp 20190324232137 and revision id 883279084\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_assessment\" data-key=\"011cb1c8b0a87fcbb22deb8c265f5410\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203020\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.016 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.179 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 168.529 1 - wikipedia:Risk_assessment\n100.00% 168.529 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10692-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203020 and revision id 33598\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Risk_assessment\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Risk_assessment<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/8\/81\/RiskAssessment.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/a\/a5\/Risk_Based_Sampling_Nomogram_%283yr%29.png\/400px-Risk_Based_Sampling_Nomogram_%283yr%29.png"],"e06196a3e3b70b62af61a54e93579f37_timestamp":1554323420,"f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_type":"article","f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_title":"Functional requirement","f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Functional_requirement","f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tFunctional requirement\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tIn software engineering and systems engineering, a functional requirement defines a function of a system or its component, where a function is described as a specification of behavior between outputs and inputs.[1]\nFunctional requirements may involve calculations, technical details, data manipulation and processing, and other specific functionality that define what a system is supposed to accomplish.[2] Behavioral requirements describe all the cases where the system uses the functional requirements, these are captured in use cases. Functional requirements are supported by non-functional requirements (also known as \"quality requirements\"), which impose constraints on the design or implementation (such as performance requirements, security, or reliability). Generally, functional requirements are expressed in the form \"system must do <requirement>,\" while non-functional requirements take the form \"system shall be <requirement>.\"[3] The plan for implementing functional requirements is detailed in the system design, whereas non-functional requirements are detailed in the system architecture.[4][5]\nAs defined in requirements engineering, functional requirements specify particular results of a system. This should be contrasted with non-functional requirements, which specify overall characteristics such as cost and reliability. Functional requirements drive the application architecture of a system, while non-functional requirements drive the technical architecture of a system.[4]\nIn some cases a requirements analyst generates use cases after gathering and validating a set of functional requirements. The hierarchy of functional requirements collection and change, broadly speaking, is: user\/stakeholder request \u2192 analyze \u2192 use case \u2192 incorporate. Stakeholders make a request; systems engineers attempt to discuss, observe, and understand the aspects of the requirement; use cases, entity relationship diagrams, and other models are built to validate the requirement; and, if documented and approved, the requirement is implemented\/incorporated.[6] Each use case illustrates behavioral scenarios through one or more functional requirements. Often, though, an analyst will begin by eliciting a set of use cases, from which the analyst can derive the functional requirements that must be implemented to allow a user to perform each use case.\n\nProcess \nA typical functional requirement will contain a unique name and number, a brief summary, and a rationale. This information is used to help the reader understand why the requirement is needed, and to track the requirement through the development of the system.[7] The crux of the requirement is the description of the required behavior, which must be clear and readable. The described behavior may come from organizational or business rules, or it may be discovered through elicitation sessions with users, stakeholders, and other experts within the organization.[7] Many requirements may be uncovered during the use case development. When this happens, the requirements analyst may create a placeholder requirement with a name and summary, and research the details later, to be filled in when they are better known.\n\nSee also \n\n\n Software portal \nFunction (computer science)\nFunction (engineering)\nFunction (mathematics)\nFunction point\nFunctional decomposition\nFunctional design\nFunctional model\nSeparation of concerns\nSoftware sizing\nReferences \n\n\n^ Fulton R, Vandermolen R (2017). \"Chapter 4: Requirements - Writing Requirements\". Airborne Electronic Hardware Design Assurance: A Practitioner's Guide to RTCA\/DO-254. CRC Press. pp. 89\u201393. ISBN 9781351831420. Retrieved 15 June 2018 . \n\n^ \"Supplement 4-A, A Procedure for Requirements Analysis\". Systems Engineering Fundamentals (PDF) . United States Government US Army. 2001. ISBN 978-1484120835. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 18 March 2016 . \n\n^ Loucopoulos, P. (2005). \"Chapter 4: Requirements Engineering\". In Clarkson J, Eckert C. Design Process Improvement: A Review of Current Practice. Springer-Verlag. pp. 116\u2013139. ISBN 9781846280610. \n\n^ a b Adams, K.M. (2015). \"3.2 Definitions for Functional and Non-Functional Requirements\". Non-functional Requirements in Systems Analysis and Design. Springer. pp. 45\u201350. ISBN 9783319183442. \n\n^ J\u00f6nsson P, Lindvall M (2006). \"Chapter 6: Impact Analysis\". In Aurum A, Wohlin C. Engineering and Managing Software Requirements. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 117\u201342. ISBN 9783540282440. \n\n^ MITRE Corporate Communications and Public Affairs. \"Requirements Engineering: Eliciting, Collecting, and Developing Requirements\". The MITRE Systems Engineering Guide. MITRE Corporation. pp. 304\u201313. ISBN 9780615974422. Retrieved 15 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b Stellman, Andrew; Greene, Jennifer (2005). \"Chapter 6: Software requirements\". Applied Software Project Management. O'Reilly Media. pp. 97\u2013130. ISBN 9780596553821. Retrieved 15 June 2018 . \n\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Functional_requirement\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Functional_requirement<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Software developmentHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 15 June 2018, at 19:30.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 132 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Functional_requirement skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Functional requirement<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_engineering\" title=\"Software engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe0adbaec2a85b6f2d492710b645f017\">software engineering<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_engineering\" title=\"Systems engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"885b515a488c426b86f7a85a9f80cb67\">systems engineering<\/a>, a <b>functional requirement<\/b> defines a function of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System\" title=\"System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca080f9487afe3b315fe16a2d522534\">system<\/a> or its component, where a function is described as a specification of behavior between outputs and inputs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FultonAirborne17_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FultonAirborne17-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Functional requirements may involve calculations, technical details, data manipulation and processing, and other specific functionality that define what a system is supposed to accomplish.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Behavioral requirements describe all the cases where the system uses the functional requirements, these are captured in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Use_case\" title=\"Use case\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea8169026907b838539a5aaa195db254\">use cases<\/a>. Functional requirements are supported by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-functional_requirement\" title=\"Non-functional requirement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d85090ac46aeab566fa418f6f275b36e\">non-functional requirements<\/a> (also known as \"quality requirements\"), which impose constraints on the design or implementation (such as performance requirements, security, or reliability). Generally, functional requirements are expressed in the form \"system must do <requirement>,\" while non-functional requirements take the form \"system shall be <requirement>.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LoucopoulosRequire05_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LoucopoulosRequire05-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The plan for implementing functional requirements is detailed in the system design, whereas <i>non-functional<\/i> requirements are detailed in the system architecture.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AdamsNon15_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AdamsNon15-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-J\u00f6nssonImpact06_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-J\u00f6nssonImpact06-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As defined in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Requirements_analysis\" title=\"Requirements analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc603793373c791460e2843d6249086f\">requirements engineering<\/a>, functional requirements specify particular results of a system. This should be contrasted with non-functional requirements, which specify overall characteristics such as cost and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reliability_engineering\" title=\"Reliability engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"384ae6374764b52a30f1982c0b2f053b\">reliability<\/a>. Functional requirements drive the application architecture of a system, while non-functional requirements drive the technical architecture of a system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AdamsNon15_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AdamsNon15-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In some cases a requirements analyst generates use cases after gathering and validating a set of functional requirements. The hierarchy of functional requirements collection and change, broadly speaking, is: user\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_stakeholder\" title=\"Project stakeholder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f020ef5f57bcf75aae14e3df0beec1a\">stakeholder<\/a> request \u2192 analyze \u2192 use case \u2192 incorporate. Stakeholders make a request; systems engineers attempt to discuss, observe, and understand the aspects of the requirement; use cases, entity relationship diagrams, and other models are built to validate the requirement; and, if documented and approved, the requirement is implemented\/incorporated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MITRESys14_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MITRESys14-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> Each use case illustrates behavioral scenarios through one or more functional requirements. Often, though, an analyst will begin by eliciting a set of use cases, from which the analyst can derive the functional requirements that must be implemented to allow a user to perform each use case.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Process\">Process<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A typical functional requirement will contain a unique name and number, a brief summary, and a rationale. This information is used to help the reader understand why the requirement is needed, and to track the requirement through the development of the system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StellmanApplied05_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StellmanApplied05-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> The crux of the requirement is the description of the required behavior, which must be clear and readable. The described behavior may come from organizational or business rules, or it may be discovered through elicitation sessions with users, stakeholders, and other experts within the organization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StellmanApplied05_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StellmanApplied05-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Many requirements may be uncovered during the use case development. When this happens, the requirements analyst may create a placeholder requirement with a name and summary, and research the details later, to be filled in when they are better known.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"navigation\" aria-label=\"Portals\" class=\"noprint portal plainlist tright\" style=\"margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px\">\n<ul style=\"display:table;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0.1em;max-width:175px;background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold\">\n<li style=\"display:table-row\"><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Crystal_Clear_device_cdrom_unmount.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f77ecc35bd5fa70ae41adaceaf03a5d\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/10\/Crystal_Clear_device_cdrom_unmount.png\/28px-Crystal_Clear_device_cdrom_unmount.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"28\" height=\"28\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/a><\/span><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Software\" title=\"Portal:Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f912296f9daf1ba542f44b2fbbb5f36c\">Software portal<\/a><\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Function_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Function (computer science)\" data-key=\"c9c2f3630b244a7bf6ca963040b160c3\">Function (computer science)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Function_(engineering)\" title=\"Function (engineering)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e062c785f7c5eab21342664fa7c0321\">Function (engineering)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Function_(mathematics)\" title=\"Function (mathematics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cde23ae93a7c77b92f2e4620bed5f434\">Function (mathematics)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Function_point\" title=\"Function point\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6497ab4976f479aee9be7bb5d1269170\">Function point<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_decomposition\" title=\"Functional decomposition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3334f1ec937fd3da3792d2d21a4c9f3\">Functional decomposition<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_design\" title=\"Functional design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c438bb6ea8f961852ea067402249d74\">Functional design<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Functional model\" data-key=\"ed7dbee937177d2b2dc6467f2545cf45\">Functional model<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Separation_of_concerns\" title=\"Separation of concerns\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"197246818d742abe6a8113558b6d257b\">Separation of concerns<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_sizing\" title=\"Software sizing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ceb42217784fc50d1449b6f05bf4555\">Software sizing<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-FultonAirborne17-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FultonAirborne17_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Fulton R, Vandermolen R (2017). \"Chapter 4: Requirements - Writing Requirements\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ZQMvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Airborne Electronic Hardware Design Assurance: A Practitioner's Guide to RTCA\/DO-254<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp. 89\u201393. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781351831420<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4%3A+Requirements+-+Writing+Requirements&rft.btitle=Airborne+Electronic+Hardware+Design+Assurance%3A+A+Practitioner%27s+Guide+to+RTCA%2FDO-254&rft.pages=89-93&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781351831420&rft.aulast=Fulton&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Vandermolen%2C+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZQMvDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunctional+requirement\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">\"Supplement 4-A, A Procedure for Requirements Analysis\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170131231503\/http:\/\/www.dau.mil\/publications\/publicationsdocs\/sefguide%2001-01.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Systems Engineering Fundamentals<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. United States Government US Army. 2001. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1484120835. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dau.mil\/publications\/publicationsDocs\/SEFGuide%2001-01.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 31 January 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 March<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Supplement+4-A%2C+A+Procedure+for+Requirements+Analysis&rft.btitle=Systems+Engineering+Fundamentals&rft.pub=United+States+Government+US+Army&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1484120835&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dau.mil%2Fpublications%2FpublicationsDocs%2FSEFGuide%252001-01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunctional+requirement\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LoucopoulosRequire05-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LoucopoulosRequire05_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Loucopoulos, P. (2005). \"Chapter 4: Requirements Engineering\". In Clarkson J, Eckert C. <i>Design Process Improvement: A Review of Current Practice<\/i>. Springer-Verlag. pp. 116\u2013139. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781846280610.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4%3A+Requirements+Engineering&rft.btitle=Design+Process+Improvement%3A+A+Review+of+Current+Practice&rft.pages=116-139&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781846280610&rft.au=Loucopoulos%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunctional+requirement\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AdamsNon15-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-AdamsNon15_4-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AdamsNon15_4-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Adams, K.M. (2015). \"3.2 Definitions for Functional and Non-Functional Requirements\". <i>Non-functional Requirements in Systems Analysis and Design<\/i>. Springer. pp. 45\u201350. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783319183442.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3.2+Definitions+for+Functional+and+Non-Functional+Requirements&rft.btitle=Non-functional+Requirements+in+Systems+Analysis+and+Design&rft.pages=45-50&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9783319183442&rft.au=Adams%2C+K.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunctional+requirement\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-J\u00f6nssonImpact06-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-J\u00f6nssonImpact06_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">J\u00f6nsson P, Lindvall M (2006). \"Chapter 6: Impact Analysis\". In Aurum A, Wohlin C. <i>Engineering and Managing Software Requirements<\/i>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 117\u201342. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783540282440.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Impact+Analysis&rft.btitle=Engineering+and+Managing+Software+Requirements&rft.pages=117-42&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9783540282440&rft.aulast=J%C3%B6nsson&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Lindvall%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunctional+requirement\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MITRESys14-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MITRESys14_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">MITRE Corporate Communications and Public Affairs. \"Requirements Engineering: Eliciting, Collecting, and Developing Requirements\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mitre.org\/publications\/technical-papers\/the-mitre-systems-engineering-guide\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The MITRE Systems Engineering Guide<\/i><\/a>. MITRE Corporation. pp. 304\u201313. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780615974422<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Requirements+Engineering%3A+Eliciting%2C+Collecting%2C+and+Developing+Requirements&rft.btitle=The+MITRE+Systems+Engineering+Guide&rft.pages=304-13&rft.pub=MITRE+Corporation&rft.isbn=9780615974422&rft.au=MITRE+Corporate+Communications+and+Public+Affairs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mitre.org%2Fpublications%2Ftechnical-papers%2Fthe-mitre-systems-engineering-guide&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunctional+requirement\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-StellmanApplied05-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-StellmanApplied05_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-StellmanApplied05_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Stellman, Andrew; Greene, Jennifer (2005). \"Chapter 6: Software requirements\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=IYdJocLVa8wC&pg=PA97\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Applied Software Project Management<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly Media. pp. 97\u2013130. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780596553821<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Software+requirements&rft.btitle=Applied+Software+Project+Management&rft.pages=97-130&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780596553821&rft.aulast=Stellman&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Greene%2C+Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIYdJocLVa8wC%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFunctional+requirement\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1274\nCached time: 20190313213412\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.172 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.205 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 396\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 15116\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 86\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 7\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 23186\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\nLua time usage: 0.106\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 2.52 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 169.410 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>87.10% 147.551 1 Template:Reflist\n74.39% 126.020 7 Template:Cite_book\n12.85% 21.762 1 Template:Portal\n 1.72% 2.920 1 Template:Main_other\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:2377273-1!canonical and timestamp 20190313213412 and revision id 887463868\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_requirement\" data-key=\"66d49483462c9dfe32ee1b73fbba0287\">article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203020\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.009 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.157 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 150.728 1 - wikipedia:Functional_requirement\n100.00% 150.728 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10645-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203020 and revision id 33441\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Functional_requirement\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Functional_requirement<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/10\/Crystal_Clear_device_cdrom_unmount.png\/56px-Crystal_Clear_device_cdrom_unmount.png"],"f5d7f133b45c5ef96b93753001d8871a_timestamp":1554323420,"a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_type":"article","a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_title":"Change control","a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Change_control","a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tChange control\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tNot to be confused with version control.\nFor the management process, see Change management.\nChange control within quality management systems (QMS) and information technology (IT) systems is a process\u2014either formal or informal[1]\u2014used to ensure that changes to a product or system are introduced in a controlled and coordinated manner. It reduces the possibility that unnecessary changes will be introduced to a system without forethought, introducing faults into the system or undoing changes made by other users of software. The goals of a change control procedure usually include minimal disruption to services, reduction in back-out activities, and cost-effective utilization of resources involved in implementing change.\nChange control is used in various industries, including in IT[2], software development[1], the pharmaceutical industry[3], the medical device industry[4], and other engineering\/manufacturing industries.[5] For the IT and software industries, change control is a major aspect of the broader discipline of change management. Typical examples from the computer and network environments are patches to software products, installation of new operating systems, upgrades to network routing tables, or changes to the electrical power systems supporting such infrastructure.[1][2]\nCertain portions of the Information Technology Infrastructure Library cover change control.[6]\n\nContents \n\n1 The process \n\n1.1 Plan \/ Scope \n1.2 Assess \/ Analyze \n1.3 Review \/ Approval \n1.4 Build \/ Test \n1.5 Implement \n1.6 Close \n\n\n2 Regulatory environment \n3 See also \n4 References \n\n\nThe process \nThere is considerable overlap and confusion between change management, configuration management and change control. The definition below is not yet integrated with definitions of the others.\nChange control can be described as a set of six steps:\n\nPlan \/ Scope\nAssess \/ Analyze\nReview \/ Approval\nBuild \/ Test\nImplement\nClose\n Plan \/ Scope \nConsider the primary and ancillary details of the proposed change. This should include aspects such as identifying the change, its owner(s), how it will be communicated and executed, how success will be verified, the change's estimate of importance, its added value, its conformity to business and industry standards, and its target date for completion.[2][7][8]\n\n Assess \/ Analyze \nImpact and risk assessment is the next vital step. When executed, will the proposed plan cause something to go wrong? Will related systems be impacted by the proposed change? Even minor details should be considered during this phase. Afterwards, a risk category should ideally be assigned to the proposed change: high-, moderate-, or low-risk. High-risk change requires many additional steps such as management approval and stakeholder notification, whereas low-risk change may only require project manager approval and minimal documentation.[2][7][8] If not addressed in the plan\/scope, the desire for a backout plan should be expressed, particularly for high-risk changes that have significant worst-case scenarios.[2]\n\n Review \/ Approval \nWhether it's a change controller, change control board, steering committee, or project manager, a review and approval process is typically required. The plan\/scope and impact\/risk assessments are considered in the context of business goals, requirements, and resources. If, for example, the change request is deemed to address a low severity, low impact issue that requires significant resources to correct, the request may be made low priority or shelved altogether. In cases where a high-impact change is requested but without a strong plan, the review\/approval entity may request a full business case may be requested for further analysis.[1][2][7][8] \n\n Build \/ Test \nIf the change control request is approved to move forward, the delivery team will execute the solution through a small-scale development process in test or development environments. This allows the delivery team an opportunity to design and make incremental changes, with unit and\/or regression testing.[1][2][7] Little in the way of testing and validation may occur for low-risk changes, though major changes will require significant testing before implementation.[7] They will then seek approval and request a time and date to carry out the implementation phase. In rare cases where the solution can't be tested, special consideration should be made towards the change\/implementation window.[2]\n\nImplement \nIn most cases a special implementation team with the technical expertise to quickly move a change along is used to implement the change. The team should also be implementing the change not only according to the approved plan but also to organizational standards, industry standards, and quality management standards.[7] The implementation process may also require additional staff responsibilities outside the implementation team, including stakeholders who may be asked to assist with troubleshooting.[2] Following implementation, the team may also carry out a post-implementation review, which would take place at another stakeholder meeting or during project closing procedures.[1][7]\n\nClose \nThe closing process can be one of the more difficult and important phases of change control.[9] Three primary tasks at this end phase include determining that the project is actually complete, evaluating \"the project plan in the context of project completion,\" and providing tangible proof of project success.[9] If despite best efforts something went wrong during the change control process, a post-mortem on what happened will need to be run, with the intent of applying lessons learned to future changes.[2]\n\nRegulatory environment \nIn a Good Manufacturing Practice regulated industry, the topic is frequently encountered by its users. Various industrial guidances and commentaries are available for people to comprehend this concept.[10][11][12] As a common practice, the activity is usually directed by one or more SOPs.[13] From the information technology perspective for clinical trials, it has been guided by another U.S. Food and Drug Administration document.[14]\n\nSee also \nDocumentation\nIdentifier\nVersion control\nChangelog\nLiving Document\nSpecification (technical standard)\nStandardization\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c d e f Hall, P.A.V.; Ramil, J.C.F. (2007). Managing the Software Enterprise: Software Engineering and Information Systems in Context. Cengage Learning. pp. 318\u2013325. ISBN 9781844803545. Retrieved 20 May 2018 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j Matteson, S. (7 July 2017). \"10 essential elements of change control management\". TechRepublic. CBS Interactive, Inc. Retrieved 20 May 2018 . \n\n^ Turner, S.G. Pharmaceutical Engineering Change Control. Taylor & Francis. p. 200. ISBN 9780849320613. \n\n^ Teixeira, M.B. (2013). Design Controls for the Medical Device Industry (2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 205. ISBN 9781466503557. \n\n^ Monahanm E. (1995). Engineering Documentation Control Practices & Procedures. CRC Press. p. 280. ISBN 9780824795740. \n\n^ Herzig, T.W.; Walsh, T.; Gallagher, L.A. (2013). Implementing Information Security in Healthcare: Building a Security Program. Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society. pp. 204\u2013205. ISBN 9781938904356. Retrieved 20 May 2018 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ a b c d e f g Taylor, J. (2008). Project Scheduling and Cost Control: Planning, Monitoring and Controlling the Baseline. J. Ross Publishing. pp. 192\u2013203. ISBN 9781932159110. Retrieved 20 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b c Operational Excellence Program Office. \"Change Control Process\" (PDF) . University of California Berkeley. Retrieved 20 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b Taylor, J. (2008). \"Chapter 11: Successfully Closing the Project\". Project Scheduling and Cost Control: Planning, Monitoring and Controlling the Baseline. J. Ross Publishing. pp. 215\u2013225. ISBN 9781932159110. Retrieved 20 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"Guidance for Industry: Quality Systems Approach to Pharmaceutical CGMP Regulations\" (PDF) . U.S. Food and Drug Administration. September 2006. Retrieved 12 July 2009 . \n\n^ Infusion. \"Challenges of Change Control in a Regulated Industry\" (PDF) . Retrieved 28 April 2009 . [permanent dead link ] \n\n^ ICH. \"Q7: Good Manufacturing Practice Guide for Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients\" (PDF) . Retrieved 20 April 2011 . \n\n^ GMP Online Consultancy. \"Change control system: Standard Operating Procedure\". Retrieved 28 April 2009 . \n\n^ \"Guidance for Industry: Computerized Systems Used in Clinical Trials\" (PDF) . U.S. Food and Drug Administration. April 1999. Retrieved 12 July 2009 . \n\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Change_control\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Change_control<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Business and data managementSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 20 May 2018, at 22:38.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 201 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Change_control skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Change control<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Not to be confused with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Version_control\" title=\"Version control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26e89feabadbf7abca76d5b5d945a458\">version control<\/a>.<\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For the management process, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_management\" title=\"Change management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2164afa9532c821ea7b2c94786e71c\">Change management<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p><b>Change control<\/b> within <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_management_system\" title=\"Quality management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d64fd726a87573213d8dce6e9f2fe22f\">quality management systems<\/a> (QMS) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">information technology<\/a> (IT) systems is a process\u2014either formal or informal<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HallManaging07_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HallManaging07-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\u2014used to ensure that changes to a product or system are introduced in a controlled and coordinated manner. It reduces the possibility that unnecessary changes will be introduced to a system without forethought, introducing faults into the system or undoing changes made by other users of software. The goals of a change control procedure usually include minimal disruption to services, reduction in back-out activities, and cost-effective utilization of resources involved in implementing change.\n<\/p><p>Change control is used in various industries, including in IT<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Matteson10Essen17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>, software development<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HallManaging07_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HallManaging07-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>, the pharmaceutical industry<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TurnerPharm03_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TurnerPharm03-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>, the medical device industry<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TeixeiraDesign13_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TeixeiraDesign13-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>, and other engineering\/manufacturing industries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MonahanEngineer95_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MonahanEngineer95-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> For the IT and software industries, change control is a major aspect of the broader discipline of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_Management_(ITSM)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Change Management (ITSM)\" data-key=\"ebdec2e0e105ce65cce340abd56877af\">change management<\/a>. Typical examples from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer\" title=\"Computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90ce149db23a6fc17d1d225fac611846\">computer<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">network<\/a> environments are patches to software products, installation of new <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_system\" title=\"Operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115155e5fbeaa764ceaa4a8714a8951\">operating systems<\/a>, upgrades to network <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Routing\" title=\"Routing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70b168b24f71a616c10c0598e27b6d37\">routing<\/a> tables, or changes to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric_power\" title=\"Electric power\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab53ee13d401a197c5beb507784f5aae\">electrical power<\/a> systems supporting such <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrastructure\" title=\"Infrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb70668db4564897263976d0920fec5\">infrastructure<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HallManaging07_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HallManaging07-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Matteson10Essen17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Certain portions of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITIL\" title=\"ITIL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ecb066fc21e166ca22e8a9091e3791d\">Information Technology Infrastructure Library<\/a> cover change control.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HerzigImplement13_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HerzigImplement13-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_process\">The process<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>There is considerable overlap and confusion between <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_management\" title=\"Change management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2164afa9532c821ea7b2c94786e71c\">change management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Configuration_management\" title=\"Configuration management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c9f634bcce1231b1a7f52d4d90c10b2\">configuration management<\/a> and change control. The definition below is not yet integrated with definitions of the others.\n<\/p><p>Change control can be described as a set of six steps:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Plan \/ Scope<\/li>\n<li>Assess \/ Analyze<\/li>\n<li>Review \/ Approval<\/li>\n<li>Build \/ Test<\/li>\n<li>Implement<\/li>\n<li>Close<\/li><\/ol>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Plan_.2F_Scope\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Plan_\/_Scope\">Plan \/ Scope<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Consider the primary and ancillary details of the proposed change. This should include aspects such as identifying the change, its owner(s), how it will be communicated and executed, how success will be verified, the change's estimate of importance, its added value, its conformity to business and industry standards, and its target date for completion.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Matteson10Essen17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TaylorProject08_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TaylorProject08-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BerkeleyChange_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BerkeleyChange-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Assess_.2F_Analyze\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Assess_\/_Analyze\">Assess \/ Analyze<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Impact and risk assessment is the next vital step. When executed, will the proposed plan cause something to go wrong? Will related systems be impacted by the proposed change? Even minor details should be considered during this phase. Afterwards, a risk category should ideally be assigned to the proposed change: high-, moderate-, or low-risk. High-risk change requires many additional steps such as management approval and stakeholder notification, whereas low-risk change may only require project manager approval and minimal documentation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Matteson10Essen17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TaylorProject08_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TaylorProject08-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BerkeleyChange_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BerkeleyChange-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> If not addressed in the plan\/scope, the desire for a backout plan should be expressed, particularly for high-risk changes that have significant worst-case scenarios.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Matteson10Essen17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Review_.2F_Approval\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Review_\/_Approval\">Review \/ Approval<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Whether it's a change controller, change control board, steering committee, or project manager, a review and approval process is typically required. The plan\/scope and impact\/risk assessments are considered in the context of business goals, requirements, and resources. If, for example, the change request is deemed to address a low severity, low impact issue that requires significant resources to correct, the request may be made low priority or shelved altogether. In cases where a high-impact change is requested but without a strong plan, the review\/approval entity may request a full <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_case\" title=\"Business case\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef0cc9e726868a5d081d1ae1f36aa976\">business case<\/a> may be requested for further analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HallManaging07_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HallManaging07-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Matteson10Essen17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TaylorProject08_7-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TaylorProject08-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BerkeleyChange_8-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BerkeleyChange-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Build_.2F_Test\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Build_\/_Test\">Build \/ Test<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>If the change control request is approved to move forward, the delivery team will execute the solution through a small-scale development process in test or development environments. This allows the delivery team an opportunity to design and make incremental changes, with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unit_testing\" title=\"Unit testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccd96295ece3bd8cce89bb756eedce3f\">unit<\/a> and\/or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_testing\" title=\"Regression testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd5595feea9b213fc3d856c6298ab9d2\">regression testing<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HallManaging07_1-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HallManaging07-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Matteson10Essen17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TaylorProject08_7-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TaylorProject08-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Little in the way of testing and validation may occur for low-risk changes, though major changes will require significant testing before implementation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TaylorProject08_7-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TaylorProject08-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> They will then seek approval and request a time and date to carry out the implementation phase. In rare cases where the solution can't be tested, special consideration should be made towards the change\/implementation window.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Matteson10Essen17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Implement\">Implement<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In most cases a special implementation team with the technical expertise to quickly move a change along is used to implement the change. The team should also be implementing the change not only according to the approved plan but also to organizational standards, industry standards, and quality management standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TaylorProject08_7-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TaylorProject08-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> The implementation process may also require additional staff responsibilities outside the implementation team, including stakeholders who may be asked to assist with troubleshooting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Matteson10Essen17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Following implementation, the team may also carry out a post-implementation review, which would take place at another stakeholder meeting or during project closing procedures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HallManaging07_1-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HallManaging07-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TaylorProject08_7-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TaylorProject08-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Close\">Close<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The closing process can be one of the more difficult and important phases of change control.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TaylorProject08-2_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TaylorProject08-2-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> Three primary tasks at this end phase include determining that the project is actually complete, evaluating \"the project plan in the context of project completion,\" and providing tangible proof of project success.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TaylorProject08-2_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TaylorProject08-2-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> If despite best efforts something went wrong during the change control process, a post-mortem on what happened will need to be run, with the intent of applying lessons learned to future changes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Matteson10Essen17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regulatory_environment\">Regulatory environment<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Good_Manufacturing_Practice\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Good Manufacturing Practice\" data-key=\"6f69772603f902fc0fa2b8b26269e21a\">Good Manufacturing Practice<\/a> regulated industry, the topic is frequently encountered by its users. Various industrial guidances and commentaries are available for people to comprehend this concept.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-giqs_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-giqs-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cccr_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cccr-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-gmpg_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-gmpg-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> As a common practice, the activity is usually directed by one or more <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Standard_operating_procedure\" title=\"Standard operating procedure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2dac2ed612b7f9df9865dbe6f887badb\">SOPs<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ccss_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ccss-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> From the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">information technology<\/a> perspective for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_trial\" title=\"Clinical trial\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9859d095bd8a79e472f4225caace5c35\">clinical trials<\/a>, it has been guided by another U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> document.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-gics_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-gics-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Documentation\" title=\"Documentation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f1a7be74b80f082ae573ff1d8a6f5e6\">Documentation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identifier\" title=\"Identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13703cbb128e47888d8a4a075f5e6e19\">Identifier<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Version_control\" title=\"Version control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26e89feabadbf7abca76d5b5d945a458\">Version control<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Changelog\" title=\"Changelog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2df2fea7e5e1a02f1cd36dbe47e62007\">Changelog<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Living_Document\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Living Document\" data-key=\"65ef4202354448ff7270726b711b73f9\">Living Document<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Specification_(technical_standard)\" title=\"Specification (technical standard)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8975a53d5009cd3780a766463ea9b93\">Specification (technical standard)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Standardization\" title=\"Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f72bb2449f07a1d189664ba328c819fc\">Standardization<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HallManaging07-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-HallManaging07_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HallManaging07_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HallManaging07_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HallManaging07_1-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HallManaging07_1-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HallManaging07_1-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Hall, P.A.V.; Ramil, J.C.F. (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-40jULoIh0MC&pg=PA318\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Managing the Software Enterprise: Software Engineering and Information Systems in Context<\/i><\/a>. Cengage Learning. pp. 318\u2013325. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781844803545<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Managing+the+Software+Enterprise%3A+Software+Engineering+and+Information+Systems+in+Context&rft.pages=318-325&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9781844803545&rft.au=Hall%2C+P.A.V.%3B+Ramil%2C+J.C.F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-40jULoIh0MC%26pg%3DPA318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChange+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Matteson10Essen17-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-8\"><sup><i><b>i<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Matteson10Essen17_2-9\"><sup><i><b>j<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Matteson, S. (7 July 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.techrepublic.com\/article\/10-essential-elements-of-change-control-management\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"10 essential elements of change control management\"<\/a>. <i>TechRepublic<\/i>. CBS Interactive, Inc<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TechRepublic&rft.atitle=10+essential+elements+of+change+control+management&rft.date=2017-07-07&rft.au=Matteson%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.techrepublic.com%2Farticle%2F10-essential-elements-of-change-control-management%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChange+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TurnerPharm03-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TurnerPharm03_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Turner, S.G. <i>Pharmaceutical Engineering Change Control<\/i>. Taylor & Francis. p. 200. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780849320613.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pharmaceutical+Engineering+Change+Control&rft.pages=200&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.isbn=9780849320613&rft.au=Turner%2C+S.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChange+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TeixeiraDesign13-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TeixeiraDesign13_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Teixeira, M.B. (2013). <i>Design Controls for the Medical Device Industry<\/i> (2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 205. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781466503557.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Design+Controls+for+the+Medical+Device+Industry&rft.pages=205&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781466503557&rft.au=Teixeira%2C+M.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChange+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MonahanEngineer95-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MonahanEngineer95_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Monahanm E. (1995). <i>Engineering Documentation Control Practices & Procedures<\/i>. CRC Press. p. 280. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780824795740.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engineering+Documentation+Control+Practices+%26+Procedures&rft.pages=280&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780824795740&rft.au=Monahanm+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChange+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HerzigImplement13-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HerzigImplement13_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Herzig, T.W.; Walsh, T.; Gallagher, L.A. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=uUowBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA204\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Implementing Information Security in Healthcare: Building a Security Program<\/i><\/a>. Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society. pp. 204\u2013205. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781938904356<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Implementing+Information+Security+in+Healthcare%3A+Building+a+Security+Program&rft.pages=204-205&rft.pub=Healthcare+Information+and+Management+Systems+Society&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781938904356&rft.au=Herzig%2C+T.W.%3B+Walsh%2C+T.%3B+Gallagher%2C+L.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuUowBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChange+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TaylorProject08-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-TaylorProject08_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-TaylorProject08_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-TaylorProject08_7-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-TaylorProject08_7-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-TaylorProject08_7-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-TaylorProject08_7-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-TaylorProject08_7-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Taylor, J. (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AnAeKKFGhTwC&pg=PA192\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Project Scheduling and Cost Control: Planning, Monitoring and Controlling the Baseline<\/i><\/a>. J. Ross Publishing. pp. 192\u2013203. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781932159110<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Project+Scheduling+and+Cost+Control%3A+Planning%2C+Monitoring+and+Controlling+the+Baseline&rft.pages=192-203&rft.pub=J.+Ross+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781932159110&rft.au=Taylor%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAnAeKKFGhTwC%26pg%3DPA192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChange+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BerkeleyChange-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-BerkeleyChange_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BerkeleyChange_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BerkeleyChange_8-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Operational Excellence Program Office. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/vcaf.berkeley.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/change_control_process_aa.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Change Control Process\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. University of California Berkeley<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Change+Control+Process&rft.pub=University+of+California+Berkeley&rft.au=Operational+Excellence+Program+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvcaf.berkeley.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fchange_control_process_aa.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChange+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TaylorProject08-2-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-TaylorProject08-2_9-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-TaylorProject08-2_9-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Taylor, J. (2008). \"Chapter 11: Successfully Closing the Project\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AnAeKKFGhTwC&pg=PA215\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Project Scheduling and Cost Control: Planning, Monitoring and Controlling the Baseline<\/i><\/a>. J. Ross Publishing. pp. 215\u2013225. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781932159110<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+11%3A+Successfully+Closing+the+Project&rft.btitle=Project+Scheduling+and+Cost+Control%3A+Planning%2C+Monitoring+and+Controlling+the+Baseline&rft.pages=215-225&rft.pub=J.+Ross+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781932159110&rft.au=Taylor%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAnAeKKFGhTwC%26pg%3DPA215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChange+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-giqs-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-giqs_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/downloads\/Drugs\/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation\/Guidances\/UCM070337.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Guidance for Industry: Quality Systems Approach to Pharmaceutical CGMP Regulations\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration_(United_States)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration (United States)\" data-key=\"82aef27f785beeef11ac75186c2992ac\">U.S. Food and Drug Administration<\/a>. September 2006<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 July<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Guidance+for+Industry%3A+Quality+Systems+Approach+to+Pharmaceutical+CGMP+Regulations&rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&rft.date=2006-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fdownloads%2FDrugs%2FGuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation%2FGuidances%2FUCM070337.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChange+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-cccr-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-cccr_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Infusion. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infinityqs.com\/asset-library\/articles\/ChangeControlChallenges.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Challenges of Change Control in a Regulated Industry\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 April<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Challenges+of+Change+Control+in+a+Regulated+Industry&rft.au=Infusion&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infinityqs.com%2Fasset-library%2Farticles%2FChangeControlChallenges.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChange+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" title=\"Wikipedia:Link rot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\" Dead link since November 2018\">permanent dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/span><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-gmpg-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-gmpg_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Conference_on_Harmonisation_of_Technical_Requirements_for_Registration_of_Pharmaceuticals_for_Human_Use\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use\" data-key=\"3e8e3f86417c20352570e64e05b08b5f\">ICH<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ich.org\/fileadmin\/Public_Web_Site\/ICH_Products\/Guidelines\/Quality\/Q7\/Step4\/Q7_Guideline.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Q7: Good Manufacturing Practice Guide for Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 April<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Q7%3A+Good+Manufacturing+Practice+Guide+for+Active+Pharmaceutical+Ingredients&rft.au=ICH&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ich.org%2Ffileadmin%2FPublic_Web_Site%2FICH_Products%2FGuidelines%2FQuality%2FQ7%2FStep4%2FQ7_Guideline.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChange+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ccss-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ccss_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">GMP Online Consultancy. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gmp-online-consultancy.com\/e\/html\/301_direct_order\/210_standard-operation-procedures_detail.php?docIndex=60\" target=\"_blank\">\"Change control system: Standard Operating Procedure\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 April<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Change+control+system%3A+Standard+Operating+Procedure&rft.au=GMP+Online+Consultancy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gmp-online-consultancy.com%2Fe%2Fhtml%2F301_direct_order%2F210_standard-operation-procedures_detail.php%3FdocIndex%3D60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChange+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-gics-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-gics_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fda.gov\/downloads\/ICECI\/EnforcementActions\/BioresearchMonitoring\/UCM133749.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Guidance for Industry: Computerized Systems Used in Clinical Trials\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration_(United_States)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration (United States)\" data-key=\"82aef27f785beeef11ac75186c2992ac\">U.S. Food and Drug Administration<\/a>. April 1999<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 July<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Guidance+for+Industry%3A+Computerized+Systems+Used+in+Clinical+Trials&rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&rft.date=1999-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2Fdownloads%2FICECI%2FEnforcementActions%2FBioresearchMonitoring%2FUCM133749.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChange+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1274\nCached time: 20190312201037\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.264 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.334 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 947\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26790\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 657\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 47756\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\nLua time usage: 0.148\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 3.33 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 291.989 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>81.43% 237.760 1 Template:Reflist\n41.06% 119.880 7 Template:Cite_book\n14.29% 41.739 1 Template:Dead_link\n14.04% 40.992 7 Template:Cite_web\n11.84% 34.574 1 Template:Fix\n10.33% 30.156 2 Template:Category_handler\n 9.08% 26.526 1 Template:Distinguish\n 3.09% 9.012 1 Template:For\n 1.64% 4.798 1 Template:Fix\/category\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:962908-1!canonical and timestamp 20190312201036 and revision id 871020910\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_control\" data-key=\"56848b5f8f3bc6fb3e51835923253a8d\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203019\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.010 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.149 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 141.526 1 - wikipedia:Change_control\n100.00% 141.526 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10595-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203019 and revision id 33269\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Change_control\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Change_control<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_images":[],"a45c08fd265fb8f3aba8c8c6112b0426_timestamp":1554323419,"cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_type":"article","cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_title":"Business intelligence","cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Business_intelligence","cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tBusiness intelligence\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\r\n\n\nBusiness administration\nManagement of a business\nAccounting\nManagement accounting\nFinancial accounting\nFinancial audit\n\nBusiness entities\nCooperative\nCorporation\nLimited liability company\nPartnership\nSole proprietorship\nState-owned enterprise\n\nCorporate governance\nAnnual general meeting\nBoard of directors\nSupervisory board\nAdvisory board\nAudit committee\n\nCorporate law\nCommercial law\nConstitutional documents\nContract\nCorporate crime\nCorporate liability\nInsolvency law\nInternational trade law\nMergers and acquisitions\n\nEconomics\nCommodity\nPublic economics\nLabour economics\nDevelopment economics\nInternational economics\nMixed economy\nPlanned economy\nEconometrics\nEnvironmental economics\nOpen economy\nMarket economy\nKnowledge economy\nMicroeconomics\nMacroeconomics\nEconomic development\nEconomic statistics\n\nFinance\nFinancial statement\nInsurance\nFactoring\nCash conversion cycle\nInsider dealing\nCapital budgeting\nCommercial bank\nDerivative\nFinancial statement analysis\nFinancial risk\nPublic finance\nCorporate finance\nManagerial finance\nInternational finance\nLiquidation\nStock market\nFinancial market\nTax\nFinancial institution\nWorking capital\nVenture capital\n\nMarketing\nMarketing\nMarketing research\nPublic relations\nSales\n\nTypes of management\nAsset\nBrand\nBusiness intelligence\nBusiness development\nCapacity\nChange\ninnovation\nCommercial\nmarketing\nCommunications\nConfiguration\nConflict\nContent\nCustomer relationship\nDistributed\nEarned value\nElectronic business\nEnterprise resource planning \nmanagement information system\nFinancial\nHuman resource \ndevelopment\nIncident\nIntegrated\nKnowledge\nMaterials\nNetwork\nadministrator\nOffice\nOperations \nservices\nPerformance\nPower\nProblem\nProcess\nProduct life-cycle\nProduct\nProject\nQuality\nRecords\nResource\nRisk \ncrisis\nSales\nSecurity\nService\nStrategic\nSupply chain\nSystems\nadministrator\nTalent\nTechnology\n\nOrganization\nArchitecture\nBehavior\nCommunication\nCulture\nConflict\nDevelopment\nEngineering\nHierarchy\nPatterns\nSpace\nStructure\n\nTrade\nBusiness analysis\nBusiness ethics\nBusiness plan\nBusiness judgment rule\nConsumer behaviour\nBusiness operations\nInternational business\nBusiness model\nInternational trade\nBusiness process\nBusiness statistics\n\n Business and economics portalvte\nBusiness intelligence (BI) comprises the strategies and technologies used by enterprises for the data analysis of business information.[1] BI technologies provide historical, current and predictive views of business operations. Common functions of business intelligence technologies include reporting, online analytical processing, analytics, data mining, process mining, complex event processing, business performance management, benchmarking, text mining, predictive analytics and prescriptive analytics. BI technologies can handle large amounts of structured and sometimes unstructured data to help identify, develop and otherwise create new strategic business opportunities. They aim to allow for the easy interpretation of these big data. Identifying new opportunities and implementing an effective strategy based on insights can provide businesses with a competitive market advantage and long-term stability.[2]\nBusiness intelligence can be used by enterprises to support a wide range of business decisions ranging from operational to strategic. Basic operating decisions include product positioning or pricing. Strategic business decisions involve priorities, goals and directions at the broadest level. In all cases, BI is most effective when it combines data derived from the market in which a company operates (external data) with data from company sources internal to the business such as financial and operations data (internal data). When combined, external and internal data can provide a complete picture which, in effect, creates an \"intelligence\" that cannot be derived from any singular set of data.[3] Amongst myriad uses, business intelligence tools empower organizations to gain insight into new markets, to assess demand and suitability of products and services for different market segments and to gauge the impact of marketing efforts.[4]\nOften[quantify ] BI applications use data gathered from a data warehouse (DW) or from a data mart, and the concepts of BI and DW combine as \"BI\/DW\"[5]\nor as \"BIDW\". A data warehouse contains a copy of analytical data that facilitate decision support.\n\n<\/p>\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Definition \n\n2.1 Compared with competitive intelligence \n2.2 Compared with business analytics \n\n\n3 Data \n\n3.1 Unstructured data vs. semi-structured data \n3.2 Limitations of semi-structured and unstructured data \n3.3 Metadata \n\n\n4 Applications \n5 Marketplace \n\n5.1 Historical predictions \n\n\n6 See also \n7 References \n8 Bibliography \n9 External links \n\n\nHistory \nThe earliest known use of the term business intelligence is in Richard Millar Devens' Cyclop\u00e6dia of Commercial and Business Anecdotes (1865). Devens used the term to describe how the banker Sir Henry Furnese gained profit by receiving and acting upon information about his environment, prior to his competitors:\n\nThroughout Holland, Flanders, France, and Germany, he maintained a complete and perfect train of business intelligence. The news of the many battles fought was thus received first by him, and the fall of Namur added to his profits, owing to his early receipt of the news.\u2014 Devens, p. 210\n\nThe ability to collect and react accordingly based on the information retrieved, Devens says, is central to business intelligence.[6]\nWhen Hans Peter Luhn, a researcher at IBM, used the term business intelligence in an article published in 1958, he employed the Webster's Dictionary definition of intelligence: \"the ability to apprehend the interrelationships of presented facts in such a way as to guide action towards a desired goal.\"[7] Business intelligence as it is understood today is said to have evolved from the decision support systems (DSS) that began in the 1960s and developed throughout the mid-1980s.[citation needed ] DSS originated in the computer-aided models created to assist with decision making and planning.[citation needed ]\nIn 1989, Howard Dresner (later a Gartner analyst) proposed business intelligence as an umbrella term to describe \"concepts and methods to improve business decision making by using fact-based support systems.\"[8] It was not until the late 1990s that this usage was widespread.[9]\nCritics[who? ] see BI merely as an evolution of business reporting together with the advent of increasingly powerful and easy-to-use data analysis tools. In this respect it has also been criticized[by whom? ] as a marketing buzzword in the context of the \"big data\" surge.[10]\n\nDefinition \n\" According to Solomon Negash and Paul Gray We define business intelligence (BI) as systems that combine:\n\nData gathering\nData storage\nKnowledge management\nwith analysis to evaluate complex corporate and competitive information for presentation to planners and decision maker, with the objective of improving the timeliness and the quality of the input to the decision process.\" [11]\nAccording to Forrester Research, business intelligence is \"a set of methodologies, processes, architectures, and technologies that transform raw data into meaningful and useful information used to enable more effective strategic, tactical, and operational insights and decision-making.\"[12] Under this definition, business intelligence encompasses information management (data integration, data quality, data warehousing, master-data management, text- and content-analytics, et al.). Therefore, Forrester refers to data preparation and data usage as two separate but closely linked segments of the business-intelligence architectural stack.\nSome elements of business intelligence are:[citation needed ]\n\nMultidimensional aggregation and allocation\nDenormalization, tagging, and standardization\nRealtime reporting with analytical alert\nA method of interfacing with unstructured data sources\nGroup consolidation, budgeting and rolling forecasts\nStatistical inference and probabilistic simulation\nKey performance indicators optimization\nVersion control and process management\nOpen item management\nForrester distinguishes this from the business-intelligence market, which is \"just the top layers of the BI architectural stack, such as reporting, analytics, and dashboards.\"[13]\n\nCompared with competitive intelligence \nThough the term business intelligence is sometimes a synonym for competitive intelligence (because they both support decision making), BI uses technologies, processes, and applications to analyze mostly internal, structured data and business processes while competitive intelligence gathers, analyzes and disseminates information with a topical focus on company competitors. If understood broadly, business intelligence can include the subset of competitive intelligence.[14]\n\nCompared with business analytics \nBusiness intelligence and business analytics are sometimes used interchangeably, but there are alternate definitions.[15] Thomas Davenport, professor of information technology and management at Babson College argues that business intelligence should be divided into querying, reporting, Online analytical processing (OLAP), an \"alerts\" tool, and business analytics. In this definition, business analytics is the subset of BI focusing on statistics, prediction, and optimization, rather than the reporting functionality.[16]\n\nData \nBusiness operations can generate a very large amount of information in the form of e-mails, memos, notes from call-centers, news, user groups, chats, reports, web-pages, presentations, image-files, video-files, and marketing material. According to Merrill Lynch, more than 85% of all business information exists in these forms; a company might only use such a document a single time.[17] Because of the way it is produced and stored, this information is either unstructured or semi-structured.\nThe management of semi-structured data is an unsolved problem in the information technology industry.[18] According to projections from Gartner (2003), white collar workers spend 30\u201340% of their time searching, finding, and assessing unstructured data. BI uses both structured and unstructured data. The former is easy to search, and the latter contains a large quantity of the information needed for analysis and decision making.[18][19] Because of the difficulty of properly searching, finding and assessing unstructured or semi-structured data, organizations may not draw upon these vast reservoirs of information, which could influence a particular decision, task or project. This can ultimately lead to poorly informed decision making.[17]\nTherefore, when designing a business intelligence\/DW-solution, the specific problems associated with semi-structured and unstructured data must be accommodated for as well as those for the structured data.[19]\n\nUnstructured data vs. semi-structured data \nUnstructured and semi-structured data have different meanings depending on their context. In the context of relational database systems, unstructured data cannot be stored in predictably ordered columns and rows. One type of unstructured data is typically stored in a BLOB (binary large object), a catch-all data type available in most relational database management systems. Unstructured data may also refer to irregularly or randomly repeated column patterns that vary from row to row[20] or files of natural language that do not have detailed metadata[21].\nMany of these data types, however, like e-mails, word processing text files, PPTs, image-files, and video-files conform to a standard that offers the possibility of metadata. Metadata can include information such as author and time of creation, and this can be stored in a relational database.\nTherefore, it may be more accurate to talk about this as semi-structured documents or data,[18] but no specific consensus seems to have been reached.\n\n<\/p>Unstructured data can also simply be the knowledge that business users have about future business trends. Business forecasting naturally aligns with the BI system because business users think of their business in aggregate terms. Capturing the business knowledge that may only exist in the minds of business users provides some of the most important data points for a complete BI solution.\n\nLimitations of semi-structured and unstructured data \nThere are several challenges to developing BI with semi-structured data. According to Inmon & Nesavich,[22] some of those are:\n\nPhysically accessing unstructured textual data \u2013 unstructured data is stored in a huge variety of formats.\nTerminology \u2013 Among researchers and analysts, there is a need to develop a standardized terminology.\nVolume of data \u2013 As stated earlier, up to 85% of all data exists as semi-structured data. Couple that with the need for word-to-word and semantic analysis.\nSearchability of unstructured textual data \u2013 A simple search on some data, e.g. apple, results in links where there is a reference to that precise search term. (Inmon & Nesavich, 2008)[22] gives an example: \u201ca search is made on the term felony. In a simple search, the term felony is used, and everywhere there is a reference to felony, a hit to an unstructured document is made. But a simple search is crude. It does not find references to crime, arson, murder, embezzlement, vehicular homicide, and such, even though these crimes are types of felonies.\u201d\nMetadata \nTo solve problems with searchability and assessment of data, it is necessary to know something about the content. This can be done by adding context through the use of metadata.[17] Many systems already capture some metadata (e.g. filename, author, size, etc.), but more useful would be metadata about the actual content \u2013 e.g. summaries, topics, people or companies mentioned. Two technologies designed for generating metadata about content are automatic categorization and information extraction.\n\nApplications \nBusiness intelligence can be applied to the following business purposes:[23]\n\nPerformance metrics and benchmarking inform business leaders of progress towards business goals (business process management).\nAnalytics quantify processes for a business to arrive at optimal decisions, and to perform business knowledge discovery. Analytics may variously involve data mining, process mining, statistical analysis, predictive analytics, predictive modeling, business process modeling, data lineage, complex event processing and prescriptive analytics.\nBusiness reporting can use BI data to inform strategy. Business reporting may involve data visualization, executive information system, and\/or OLAP\nBI can facilitate collaboration both inside and outside the business by enabling data sharing and electronic data interchange\nKnowledge management is concerned with the creation, distribution, use, and management of business intelligence, and of business knowledge in general. Knowledge management leads to learning management and regulatory compliance.\nMarketplace \nIn a 2013 report, Gartner categorized business intelligence vendors as either an independent \"pure-play\" vendor or a consolidated \"megavendor\".[24][25] In 2012 business intelligence services received $13.1 billion in revenue.[26]\n\nHistorical predictions \nA 2009 paper predicted[27] these developments in the business intelligence market:\n\nBecause of lack of information, processes, and tools, through 2012, more than 35 percent of the top 5,000 global companies regularly fail to make insightful decisions about significant changes in their business and markets.\nBy 2012, business units will control at least 40 percent of the total budget for business intelligence.\nBy 2012, one-third of analytic applications applied to business processes will be delivered through coarse-grained application mashups.\nA 2009 Information Management special report predicted the top BI trends: \"green computing, social networking services, data visualization, mobile BI, predictive analytics, composite applications, cloud computing and multitouch\".[28] Research undertaken in 2014 indicated that employees are more likely to have access to, and more likely to engage with, cloud-based BI tools than traditional tools.[29]\nOther business intelligence trends include the following:\n\nThird party SOA-BI products increasingly address ETL issues of volume and throughput.\nCompanies embrace in-memory processing, 64-bit processing, and pre-packaged analytic BI applications.\nOperational applications have callable BI components, with improvements in response time, scaling, and concurrency.\nNear or real time BI analytics is a baseline expectation.\nOpen source BI software replaces vendor offerings.\nOther lines of research include the combined study of business intelligence and uncertain data.[30][31] In this context, the data used is not assumed to be precise, accurate and complete. Instead, data is considered uncertain and therefore this uncertainty is propagated to the results produced by BI.\nAccording to a study by the Aberdeen Group, there has been increasing interest in Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) business intelligence over the past years, with twice as many organizations using this deployment approach as one year ago \u2013 15% in 2009 compared to 7% in 2008.[32]\nAn article by InfoWorld's Chris Kanaracus points out similar growth data from research firm IDC, which predicts the SaaS BI market will grow 22 percent each year through 2013 thanks to increased product sophistication, strained IT budgets, and other factors.[33]\nAn analysis of top 100 Business Intelligence and Analytics scores and ranks the firms based on several open variables[34]\n\nSee also \n\n\n Business and economics portal \n\nAccounting intelligence\nAnalytic applications\nArtificial intelligence marketing\nBusiness activity monitoring\nBusiness Intelligence 2.0\nBusiness intelligence software\nBusiness process discovery\nBusiness process management\nCustomer dynamics\nDecision engineering\nEnterprise planning systems\nIntegrated business planning\nManagement information system\nMobile business intelligence\nOperational intelligence\nProcess mining\nReal-time business intelligence\nSales intelligence\nTest and learn\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ Dedi\u0107 N. & Stanier C. (2016). \"Measuring the Success of Changes to Existing Business Intelligence Solutions to Improve Business Intelligence Reporting\" (PDF) . Measuring the Success of Changes to Existing Business Intelligence Solutions to Improve Business Intelligence Reporting. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing. 268. Springer International Publishing. pp. 225\u2013236. doi:10.1007\/978-3-319-49944-4_17. ISBN 978-3-319-49943-7. \n\n^ (Rud, Olivia (2009). Business Intelligence Success Factors: Tools for Aligning Your Business in the Global Economy. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-39240-9. ) \n\n^ Coker, Frank (2014). Pulse: Understanding the Vital Signs of Your Business. Ambient Light Publishing. pp. 41\u201342. ISBN 978-0-9893086-0-1. \n\n^ \nChugh, R & Grandhi, S 2013, \u2018Why Business Intelligence? Significance of Business Intelligence tools and integrating BI governance with corporate governance\u2019, International Journal of E-Entrepreneurship and Innovation, vol. 4, no.2, pp. 1-14. https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/273861123_Why_Business_Intelligence_Significance_of_Business_Intelligence_Tools_and_Integrating_BI_Governance_with_Corporate_Governance \n\n^ \nGolden, Bernard (2013). Amazon Web Services For Dummies. For dummies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 234. ISBN 9781118652268. Retrieved 2014-07-06 . [...] traditional business intelligence or data warehousing tools (the terms are used so interchangeably that they're often referred to as BI\/DW) are extremely expensive [...] \n\n^ Miller Devens, Richard (1865). Cyclopaedia of Commercial and Business Anecdotes; Comprising Interesting Reminiscences and Facts, Remarkable Traits and Humors of Merchants, Traders, Bankers Etc. in All Ages and Countries. D. Appleton and company. p. 210. Retrieved 15 February 2014 . \n\n^ \nH P Luhn (1958). \"A Business Intelligence System\" (PDF) . IBM Journal. 2 (4): 314\u2013319. doi:10.1147\/rd.24.0314. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-09-13. \n\n^ D. J. Power (10 March 2007). \"A Brief History of Decision Support Systems, version 4.0\". DSSResources.COM. Retrieved 10 July 2008 . \n\n^ Power, D. J. \"A Brief History of Decision Support Systems\". Retrieved 1 November 2010 . \n\n^ \"Decoding big data buzzwords\". cio.com. 2015. BI refers to the approaches, tools, mechanisms that organizations can use to keep a finger on the pulse of their businesses. Also referred by unsexy versions -- \u201cdashboarding\u201d, \u201cMIS\u201d or \u201creporting.\u201d \n\n^ Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg (21 November 2008). \"Topic Overview: Business Intelligence\". \n\n^ Evelson, Boris (21 November 2008). \"Topic Overview: Business Intelligence\". \n\n^ Evelson, Boris (29 April 2010). \"Want to know what Forrester's lead data analysts are thinking about BI and the data domain?\". \n\n^ Kobielus, James (30 April 2010). \"What's Not BI? Oh, Don't Get Me Started....Oops Too Late...Here Goes...\" \u201cBusiness\u201d intelligence is a non-domain-specific catchall for all the types of analytic data that can be delivered to users in reports, dashboards, and the like. When you specify the subject domain for this intelligence, then you can refer to \u201ccompetitive intelligence,\u201d \u201cmarket intelligence,\u201d \u201csocial intelligence,\u201d \u201cfinancial intelligence,\u201d \u201cHR intelligence,\u201d \u201csupply chain intelligence,\u201d and the like. \n\n^ \"Business Analytics vs Business Intelligence?\". timoelliott.com. 2011-03-09. Retrieved 2014-06-15 . \n\n^ Henschen, Doug (4 January 2010). \"Analytics at Work: Q&A with Tom Davenport\" (Interview). \n\n^ a b c Rao, R. (2003). \"From unstructured data to actionable intelligence\" (PDF) . IT Professional. 5 (6): 29\u201335. doi:10.1109\/MITP.2003.1254966. \n\n^ a b c Blumberg, R. & S. Atre (2003). \"The Problem with Unstructured Data\" (PDF) . DM Review: 42\u201346. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2011. \n\n^ a b Negash, S (2004). \"Business Intelligence\" (PDF) . Communications of the Association of Information Systems. 13: 177\u2013195. doi:10.17705\/1CAIS.01315. \n\n^ Inmon, W.H. (25 July 2014). \"Untangling the Definition of Unstructured Data\". Big Data & Analytics Hub. IBM. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ Xing, F. Z.; Cambria, E.; Welsch, R. E. (2018). \"Natural language based financial forecasting: a survey\" (PDF) . Artificial Intelligence Review. 50 (1): 49\u201373. doi:10.1007\/s10462-017-9588-9. \n\n^ a b Inmon, B. & A. Nesavich, \"Unstructured Textual Data in the Organization\" from \"Managing Unstructured data in the organization\", Prentice Hall 2008, pp. 1\u201313 \n\n^ Feldman, D.; Himmelstein, J. (2013). Developing Business Intelligence Apps for SharePoint. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp. 140\u20131. ISBN 9781449324681. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Andrew Brust (2013-02-14). \"Gartner releases 2013 BI Magic Quadrant\". ZDNet. Retrieved 21 August 2013 . \n\n^ Pendse, Nigel (7 March 2008). \"Consolidations in the BI industry\". The OLAP Report. \n\n^ \"Gartner Says Worldwide Business Intelligence, CPM and Analytic Applications\/Performance Management Software Market Grew Seven Percent in 2012\". Gartner.com. Retrieved 11 May 2017 . \n\n^ Gartner Reveals Five Business Intelligence Predictions for 2009 and Beyond. gartner.com. 15 January 2009 \n\n^ Campbell, Don (23 June 2009). \"10 Red Hot BI Trends\". Information Management. \n\n^ Lock, Michael (27 March 2014). \"Cloud Analytics in 2014: Infusing the Workforce with Insight\". \n\n^ Rodriguez, Carlos; Daniel, Florian; Casati, Fabio; Cappiello, Cinzia (2010). \"Toward Uncertain Business Intelligence: The Case of Key Indicators\". IEEE Internet Computing. 14 (4): 32. doi:10.1109\/MIC.2010.59. \n\n^ Rodriguez, C.; Daniel, F.; Casati, F. & Cappiello, C. (2009), Computing Uncertain Key Indicators from Uncertain Data (PDF) , pp. 106\u2013120 \n\n^ Julian, Taylor (10 January 2010). \"Business intelligence implementation according to customer's needs\". APRO Software. Retrieved 16 May 2016 . \n\n^ SaaS BI growth will soar in 2010 | Cloud Computing. InfoWorld (2010-02-01). Retrieved 17 January 2012. \n\n^ \"Top 100 analytics companies ranked and scored by Mattermark - Business Intelligence - Dashboards - Big Data\". \n\n\nBibliography \nRalph Kimball et al. \"The Data warehouse Lifecycle Toolkit\" (2nd ed.) Wiley ISBN 0-470-47957-4\nPeter Rausch, Alaa Sheta, Aladdin Ayesh : Business Intelligence and Performance Management: Theory, Systems, and Industrial Applications, Springer Verlag U.K., 2013, ISBN 978-1-4471-4865-4.\nMunoz, J.M. (2017). Global Business Intelligence. Routledge : UK. ISBN 978-1-1382-03686\nExternal links \n\n\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Business intelligence.\nChaudhuri, Surajit; Dayal, Umeshwar; Narasayya, Vivek (August 2011). \"An Overview Of Business Intelligence Technology\". Communications of the ACM. 54 (8): 88\u201398. doi:10.1145\/1978542.1978562. Retrieved 26 October 2011 . \nvteData warehousesCreating a data warehouseConcepts\nDatabase\nDimension\nDimensional modeling\nFact\nOLAP\nStar schema\nSnowflake schema\nReverse star schema\nAggregate\nVariants\nAnchor Modeling\nColumn-oriented DBMS\nData vault modeling\nHOLAP\nMOLAP\nROLAP\nOperational data store\nElements\nData dictionary\/Metadata\nData mart\nSixth normal form\nSurrogate key\nFact\nFact table\nEarly-arriving fact\nMeasure\nDimension\nDimension table\nDegenerate\nSlowly changing\nFilling\nExtract-Transform-Load (ETL)\nExtract\nTransform\nLoad\nUsing a data warehouseConcepts\nBusiness intelligence\nDashboard\nData mining\nDecision support system (DSS)\nOLAP cube\nData warehouse automation\nLanguages\nData Mining Extensions (DMX)\nMultiDimensional eXpressions (MDX)\nXML for Analysis (XMLA)\nTools\nBusiness intelligence software\nReporting software\nSpreadsheet\nRelatedPeople\nBill Inmon\nRalph Kimball\nProducts\nComparison of OLAP Servers\nData warehousing products and their producers\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Business_intelligence\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Business_intelligence<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain 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\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 8 May 2018, at 21:48.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 779 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Business_intelligence skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Business intelligence<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n\n<p><b>Business intelligence<\/b> (<b>BI<\/b>) comprises the strategies and technologies used by enterprises for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe81497dd8621498e1de0a68d203fd37\">data analysis<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_information\" title=\"Business information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48785a84955b0db9d17b4b6daf6e200b\">business information<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> BI technologies provide historical, current and predictive views of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_operations\" title=\"Business operations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10b0026fca0fdf11097d747e35692d21\">business operations<\/a>. Common functions of business intelligence technologies include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_reporting\" title=\"Business reporting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32b9f34fbea242c24d947ddf5f9a6883\">reporting<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online_analytical_processing\" title=\"Online analytical processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b00f448abfb4948e1eae84c222e6f3b5\">online analytical processing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytics\" title=\"Analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a9e129b74020e51d9761f09f2d4652\">analytics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_mining\" title=\"Process mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d79e4c479ad793a0fed95c8594b6324\">process mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Complex_event_processing\" title=\"Complex event processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"096fc7cb579e5c5a61b4e154f6d601c6\">complex event processing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_performance_management\" title=\"Business performance management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd7d24521aa51615f27653d8e6d6162e\">business performance management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benchmarking\" title=\"Benchmarking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d327f3b302c8266cc52fa904e34fbd3\">benchmarking<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Text_mining\" title=\"Text mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"399bb009dd237bfe29b2ab9413a97271\">text mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_Analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Predictive Analysis\" data-key=\"24d0913882e239947bcd04deeba26144\">predictive analytics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prescriptive_Analytics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Prescriptive Analytics\" data-key=\"7a7ee6578e8553b00d9b1c111db44aff\">prescriptive analytics<\/a>. BI technologies can handle large amounts of structured and sometimes unstructured data to help identify, develop and otherwise create new strategic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_opportunities\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business opportunities\" data-key=\"bea909cb372c24d4fa9430a360439d62\">business opportunities<\/a>. They aim to allow for the easy interpretation of these <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_data\" title=\"Big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e130d519686c4edbc43ee36a686a3d0a\">big data<\/a>. Identifying new opportunities and implementing an effective strategy based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insight\" title=\"Insight\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"371fd01630dd88e54cf8d866e5061b6a\">insights<\/a> can provide <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business\" title=\"Business\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff1d01a96ae3a445e4fff761412471b\">businesses<\/a> with a competitive market advantage and long-term stability.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Business intelligence can be used by enterprises to support a wide range of business decisions ranging from operational to strategic. Basic operating decisions include product positioning or pricing. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_strategy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business strategy\" data-key=\"00f326653ec9eea722639c219c2d4a8b\">Strategic business<\/a> decisions involve priorities, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Goal\" title=\"Goal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cade209af13a65801550217c0067da2f\">goals<\/a> and directions at the broadest level. In all cases, BI is most effective when it combines data derived from the market in which a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Company\" title=\"Company\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20ca3ac4f7a819edb106414900801ad6\">company<\/a> operates (external data) with data from company sources internal to the business such as financial and operations data (internal data). When combined, external and internal data can provide a complete picture which, in effect, creates an \"intelligence\" that cannot be derived from any singular set of data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Amongst myriad uses, business intelligence tools <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Empowerment\" title=\"Empowerment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3aa715cd18a8c75cd691a4a3272df33e\">empower<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organization\" title=\"Organization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3f46954c79f7a1fafc5e803bd654e8\">organizations<\/a> to gain insight into new markets, to assess demand and suitability of products and services for different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Market_segmentation\" title=\"Market segmentation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be990667842ec74387ea8fcc98108743\">market segments<\/a> and to gauge the impact of marketing efforts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Often<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style\/Dates_and_numbers\" title=\"Wikipedia:Manual of Style\/Dates and numbers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"862994f8a2a237da97b6c618964283dd\"><span title=\"This term requires quantification. (April 2017)\">quantify<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> BI applications use data gathered from a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0ea3ce49e6688a8ec1616b9f0927fea\">data warehouse<\/a> (DW) or from a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mart\" title=\"Data mart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e44fab70f384c8b8ec7e9184af0c01a1\">data mart<\/a>, and the concepts of BI and DW combine as \"BI\/DW\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>or as \"BIDW\". A data warehouse contains a copy of analytical data that facilitate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_support\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision support\" data-key=\"694ae8d04da17541a55c35877f5fd69c\">decision support<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The earliest known use of the term <i>business intelligence<\/i> is in Richard Millar Devens' <i>Cyclop\u00e6dia of Commercial and Business Anecdotes<\/i> (1865). Devens used the term to describe how the banker <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sir_Henry_Furnese,_1st_Baronet\" title=\"Sir Henry Furnese, 1st Baronet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbabb215cf8343770f5d23e66c5fb901\">Sir Henry Furnese<\/a> gained profit by receiving and acting upon information about his environment, prior to his competitors:\n<\/p>\n<blockquote class=\"templatequote\"><p>Throughout Holland, Flanders, France, and Germany, he maintained a complete and perfect train of business intelligence. The news of the many battles fought was thus received first by him, and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siege_of_Namur_(1695)\" title=\"Siege of Namur (1695)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1959037c896e60482c38b17c8669b495\">fall of Namur<\/a> added to his profits, owing to his early receipt of the news.<\/p><div class=\"templatequotecite\">\u2014 <cite>Devens, p. 210<\/cite><\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>The ability to collect and react accordingly based on the information retrieved, Devens says, is central to business intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Miller_Devens_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Miller_Devens-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>When <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hans_Peter_Luhn\" title=\"Hans Peter Luhn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13b5012ec8ce086134319492ab72b5c5\">Hans Peter Luhn<\/a>, a researcher at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a>, used the term <i>business intelligence<\/i> in an article published in 1958, he employed the <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Webster%27s_Dictionary\" title=\"Webster's Dictionary\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ea1346c9258fae8ee292781ee8f5618\">Webster's Dictionary<\/a><\/i> definition of intelligence: \"the ability to apprehend the interrelationships of presented facts in such a way as to guide action towards a desired goal.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Business intelligence as it is understood today is said to have evolved from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_support_system\" title=\"Decision support system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"440a63a58b5307b2eb863ee65180b6e8\">decision support systems<\/a> (DSS) that began in the 1960s and developed throughout the mid-1980s.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> DSS originated in the computer-aided models created to assist with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_making\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision making\" data-key=\"f7ca18573163d657813ebb8dfb5bff55\">decision making<\/a> and planning.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 1989, Howard Dresner (later a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gartner\" title=\"Gartner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f7668963d7e19c93d13754e7e1b8a52\">Gartner<\/a> analyst) proposed <i>business intelligence<\/i> as an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Umbrella_term\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Umbrella term\" data-key=\"3006b0749c672b5c19088f3cbf9b8c24\">umbrella term<\/a> to describe \"concepts and methods to improve business decision making by using fact-based support systems.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-power_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-power-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> It was not until the late 1990s that this usage was widespread.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Critics<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style\/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions\" title=\"Wikipedia:Manual of Style\/Words to watch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8745c7df01224f3317260ff20085406\"><span title=\"The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (August 2018)\">who?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> see BI merely as an evolution of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_reporting\" title=\"Business reporting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32b9f34fbea242c24d947ddf5f9a6883\">business reporting<\/a> together with the advent of increasingly powerful and easy-to-use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe81497dd8621498e1de0a68d203fd37\">data analysis<\/a> tools. In this respect it has also been criticized<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style\/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions\" title=\"Wikipedia:Manual of Style\/Words to watch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8745c7df01224f3317260ff20085406\"><span title=\"The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (August 2018)\">by whom?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> as a marketing buzzword in the context of the \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_data\" title=\"Big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e130d519686c4edbc43ee36a686a3d0a\">big data<\/a>\" surge.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Definition\">Definition<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>\" According to We define business intelligence (BI) as systems that combine:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Data gathering<\/li>\n<li>Data storage<\/li>\n<li>Knowledge management<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>with analysis to evaluate complex corporate and competitive information for presentation to planners and decision maker, with the objective of improving the timeliness and the quality of the input to the decision process.\" <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>According to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forrester_Research\" title=\"Forrester Research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8157b65f1a139b7c858cb546c588ef45\">Forrester Research<\/a>, business intelligence is \"a set of methodologies, processes, architectures, and technologies that transform raw data into meaningful and useful information used to enable more effective strategic, tactical, and operational insights and decision-making.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Under this definition, business intelligence encompasses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_management\" title=\"Information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6eb7b16b6cf9e903b35914f058a684c1\">information management<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration\" title=\"Data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ef20102ff5fd42522c9e879f31e999e\">data integration<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_quality\" title=\"Data quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8771428f8ff5b31246abf8b197186672\">data quality<\/a>, data warehousing, master-data management, text- and content-analytics, et al.). Therefore, Forrester refers to <i>data preparation<\/i> and <i>data usage<\/i> as two separate but closely linked segments of the business-intelligence architectural stack.\n<\/p><p>Some elements of business intelligence are:<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Multidimensional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aggregate_(data_warehouse)\" title=\"Aggregate (data warehouse)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94f49fe882d8fc03ff6544e894891ba2\">aggregation<\/a> and allocation<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denormalization\" title=\"Denormalization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"729614a765dd22f64aa547b03cc430e2\">Denormalization<\/a>, tagging, and standardization<\/li>\n<li>Realtime reporting with analytical alert<\/li>\n<li>A method of interfacing with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unstructured_data\" title=\"Unstructured data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2cf4a063df1dfbf948f0824b167984c\">unstructured data<\/a> sources<\/li>\n<li>Group consolidation, budgeting and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rolling_forecast\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Rolling forecast\" data-key=\"95b5b0f48c001caf9c3e645a1a153d94\">rolling forecasts<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_inference\" title=\"Statistical inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"531cc2121dc07b12e1541c66cca17129\">Statistical inference<\/a> and probabilistic simulation<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_performance_indicator\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Key performance indicator\" data-key=\"0323fbb04e5067eb701468735626f723\">Key performance indicators<\/a> optimization<\/li>\n<li>Version control and process management<\/li>\n<li>Open item management<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Forrester distinguishes this from the <i>business-intelligence market<\/i>, which is \"just the top layers of the BI architectural stack, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_reporting\" title=\"Data reporting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5fe485ef0e846bfdb5536c95940c3c6d\">reporting<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytics\" title=\"Analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a9e129b74020e51d9761f09f2d4652\">analytics<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dashboards_(management_information_systems)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dashboards (management information systems)\" data-key=\"78753250e5df4fec1ba60c794bb0075c\">dashboards<\/a>.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Compared_with_competitive_intelligence\">Compared with competitive intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Though the term business intelligence is sometimes a synonym for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Competitive_intelligence\" title=\"Competitive intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd07fcbfff536086a937b143a8201b63\">competitive intelligence<\/a> (because they both support <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_making\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision making\" data-key=\"f7ca18573163d657813ebb8dfb5bff55\">decision making<\/a>), BI uses technologies, processes, and applications to analyze mostly internal, structured data and business processes while competitive intelligence gathers, analyzes and disseminates information with a topical focus on company competitors. If understood broadly, business intelligence can include the subset of competitive intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Compared_with_business_analytics\">Compared with business analytics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Business intelligence and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_analytics\" title=\"Business analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3cbca9e82643b08a950869d4c295b83\">business analytics<\/a> are sometimes used interchangeably, but there are alternate definitions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thomas_H._Davenport\" title=\"Thomas H. Davenport\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1dfb6bfe96fc39cd9e77bc48680f03b2\">Thomas Davenport<\/a>, professor of information technology and management at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Babson_College\" title=\"Babson College\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98e06503c15f5a136b6667dc9b113c4f\">Babson College<\/a> argues that business intelligence should be divided into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_retrieval\" title=\"Information retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0faaa582e57a2d62bc65c5c191a810c0\">querying<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_reporting\" title=\"Business reporting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32b9f34fbea242c24d947ddf5f9a6883\">reporting<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online_analytical_processing\" title=\"Online analytical processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b00f448abfb4948e1eae84c222e6f3b5\">Online analytical processing<\/a> (OLAP), an \"alerts\" tool, and business analytics. In this definition, business analytics is the subset of BI focusing on statistics, prediction, and optimization, rather than the reporting functionality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data\">Data<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Business operations can generate a very large amount of information in the form of e-mails, memos, notes from call-centers, news, user groups, chats, reports, web-pages, presentations, image-files, video-files, and marketing material. According to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Merrill_Lynch\" title=\"Merrill Lynch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b9e01b70c99eda64f79848a2c4670bf\">Merrill Lynch<\/a>, more than 85% of all business information exists in these forms; a company might only use such a document a single time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-rao_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-rao-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> Because of the way it is produced and stored, this information is either <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unstructured_data\" title=\"Unstructured data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2cf4a063df1dfbf948f0824b167984c\">unstructured<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semi-structured_data\" title=\"Semi-structured data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c46fb42c07af2ca627bdb26158034d5\">semi-structured<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The management of semi-structured data is an unsolved problem in the information technology industry.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-blumberg_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-blumberg-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> According to projections from Gartner (2003), white collar workers spend 30\u201340% of their time searching, finding, and assessing unstructured data. BI uses both structured and unstructured data. The former is easy to search, and the latter contains a large quantity of the information needed for analysis and decision making.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-blumberg_18-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-blumberg-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-negash_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-negash-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> Because of the difficulty of properly searching, finding and assessing unstructured or semi-structured data, organizations may not draw upon these vast reservoirs of information, which could influence a particular decision, task or project. This can ultimately lead to poorly informed decision making.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-rao_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-rao-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Therefore, when designing a business intelligence\/DW-solution, the specific problems associated with semi-structured and unstructured data must be accommodated for as well as those for the structured data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-negash_19-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-negash-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Unstructured_data_vs._semi-structured_data\">Unstructured data vs. semi-structured data<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Unstructured and semi-structured data have different meanings depending on their context. In the context of relational database systems, unstructured data cannot be stored in predictably ordered <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Columns\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Columns\" data-key=\"ff94b85fe2134f4ca2c1a040f22653d9\">columns<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Row_(database)\" title=\"Row (database)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dadca19df0ef93f8c4f61564f572a14e\">rows<\/a>. One type of unstructured data is typically stored in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BLOB\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"BLOB\" data-key=\"9bc5c8a43b893236d8b6c9a063159fcb\">BLOB<\/a> (binary large object), a catch-all data type available in most <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relational_database\" title=\"Relational database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86b6b5174c671988f4e5dba65702a9c0\">relational database<\/a> management systems. Unstructured data may also refer to irregularly or randomly repeated column patterns that vary from row to row<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-InmonUntang14_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-InmonUntang14-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> or files of natural language that do not have detailed metadata<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>.\n<\/p><p>Many of these data types, however, like e-mails, word processing text files, PPTs, image-files, and video-files conform to a standard that offers the possibility of metadata. Metadata can include information such as author and time of creation, and this can be stored in a relational database.\n<p>Therefore, it may be more accurate to talk about this as semi-structured documents or data,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-blumberg_18-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-blumberg-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> but no specific consensus seems to have been reached.\n<\/p>\n<\/p><p>Unstructured data can also simply be the knowledge that business users have about future business trends. Business forecasting naturally aligns with the BI system because business users think of their business in aggregate terms. Capturing the business knowledge that may only exist in the minds of business users provides some of the most important data points for a complete BI solution.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Limitations_of_semi-structured_and_unstructured_data\">Limitations of semi-structured and unstructured data<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There are several challenges to developing BI with semi-structured data. According to Inmon & Nesavich,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-inmon_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-inmon-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> some of those are:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Physically accessing unstructured textual data \u2013 unstructured data is stored in a huge variety of formats.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Terminology\" title=\"Terminology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19cecf4f0cfdd74bb1468cd640c76963\">Terminology<\/a> \u2013 Among researchers and analysts, there is a need to develop a standardized terminology.<\/li>\n<li>Volume of data \u2013 As stated earlier, up to 85% of all data exists as semi-structured data. Couple that with the need for word-to-word and semantic analysis.<\/li>\n<li>Searchability of unstructured textual data \u2013 A simple search on some data, e.g. apple, results in links where there is a reference to that precise search term. (Inmon & Nesavich, 2008)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-inmon_22-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-inmon-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> gives an example: \u201ca search is made on the term felony. In a simple search, the term felony is used, and everywhere there is a reference to felony, a hit to an unstructured document is made. But a simple search is crude. It does not find references to crime, arson, murder, embezzlement, vehicular homicide, and such, even though these crimes are types of felonies.\u201d<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Metadata\">Metadata<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>To solve problems with searchability and assessment of data, it is necessary to know something about the content. This can be done by adding context through the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">metadata<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-rao_17-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-rao-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> Many systems already capture some metadata (e.g. filename, author, size, etc.), but more useful would be metadata about the actual content \u2013 e.g. summaries, topics, people or companies mentioned. Two technologies designed for generating metadata about content are automatic categorization and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_extraction\" title=\"Information extraction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d8bd74625d817b2052a2a36d5529463\">information extraction<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications\">Applications<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Business intelligence can be applied to the following business purposes:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FeldmanDeveloping13_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FeldmanDeveloping13-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Performance_metrics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Performance metrics\" data-key=\"7f2e023783fc6f7fae9e9e507205e4ab\">Performance metrics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benchmarking\" title=\"Benchmarking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d327f3b302c8266cc52fa904e34fbd3\">benchmarking<\/a> inform business leaders of progress towards business goals (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">business process management<\/a>).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytics\" title=\"Analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a9e129b74020e51d9761f09f2d4652\">Analytics<\/a> quantify processes for a business to arrive at optimal decisions, and to perform business knowledge discovery. Analytics may variously involve <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_mining\" title=\"Process mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d79e4c479ad793a0fed95c8594b6324\">process mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Statistical analysis\" data-key=\"aa326396a3ec131f22db89698617d998\">statistical analysis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_analytics\" title=\"Predictive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34f7137f13e40b2fa7b28c33330ba3ab\">predictive analytics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_modeling\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Predictive modeling\" data-key=\"7b5a8612567538244b872ef348528e1b\">predictive modeling<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_modeling\" title=\"Business process modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9715c2f913e0cf460e06594cdf1926de\">business process modeling<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_lineage\" title=\"Data lineage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ef39b5373e3072b9ad8dd7dc83ca6b1\">data lineage<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Complex_event_processing\" title=\"Complex event processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"096fc7cb579e5c5a61b4e154f6d601c6\">complex event processing<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prescriptive_analytics\" title=\"Prescriptive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"763411f4e713183f8ff5cfce937d1b09\">prescriptive analytics<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_reporting\" title=\"Business reporting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32b9f34fbea242c24d947ddf5f9a6883\">Business reporting<\/a> can use BI data to inform strategy. Business reporting may involve <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_visualization\" title=\"Data visualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5477909db13f678e8054bd9dae16a17\">data visualization<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Executive_information_system\" title=\"Executive information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7cf335403e62190ebdbce0b471087d13\">executive information system<\/a>, and\/or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OLAP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OLAP\" data-key=\"7ef77274d45ffa04bfe244fad9fac81d\">OLAP<\/a><\/li>\n<li>BI can facilitate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Collaboration\" title=\"Collaboration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2a65b2b5b813ba8318884dbfffdb09a\">collaboration<\/a> both inside and outside the business by enabling <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_sharing\" title=\"Data sharing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9135f52ddf866316b15abc79a83047f1\">data sharing<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_data_interchange\" title=\"Electronic data interchange\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08606d658cb8079277aacc5938326c04\">electronic data interchange<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">Knowledge management<\/a> is concerned with the creation, distribution, use, and management of business intelligence, and of business knowledge in general. Knowledge management leads to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Learning_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Learning management\" data-key=\"a65fb90655f39d6592e7b85f0d5a6436\">learning management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"Regulatory compliance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ca6bf47b29b4fa458d97db174b6cb0f\">regulatory compliance<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Marketplace\">Marketplace<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In a 2013 report, Gartner categorized business intelligence vendors as either an independent \"pure-play\" vendor or a consolidated \"megavendor\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> In 2012 business intelligence services received $13.1 billion in revenue.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Historical_predictions\">Historical predictions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A 2009 paper predicted<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> these developments in the business intelligence market:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Because of lack of information, processes, and tools, through 2012, more than 35 percent of the top 5,000 global companies regularly fail to make insightful decisions about significant changes in their business and markets.<\/li>\n<li>By 2012, business units will control at least 40 percent of the total budget for business intelligence.<\/li>\n<li>By 2012, one-third of analytic applications applied to business processes will be delivered through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Granularity\" title=\"Granularity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"830d796245dac9b0bd0c97a9f9afdd63\">coarse-grained<\/a> application <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)\" title=\"Mashup (web application hybrid)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a67e37a3d7b9ff9e5b5514be24ed479\">mashups<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>A 2009 <i>Information Management<\/i> special report predicted the top BI trends: \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Green_computing\" title=\"Green computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93adc2c28b330625234da7a3859318e5\">green computing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_networking_service\" title=\"Social networking service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85bf74e31808d6c6d4a202089bf28318\">social networking services<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_visualization\" title=\"Data visualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5477909db13f678e8054bd9dae16a17\">data visualization<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_business_intelligence\" title=\"Mobile business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"946835dddb2054c05ff13c1a94db7cff\">mobile BI<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_analytics\" title=\"Predictive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34f7137f13e40b2fa7b28c33330ba3ab\">predictive analytics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Composite_application\" title=\"Composite application\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"080508dd6c7edaffcc1823d3093d632b\">composite applications<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b28cb3c1977d5c04401506e9b991f1\">cloud computing<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multi-touch\" title=\"Multi-touch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db6f20d90d6b1edaa5b3378ad60b7c53\">multitouch<\/a>\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> Research undertaken in 2014 indicated that employees are more likely to have access to, and more likely to engage with, cloud-based BI tools than traditional tools.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other business intelligence trends include the following:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Third party SOA-BI products increasingly address <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extract,_transform,_load\" title=\"Extract, transform, load\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1dd08fd33b5feacc8f3e7d140a4ab5d7\">ETL<\/a> issues of volume and throughput.<\/li>\n<li>Companies embrace in-memory processing, 64-bit processing, and pre-packaged analytic BI applications.<\/li>\n<li>Operational applications have callable BI components, with improvements in response time, scaling, and concurrency.<\/li>\n<li>Near or real time BI analytics is a baseline expectation.<\/li>\n<li>Open source BI software replaces vendor offerings.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Other lines of research include the combined study of business intelligence and uncertain data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> In this context, the data used is not assumed to be precise, accurate and complete. Instead, data is considered uncertain and therefore this uncertainty is propagated to the results produced by BI.\n<\/p><p>According to a study by the Aberdeen Group, there has been increasing interest in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software-as-a-Service\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software-as-a-Service\" data-key=\"fa03b29bfa4287e9dbd8e884dd6d1e2b\">Software-as-a-Service<\/a> (SaaS) business intelligence over the past years, with twice as many organizations using this deployment approach as one year ago \u2013 15% in 2009 compared to 7% in 2008.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An article by InfoWorld's Chris Kanaracus points out similar growth data from research firm IDC, which predicts the SaaS BI market will grow 22 percent each year through 2013 thanks to increased product sophistication, strained IT budgets, and other factors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An analysis of top 100 Business Intelligence and Analytics scores and ranks the firms based on several open variables<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"navigation\" aria-label=\"Portals\" class=\"noprint portal plainlist tright\" style=\"margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px\">\n<ul style=\"display:table;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0.1em;max-width:175px;background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold\">\n<li style=\"display:table-row\"><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Emblem-money.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"87e4f8836da015ec09e06d70cff4e6ff\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f3\/Emblem-money.svg\/28px-Emblem-money.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"28\" height=\"28\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/a><\/span><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Business_and_economics\" title=\"Portal:Business and economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5b83f67019c68131b6c53d6fff7fa63\">Business and economics portal<\/a><\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accounting_intelligence\" title=\"Accounting intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9efed56e1771d72becb6093f09db10f2\">Accounting intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytic_applications\" title=\"Analytic applications\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"642fcffedf878ebcac005ca9ced277e8\">Analytic applications<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_marketing\" title=\"Artificial intelligence marketing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7e8d15bddb61cf287a1794cee66196bc\">Artificial intelligence marketing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_activity_monitoring\" title=\"Business activity monitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9389d85c833621df19e1a6f00cbdf740\">Business activity monitoring<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_Intelligence_2.0\" title=\"Business Intelligence 2.0\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f9ae4dd4692d1c5fc179da68c2cbe92\">Business Intelligence 2.0<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence_software\" title=\"Business intelligence software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8438769893c31986418c4042b6372f8e\">Business intelligence software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_discovery\" title=\"Business process discovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"06c71400f7320c0ef6ed62fa17b09ca1\">Business process discovery<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">Business process management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_dynamics\" title=\"Customer dynamics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"252a86e69633fbcddb960eea7a161ec5\">Customer dynamics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_engineering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision engineering\" data-key=\"3c83a78bbac9cfe7ed76976fe07eb84a\">Decision engineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_planning_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Enterprise planning systems\" data-key=\"1ec62fd77f69c442f6adb7b0fa087e08\">Enterprise planning systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integrated_business_planning\" title=\"Integrated business planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d8a292d87ebd37a475ed0e781336a12\">Integrated business planning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Management_information_system\" title=\"Management information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a92a2c5b402f28a32fedefc28131a3c\">Management information system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_business_intelligence\" title=\"Mobile business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"946835dddb2054c05ff13c1a94db7cff\">Mobile business intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_intelligence\" title=\"Operational intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ac0bb695bc2ac1fcea26ed5de2702ef\">Operational intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_mining\" title=\"Process mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d79e4c479ad793a0fed95c8594b6324\">Process mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Real-time_business_intelligence\" title=\"Real-time business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95316461e584d8b677c6eee88710b73a\">Real-time business intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sales_intelligence\" title=\"Sales intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b404b4f58bb20b347211d150aa0a96ff\">Sales intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test_and_learn\" title=\"Test and learn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09a1f3e928a663ac3b1a638922025523\">Test and learn<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Dedi\u0107 N. & Stanier C. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hal.inria.fr\/hal-01630541\/file\/432749_1_En_17_Chapter.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Measuring the Success of Changes to Existing Business Intelligence Solutions to Improve Business Intelligence Reporting\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Measuring the Success of Changes to Existing Business Intelligence Solutions to Improve Business Intelligence Reporting. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing<\/i>. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing. <b>268<\/b>. Springer International Publishing. pp. 225\u2013236. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-319-49944-4_17\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-319-49944-4_17<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-3-319-49943-7.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Measuring+the+Success+of+Changes+to+Existing+Business+Intelligence+Solutions+to+Improve+Business+Intelligence+Reporting&rft.btitle=Measuring+the+Success+of+Changes+to+Existing+Business+Intelligence+Solutions+to+Improve+Business+Intelligence+Reporting.+Lecture+Notes+in+Business+Information+Processing&rft.series=Lecture+Notes+in+Business+Information+Processing&rft.pages=225-236&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-49944-4_17&rft.isbn=978-3-319-49943-7&rft.au=Dedi%C4%87+N.+%26+Stanier+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.inria.fr%2Fhal-01630541%2Ffile%2F432749_1_En_17_Chapter.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span style=\"position:relative; top: -2px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paywall\" title=\"closed access publication \u2013 behind paywall\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8d57fdef6ff47e6ad6f709656587346\"><img alt=\"closed access\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c1\/Closed_Access_logo_alternative.svg\/9px-Closed_Access_logo_alternative.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"9\" height=\"14\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">(<cite class=\"citation book\">Rud, Olivia (2009). <i>Business Intelligence Success Factors: Tools for Aligning Your Business in the Global Economy<\/i>. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley & Sons. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-470-39240-9.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Business+Intelligence+Success+Factors%3A+Tools+for+Aligning+Your+Business+in+the+Global+Economy&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+N.J&rft.pub=Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-470-39240-9&rft.aulast=Rud&rft.aufirst=Olivia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Coker, Frank (2014). <i>Pulse: Understanding the Vital Signs of Your Business<\/i>. Ambient Light Publishing. pp. 41\u201342. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-9893086-0-1.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pulse%3A+Understanding+the+Vital+Signs+of+Your+Business&rft.pages=41-42&rft.pub=Ambient+Light+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-9893086-0-1&rft.aulast=Coker&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nChugh, R & Grandhi, S 2013, \u2018Why Business Intelligence? Significance of Business Intelligence tools and integrating BI governance with corporate governance\u2019, International Journal of E-Entrepreneurship and Innovation, vol. 4, no.2, pp. 1-14. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/273861123_Why_Business_Intelligence_Significance_of_Business_Intelligence_Tools_and_Integrating_BI_Governance_with_Corporate_Governance\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/273861123_Why_Business_Intelligence_Significance_of_Business_Intelligence_Tools_and_Integrating_BI_Governance_with_Corporate_Governance<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation book\">Golden, Bernard (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=xSVwAAAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Amazon Web Services For Dummies<\/i><\/a>. For dummies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 234. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781118652268<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-07-06<\/span><\/span>. <q>[...] traditional business intelligence or data warehousing tools (the terms are used so interchangeably that they're often referred to as BI\/DW) are extremely expensive [...]<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Amazon+Web+Services+For+Dummies&rft.series=For+dummies&rft.pages=234&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781118652268&rft.aulast=Golden&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxSVwAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Miller_Devens-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Miller_Devens_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Miller Devens, Richard (1865). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#v=onepage&q=%22business%20intelligence%22&f=false\"><i>Cyclopaedia of Commercial and Business Anecdotes; Comprising Interesting Reminiscences and Facts, Remarkable Traits and Humors of Merchants, Traders, Bankers Etc. in All Ages and Countries<\/i><\/a>. D. Appleton and company. p. 210<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 February<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cyclopaedia+of+Commercial+and+Business+Anecdotes%3B+Comprising+Interesting+Reminiscences+and+Facts%2C+Remarkable+Traits+and+Humors+of+Merchants%2C+Traders%2C+Bankers+Etc.+in+All+Ages+and+Countries&rft.pages=210&rft.pub=D.+Appleton+and+company&rft.date=1865&rft.aulast=Miller+Devens&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D9MspAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA210%26dq%3D%2522business%2Bintelligence%2522%23v%3Donepage%26q%3D%2522business%2520intelligence%2522%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation journal\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hans_Peter_Luhn\" title=\"Hans Peter Luhn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13b5012ec8ce086134319492ab72b5c5\">H P Luhn<\/a> (1958). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080913121526\/http:\/\/www.research.ibm.com\/journal\/rd\/024\/ibmrd0204H.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Business Intelligence System\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IBM Journal<\/i>. <b>2<\/b> (4): 314\u2013319. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1147%2Frd.24.0314\" target=\"_blank\">10.1147\/rd.24.0314<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.research.ibm.com\/journal\/rd\/024\/ibmrd0204H.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 2008-09-13.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IBM+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Business+Intelligence+System&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=314-319&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1147%2Frd.24.0314&rft.au=H+P+Luhn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.research.ibm.com%2Fjournal%2Frd%2F024%2Fibmrd0204H.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-power-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-power_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">D. J. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 July<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Decision+Support+Systems%2C+version+4.0&rft.pub=DSSResources.COM&rft.date=2007-03-10&rft.au=D.+J.+Power&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdssresources.com%2Fhistory%2Fdsshistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Power, D. J. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dssresources.com\/history\/dsshistory.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Brief History of Decision Support Systems\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 November<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Decision+Support+Systems&rft.aulast=Power&rft.aufirst=D.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdssresources.com%2Fhistory%2Fdsshistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cio.com\/article\/2919082\/big-data\/what-are-they-talking-about-decoding-big-data-buzzwords.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Decoding big data buzzwords\"<\/a>. cio.com. 2015. <q>BI refers to the approaches, tools, mechanisms that organizations can use to keep a finger on the pulse of their businesses. Also referred by unsexy versions -- \u201cdashboarding\u201d, \u201cMIS\u201d or \u201creporting.\u201d<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Decoding+big+data+buzzwords&rft.pub=cio.com&rft.date=2015&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cio.com%2Farticle%2F2919082%2Fbig-data%2Fwhat-are-they-talking-about-decoding-big-data-buzzwords.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg (21 November 2008). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#about\">\"Topic Overview: Business Intelligence\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Topic+Overview%3A+Business+Intelligence&rft.date=2008-11-21&rft.aulast=Springer-Verlag+Berlin+Heidelberg&rft.aufirst=Springer-Verlag+Berlin+Heidelberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fbook%2F10.1007%2F978-3-540-48716-6%23about&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Evelson, Boris (21 November 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forrester.com\/report\/Topic+Overview+Business+Intelligence\/-\/E-RES39218\" target=\"_blank\">\"Topic Overview: Business Intelligence\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Topic+Overview%3A+Business+Intelligence&rft.date=2008-11-21&rft.aulast=Evelson&rft.aufirst=Boris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forrester.com%2Freport%2FTopic%2BOverview%2BBusiness%2BIntelligence%2F-%2FE-RES39218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Evelson, Boris (29 April 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blogs.forrester.com\/boris_evelson\/10-04-29-want_know_what_forresters_lead_data_analysts_are_thinking_about_bi_and_data_domain\" target=\"_blank\">\"Want to know what Forrester's lead data analysts are thinking about BI and the data domain?\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Want+to+know+what+Forrester%27s+lead+data+analysts+are+thinking+about+BI+and+the+data+domain%3F&rft.date=2010-04-29&rft.aulast=Evelson&rft.aufirst=Boris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.forrester.com%2Fboris_evelson%2F10-04-29-want_know_what_forresters_lead_data_analysts_are_thinking_about_bi_and_data_domain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Kobielus, James (30 April 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blogs.forrester.com\/james_kobielus\/10-04-30-what%E2%80%99s_not_bi_oh_don%E2%80%99t_get_me_startedoops_too_latehere_goes\" target=\"_blank\">\"What's Not BI? Oh, Don't Get Me Started....Oops Too Late...Here Goes...\"<\/a> <q>\u201cBusiness\u201d intelligence is a non-domain-specific catchall for all the types of analytic data that can be delivered to users in reports, dashboards, and the like. When you specify the subject domain for this intelligence, then you can refer to \u201ccompetitive intelligence,\u201d \u201cmarket intelligence,\u201d \u201csocial intelligence,\u201d \u201cfinancial intelligence,\u201d \u201cHR intelligence,\u201d \u201csupply chain intelligence,\u201d and the like.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What%27s+Not+BI%3F+Oh%2C+Don%27t+Get+Me+Started....Oops+Too+Late...Here+Goes....&rft.date=2010-04-30&rft.aulast=Kobielus&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.forrester.com%2Fjames_kobielus%2F10-04-30-what%25E2%2580%2599s_not_bi_oh_don%25E2%2580%2599t_get_me_startedoops_too_latehere_goes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/timoelliott.com\/blog\/2011\/03\/business-analytics-vs-business-intelligence.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Business Analytics vs Business Intelligence?\"<\/a>. timoelliott.com. 2011-03-09<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sentic.net\/natural-language-based-financial-forecasting.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Natural language based financial forecasting: a survey\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Artificial Intelligence Review<\/i>. <b>50<\/b> (1): 49\u201373. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10462-017-9588-9\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s10462-017-9588-9<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artificial+Intelligence+Review&rft.atitle=Natural+language+based+financial+forecasting%3A+a+survey&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=49-73&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10462-017-9588-9&rft.aulast=Xing&rft.aufirst=F.+Z.&rft.au=Cambria%2C+E.&rft.au=Welsch%2C+R.+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsentic.net%2Fnatural-language-based-financial-forecasting.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-inmon-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-inmon_22-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-inmon_22-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Inmon, B. & A. 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Wiley <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-470-47957-4<\/li>\n<li>Peter Rausch, Alaa Sheta, Aladdin Ayesh : <i>Business Intelligence and Performance Management: Theory, Systems, and Industrial Applications<\/i>, Springer Verlag U.K., 2013, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-4471-4865-4.<\/li>\n<li>Munoz, J.M. (2017). Global Business Intelligence. Routledge : UK. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-1382-03686<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><cite class=\"citation journal\">Chaudhuri, Surajit; Dayal, Umeshwar; Narasayya, Vivek (August 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/cacm.acm.org\/magazines\/2011\/8\/114953-an-overview-of-business-intelligence-technology\/fulltext\" target=\"_blank\">\"An Overview Of Business Intelligence Technology\"<\/a>. <i>Communications of the ACM<\/i>. <b>54<\/b> (8): 88\u201398. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F1978542.1978562\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/1978542.1978562<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 October<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&rft.atitle=An+Overview+Of+Business+Intelligence+Technology&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=88-98&rft.date=2011-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1978542.1978562&rft.aulast=Chaudhuri&rft.aufirst=Surajit&rft.au=Dayal%2C+Umeshwar&rft.au=Narasayya%2C+Vivek&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcacm.acm.org%2Fmagazines%2F2011%2F8%2F114953-an-overview-of-business-intelligence-technology%2Ffulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1320\nCached time: 20190331220406\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.652 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.821 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 3460\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 132784\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 5435\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 6\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 103475\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 2\/400\nLua time usage: 0.326\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6.09 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 698.053 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>42.67% 297.833 1 Template:Reflist\n16.55% 115.551 6 Template:Cite_book\n13.66% 95.351 6 Template:Fix\n 9.36% 65.343 15 Template:Cite_web\n 7.59% 52.979 1 Template:Quantify\n 7.27% 50.780 7 Template:Cite_journal\n 6.82% 47.632 9 Template:Category_handler\n 6.79% 47.426 1 Template:Business_administration\n 6.15% 42.918 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:168387-1!canonical and timestamp 20190331220405 and revision id 888709313\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203019\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.014 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.182 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 173.305 1 - wikipedia:Business_intelligence\n100.00% 173.305 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10561-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203019 and revision id 33194\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Business_intelligence\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Business_intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f3\/Emblem-money.svg\/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f3\/Emblem-money.svg\/56px-Emblem-money.svg.png"],"cb8c6c58a636a17adacd11b7617cba5e_timestamp":1554323419,"85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_type":"article","85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_title":"Laboratory Informatics Software Acquisition and Implementation Considerations","85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations","85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tLII:Laboratory Informatics Software Acquisition and Implementation Considerations\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tContents\n\n1 Starting out \n\n1.1 Features and benefits \n1.2 Budgeting \n1.3 Demonstration and requirements \n\n\n2 Implementation \n\n2.1 Implementation details \n\n\n3 Services \n\n3.1 Hosting \n\n\n4 Maintenance, support, and warranty \n5 Putting it all together \n6 References \n\n\n\nStarting out \nThe two main questions you will need to answer at the outset are:\n\n1. What do I want the laboratory informatics solution to do for me?\n2. What kind of budget do I have?\nAdditionally\u2014and secondarily\u2014you'll want to be sure you can participate in one or more vendor demonstrations and, afterwards, build a requirements list.\n\nFeatures and benefits \nThe answer to the first question is largely the same as most other kinds of labs. The benefits of laboratory informatics software include:\n\n increased accuracy, with a minimization or elimination of transcription and other errors;\n streamlined processes, where each step in a protocol or method is completed in the proper order, with all requirements met, updating statuses automatically;\n automation of integrated instruments, allowing for automatic uploading of samples\/specimens and processing of results;\n regulatory and standards compliance for your procedures helps keep you doing the right things the right ways, while tracking history so you can provide documentation when you need to;\n data security via configurable role-based secure access to data, processes, reporting, etc.;\n custom reporting tools, which allow you to design and generate reports to your own specifications, incorporating exactly the information you want;\n instant data retrieval, allowing you to search and call up any information instantly according to any criteria (date range, test, product type, etc.), particularly useful during audits; and\n cost-effectiveness through improved efficiency and accuracy, which means less waste of time, and if a user-configurable system (as opposed to hard-coded, requiring development for any modifications), its return on investment {ROI) increases over time, due to built-in adaptability and thus longevity.\nBudgeting \nThe second question of budget is more difficult to answer by the fact that laboratory informatics software comes in all kinds of price ranges, from over $1 million all the way down to free. How are you supposed to honestly judge where the appropriate system price for your lab lies?\nThere are some basic realities that can help in figuring an appropriate budget, however.\n\n1. A rough sense of price can generally be based on how much ownership you want in the software itself and how many will be using the laboratory informatics solution.\nOwnership: Buying versus renting: There are two primary ways to price laboratory informatics software: a one-time license fee or a subscription (cloud-hosted software as a service or SaaS ). If you have your own dedicated IT department and staff, you may prefer the former. Otherwise, a SaaS-based subscription may well be the better and more cost-effective way to go (no IT costs at all other than internet access). This item will be part of your up-front cost and, in the case of a subscription, it will also figure in your first year and ongoing costs. A vendor may have a subscription fee of say $500, with the initial month due at signing. However, more often the vendor may require three months or even the first year up front, so be prepared to factor that into up-front costs. However, it still is almost always less expensive at the outset (and over time, if you factor in IT and service costs) than paying for a license fee.\nUser numbers: Named versus concurrent: In addition to the two types of software pricing above, there are pricing sub-types. Generally these are based on the number of users (or, in some cases, \"nodes,\" which are simply any entities that access the software, including other systems, instruments, etc.). How these are counted can vary. They may be counted as \"named\" users, which bases pricing on the actual individual users of the system, even if they may only log in once in awhile. Users typically may not use each other's logins (this is prohibited regardless of pricing structure, for GxP and other standard- and regulatory-based reasons). They may also be counted as \"concurrent\" users, which bases pricing on the maximum number of users who will be logged in at any given time. You can define an unlimited number of named users in the system, each with their own login credentials. However, only the number of (concurrent) users specified in the license\/subscription may be logged in at any one time. For example, you may have 10 staff, but due to work processes, shifts, etc., only up to six might ever be logged in simultaneously. Whereas this would require a named user license for 10, it would only require a concurrent user license for six. Finally, you may have the option for \"unlimited\" users. This may be useful for huge labs (typically 30 to 50 and up), where the license or subscription may simply be a flat fee that allows any number of users.\n2. Most costs are related to work. Try to choose a solution that has what you need out of the box, as much as possible. The more customized or unique options you ask for, the more it costs, because extra items are a function of the time it takes developers to add them.\n3. User-configurable solutions beat vendor-configurable solutions on cost-effectiveness. Many software vendors offer a free or low-cost option, but don't be fooled. They are in business to make money, and they are counting on the fact that you'll need to pay them to make things work, add necessary functionality, support, training, etc. If you can find one who offers a genuinely user-configurable solution, and whose manuals and other support materials are clearly helpful and available so you can adjust things the way you want, when you want, then that will go a long way toward budget efficiency and longevity.\n4. Interfaces cost money. If necessary, consider whether it's feasibly or not to phase in those instrument and other interfaces over time, as revenue eases cash flow. You may be able to go live with your laboratory informatics solution more quickly, entering results manually until you can afford to interface your instruments one-by-one. This goes for reports too. A standard report will do. You can make fancy ones later.\nPricing will vary depending on what kind of solution you need. For example, you'll probably want to budget a minimum of around $40,000 to $80,000 plus or minus, minimum, (including setup, training, interfaces, etc.) for a decent, bang-for-your-buck laboratory information management system (LIMS) with maybe an interface or two, plus an additional $300 to $900 per month (depending on number of users) for ongoing subscriptions. At around five concurrent (logged in at the same time) users, the economics start to favor purchasing perpetual licenses rather than paying subscription. Purchased licenses will also entail ongoing annual or monthly costs as well (maintenance, support, warranty for updates etc.), but somewhere around that number of users it may tend to be cheaper than a subscription option. Subscriptions (if available) are generally aimed at smaller labs. If you will be growing and scaling up, it may be a great way to get started, but ensure you have the option to switch to perpetual licenses later.\n\nDemonstration and requirements \nYou no doubt are quite familiar with all of your lab's or potential lab's processes, but that doesn't mean you necessarily have even an inkling about how exactly a laboratory informatics solution fits into your workflow. That's pretty common, and it's fine. That's what software companies should be able to show you. A good developer already generally understands your kind of lab but will ask you a lot of questions about exactly how you do things. It's the exceptions that need catering to. Doing a live demo (online is actually even better than in-person; it can be recorded so you can review and share it as much as you want) is a great context for exploring how a candidate software solution performs the functions your lab needs. It is interactive and live, so there can be no tricks\u2014you see just how it performs in real time, and you can throw as many intricate scenarios at the developer as you like. The demo experience can go a long way towards giving you a real feel for the software's suitability. Additionally, you can both (laboratory and vendor) gain a budgetary idea of cost based on what you do, what you want the software to do, what it can do, as well as the product and services pricing itself.\nOne note: too often labs think the first thing they must do is create a requirements list, then sit back and let the software vendors tell them how they meet those requirements. As mentioned earlier, even though laboratory personnel understand their lab and its processes, most don't have much of a clue about laboratory informatics and workflow integration. Participating in a a demo before creating the requirements list is a great way to plug in the features you have seen demonstrated to your lab's to your own processes and needs. After all, how can you effectively require specific functions if you don't fully know what a given laboratory informatics tool is capable of? After the demo, you are much more equipped to create a requirements list that becomes the contractual product set and statement\/scope of work (SOW) that represents your laboratory informatics solution.\n\nImplementation \nFeatures, budget, and requirements aside, you'll also want to consider what implementation details will affect your overall bottom line. There are two main keys to successful implementation: having an accurate SOW and high team availability.\n\n1. Accurate SOW: A statement of work or SOW describes the work that will be done by the vendor, including milestones, deliverables, and any other end products and services. It should be absolutely clear in both your and the vendor's minds exactly what the delivered, operational laboratory informatics solution should look like. If possible, ask for a validation script that addresses each function and process. Read through it and make sure you agree with each test, that it is an effective measure of the software function it purports to validate. If not, work with the vendor to modify it to your satisfaction. Remember, vendors are required to meet exactly what the contracted requirements are, no more or no less. The SOW should avoid ambiguity in all cases. If they are worded poorly, the delivered item may not match what you envisioned. This is also where the demo\u2014mentioned previously\u2014comes in handy. If it is documented (e.g., recorded), you can always use language like \"per demo\" or \"as demonstrated in demo\" so there is no question how a feature is supposed to work for you.\n2. High team availability: Make your team available. Far too many laboratory informatics solution implementations drag on way past what is needed simply because the lab doesn't keep up with the process. While regular daily operations consume a lot of time, and it can be very difficult to allocate extra time for bringing on the new software, it's best to just make the time. The initial energy and impetus of the implementation project\u2014which can take as few as a couple of weeks\u2014disappear surprisingly quickly once delays set in. Interest wanders and a once-great initiative becomes a nagging burden. The single greatest thing you can do to avoid this is allocate the right person(s) to focus on successfully getting the system in place on time and on (or under) budget. That means plenty of communication with the vendor's project manager, executing the training and any configuration tasks your lab is responsible for, and signing off when tasks are complete. You may be surprised how often unsuccessful implementations are actually the fault of the customer.\nImplementation details \nThe implementation itself can be quite simple for a pretty standard system. The minimum scenario would be one to five users, no customization, no configurations beyond standard setup (name the lab's location and any departments, add users, lab logo, address, etc. to report, enter contacts), no interfaces and around two hours of training (online, recorded for reference). And if the solution is cloud-hosted, there is no time (i.e., money) wasted in buying and\/or setting up servers, firewalls, etc., so the solution itself can optimistically be in place and running in a day. The rest is up to you; figure something like one to three weeks to go live (a little more if your schedule is tight).\nA larger and\/or more comprehensive implementation can include several components and be rolled out in phases over one to three months or so. In fact, you can be operational manually for as long as you need to be, bringing instrument interfaces in over time as your budget permits, which allows you to begin using the solution earlier. \nAll of the phases and their deliverables have price tags associated with them. Your total cost is a function of the license fee or subscription plus the work the vendor performs. The work they do (and the work you do) is what constitutes the implementation and its phases. They can include (in order):\n\n Project management: The vendor will provide a project manager to coordinate with you and make sure all deliverables are implemented on time and according to the contract. The cost of this is a function of their hours, which begin at the initial meeting (kickoff) and end once your system goes live and all deliverables have been met.\n Kickoff meeting: This is the initial get-together between your project manager and theirs. Review the SOW and the plan to implement it, and clarify resource and time commitments and responsibilities, making sure the schedule works for everybody.\n System installation: If it's to be an onsite installation (discussed later), then your system administrator and the vendor's technical representatives will need to work closely to make sure this is done properly. If the vendor is hosting it for you, the system should be spun up and available for you to log in to within a day or so.\n Gap analysis: This is the identification or verification of the gap between the system as installed and the system as fully functional according to the contract. There should not be any surprises here. If there are (and not good ones), the vendor should rectify them speedily and at no extra charge.\n Work plan (system acceptance test plan): This is the deliverable that spells out essentially what was discussed in the kickoff, with the gap analysis factored in. It's what will be worked towards in order to get to a fully functional, contractually complete system. It should include all tasks, including your verification and sign-off of each deliverable.\n Administrator training: Whether a small and simple setup or something more complex, this is important and integral. Get it online and record it if you can. That way you can refer to it as often as you need to, and also use it to train new administrators.\n Configuration and customization: This is really the bulk portion of implementation. It includes the standard configuration of the solution, plus any extras: instrument interfaces, system\/software\/agency interfaces, additional custom reports, screen modifications, new fields, etc. (beyond standard setup), adding tests, custom notifications\/alerts, web portal configuration, additional training, etc.\n System validation and acceptance: This should be going on throughout the implementation as you sign off on each completed task. Then the final acceptance of the complete system is simply a matter of final overall review and sign-off. A more comprehensive validation involves test scripts for each function, and you will need to go through each, noting pass\/fail and any comments. If more work is needed to bring things up to full acceptance level, the vendor (or you, if it was your responsibility) should apply whatever resources necessary to swiftly bring the items to acceptance level.\n User training: Like admin training, user training is essential for a professional, dedicated laboratory informatics system. And in the same ways, online training by job function is the most effective method, enabling recorded sessions to be referred back to by the trainees and used for repeat and additional staff training.\n Go-live support: As with any new informatics system, it is a great contributor to a successful launch if the vendor's support staff are readily available during the initial \"go-live\" period. This may be a few days, a week or two, or a month, depending on complexity, number of users\/samples, etc.\n One year (times X) maintenance and support: This recurring item can be included with your monthly or annual subscription if your solution is a cloud-hosted SaaS one. Otherwise, if you purchase licenses (the vendor may still offer cloud-hosting if you want), then this is a separate annual fee. It's usually wise to include this, at least for the first few years so that updates and upgrades are included, and support hours help your users as they become more comfortable and proficient. Cost usually is around 15-20% of original license fee annually, or bundled into a subscription automatically.\nServices \nWhen calculating the overall costs associated with implementing your laboratory informatics solution, don't forget to include calculations of services. No matter how pre-configured the solution may be, any professional laboratory informatics solution will require some amount of standard setup to reflect your particular lab, e.g., lab name and contact details for reports\/COA, entering users and their roles\/access permissions, adding and\/or modifying tests and processes\/workflows, renaming some fields, adding\/hiding fields, setting up a web portal, interfaces, etc. As mentioned previously, equally indispensable is proper training for both administrators and users. And you may find at any time that you would like additional features or functions. The services here are listed in hourly units. (Again, be very careful if any items that are services-based are listed as fixed-price items.)\nServices can include:\n\n Kickoff meeting: initial planning, identify delta, set schedule, etc.\n Project management\n Setup\n Training (user and admin)\n Additional configurations and\/or customization\n Interfaces\n Custom screens\n Custom reports and labels\n Additional triggers, alerts, etc.\n Additional or custom functionality\n Validation\/Acceptance testing: either to a third-party standard (certification) or to manufacturer claims\/specs\/contract\n Hosting\nHosting \nFrom the previous list of services, most items have been talked about in some regard, but the hosting of your software deserves a few additional comments. There is strong \"service\" component that comes with whoever is responsible for hosting your laboratory informatics solution, whether that's you (self-hosted) or some other provider (cloud-hosted). \nIf you choose to self-host the software, you will have most likely decided to buy the software license rather than rent the solution via a subscription. This is typically the domain of larger businesses that have their own IT department with the knowledge and budget to tackle most of the implementation and much of the maintenance. Even then, there may be times where outside IT help and\/or support is required from a consultant or the original software vendor, and this must be calculated into any potential future costs.\nIf you choose to cloud-host the software, you're either hosting the software on your company's cloud (if they are large enough to have such resources in the first place) or, more likely, you're choosing another company to host the software for you. Regardless of whether its you or another company, several questions emerge about the cloud facilities:\n\n Does the cloud hosting provider provide purpose-built, reliable and secure cloud hosting infrastructure housed in a state-of-the-art data center that is SSAE 16 SOC 2 certified?\n Are industry standard hardware, software, and configuration practices employed, ensuring first-class performance, security and reliability, with a full 100% uptime guarantee?\n Are global cloud networks employed to provide a seamless global cloud hosting service?\n Can facility meet the special requirements for HIPAA, CLIA, 21 CFR Part 11, or other regulatory compliance data? For example, does it have comprehensive redundancy, failover, data backup and protection (database backups and system-wide backups in secondary location for redundancy), and SSL security and encryption?\nOf course, the software can not only be hosted in the cloud but also be served up as a service, typically arranged through the vendor. This SaaS-based approach has its own advantages, as previously discussed.\n\nMaintenance, support, and warranty \nThe maintenance, support and warranty (MSW) offered by the vendor you choose is almost as important as the laboratory informatics solution itself. The solution is likely to become mission-critical, so having a reliable and responsive team and resources available 24\/7 is hugely important in retaining operational and competitive status. Downtime can negatively affect not only immediate customer satisfaction but also your reputation. And professional reputations take a long time and hard work to build, though they can be destroyed swiftly and easily.\nAs such, when budgeting for a solution, be sure to ask about the company's MSW coverage. Determine what it includes exactly, what it doesn't, and the cost. For example, a purchased LIMS will usually include an MSW as a percentage of the license fee, typically 15-20% annually. It should include some support hours (check how many) so your users can contact the company and get help when they encounter problems, as they are still learning the details and becoming comfortable with the system (that's called support). It should include updates and upgrades (maintenance), and unlimited free fixes of any bugs (warranty).\nIf the solution is a cloud-hosted, SaaS system, then these are typically rolled in with the annual or monthly subscription (and are typically less costly anyway, since it's easier for the vendor to access and work with the system). Even a purchased, perpetual licensed solution may be available as a cloud-hosted option, and it may be at a lower rate than if you host it yourself (for the same reason). And you have the added bonus of not needing your own servers and IT personnel.\nFinally, any provider should warranty (stand behind) all of their work for as long as you are our customer. Any customization work, setup, or configurations they do should also be guaranteed; if they don't work, they should be corrected to perform the way they're supposed to at no additional charge.\n\nPutting it all together \nAfter considering all the above, it's time to put it all together. The importance of an accurate statement of work, as reflected in the sales agreement, can't be understated. Each line item should clearly show exactly what is expected, being as specific as possible, since this will be the entire contractual obligation for both parties. Obviously, the line items may differ from system to system somewhat, according to what features and functions are included by default with the laboratory informatics solution and which, if any, are additional. While the contract SOW is always ultimately an estimate, if careful attention was paid to the above, then it should be quite accurate, and in fact the final cost may even be below the quoted cost if you prioritize your own obligations so that the vendor's hours are used sparingly and efficiently.\nThe costs can be a mixture of subscriptions (annual and\/or monthly), fixed one-time costs (unit of \"Each\") and\/or hourly services. However, the reality is that they really are either license\/subscription or services. Any fixed costs for other items are really for services, and represent one of two possible scenarios:\n\n Final fixed cost: In this case, the cost has been figured by the vendor so as to cover their worst-case hourly labor total. If the item (typically interfaces) is not \"worst case,\" then you are overpaying.\n \"Expandable\" fixed cost: This is as bad as final fixed cost, and maybe even worse because it's almost a case of \"bait-and-switch,\" popping up as a surprise. The initial \"fixed cost\" number is low, and additional hourly services are needed to actually deliver the item. This will have been provided for somewhere in the small print. The bottom line is that everything in the solution is really either licensing or hourly services. Just be careful if they are portrayed as anything else.\nIt is important to be clear which category each line item falls under when figuring costs, which can be divided into 1. up-front (due upon signing), 2. annual, and 3. ongoing (e.g., SaaS subscription). It is useful to clearly lay out each and compute initial costs, as well as first year and subsequent years' costings. \nAs an example, imagine you're considering a cloud-based SaaS LIMS:\n\n1. Initial: Your initial layout may be as little as your first month's subscription plus the first 40 hours of services, say $500 + $6600 = $7,100. Different vendors have different policies, however, and you may be required to pay for your first full year's subscription and no services, or some other combination. Normally, though, any instrument interface or other services charges aren't due until they are implemented, which may be a few weeks or even a month or so down the road, depending on your budget, complexity of the SOW, and urgency.\n2. First year: Your first year's expenses will include everything, including initial license fees, all setup and training, any interfaces and additional configurations or customization, and first annual maintenance, service, and warranty (MSW). (If this isn't included in the SaaS subscription, then it usually commences on full system delivery).\n3. Ongoing: Your subscription and MSW will be the only ongoing expenses (included as one in this example), unless you choose to have additional interfaces or other services performed at any time.\nYour total laboratory informatics software costs are tallied according to the licenses or subscriptions and hourly services, plus any additional MSW. Two ways to help maximize affordability and success are 1. as stated before, make sure you plan as thoroughly as possible and set aside sufficient funding for the lab operation you envision, and 2. plan out your implementation, perhaps staggering some of the major non-central items to be phased in over time in favor of getting operational with your solution as early as possible.\n\nReferences \n Abdula, M.; Averdunk, I.; Barcia, R. et al. (2018). The Cloud Adoption Playbook: Proven Strategies for Transforming Your Organization with the Cloud. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 272. ISBN 9781119491859.   \n ASTM Subcommittee E13.15 on Analytical Data (2018). \"ASTM E1578-18, Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\". ASTM International. https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm .   \n CSols, Inc. (24 January 2019). \"How Much Does a LIMS Cost?\". Technology Networks. Technology Networks, Ltd. https:\/\/www.technologynetworks.com\/tn\/videos\/how-much-does-a-lims-cost-314433 .   \n Gordon-Byrne, G. (2014). Buying, Supporting, Maintaining Software and Equipment. CRC Press. pp. 359. ISBN 9781482232790.   \n Hice, R.C. (2016). \"Considerations in Purchasing a LIMS\" (PDF). Abbott Informatics Corporation. https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/whitepaper-considerations-in-purchasing-a-lims.pdf .   \n Kaldrack, I.; Leeker, M. (2015). There Is No Software, There Are Just Services. Meson Press. pp. 114. ISBN 9783957960566.   \n LabVantage Solutions (28 October 2017). \"The True Cost of LIMS\". LabVantage Blog. LabVantage Solutions, Inc. https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/the-true-cost-of-lims\/ .   \n Orchard Software (07 November 2018). \"Considering a New Laboratory Information System Investment? Read Orchard Software's White Paper Overview of the Total Cost of Ownership for an LIS\". Orchard Software Corporation. https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/blog\/considering-a-new-laboratory-information-system-investment-read-orchard-softwares-overview-of-the-total-cost-of-ownership-for-an-lis .   \n Roe, R. (2017). \"The Future of Laboratory Informatics\" (PDF). Laboratory Informatics Guide 2018. Europa Science Ltd. pp. 12\u201316. https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/sites\/default\/files\/content\/LIG2018%20web.pdf .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tLII\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 7 March 2019, at 18:34.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 20 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-202 ns-subject page-LII_Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LII:Laboratory Informatics Software Acquisition and Implementation Considerations<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\">\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Starting_out\">Starting out<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The two main questions you will need to answer at the outset are:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>1. What do I want the laboratory informatics solution to do for me?<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>2. What kind of budget do I have?<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>Additionally\u2014and secondarily\u2014you'll want to be sure you can participate in one or more vendor demonstrations and, afterwards, build a requirements list.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Features_and_benefits\">Features and benefits<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The answer to the first question is largely the same as most other kinds of labs. The benefits of laboratory informatics software include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> increased accuracy, with a minimization or elimination of transcription and other errors;<\/li>\n<li> streamlined processes, where each step in a protocol or method is completed in the proper order, with all requirements met, updating statuses automatically;<\/li>\n<li> automation of integrated instruments, allowing for automatic uploading of samples\/specimens and processing of results;<\/li>\n<li> regulatory and standards compliance for your procedures helps keep you doing the right things the right ways, while tracking history so you can provide documentation when you need to;<\/li>\n<li> data security via configurable role-based secure access to data, processes, reporting, etc.;<\/li>\n<li> custom reporting tools, which allow you to design and generate reports to your own specifications, incorporating exactly the information you want;<\/li>\n<li> instant data retrieval, allowing you to search and call up any information instantly according to any criteria (date range, test, product type, etc.), particularly useful during audits; and<\/li>\n<li> cost-effectiveness through improved efficiency and accuracy, which means less waste of time, and if a user-configurable system (as opposed to hard-coded, requiring development for any modifications), its return on investment {ROI) increases over time, due to built-in adaptability and thus longevity.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Budgeting\">Budgeting<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The second question of budget is more difficult to answer by the fact that laboratory informatics software comes in all kinds of price ranges, from over $1 million all the way down to free. How are you supposed to honestly judge where the appropriate system price for your lab lies?\n<\/p><p>There are some basic realities that can help in figuring an appropriate budget, however.\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>1. A rough sense of price can generally be based on how much ownership you want in the software itself and how many will be using the laboratory informatics solution.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><i>Ownership: Buying versus renting<\/i>: There are two primary ways to price laboratory informatics software: a one-time license fee or a subscription (cloud-hosted <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> or SaaS ). If you have your own dedicated IT department and staff, you may prefer the former. Otherwise, a SaaS-based subscription may well be the better and more cost-effective way to go (no IT costs at all other than internet access). This item will be part of your up-front cost and, in the case of a subscription, it will also figure in your first year and ongoing costs. A vendor may have a subscription fee of say $500, with the initial month due at signing. However, more often the vendor may require three months or even the first year up front, so be prepared to factor that into up-front costs. However, it still is almost always less expensive at the outset (and over time, if you factor in IT and service costs) than paying for a license fee.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><i>User numbers: Named versus concurrent<\/i>: In addition to the two types of software pricing above, there are pricing sub-types. Generally these are based on the number of users (or, in some cases, \"nodes,\" which are simply any entities that access the software, including other systems, instruments, etc.). How these are counted can vary. They may be counted as \"named\" users, which bases pricing on the actual individual users of the system, even if they may only log in once in awhile. Users typically may not use each other's logins (this is prohibited regardless of pricing structure, for GxP and other standard- and regulatory-based reasons). They may also be counted as \"concurrent\" users, which bases pricing on the maximum number of users who will be logged in at any given time. You can define an unlimited number of named users in the system, each with their own login credentials. However, only the number of (concurrent) users specified in the license\/subscription may be logged in at any one time. For example, you may have 10 staff, but due to work processes, shifts, etc., only up to six might ever be logged in simultaneously. Whereas this would require a named user license for 10, it would only require a concurrent user license for six. Finally, you may have the option for \"unlimited\" users. This may be useful for huge labs (typically 30 to 50 and up), where the license or subscription may simply be a flat fee that allows any number of users.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>2. Most costs are related to work. Try to choose a solution that has what you need out of the box, as much as possible. The more customized or unique options you ask for, the more it costs, because extra items are a function of the time it takes developers to add them.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>3. User-configurable solutions beat vendor-configurable solutions on cost-effectiveness. Many software vendors offer a free or low-cost option, but don't be fooled. They are in business to make money, and they are counting on the fact that you'll need to pay them to make things work, add necessary functionality, support, training, etc. If you can find one who offers a genuinely user-configurable solution, and whose manuals and other support materials are clearly helpful and available so you can adjust things the way you want, when you want, then that will go a long way toward budget efficiency and longevity.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>4. Interfaces cost money. If necessary, consider whether it's feasibly or not to phase in those instrument and other interfaces over time, as revenue eases cash flow. You may be able to go live with your laboratory informatics solution more quickly, entering results manually until you can afford to interface your instruments one-by-one. This goes for reports too. A standard report will do. You can make fancy ones later.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>Pricing will vary depending on what kind of solution you need. For example, you'll probably want to budget a minimum of around $40,000 to $80,000 plus or minus, minimum, (including setup, training, interfaces, etc.) for a decent, bang-for-your-buck <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) with maybe an interface or two, plus an additional $300 to $900 per month (depending on number of users) for ongoing subscriptions. At around five concurrent (logged in at the same time) users, the economics start to favor purchasing perpetual licenses rather than paying subscription. Purchased licenses will also entail ongoing annual or monthly costs as well (maintenance, support, warranty for updates etc.), but somewhere around that number of users it may tend to be cheaper than a subscription option. Subscriptions (if available) are generally aimed at smaller labs. If you will be growing and scaling up, it may be a great way to get started, but ensure you have the option to switch to perpetual licenses later.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Demonstration_and_requirements\">Demonstration and requirements<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>You no doubt are quite familiar with all of your lab's or potential lab's processes, but that doesn't mean you necessarily have even an inkling about how exactly a laboratory informatics solution fits into your workflow. That's pretty common, and it's fine. That's what software companies should be able to show you. A good developer already generally understands your kind of lab but will ask you a lot of questions about exactly how you do things. It's the exceptions that need catering to. Doing a live demo (online is actually even better than in-person; it can be recorded so you can review and share it as much as you want) is a great context for exploring how a candidate software solution performs the functions your lab needs. It is interactive and live, so there can be no tricks\u2014you see just how it performs in real time, and you can throw as many intricate scenarios at the developer as you like. The demo experience can go a long way towards giving you a real feel for the software's suitability. Additionally, you can both (laboratory and vendor) gain a budgetary idea of cost based on what you do, what you want the software to do, what it can do, as well as the product and services pricing itself.\n<\/p><p>One note: too often labs think the first thing they must do is create a requirements list, then sit back and let the software vendors tell them how they meet those requirements. As mentioned earlier, even though laboratory personnel understand their lab and its processes, most don't have much of a clue about laboratory informatics and workflow integration. Participating in a a demo before creating the requirements list is a great way to plug in the features you have seen demonstrated to your lab's to your own processes and needs. After all, how can you effectively require specific functions if you don't fully know what a given laboratory informatics tool is capable of? After the demo, you are much more equipped to create a requirements list that becomes the contractual product set and statement\/scope of work (SOW) that represents your laboratory informatics solution.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Implementation\">Implementation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Features, budget, and requirements aside, you'll also want to consider what implementation details will affect your overall bottom line. There are two main keys to successful implementation: having an accurate SOW and high team availability.\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>1. <i>Accurate SOW<\/i>: A statement of work or SOW describes the work that will be done by the vendor, including milestones, deliverables, and any other end products and services. It should be absolutely clear in both your and the vendor's minds exactly what the delivered, operational laboratory informatics solution should look like. If possible, ask for a validation script that addresses each function and process. Read through it and make sure you agree with each test, that it is an effective measure of the software function it purports to validate. If not, work with the vendor to modify it to your satisfaction. Remember, vendors are required to meet exactly what the contracted requirements are, no more or no less. The SOW should avoid ambiguity in all cases. If they are worded poorly, the delivered item may not match what you envisioned. This is also where the demo\u2014mentioned previously\u2014comes in handy. If it is documented (e.g., recorded), you can always use language like \"per demo\" or \"as demonstrated in demo\" so there is no question how a feature is supposed to work for you.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>2. <i>High team availability<\/i>: Make your team available. Far too many laboratory informatics solution implementations drag on way past what is needed simply because the lab doesn't keep up with the process. While regular daily operations consume a lot of time, and it can be very difficult to allocate extra time for bringing on the new software, it's best to just make the time. The initial energy and impetus of the implementation project\u2014which can take as few as a couple of weeks\u2014disappear surprisingly quickly once delays set in. Interest wanders and a once-great initiative becomes a nagging burden. The single greatest thing you can do to avoid this is allocate the right person(s) to focus on successfully getting the system in place on time and on (or under) budget. That means plenty of communication with the vendor's project manager, executing the training and any configuration tasks your lab is responsible for, and signing off when tasks are complete. You may be surprised how often unsuccessful implementations are actually the fault of the customer.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Implementation_details\">Implementation details<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The implementation itself can be quite simple for a pretty standard system. The minimum scenario would be one to five users, no customization, no configurations beyond standard setup (name the lab's location and any departments, add users, lab logo, address, etc. to report, enter contacts), no interfaces and around two hours of training (online, recorded for reference). And if the solution is cloud-hosted, there is no time (i.e., money) wasted in buying and\/or setting up servers, firewalls, etc., so the solution itself can optimistically be in place and running in a day. The rest is up to you; figure something like one to three weeks to go live (a little more if your schedule is tight).\n<\/p><p>A larger and\/or more comprehensive implementation can include several components and be rolled out in phases over one to three months or so. In fact, you can be operational manually for as long as you need to be, bringing instrument interfaces in over time as your budget permits, which allows you to begin using the solution earlier. \n<\/p><p>All of the phases and their deliverables have price tags associated with them. Your total cost is a function of the license fee or subscription plus the work the vendor performs. The work they do (and the work you do) is what constitutes the implementation and its phases. They can include (in order):\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> Project management: The vendor will provide a project manager to coordinate with you and make sure all deliverables are implemented on time and according to the contract. The cost of this is a function of their hours, which begin at the initial meeting (kickoff) and end once your system goes live and all deliverables have been met.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> Kickoff meeting: This is the initial get-together between your project manager and theirs. Review the SOW and the plan to implement it, and clarify resource and time commitments and responsibilities, making sure the schedule works for everybody.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> System installation: If it's to be an onsite installation (discussed later), then your system administrator and the vendor's technical representatives will need to work closely to make sure this is done properly. If the vendor is hosting it for you, the system should be spun up and available for you to log in to within a day or so.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> Gap analysis: This is the identification or verification of the gap between the system as installed and the system as fully functional according to the contract. There should not be any surprises here. If there are (and not good ones), the vendor should rectify them speedily and at no extra charge.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> Work plan (system acceptance test plan): This is the deliverable that spells out essentially what was discussed in the kickoff, with the gap analysis factored in. It's what will be worked towards in order to get to a fully functional, contractually complete system. It should include all tasks, including your verification and sign-off of each deliverable.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> Administrator training: Whether a small and simple setup or something more complex, this is important and integral. Get it online and record it if you can. That way you can refer to it as often as you need to, and also use it to train new administrators.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> Configuration and customization: This is really the bulk portion of implementation. It includes the standard configuration of the solution, plus any extras: instrument interfaces, system\/software\/agency interfaces, additional custom reports, screen modifications, new fields, etc. (beyond standard setup), adding tests, custom notifications\/alerts, web portal configuration, additional training, etc.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> System validation and acceptance: This should be going on throughout the implementation as you sign off on each completed task. Then the final acceptance of the complete system is simply a matter of final overall review and sign-off. A more comprehensive validation involves test scripts for each function, and you will need to go through each, noting pass\/fail and any comments. If more work is needed to bring things up to full acceptance level, the vendor (or you, if it was your responsibility) should apply whatever resources necessary to swiftly bring the items to acceptance level.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> User training: Like admin training, user training is essential for a professional, dedicated laboratory informatics system. And in the same ways, online training by job function is the most effective method, enabling recorded sessions to be referred back to by the trainees and used for repeat and additional staff training.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> Go-live support: As with any new informatics system, it is a great contributor to a successful launch if the vendor's support staff are readily available during the initial \"go-live\" period. This may be a few days, a week or two, or a month, depending on complexity, number of users\/samples, etc.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> One year (times X) maintenance and support: This recurring item can be included with your monthly or annual subscription if your solution is a cloud-hosted SaaS one. Otherwise, if you purchase licenses (the vendor may still offer cloud-hosting if you want), then this is a separate annual fee. It's usually wise to include this, at least for the first few years so that updates and upgrades are included, and support hours help your users as they become more comfortable and proficient. Cost usually is around 15-20% of original license fee annually, or bundled into a subscription automatically.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Services\">Services<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>When calculating the overall costs associated with implementing your laboratory informatics solution, don't forget to include calculations of services. No matter how pre-configured the solution may be, any professional laboratory informatics solution will require some amount of standard setup to reflect your particular lab, e.g., lab name and contact details for reports\/COA, entering users and their roles\/access permissions, adding and\/or modifying tests and processes\/workflows, renaming some fields, adding\/hiding fields, setting up a web portal, interfaces, etc. As mentioned previously, equally indispensable is proper training for both administrators and users. And you may find at any time that you would like additional features or functions. The services here are listed in hourly units. (Again, be very careful if any items that are services-based are listed as fixed-price items.)\n<\/p><p>Services can include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> Kickoff meeting: initial planning, identify delta, set schedule, etc.<\/li>\n<li> Project management<\/li>\n<li> Setup<\/li>\n<li> Training (user and admin)<\/li>\n<li> Additional configurations and\/or customization\n<ul><li> Interfaces<\/li>\n<li> Custom screens<\/li>\n<li> Custom reports and labels<\/li>\n<li> Additional triggers, alerts, etc.<\/li>\n<li> Additional or custom functionality<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li> Validation\/Acceptance testing: either to a third-party standard (certification) or to manufacturer claims\/specs\/contract<\/li>\n<li> Hosting<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hosting\">Hosting<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>From the previous list of services, most items have been talked about in some regard, but the hosting of your software deserves a few additional comments. There is strong \"service\" component that comes with whoever is responsible for hosting your laboratory informatics solution, whether that's you (self-hosted) or some other provider (cloud-hosted). \n<\/p><p>If you choose to self-host the software, you will have most likely decided to buy the software license rather than rent the solution via a subscription. This is typically the domain of larger businesses that have their own IT department with the knowledge and budget to tackle most of the implementation and much of the maintenance. Even then, there may be times where outside IT help and\/or support is required from a consultant or the original software vendor, and this must be calculated into any potential future costs.\n<\/p><p>If you choose to cloud-host the software, you're either hosting the software on your company's cloud (if they are large enough to have such resources in the first place) or, more likely, you're choosing another company to host the software for you. Regardless of whether its you or another company, several questions emerge about the cloud facilities:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> Does the cloud hosting provider provide purpose-built, reliable and secure cloud hosting infrastructure housed in a state-of-the-art data center that is SSAE 16 SOC 2 certified?<\/li>\n<li> Are industry standard hardware, software, and configuration practices employed, ensuring first-class performance, security and reliability, with a full 100% uptime guarantee?<\/li>\n<li> Are global cloud networks employed to provide a seamless global cloud hosting service?<\/li>\n<li> Can facility meet the special requirements for <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/HIPAA\" title=\"HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"70050974d1eda9ff8cf9ecf7e4fcd015\">HIPAA<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/CLIA\" title=\"CLIA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c0b9bbf5c8d2310833a79d137ac621e\">CLIA<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a>, or other regulatory compliance data? For example, does it have comprehensive redundancy, failover, data backup and protection (database backups and system-wide backups in secondary location for redundancy), and SSL security and encryption?<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Of course, the software can not only be hosted in the cloud but also be served up as a service, typically arranged through the vendor. This SaaS-based approach has its own advantages, as previously discussed.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Maintenance.2C_support.2C_and_warranty\">Maintenance, support, and warranty<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The maintenance, support and warranty (MSW) offered by the vendor you choose is almost as important as the laboratory informatics solution itself. The solution is likely to become mission-critical, so having a reliable and responsive team and resources available 24\/7 is hugely important in retaining operational and competitive status. Downtime can negatively affect not only immediate customer satisfaction but also your reputation. And professional reputations take a long time and hard work to build, though they can be destroyed swiftly and easily.\n<\/p><p>As such, when budgeting for a solution, be sure to ask about the company's MSW coverage. Determine what it includes exactly, what it doesn't, and the cost. For example, a purchased LIMS will usually include an MSW as a percentage of the license fee, typically 15-20% annually. It should include some support hours (check how many) so your users can contact the company and get help when they encounter problems, as they are still learning the details and becoming comfortable with the system (that's called support). It should include updates and upgrades (maintenance), and unlimited free fixes of any bugs (warranty).\n<\/p><p>If the solution is a cloud-hosted, SaaS system, then these are typically rolled in with the annual or monthly subscription (and are typically less costly anyway, since it's easier for the vendor to access and work with the system). Even a purchased, perpetual licensed solution may be available as a cloud-hosted option, and it may be at a lower rate than if you host it yourself (for the same reason). And you have the added bonus of not needing your own servers and IT personnel.\n<\/p><p>Finally, any provider should warranty (stand behind) all of their work for as long as you are our customer. Any customization work, setup, or configurations they do should also be guaranteed; if they don't work, they should be corrected to perform the way they're supposed to at no additional charge.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Putting_it_all_together\">Putting it all together<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>After considering all the above, it's time to put it all together. The importance of an accurate statement of work, as reflected in the sales agreement, can't be understated. Each line item should clearly show exactly what is expected, being as specific as possible, since this will be the entire contractual obligation for both parties. Obviously, the line items may differ from system to system somewhat, according to what features and functions are included by default with the laboratory informatics solution and which, if any, are additional. While the contract SOW is always ultimately an estimate, if careful attention was paid to the above, then it should be quite accurate, and in fact the final cost may even be below the quoted cost if you prioritize your own obligations so that the vendor's hours are used sparingly and efficiently.\n<\/p><p>The costs can be a mixture of subscriptions (annual and\/or monthly), fixed one-time costs (unit of \"Each\") and\/or hourly services. However, the reality is that they really are either license\/subscription or services. Any fixed costs for other items are really for services, and represent one of two possible scenarios:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> Final fixed cost: In this case, the cost has been figured by the vendor so as to cover their worst-case hourly labor total. If the item (typically interfaces) is not \"worst case,\" then you are overpaying.<\/li>\n<li> \"Expandable\" fixed cost: This is as bad as final fixed cost, and maybe even worse because it's almost a case of \"bait-and-switch,\" popping up as a surprise. The initial \"fixed cost\" number is low, and additional hourly services are needed to actually deliver the item. This will have been provided for somewhere in the small print. The bottom line is that everything in the solution is really either licensing or hourly services. Just be careful if they are portrayed as anything else.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>It is important to be clear which category each line item falls under when figuring costs, which can be divided into 1. up-front (due upon signing), 2. annual, and 3. ongoing (e.g., SaaS subscription). It is useful to clearly lay out each and compute initial costs, as well as first year and subsequent years' costings. \n<\/p><p>As an example, imagine you're considering a cloud-based SaaS LIMS:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd>1. Initial: Your initial layout may be as little as your first month's subscription plus the first 40 hours of services, say $500 + $6600 = $7,100. Different vendors have different policies, however, and you may be required to pay for your first full year's subscription and no services, or some other combination. Normally, though, any instrument interface or other services charges aren't due until they are implemented, which may be a few weeks or even a month or so down the road, depending on your budget, complexity of the SOW, and urgency.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>2. First year: Your first year's expenses will include everything, including initial license fees, all setup and training, any interfaces and additional configurations or customization, and first annual maintenance, service, and warranty (MSW). (If this isn't included in the SaaS subscription, then it usually commences on full system delivery).<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd>3. Ongoing: Your subscription and MSW will be the only ongoing expenses (included as one in this example), unless you choose to have additional interfaces or other services performed at any time.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>Your total laboratory informatics software costs are tallied according to the licenses or subscriptions and hourly services, plus any additional MSW. Two ways to help maximize affordability and success are 1. as stated before, make sure you plan as thoroughly as possible and set aside sufficient funding for the lab operation you envision, and 2. plan out your implementation, perhaps staggering some of the major non-central items to be phased in over time in favor of getting operational with your solution as early as possible.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation book\">Abdula, M.; Averdunk, I.; Barcia, R. et al. (2018). <i>The Cloud Adoption Playbook: Proven Strategies for Transforming Your Organization with the Cloud<\/i>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 272. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 9781119491859.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cloud+Adoption+Playbook%3A+Proven+Strategies+for+Transforming+Your+Organization+with+the+Cloud&rft.aulast=Abdula%2C+M.%3B+Averdunk%2C+I.%3B+Barcia%2C+R.+et+al.&rft.au=Abdula%2C+M.%3B+Averdunk%2C+I.%3B+Barcia%2C+R.+et+al.&rft.date=2018&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B272&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.isbn=9781119491859&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li> <span class=\"citation web\">ASTM Subcommittee E13.15 on Analytical Data (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E1578-18, Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a>. ASTM International<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ASTM+E1578-18%2C+Standard+Guide+for+Laboratory+Informatics&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=ASTM+Subcommittee+E13.15+on+Analytical+Data&rft.au=ASTM+Subcommittee+E13.15+on+Analytical+Data&rft.date=2018&rft.pub=ASTM+International&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FE1578.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li> <span class=\"citation web\">CSols, Inc. (24 January 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologynetworks.com\/tn\/videos\/how-much-does-a-lims-cost-314433\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Much Does a LIMS Cost?\"<\/a>. <i>Technology Networks<\/i>. Technology Networks, Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologynetworks.com\/tn\/videos\/how-much-does-a-lims-cost-314433\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.technologynetworks.com\/tn\/videos\/how-much-does-a-lims-cost-314433<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=How+Much+Does+a+LIMS+Cost%3F&rft.atitle=Technology+Networks&rft.aulast=CSols%2C+Inc.&rft.au=CSols%2C+Inc.&rft.date=24+January+2019&rft.pub=Technology+Networks%2C+Ltd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologynetworks.com%2Ftn%2Fvideos%2Fhow-much-does-a-lims-cost-314433&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li> <span class=\"citation book\">Gordon-Byrne, G. (2014). <i>Buying, Supporting, Maintaining Software and Equipment<\/i>. CRC Press. pp. 359. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 9781482232790.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buying%2C+Supporting%2C+Maintaining+Software+and+Equipment&rft.aulast=Gordon-Byrne%2C+G.&rft.au=Gordon-Byrne%2C+G.&rft.date=2014&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B359&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.isbn=9781482232790&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li> <span class=\"citation web\">Hice, R.C. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/whitepaper-considerations-in-purchasing-a-lims.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Considerations in Purchasing a LIMS\"<\/a> (PDF). Abbott Informatics Corporation<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/whitepaper-considerations-in-purchasing-a-lims.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.informatics.abbott\/shared\/whitepaper-considerations-in-purchasing-a-lims.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Considerations+in+Purchasing+a+LIMS&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Hice%2C+R.C.&rft.au=Hice%2C+R.C.&rft.date=2016&rft.pub=Abbott+Informatics+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.informatics.abbott%2Fshared%2Fwhitepaper-considerations-in-purchasing-a-lims.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span> <\/li>\n<li> <span class=\"citation book\">Kaldrack, I.; Leeker, M. (2015). <i>There Is No Software, There Are Just Services<\/i>. Meson Press. pp. 114. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 9783957960566.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=There+Is+No+Software%2C+There+Are+Just+Services&rft.aulast=Kaldrack%2C+I.%3B+Leeker%2C+M.&rft.au=Kaldrack%2C+I.%3B+Leeker%2C+M.&rft.date=2015&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B114&rft.pub=Meson+Press&rft.isbn=9783957960566&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li> <span class=\"citation web\">LabVantage Solutions (28 October 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/the-true-cost-of-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The True Cost of LIMS\"<\/a>. <i>LabVantage Blog<\/i>. LabVantage Solutions, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/the-true-cost-of-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/the-true-cost-of-lims\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+True+Cost+of+LIMS&rft.atitle=LabVantage+Blog&rft.aulast=LabVantage+Solutions&rft.au=LabVantage+Solutions&rft.date=28+October+2017&rft.pub=LabVantage+Solutions%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.labvantage.com%2Fthe-true-cost-of-lims%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li> <span class=\"citation web\">Orchard Software (07 November 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/blog\/considering-a-new-laboratory-information-system-investment-read-orchard-softwares-overview-of-the-total-cost-of-ownership-for-an-lis\" target=\"_blank\">\"Considering a New Laboratory Information System Investment? Read Orchard Software's White Paper Overview of the Total Cost of Ownership for an LIS\"<\/a>. Orchard Software Corporation<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/blog\/considering-a-new-laboratory-information-system-investment-read-orchard-softwares-overview-of-the-total-cost-of-ownership-for-an-lis\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/blog\/considering-a-new-laboratory-information-system-investment-read-orchard-softwares-overview-of-the-total-cost-of-ownership-for-an-lis<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Considering+a+New+Laboratory+Information+System+Investment%3F+Read+Orchard+Software%27s+White+Paper+Overview+of+the+Total+Cost+of+Ownership+for+an+LIS&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Orchard+Software&rft.au=Orchard+Software&rft.date=07+November+2018&rft.pub=Orchard+Software+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.orchardsoft.com%2Fblog%2Fconsidering-a-new-laboratory-information-system-investment-read-orchard-softwares-overview-of-the-total-cost-of-ownership-for-an-lis&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li> <span class=\"citation web\">Roe, R. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/sites\/default\/files\/content\/LIG2018%20web.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Future of Laboratory Informatics\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>Laboratory Informatics Guide 2018<\/i>. Europa Science Ltd. pp. 12\u201316<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/sites\/default\/files\/content\/LIG2018%20web.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/sites\/default\/files\/content\/LIG2018%20web.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+Laboratory+Informatics&rft.atitle=Laboratory+Informatics+Guide+2018&rft.aulast=Roe%2C+R.&rft.au=Roe%2C+R.&rft.date=2017&rft.pages=pp.+12%E2%80%9316&rft.pub=Europa+Science+Ltd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientific-computing.com%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fcontent%2FLIG2018%2520web.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203018\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.170 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.185 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5513\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 16057\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 36645\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 13753\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 165.589 1 - -total\n 90.84% 150.429 9 - Template:Citation\/core\n 53.83% 89.143 6 - Template:Cite_web\n 45.67% 75.629 3 - Template:Cite_book\n 5.89% 9.758 12 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 5.89% 9.752 3 - Template:Citation\/identifier\n 1.63% 2.707 3 - Template:Only_in_print\n 1.44% 2.381 6 - Template:Hide_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10944-0!*!0!!en!*!* and timestamp 20190403203018 and revision id 35157\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LII:Laboratory_Informatics_Software_Acquisition_and_Implementation_Considerations<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_images":[],"85305ea8bb1f390dd79f3ab3ec653819_timestamp":1554323418,"65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_type":"article","65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_title":"System integration","65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/System_integration","65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tSystem integration\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tSoftware development\nCore activities\nProcesses\nRequirements\nDesign\nEngineering\nConstruction\nTesting\nDebugging\nDeployment\nMaintenance\n\nParadigms and models\nAgile\nCleanroom\nIncremental\nPrototyping\nSpiral\nV model\nWaterfall\n\nMethodologies and frameworks\nASD\nDevOps\nDAD\nDSDM\nFDD\nIID\nKanban\nLean SD\nLeSS\nMDD\nMSF\nPSP\nRAD\nRUP\nSAFe\nScrum\nSEMAT\nTSP\nUP\nXP\n\nSupporting disciplines\nConfiguration management\nDocumentation\nSoftware quality assurance (SQA)\nProject management\nUser experience\n\nPractices\nATDD\nBDD\nCCO\nCI\nCD\nDDD\nPP\nSBE\nStand-up\nTDD\n\nTools\nCompiler\nDebugger\nProfiler\nGUI designer\nModeling\nIDE\nBuild automation\nRelease automation\nInfrastructure as code\nTesting\n\nStandards and Bodies of Knowledge\nBABOK\nCMMI\nIEEE standards\nISO 9001\nISO\/IEC standards\nPMBOK\nSWEBOK\nITIL\n\nGlossaries\nArtificial intelligence\nComputer science\nElectrical and electronics engineering\nvte\nSystem integration is defined in engineering as the process of bringing together the component sub-systems into one system (an aggregation of subsystems cooperating so that the system is able to deliver the overarching functionality) and ensuring that the subsystems function together as a system,[1] and in information technology[2] as the process of linking together different computing systems and software applications physically or functionally,[3] to act as a coordinated whole.\nThe system integrator integrates discrete systems utilizing a variety of techniques such as computer networking, enterprise application integration, business process management or manual programming.[4]\nSystem integration involves integrating existing, often disparate systems in such a way \"that focuses on increasing value to the customer\"[5] (e.g., improved product quality and performance) while at the same time providing value to the company (e.g., reducing operational costs and improving response time).[5] In the modern world connected by Internet, the role of system integration engineers is important: more and more systems are designed to connect, both within the system under construction and to systems that are already deployed.[6]\n\nContents \n\n1 Methods of integration \n2 See also \n3 References \n4 External links \n\n\nMethods of integration \nVertical integration (as opposed to \"horizontal integration\") is the process of integrating subsystems according to their functionality by creating functional entities also referred to as silos.[7] The benefit of this method is that the integration is performed quickly and involves only the necessary vendors, therefore, this method is cheaper in the short term. On the other hand, cost-of-ownership can be substantially higher than seen in other methods, since in case of new or enhanced functionality, the only possible way to implement (scale the system) would be by implementing another silo. Reusing subsystems to create another functionality is not possible.[8]\nStar integration, also known as spaghetti integration, is a process of systems integration where each system is interconnected to each of the remaining subsystems. When observed from the perspective of the subsystem which is being integrated, the connections are reminiscent of a star, but when the overall diagram of the system is presented, the connections look like spaghetti, hence the name of this method. The cost varies because of the interfaces that subsystems are exporting. In a case where the subsystems are exporting heterogeneous or proprietary interfaces, the integration cost can substantially rise. Time and costs needed to integrate the systems increase exponentially when adding additional subsystems. From the feature perspective, this method often seems preferable, due to the extreme flexibility of the reuse of functionality.[8]\nHorizontal integration or Enterprise Service Bus (ESB) is an integration method in which a specialized subsystem is dedicated to communication between other subsystems. This allows cutting the number of connections (interfaces) to only one per subsystem which will connect directly to the ESB. The ESB is capable of translating the interface into another interface. This allows cutting the costs of integration and provides extreme flexibility. With systems integrated using this method, it is possible to completely replace one subsystem with another subsystem which provides similar functionality but exports different interfaces, all this completely transparent for the rest of the subsystems. The only action required is to implement the new interface between the ESB and the new subsystem.[8]\nThe horizontal scheme can be misleading, however, if it is thought that the cost of intermediate data transformation or the cost of shifting responsibility over business logic can be avoided.[8]\nA common data format is an integration method to avoid every adapter having to convert data to\/from every other applications' formats, Enterprise application integration (EAI) systems usually stipulate an application-independent (or common) data format. The EAI system usually provides a data transformation service as well to help convert between application-specific and common formats. This is done in two steps: the adapter converts information from the application's format to the bus's common format. Then, semantic transformations are applied on this (converting zip codes to city names, splitting\/merging objects from one application into objects in the other applications, and so on).\n\nSee also \nContinuous integration\nSystem in package and system on a chip\nEnterprise application integration\nIntegration platform\nIntegration Competency Center\nInteroperability\nSystem of record\nSystems integrator\nMultidisciplinary approach\nCloud-based integration\nSystem design\nModular design\nConfiguration design\nReferences \n\n\n^ Gilkey, Herbert T (1960), \"New Air Heating Methods\", New methods of heating buildings: a research correlation conference conducted by the Building Research Institute, Division of Engineering and Industrial Research, as one of the programs of the BRI fall conferences, November 1959., Washington: National Research Council (U.S.). Building Research Institute, p. 60, OCLC 184031 \n\n^ For computer systems, the term \"systems integration\" has included the plural word \"systems\" although the singular form has also been used in referring to computer systems. \n\n^ CIS 8020 \u2013 Systems Integration, Georgia State University OECD \n\n^ Moore, June (13 December 1982), \"Software Reviews, BusinessMaster II+, ledger for CP\/M systems\", InfoWorld, InfoWorld Media Group, Inc, p. 31, ISSN 0199-6649 \n\n^ a b Vonderembse, M.A.; Raghunathan, T.S.; Rao, S.S. (1997). \"A post-industrial paradigm: To integrate and automate manufacturing\". International Journal of Production Research. 35 (9): 2579\u20132600. doi:10.1080\/002075497194679. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Merriman, Dan (19 Feb 1996), \"Tying it all together\", Network World, IDG Network World Inc, p. 51, ISSN 0887-7661 \n\n^ Lau, Edwin (2005), \"Multi-channel Service Delivery\", OECD e-Government Studies e-Government for Better Government, Paris: OECD, p. 52, OCLC 224889830 \n\n^ a b c d Gold-Bernstein, Beth; Ruh, William A (2005), Enterprise integration: the essential guide to integration solutions, Addison Wesley, ISBN 0-321-22390-X \n\n\nExternal links \nCSIA (Control System Integrators Association)\nwww.integration.engineering\nvteSystems engineeringSubfields\nAerospace engineering\nBiological systems engineering\nConfiguration management\nEarth systems engineering and management\nElectrical engineering\nEnterprise systems engineering\nPerformance engineering\nReliability engineering\nSafety engineering\nProcesses\nRequirements engineering\nFunctional specification\nSystem integration\nVerification and validation\nDesign review\nConcepts\nBusiness process\nSystem\nSystem lifecycle\nV-Model\nSystems development life cycle\nTools\nDecision-making\nFunction modelling\nIDEF\nOptimization\nQuality function deployment\nSystem dynamics\nSystems Modeling Language\nSystems analysis\nSystems modeling\nWork breakdown structure\nPeople\nJames S. Albus\nRuzena Bajcsy\nBenjamin S. Blanchard\nWernher von Braun\nKathleen Carley\nHarold Chestnut\nWolt Fabrycky\nBarbara Grosz\nArthur David Hall III\nDerek Hitchins\nRobert E. Machol\nRadhika Nagpal\nSimon Ramo\nJoseph Francis Shea\nKatia Sycara\nManuela M. Veloso\nJohn N. Warfield\nRelated fields\nControl engineering\nComputer engineering\nIndustrial engineering\nOperations research\nProject management\nQuality management\nRisk management\nSoftware engineering\n\nCategory\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/System_integration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/System_integration<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Business and data managementSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal 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version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 19 May 2018, at 17:59.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 137 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-System_integration skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">System integration<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\">\n<p><b>System integration<\/b> is defined in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engineering\" title=\"Engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f6f08235e1dd8528fc259dfcf543c3f\">engineering<\/a> as the process of bringing together the component sub-<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System\" title=\"System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca080f9487afe3b315fe16a2d522534\">systems<\/a> into one system (an aggregation of subsystems cooperating so that the system is able to deliver the overarching functionality) and ensuring that the subsystems function together as a system,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Heat_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Heat-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> and in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">information technology<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> as the process of linking together different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing\" title=\"Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e2b41b4b3636a02cae6b06d1b0b6378\">computing<\/a> systems and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_application\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software application\" data-key=\"fb12f33772a2f01db9e7bc4aee1e1818\">applications<\/a> physically or functionally,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SICourse_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SICourse-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> to act as a coordinated whole.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_integrator\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"System integrator\" data-key=\"7964f3fb1a168b69c81f31bbd8b86ff8\">system integrator<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration\" title=\"Data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ef20102ff5fd42522c9e879f31e999e\">integrates<\/a> discrete systems utilizing a variety of techniques such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">computer networking<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_application_integration\" title=\"Enterprise application integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d697403942408f923065543d60e5bda1\">enterprise application integration<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">business process management<\/a> or manual <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_programming\" title=\"Computer programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25155b4f7d58ca4c83001cd748abf5c3\">programming<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Info_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Info-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>System integration involves integrating existing, often <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disparate_system\" title=\"Disparate system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc38b07afe35300c35fdb2186133af3d\">disparate systems<\/a> in such a way \"that focuses on increasing value to the customer\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VonderembseAPost97_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VonderembseAPost97-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> (e.g., improved product quality and performance) while at the same time providing value to the company (e.g., reducing operational costs and improving response time).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VonderembseAPost97_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VonderembseAPost97-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> In the modern world connected by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a>, the role of system integration engineers is important: more and more systems are designed to connect, both within the system under construction and to systems that are already deployed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Info2_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Info2-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Methods_of_integration\">Methods of integration<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vertical_integration\" title=\"Vertical integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"416632fd668e924c959d6e60d8b7ea1e\">Vertical integration<\/a><\/b> (as opposed to \"horizontal integration\") is the process of integrating subsystems according to their functionality by creating functional entities also referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_silo\" title=\"Information silo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"609ecf7e2ecfe71d62bd20d2769cac59\">silos<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-E-gov_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-E-gov-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> The benefit of this method is that the integration is performed quickly and involves only the necessary vendors, therefore, this method is cheaper in the short term. On the other hand, cost-of-ownership can be substantially higher than seen in other methods, since in case of new or enhanced functionality, the only possible way to implement (scale the system) would be by implementing another silo. Reusing subsystems to create another functionality is not possible.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Integ_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Integ-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>Star integration<\/b>, also known as <b>spaghetti integration<\/b>, is a process of systems integration where each system is interconnected to each of the remaining subsystems. When observed from the perspective of the subsystem which is being integrated, the connections are reminiscent of a star, but when the overall diagram of the system is presented, the connections look like spaghetti, hence the name of this method. The cost varies because of the interfaces that subsystems are exporting. In a case where the subsystems are exporting heterogeneous or proprietary interfaces, the integration cost can substantially rise. Time and costs needed to integrate the systems increase exponentially when adding additional subsystems. From the feature perspective, this method often seems preferable, due to the extreme flexibility of the reuse of functionality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Integ_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Integ-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>Horizontal integration<\/b> or <b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_Service_Bus\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Enterprise Service Bus\" data-key=\"fb999cb7b1fc35a78a4c42a1c13ed8ed\">Enterprise Service Bus<\/a><\/b> (ESB) is an integration method in which a specialized subsystem is dedicated to communication between other subsystems. This allows cutting the number of connections (interfaces) to only one per subsystem which will connect directly to the ESB. The ESB is capable of translating the interface into another interface. This allows cutting the costs of integration and provides extreme flexibility. With systems integrated using this method, it is possible to completely replace one subsystem with another subsystem which provides similar functionality but exports different interfaces, all this completely transparent for the rest of the subsystems. The only action required is to implement the new interface between the ESB and the new subsystem.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Integ_8-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Integ-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The horizontal scheme can be misleading, however, if it is thought that the cost of intermediate data transformation or the cost of shifting responsibility over business logic can be avoided.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Integ_8-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Integ-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A <b>common data format<\/b> is an integration method to avoid every adapter having to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_conversion\" title=\"Data conversion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"151dc4268c6f15cc2c155aefaa051875\">convert data<\/a> to\/from every other applications' formats, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_application_integration\" title=\"Enterprise application integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d697403942408f923065543d60e5bda1\">Enterprise application integration<\/a> (EAI) systems usually stipulate an application-independent (or common) data format. The EAI system usually provides a data transformation service as well to help convert between application-specific and common formats. This is done in two steps: the adapter converts information from the application's format to the bus's common format. Then, semantic transformations are applied on this (converting zip codes to city names, splitting\/merging objects from one application into objects in the other applications, and so on).\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Continuous_integration\" title=\"Continuous integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b71e5bfed777e2bf5e2da4a88c3fa157\">Continuous integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_in_package\" title=\"System in package\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"677ebf8b433f21864e28e29df62c5ea3\">System in package<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_on_a_chip\" title=\"System on a chip\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5dc56567ff7ea00db472f86e13fbad9d\">system on a chip<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_application_integration\" title=\"Enterprise application integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d697403942408f923065543d60e5bda1\">Enterprise application integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integration_platform\" title=\"Integration platform\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d09159c450215ec48c75de890011ac45\">Integration platform<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integration_Competency_Center\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Integration Competency Center\" data-key=\"f7d6c4775d921062c413a0c1fbb8594a\">Integration Competency Center<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interoperability\" title=\"Interoperability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38415d24cde633d18de0c69db5a6d400\">Interoperability<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_of_record\" title=\"System of record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97860c5c36dee468f9ec6dfce9a2afd0\">System of record<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_integrator\" title=\"Systems integrator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac2f10209319df3b4dfb975d5c79b8b2\">Systems integrator<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multidisciplinary_approach\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Multidisciplinary approach\" data-key=\"9766c73c00f93b7c7f69b288ce7ed88d\">Multidisciplinary approach<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud-based_integration\" title=\"Cloud-based integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02a218bd769e79127b2009e2afee9ef4\">Cloud-based integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_design\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"System design\" data-key=\"00143be9481622932ef54bc94d78942b\">System design<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_design\" title=\"Modular design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b61048fad491bc269095b96850d1d518\">Modular design<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Configuration_design\" title=\"Configuration design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf4b04bdc492b0f8d23bc2d80a4aeb43\">Configuration design<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Heat-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Heat_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGilkey1960\" class=\"citation\">Gilkey, Herbert T (1960), \"New Air Heating Methods\", <i>New methods of heating buildings: a research correlation conference conducted by the Building Research Institute, Division of Engineering and Industrial Research, as one of the programs of the BRI fall conferences, November 1959.<\/i>, Washington: National Research Council (U.S.). Building Research Institute, p. 60, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC\" title=\"OCLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e119fc7e1d352d47ef5b80f32a4b20c3\">OCLC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/184031\" target=\"_blank\">184031<\/a><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=New+Air+Heating+Methods&rft.btitle=New+methods+of+heating+buildings%3A+a+research+correlation+conference+conducted+by+the+Building+Research+Institute%2C+Division+of+Engineering+and+Industrial+Research%2C+as+one+of+the+programs+of+the+BRI+fall+conferences%2C+November+1959.&rft.place=Washington&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=National+Research+Council+%28U.S.%29.+Building+Research+Institute&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F184031&rft.aulast=Gilkey&rft.aufirst=Herbert+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystem+integration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">For computer systems, the term \"systems integration\" has included the plural word \"systems\" although the singular form has also been used in referring to computer systems.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SICourse-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SICourse_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation\"><i>CIS 8020 \u2013 Systems Integration<\/i>, Georgia State University OECD<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=CIS+8020+%E2%80%93+Systems+Integration&rft.pub=Georgia+State+University+OECD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystem+integration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Info-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Info_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMoore1982\" class=\"citation\">Moore, June (13 December 1982), \"Software Reviews, BusinessMaster II+, ledger for CP\/M systems\", <i>InfoWorld<\/i>, InfoWorld Media Group, Inc, p. 31, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0199-6649\" target=\"_blank\">0199-6649<\/a><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Software+Reviews%2C+BusinessMaster+II%2B%2C+ledger+for+CP%2FM+systems&rft.btitle=InfoWorld&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=InfoWorld+Media+Group%2C+Inc&rft.date=1982-12-13&rft.issn=0199-6649&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=June&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystem+integration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-VonderembseAPost97-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-VonderembseAPost97_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-VonderembseAPost97_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Vonderembse, M.A.; Raghunathan, T.S.; Rao, S.S. (1997). \"A post-industrial paradigm: To integrate and automate manufacturing\". <i>International Journal of Production Research<\/i>. <b>35<\/b> (9): 2579\u20132600. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F002075497194679\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/002075497194679<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Production+Research&rft.atitle=A+post-industrial+paradigm%3A+To+integrate+and+automate+manufacturing&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=2579-2600&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F002075497194679&rft.au=Vonderembse%2C+M.A.%3B+Raghunathan%2C+T.S.%3B+Rao%2C+S.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystem+integration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Info2-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Info2_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMerriman1996\" class=\"citation\">Merriman, Dan (19 Feb 1996), \"Tying it all together\", <i>Network World<\/i>, IDG Network World Inc, p. 51, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0887-7661\" target=\"_blank\">0887-7661<\/a><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tying+it+all+together&rft.btitle=Network+World&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=IDG+Network+World+Inc&rft.date=1996-02-19&rft.issn=0887-7661&rft.aulast=Merriman&rft.aufirst=Dan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystem+integration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-E-gov-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-E-gov_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLau2005\" class=\"citation\">Lau, Edwin (2005), \"Multi-channel Service Delivery\", <i>OECD e-Government Studies e-Government for Better Government<\/i>, Paris: OECD, p. 52, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC\" title=\"OCLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e119fc7e1d352d47ef5b80f32a4b20c3\">OCLC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/224889830\" target=\"_blank\">224889830<\/a><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Multi-channel+Service+Delivery&rft.btitle=OECD+e-Government+Studies+e-Government+for+Better+Government&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=OECD&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F224889830&rft.aulast=Lau&rft.aufirst=Edwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystem+integration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Integ-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Integ_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Integ_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Integ_8-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Integ_8-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGold-BernsteinRuh2005\" class=\"citation\">Gold-Bernstein, Beth; Ruh, William A (2005), <i>Enterprise integration: the essential guide to integration solutions<\/i>, Addison Wesley, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-321-22390-X<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enterprise+integration%3A+the+essential+guide+to+integration+solutions&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-321-22390-X&rft.aulast=Gold-Bernstein&rft.aufirst=Beth&rft.au=Ruh%2C+William+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASystem+integration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.controlsys.org\" target=\"_blank\">CSIA (Control System Integrators Association)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>www.integration.engineering<\/li><\/ul>\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1324\nCached time: 20190324180519\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.240 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.295 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 607\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 38023\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 82\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 7\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 3\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 22019\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 3\/400\nLua time usage: 0.139\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4.12 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 237.318 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>75.57% 179.332 1 Template:Reflist\n61.41% 145.727 6 Template:Citation\n14.60% 34.654 1 Template:Software_development_process\n 6.53% 15.493 1 Template:Systems_Engineering\n 5.79% 13.751 1 Template:Cite_journal\n 3.96% 9.406 1 Template:Navbox\n 1.10% 2.609 1 Template:Main_other\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:8576385-1!canonical and timestamp 20190324180519 and revision id 880746383\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_integration\" data-key=\"f6418d682ca1c64236b013d57e27099f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203018\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.010 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.151 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 144.798 1 - wikipedia:System_integration\n100.00% 144.798 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10593-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203018 and revision id 33267\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/System_integration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/System_integration<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_images":[],"65c80aae9714da73905a2a343d8e6a81_timestamp":1554323418,"2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_type":"article","2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_title":"SCADA","2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA","2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tSCADA\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\nPart of a series of articles onManufacturing\nManufacturing methods\nBatch production\nJob production\nFlow production\n\nImprovement methods\nRCM\nTPM\nVDM\nQRM\nTOC\nLean\nSix Sigma\nTQM\nZD\n\nInformation and communication\nISA-88\nISA-95\nERP\nIEC 62264\nB2MML\n\nProcess control\nPLC\nDCS\nSCADA\nvte\nSupervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) is a control system architecture that uses computers, networked data communications and graphical user interfaces for high-level process supervisory management, but uses other peripheral devices such as programmable logic controller (PLC) and discrete PID controllers to interface with the process plant or machinery. \nThe use of SCADA has been also considered for management and operations of project-driven-process in construction.[1]\n\nContents \n\n1 Explanation \n2 The SCADA concept in control operations \n3 Examples of use \n4 SCADA system components \n\n4.1 Supervisory computers \n4.2 Remote terminal units \n4.3 Programmable logic controllers \n4.4 Communication infrastructure \n4.5 Human-machine interface \n\n\n5 Alarm handling \n6 PLC\/RTU programming \n7 PLC commercial integration \n8 Communication infrastructure and methods \n9 SCADA architecture development \n\n9.1 First generation: \"monolithic\" \n9.2 Second generation: \"distributed\" \n9.3 Third generation: \"networked\" \n9.4 Fourth generation: \"Internet of things\" \n\n\n10 Security issues \n11 See also \n12 References \n13 External links \n\n\nExplanation \nThe operator interfaces that enable monitoring and the issuing of process commands, such as controller set point changes, are handled through the SCADA computer system. However, the real-time control logic or controller calculations are performed by networked modules that connect to the field sensors and actuators.\nThe SCADA concept was developed as a universal means of remote access to a variety of local control modules, which could be from different manufacturers allowing access through standard automation protocols. In practice, large SCADA systems have grown to become very similar to distributed control systems in function, but using multiple means of interfacing with the plant. They can control large-scale processes that can include multiple sites, and work over large distances as well as small distance.[2] It is one of the most commonly-used types of industrial control systems, however there are concerns about SCADA systems being vulnerable to cyberwarfare\/cyberterrorism attacks.[3]\n\nThe SCADA concept in control operations \n Functional levels of a manufacturing control operation\nThe key attribute of a SCADA system is its ability to perform a supervisory operation over a variety of other proprietary devices.\nThe accompanying diagram is a general model which shows functional manufacturing levels using computerised control.\nReferring to the diagram,\n\nLevel 0 contains the field devices such as flow and temperature sensors, and final control elements, such as control valves.\nLevel 1 contains the industrialised input\/output (I\/O) modules, and their associated distributed electronic processors.\nLevel 2 contains the supervisory computers, which collate information from processor nodes on the system, and provide the operator control screens.\nLevel 3 is the production control level, which does not directly control the process, but is concerned with monitoring production and targets.\nLevel 4 is the production scheduling level.\nLevel 1 contains the programmable logic controllers (PLCs) or remote terminal units (RTUs).\nLevel 2 contains the SCADA software and computing platform. The SCADA software exists only at this supervisory level as control actions are performed automatically by RTUs or PLCs. SCADA control functions are usually restricted to basic overriding or supervisory level intervention. For example, a PLC may control the flow of cooling water through part of an industrial process to a set point level, but the SCADA system software will allow operators to change the set points for the flow. The SCADA also enables alarm conditions, such as loss of flow or high temperature, to be displayed and recorded. A feedback control loop is directly controlled by the RTU or PLC, but the SCADA software monitors the overall performance of the loop.\nLevels 3 and 4 are not strictly process control in the traditional sense, but are where production control and scheduling takes place.\nData acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes instrumentation readings and equipment status reports that are communicated to level 2 SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI (Human Machine Interface) can make supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to a historian, often built on a commodity database management system, to allow trending and other analytical auditing.\nSCADA systems typically use a tag database, which contains data elements called tags or points, which relate to specific instrumentation or actuators within the process system according to such as the Piping and instrumentation diagram. Data is accumulated against these unique process control equipment tag references.\n\nExamples of use \n Example of SCADA used in office environment to remotely monitor a process\nBoth large and small systems can be built using the SCADA concept. These systems can range from just tens to thousands of control loops, depending on the application. Example processes include industrial, infrastructure, and facility-based processes, as described below:\n\nIndustrial processes include manufacturing, Process control, power generation, fabrication, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.\nInfrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electric power transmission and distribution, and wind farms.\nFacility processes, including buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor and control heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems (HVAC), access, and energy consumption.\nHowever, SCADA systems may have security vulnerabilities, so the systems should be evaluated to identify risks and solutions implemented to mitigate those risks.[4]\n\nSCADA system components \n Typical SCADA mimic shown as an animation. For process plant, these are based upon the piping and instrumentation diagram.\nA SCADA system usually consists of the following main elements:\n\nSupervisory computers \nThis is the core of the SCADA system, gathering data on the process and sending control commands to the field connected devices. It refers to the computer and software responsible for communicating with the field connection controllers, which are RTUs and PLCs, and includes the HMI software running on operator workstations. In smaller SCADA systems, the supervisory computer may be composed of a single PC, in which case the HMI is a part of this computer. In larger SCADA systems, the master station may include several HMIs hosted on client computers, multiple servers for data acquisition, distributed software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To increase the integrity of the system the multiple servers will often be configured in a dual-redundant or hot-standby formation providing continuous control and monitoring in the event of a server malfunction or breakdown.\n\nRemote terminal units \nFurther information: Remote terminal unit\nRemote terminal units, also known as (RTUs), connect to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory computer system. RTUs are \"intelligent I\/O\" and often have embedded control capabilities such as ladder logic in order to accomplish boolean logic operations.[5]\n\nProgrammable logic controllers \nFurther information: Programmable logic controller\nAlso known as PLCs, these are connected to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory system in the same way as RTUs. PLCs have more sophisticated embedded control capabilities than RTUs, and are programmed in one or more IEC 61131-3 programming languages. PLCs are often used in place of RTUs as field devices because they are more economical, versatile, flexible and configurable.\n\nCommunication infrastructure \nThis connects the supervisory computer system to the RTUs and PLCs, and may use industry standard or manufacturer proprietary protocols.\nBoth RTU's and PLC's operate autonomously on the near-real time control of the process, using the last command given from the supervisory system. Failure of the communications network does not necessarily stop the plant process controls, and on resumption of communications, the operator can continue with monitoring and control. Some critical systems will have dual redundant data highways, often cabled via diverse routes.\n\nHuman-machine interface \nFurther information: Graphical user interface\nPlay media More complex SCADA animation showing control of four batch cookers\nThe human-machine interface (HMI) is the operator window of the supervisory system. It presents plant information to the operating personnel graphically in the form of mimic diagrams, which are a schematic representation of the plant being controlled, and alarm and event logging pages. The HMI is linked to the SCADA supervisory computer to provide live data to drive the mimic diagrams, alarm displays and trending graphs. In many installations the HMI is the graphical user interface for the operator, collects all data from external devices, creates reports, performs alarming, sends notifications, etc.\nMimic diagrams consist of line graphics and schematic symbols to represent process elements, or may consist of digital photographs of the process equipment overlain with animated symbols.\nSupervisory operation of the plant is by means of the HMI, with operators issuing commands using mouse pointers, keyboards and touch screens. For example, a symbol of a pump can show the operator that the pump is running, and a flow meter symbol can show how much fluid it is pumping through the pipe. The operator can switch the pump off from the mimic by a mouse click or screen touch. The HMI will show the flow rate of the fluid in the pipe decrease in real time.\nThe HMI package for a SCADA system typically includes a drawing program that the operators or system maintenance personnel use to change the way these points are represented in the interface. These representations can be as simple as an on-screen traffic light, which represents the state of an actual traffic light in the field, or as complex as a multi-projector display representing the position of all of the elevators in a skyscraper or all of the trains on a railway.\nA \"historian\", is a software service within the HMI which accumulates time-stamped data, events, and alarms in a database which can be queried or used to populate graphic trends in the HMI. The historian is a client that requests data from a data acquisition server.[6]\n\nAlarm handling \nFurther information: Alarm management\nAn important part of most SCADA implementations is alarm handling. The system monitors whether certain alarm conditions are satisfied, to determine when an alarm event has occurred. Once an alarm event has been detected, one or more actions are taken (such as the activation of one or more alarm indicators, and perhaps the generation of email or text messages so that management or remote SCADA operators are informed). In many cases, a SCADA operator may have to acknowledge the alarm event; this may deactivate some alarm indicators, whereas other indicators remain active until the alarm conditions are cleared.\nAlarm conditions can be explicit\u2014for example, an alarm point is a digital status point that has either the value NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated by a formula based on the values in other analogue and digital points\u2014or implicit: the SCADA system might automatically monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies outside high and low- limit values associated with that point.\nExamples of alarm indicators include a siren, a pop-up box on a screen, or a coloured or flashing area on a screen (that might act in a similar way to the \"fuel tank empty\" light in a car); in each case, the role of the alarm indicator is to draw the operator's attention to the part of the system 'in alarm' so that appropriate action can be taken.\n\n PLC\/RTU programming \n\"Smart\" RTUs, or standard PLCs, are capable of autonomously executing simple logic processes without involving the supervisory computer. They employ standardized control programming languages such as under, IEC 61131-3 (a suite of 5 programming languages including function block, ladder, structured text, sequence function charts and instruction list), is frequently used to create programs which run on these RTUs and PLCs. Unlike a procedural language such as the C programming language or FORTRAN, IEC 61131-3 has minimal training requirements by virtue of resembling historic physical control arrays. This allows SCADA system engineers to perform both the design and implementation of a program to be executed on an RTU or PLC.\nA programmable automation controller (PAC) is a compact controller that combines the features and capabilities of a PC-based control system with that of a typical PLC. PACs are deployed in SCADA systems to provide RTU and PLC functions. In many electrical substation SCADA applications, \"distributed RTUs\" use information processors or station computers to communicate with digital protective relays, PACs, and other devices for I\/O, and communicate with the SCADA master in lieu of a traditional RTU.\n\nPLC commercial integration \nSince about 1998, virtually all major PLC manufacturers have offered integrated HMI\/SCADA systems, many of them using open and non-proprietary communications protocols. Numerous specialized third-party HMI\/SCADA packages, offering built-in compatibility with most major PLCs, have also entered the market, allowing mechanical engineers, electrical engineers and technicians to configure HMIs themselves, without the need for a custom-made program written by a software programmer.\nThe Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals from the equipment to digital values such as the open\/closed status from a switch or a valve, or measurements such as pressure, flow, voltage or current. By converting and sending these electrical signals out to equipment the RTU can control equipment, such as opening or closing a switch or a valve, or setting the speed of a pump.\n\nCommunication infrastructure and methods \nSCADA systems have traditionally used combinations of radio and direct wired connections, although SONET\/SDH is also frequently used for large systems such as railways and power stations. The remote management or monitoring function of a SCADA system is often referred to as telemetry. Some users want SCADA data to travel over their pre-established corporate networks or to share the network with other applications. The legacy of the early low-bandwidth protocols remains, though.\nSCADA protocols are designed to be very compact. Many are designed to send information only when the master station polls the RTU. Typical legacy SCADA protocols include Modbus RTU, RP-570, Profibus and Conitel. These communication protocols, with the exception of Modbus (Modbus has been made open by Schneider Electric), are all SCADA-vendor specific but are widely adopted and used. Standard protocols are IEC 60870-5-101 or 104, IEC 61850 and DNP3. These communication protocols are standardized and recognized by all major SCADA vendors. Many of these protocols now contain extensions to operate over TCP\/IP. Although the use of conventional networking specifications, such as TCP\/IP, blurs the line between traditional and industrial networking, they each fulfill fundamentally differing requirements.[7] Network simulation can be used in conjunction with SCADA simulators to perform various 'what-if' analyses.\nWith increasing security demands (such as North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) and critical infrastructure protection (CIP) in the US), there is increasing use of satellite-based communication. This has the key advantages that the infrastructure can be self-contained (not using circuits from the public telephone system), can have built-in encryption, and can be engineered to the availability and reliability required by the SCADA system operator. Earlier experiences using consumer-grade VSAT were poor. Modern carrier-class systems provide the quality of service required for SCADA.[8]\nRTUs and other automatic controller devices were developed before the advent of industry wide standards for interoperability. The result is that developers and their management created a multitude of control protocols. Among the larger vendors, there was also the incentive to create their own protocol to \"lock in\" their customer base. A list of automation protocols is compiled here.\nOLE for process control (OPC) can connect different hardware and software, allowing communication even between devices originally not intended to be part of an industrial network.\nStandardisation in the field of mySCADA protocols resulted into the vendor independent protocol called OPC UA (Unified Architecture). OPC UA is starting to be widely adopted among multiple SCADA vendors.\n\nSCADA architecture development \n The United States Army's Training Manual 5-601 covers \"SCADA Systems for C4ISR Facilities\"\nSCADA systems have evolved through four generations as follows:[9][10][11]\n\n First generation: \"monolithic\" \nEarly SCADA system computing was done by large minicomputers. Common network services did not exist at the time SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent systems with no connectivity to other systems. The communication protocols used were strictly proprietary at that time. The first-generation SCADA system redundancy was achieved using a back-up mainframe system connected to all the Remote Terminal Unit sites and was used in the event of failure of the primary mainframe system.[12] Some first generation SCADA systems were developed as \"turn key\" operations that ran on minicomputers such as the PDP-11 series made by the Digital Equipment Corporation.[citation needed ].\n\n Second generation: \"distributed\" \nSCADA information and command processing was distributed across multiple stations which were connected through a LAN. Information was shared in near real time. Each station was responsible for a particular task, which reduced the cost as compared to First Generation SCADA. The network protocols used were still not standardized. Since these protocols were proprietary, very few people beyond the developers knew enough to determine how secure a SCADA installation was. Security of the SCADA installation was usually overlooked.\n\n Third generation: \"networked\" \nSimilar to a distributed architecture, any complex SCADA can be reduced to the simplest components and connected through communication protocols. In the case of a networked design, the system may be spread across more than one LAN network called a process control network (PCN) and separated geographically. Several distributed architecture SCADAs running in parallel, with a single supervisor and historian, could be considered a network architecture. This allows for a more cost-effective solution in very large scale systems.\n\n Fourth generation: \"Internet of things\" \nWith the commercial availability of cloud computing, SCADA systems have increasingly adopted Internet of things technology to significantly improve interoperability,[13] reduce infrastructure costs and increase ease of maintenance and integration.[14] As a result, SCADA systems can now report state in near real-time and use the horizontal scale available in cloud environments to implement more complex control algorithms [15] than are practically feasible to implement on traditional programmable logic controllers.[16] Further, the use of open network protocols such as TLS inherent in the Internet of things technology, provides a more readily comprehensible and manageable security boundary than the heterogeneous mix of proprietary network protocols typical of many decentralized SCADA implementations.\nThis decentralization of data also requires a different approach to SCADA than traditional PLC based programs. When a SCADA system is used locally, the preferred methodology involves binding the graphics on the user interface to the data stored in specific PLC memory addresses. However, when the data comes from a disparate mix of sensors, controllers and databases (which may be local or at varied connected locations), the typical 1 to 1 mapping becomes problematic. A solution to this is data modeling, a concept derived from object oriented programming.[17]\nIn a data model, a virtual representation of each device is constructed in the SCADA software. These virtual representations (\u201cmodels\u201d) can contain not just the address mapping of the device represented, but also any other pertinent information (web based info, database entries, media files, etc.) that may be used by other facets of the SCADA\/IoT implementation. As the increased complexity of the Internet of things renders traditional SCADA increasingly \u201chouse-bound,\u201d and as communication protocols evolve to favor platform-independent, service-oriented architecture (such as OPC UA),[18] it is likely that more SCADA software developers will implement some form of data modeling.\n\nSecurity issues \nSCADA systems that tie together decentralized facilities such as power, oil, gas pipelines, water distribution and wastewater collection systems were designed to be open, robust, and easily operated and repaired, but not necessarily secure.[19] The move from proprietary technologies to more standardized and open solutions together with the increased number of connections between SCADA systems, office networks and the Internet has made them more vulnerable to types of network attacks that are relatively common in computer security. For example, United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT) released a vulnerability advisory[20] warning that unauthenticated users could download sensitive configuration information including password hashes from an Inductive Automation Ignition system utilizing a standard attack type leveraging access to the Tomcat Embedded Web server. Security researcher Jerry Brown submitted a similar advisory regarding a buffer overflow vulnerability[21] in a Wonderware InBatchClient ActiveX control. Both vendors made updates available prior to public vulnerability release. Mitigation recommendations were standard patching practices and requiring VPN access for secure connectivity. Consequently, the security of some SCADA-based systems has come into question as they are seen as potentially vulnerable to cyber attacks.[3][22][23]\nIn particular, security researchers are concerned about\n\nthe lack of concern about security and authentication in the design, deployment and operation of some existing SCADA networks\nthe belief that SCADA systems have the benefit of security through obscurity through the use of specialized protocols and proprietary interfaces\nthe belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are physically secured\nthe belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are disconnected from the Internet\nSCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, examples of which are transmission of electricity, transportation of gas and oil in pipelines, water distribution, traffic lights, and other systems used as the basis of modern society. The security of these SCADA systems is important because compromise or destruction of these systems would impact multiple areas of society far removed from the original compromise. For example, a blackout caused by a compromised electrical SCADA system would cause financial losses to all the customers that received electricity from that source. How security will affect legacy SCADA and new deployments remains to be seen.\nThere are many threat vectors to a modern SCADA system. One is the threat of unauthorized access to the control software, whether it is human access or changes induced intentionally or accidentally by virus infections and other software threats residing on the control host machine. Another is the threat of packet access to the network segments hosting SCADA devices. In many cases, the control protocol lacks any form of cryptographic security, allowing an attacker to control a SCADA device by sending commands over a network. In many cases SCADA users have assumed that having a VPN offered sufficient protection, unaware that security can be trivially bypassed with physical access to SCADA-related network jacks and switches. Industrial control vendors suggest approaching SCADA security like Information Security with a defense in depth strategy that leverages common IT practices.[24]\nThe reliable function of SCADA systems in our modern infrastructure may be crucial to public health and safety. As such, attacks on these systems may directly or indirectly threaten public health and safety. Such an attack has already occurred, carried out on Maroochy Shire Council's sewage control system in Queensland, Australia.[25] Shortly after a contractor installed a SCADA system in January 2000, system components began to function erratically. Pumps did not run when needed and alarms were not reported. More critically, sewage flooded a nearby park and contaminated an open surface-water drainage ditch and flowed 500 meters to a tidal canal. The SCADA system was directing sewage valves to open when the design protocol should have kept them closed. Initially this was believed to be a system bug. Monitoring of the system logs revealed the malfunctions were the result of cyber attacks. Investigators reported 46 separate instances of malicious outside interference before the culprit was identified. The attacks were made by a disgruntled ex-employee of the company that had installed the SCADA system. The ex-employee was hoping to be hired by the utility full-time to maintain the system.\nIn April 2008, the Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States from Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) Attack issued a Critical Infrastructures Report which discussed the extreme vulnerability of SCADA systems to an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) event. After testing and analysis, the Commission concluded: \"SCADA systems are vulnerable to an EMP event. The large numbers and widespread reliance on such systems by all of the Nation\u2019s critical infrastructures represent a systemic threat to their continued operation following an EMP event. Additionally, the necessity to reboot, repair, or replace large numbers of geographically widely dispersed systems will considerably impede the Nation\u2019s recovery from such an assault.\"[26]\nMany vendors of SCADA and control products have begun to address the risks posed by unauthorized access by developing lines of specialized industrial firewall and VPN solutions for TCP\/IP-based SCADA networks as well as external SCADA monitoring and recording equipment.\nThe International Society of Automation (ISA) started formalizing SCADA security requirements in 2007 with a working group, WG4. WG4 \"deals specifically with unique technical requirements, measurements, and other features required to evaluate and assure security resilience and performance of industrial automation and control systems devices\".[27]\n\n<\/p>The increased interest in SCADA vulnerabilities has resulted in vulnerability researchers discovering vulnerabilities in commercial SCADA software and more general offensive SCADA techniques presented to the general security community.[28] In electric and gas utility SCADA systems, the vulnerability of the large installed base of wired and wireless serial communications links is addressed in some cases by applying bump-in-the-wire devices that employ authentication and Advanced Encryption Standard encryption rather than replacing all existing nodes.[29]\nIn June 2010, anti-virus security company VirusBlokAda reported the first detection of malware that attacks SCADA systems (Siemens' WinCC\/PCS 7 systems) running on Windows operating systems. The malware is called Stuxnet and uses four zero-day attacks to install a rootkit which in turn logs into the SCADA's database and steals design and control files.[30][31] The malware is also capable of changing the control system and hiding those changes. The malware was found on 14 systems, the majority of which were located in Iran.[32]\nIn October 2013 National Geographic released a docudrama titled American Blackout which dealt with an imagined large-scale cyber attack on SCADA and the United States' electrical grid.[33]\n\nSee also \nDNP3\nIEC 60870\nEPICS\nReferences \n\n\n^ Antunes, Ricardo; Poshdar, Mani (2018). \"Envision of an integrated information system for project-driven production in construction\". Proc. 26th Annual Conference of the International. Group for Lean Construction (IGLC): 134\u2013143. doi:10.24928\/2018\/0511. Retrieved 27 December 2018 . \n\n^ Boys, Walt (18 August 2009). \"Back to Basics: SCADA\". Automation TV: Control Global - Control Design. \n\n^ a b \"Cyberthreats, Vulnerabilities and Attacks on SCADA Networks\" (PDF) . Rosa Tang, berkeley.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2012. Retrieved 1 August 2012 . \n\n^ Boyer, Stuart A. (2010). SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. USA: ISA - International Society of Automation. p. 179. ISBN 978-1-936007-09-7. \n\n^ Jeff Hieb (2008). Security Hardened Remote Terminal Units for SCADA Networks. University of Louisville. \n\n^ Aquino-Santos, Raul (30 November 2010). Emerging Technologies in Wireless Ad-hoc Networks: Applications and Future Development: Applications and Future Development. IGI Global. pp. 43\u2013. ISBN 978-1-60960-029-7. \n\n^ \"Introduction to Industrial Control Networks\" (PDF) . IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials. 2012. \n\n^ Bergan, Christian (August 2011). \"Demystifying Satellite for the Smart Grid: Four Common Misconceptions\". Electric Light & Powers. Utility Automation & Engineering T&D. Tulsa, OK: PennWell. 16 (8). Four. Retrieved 2 May 2012 . satellite is a cost-effective and secure solution that can provide backup communications and easily support core smart grid applications like SCADA, telemetry, AMI backhaul and distribution automation \n\n^ OFFICE OF THE MANAGER NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMctober 2004. \"Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems\" (PDF) . NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM. \n\n^ \"SCADA Systems april 2014\". \n\n^ J. Russel. \"A Brief History of SCADA\/EMS (2015)\". Archived from the original on 11 August 2015. \n\n^ Security Hardened Remote Terminal Units for SCADA Networks. ProQuest. 2008. pp. 12\u2013. ISBN 978-0-549-54831-7. \n\n^ \"SCADA as a service approach for interoperability of micro-grid platforms\". Sustainable Energy, Grids and Network. 2016. doi:10.1016\/j.segan.2016.08.001. \n\n^ SCADA and the Internet of Things Retrieved May 22, 2017 \n\n^ \"SCADA as a service approach for interoperability of micro-grid platforms\", Sustainable Energy, Grids and Network, 2016, doi:10.1016\/j.segan.2016.08.001 \n\n^ How The \"Internet Of Things\" Is Turning Cities Into Living Organisms Archived 21 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved September 16, 2013 \n\n^ \"The History of Data Modeling\". Exforsys Inc. 11 January 2007. \n\n^ \"CIM and OPC UA for interoperability of micro-grid platforms\". Proceedings of the IEEE ISGT 2016 Conference. 6 September 2016. \n\n^ Boyes, Walt (2011). Instrumentation Reference Book, 4th Edition. USA: Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 27. ISBN 0-7506-8308-2. \n\n^ \"ICSA-11-231-01\u2014INDUCTIVE AUTOMATION IGNITION INFORMATION DISCLOSURE VULNERABILITY\" (PDF) . 19 Aug 2011. Retrieved 21 Jan 2013 . \n\n^ \"ICSA-11-094-01\u2014WONDERWARE INBATCH CLIENT ACTIVEX BUFFER OVERFLOW\" (PDF) . 13 Apr 2011. Retrieved 26 Mar 2013 . \n\n^ D. Maynor and R. Graham (2006). \"SCADA Security and Terrorism: We're Not Crying Wolf\" (PDF) . \n\n^ Robert Lemos (26 July 2006). \"SCADA system makers pushed toward security\". SecurityFocus. Retrieved 9 May 2007 . \n\n^ \"Industrial Security Best Practices\" (PDF) . Rockwell Automation. Retrieved 26 Mar 2013 . \n\n^ Slay, J.; Miller, M. (November 2007). \"Chpt 6: Lessons Learned from the Maroochy Water Breach\". Critical infrastructure protection (Online-Ausg. ed.). Springer Boston. pp. 73\u201382. ISBN 978-0-387-75461-1. Retrieved 2 May 2012 . \n\n^ http:\/\/www.empcommission.org\/docs\/A2473-EMP_Commission-7MB.pdf \n\n^ \"Security for all\". InTech. June 2008. Retrieved 2 May 2012 . \n\n^ \"SCADA Security \u2013 Generic Electric Grid Malware Design\". Archived from the original on 7 January 2009. \n\n^ KEMA, Inc. (November 2006). \"Substation Communications: Enabler of Automation \/ An Assessment of Communications Technologies\". UTC \u2013 United Telecom Council: 3\u201321. \n\n^ Mills, Elinor (21 July 2010). \"Details of the first-ever control system malware (FAQ)\". CNET. Retrieved 21 July 2010 . \n\n^ \"SIMATIC WinCC \/ SIMATIC PCS 7: Information concerning Malware \/ Virus \/ Trojan\". Siemens. 21 July 2010. Retrieved 22 July 2010 . malware (trojan) which affects the visualization system WinCC SCADA. \n\n^ \"Siemens: Stuxnet worm hit industrial systems\". Archived from the original on 25 May 2012. Retrieved 16 September 2010 . \n\n^ \"American Blackout\". National Geographic Channel. Retrieved 14 October 2016 . \n\n\nExternal links \n\n\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to SCADA.\nUK SCADA security guidelines\nBBC NEWS | Technology | Spies 'infiltrate US power grid'\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: AutomationSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest 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\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 27 April 2018, at 16:37.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 1,913 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-SCADA skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">SCADA<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n\n<p><b>Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition<\/b> (<b>SCADA<\/b>) is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_system\" title=\"Control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1de85e21d2395f64ea337c4e8194d71\">control system<\/a> architecture that uses computers, networked data communications and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphical_user_interface\" title=\"Graphical user interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d175c82419cd6c13f710e9a4be77e8c\">graphical user interfaces<\/a> for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High-level\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"High-level\" data-key=\"5530ec5d57cf8ae63e60239b3809481e\">high-level<\/a> process , but uses other peripheral devices such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programmable_logic_controller\" title=\"Programmable logic controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fdc9aaee22e550e6104618c6d3a34bf\">programmable logic controller<\/a> (PLC) and discrete <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PID_controller\" title=\"PID controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6115619d3c394e56f755ee397e10eaa7\">PID controllers<\/a> to interface with the process plant or machinery. \nThe use of SCADA has been also considered for management and operations of project-driven-process in construction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Antunes2018_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Antunes2018-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Explanation\">Explanation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The operator interfaces that enable monitoring and the issuing of process commands, such as controller set point changes, are handled through the SCADA computer system. However, the real-time control logic or controller calculations are performed by networked modules that connect to the field sensors and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Actuators\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Actuators\" data-key=\"ac0ed144c0f5272f9883d48d3e134560\">actuators<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The SCADA concept was developed as a universal means of remote access to a variety of local control modules, which could be from different manufacturers allowing access through standard automation <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_automation_protocols\" title=\"List of automation protocols\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60f488306d138b9861061723cc450457\">protocols<\/a>. In practice, large SCADA systems have grown to become very similar to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_control_system\" title=\"Distributed control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77be10c62739469e9e86f0aefca144a9\">distributed control systems<\/a> in function, but using multiple means of interfacing with the plant. They can control large-scale processes that can include multiple sites, and work over large distances as well as small distance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> It is one of the most commonly-used types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_control_system\" title=\"Industrial control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7097366ddc1f8c002dc0cf5e764769df\">industrial control systems<\/a>, however there are concerns about SCADA systems being vulnerable to cyberwarfare\/cyberterrorism attacks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NGF-CA-GT-01_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NGF-CA-GT-01-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_SCADA_concept_in_control_operations\">The SCADA concept in control operations<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:502px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Functional_levels_of_a_Distributed_Control_System.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"468654e5bb47b08aaa43f5a85599d5c7\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/10\/Functional_levels_of_a_Distributed_Control_System.svg\/500px-Functional_levels_of_a_Distributed_Control_System.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Functional_levels_of_a_Distributed_Control_System.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"468654e5bb47b08aaa43f5a85599d5c7\"><\/a><\/div>Functional levels of a manufacturing control operation<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The key attribute of a SCADA system is its ability to perform a supervisory operation over a variety of other proprietary devices.\n<\/p><p>The accompanying diagram is a general model which shows functional manufacturing levels using computerised control.\n<\/p><p>Referring to the diagram,\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Level 0 contains the field devices such as flow and temperature sensors, and final control elements, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_valve\" title=\"Control valve\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c76c0213cf3ad86e102e79d75132ca9\">control valves<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Level 1 contains the industrialised input\/output (I\/O) modules, and their associated distributed electronic processors.<\/li>\n<li>Level 2 contains the supervisory computers, which collate information from processor nodes on the system, and provide the operator control screens.<\/li>\n<li>Level 3 is the production control level, which does not directly control the process, but is concerned with monitoring production and targets.<\/li>\n<li>Level 4 is the production scheduling level.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Level 1 contains the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programmable_logic_controller\" title=\"Programmable logic controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fdc9aaee22e550e6104618c6d3a34bf\">programmable logic controllers<\/a> (PLCs) or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_terminal_unit\" title=\"Remote terminal unit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"882bfdd118491b79f02a4532b92383a6\">remote terminal units<\/a> (RTUs).\n<\/p><p>Level 2 contains the SCADA software and computing platform. The SCADA software exists only at this supervisory level as control actions are performed automatically by RTUs or PLCs. SCADA control functions are usually restricted to basic overriding or supervisory level intervention. For example, a PLC may control the flow of cooling water through part of an industrial process to a set point level, but the SCADA system software will allow operators to change the set points for the flow. The SCADA also enables alarm conditions, such as loss of flow or high temperature, to be displayed and recorded. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feedback_control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Feedback control\" data-key=\"73c02c0a4a44c55c901ec6246f1d080c\">feedback control<\/a> loop is directly controlled by the RTU or PLC, but the SCADA software monitors the overall performance of the loop.\n<\/p><p>Levels 3 and 4 are not strictly process control in the traditional sense, but are where production control and scheduling takes place.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_acquisition\" title=\"Data acquisition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c69cf13f66e36272b235f14e92f284c\">Data acquisition<\/a> begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Instrumentation\" title=\"Instrumentation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07a60645c169fae7de855049eb32e485\">instrumentation<\/a> readings and equipment status reports that are communicated to level 2 SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_Machine_Interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Human Machine Interface\" data-key=\"1521262d0526ed3aa3ba74728dff4a8e\">Human Machine Interface<\/a>) can make supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_historian\" title=\"Operational historian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"39ba116c50252703fc2cce894a97975f\">historian<\/a>, often built on a commodity <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Database management system\" data-key=\"824748614afaae7c7e98b483b4aee777\">database management system<\/a>, to allow trending and other analytical auditing.\n<\/p><p>SCADA systems typically use a <i>tag database<\/i>, which contains data elements called <i>tags<\/i> or <i>points<\/i>, which relate to specific instrumentation or actuators within the process system according to such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Piping_and_instrumentation_diagram\" title=\"Piping and instrumentation diagram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01f7fe804abadbb882e52dbd16026b49\">Piping and instrumentation diagram<\/a>. Data is accumulated against these unique process control equipment tag references.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Examples_of_use\">Examples of use<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Freer_Water_Control_and_Improvement_District_-_Diana_Adame.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"202d9c1da4a758086d87f55a99569dcd\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fb\/Freer_Water_Control_and_Improvement_District_-_Diana_Adame.jpg\/220px-Freer_Water_Control_and_Improvement_District_-_Diana_Adame.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"146\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Freer_Water_Control_and_Improvement_District_-_Diana_Adame.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"202d9c1da4a758086d87f55a99569dcd\"><\/a><\/div>Example of SCADA used in office environment to remotely monitor a process<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Both large and small systems can be built using the SCADA concept. These systems can range from just tens to thousands of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_loop\" title=\"Control loop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8418ef4a8e592bc5027f4a562871f2d\">control loops<\/a>, depending on the application. Example processes include industrial, infrastructure, and facility-based processes, as described below:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_process\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Industrial process\" data-key=\"d9cdfe84733dd18d56b41060aa6b1d21\">Industrial processes<\/a> include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manufacturing\" title=\"Manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6006bee4beb95438f126e392ca7941c7\">manufacturing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_control\" title=\"Process control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d54acfdf96b6148908918addebc4599d\">Process control<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Power_generation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Power generation\" data-key=\"9b75c2cb2c0471ab660f002cf2602ce0\">power generation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fabrication_(metal)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fabrication (metal)\" data-key=\"6a3ba705deb22a29b797a5ec1075318d\">fabrication<\/a>, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrastructure\" title=\"Infrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb70668db4564897263976d0920fec5\">Infrastructure<\/a> processes may be public or private, and include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_treatment\" title=\"Water treatment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01c5bdee79105707e542fc537884b7c7\">water treatment<\/a> and distribution, wastewater collection and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waste_water_treatment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Waste water treatment\" data-key=\"2669bfd7bb8ab9f1710fe0ff232ee43c\">treatment<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fossil_gas_pipeline\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fossil gas pipeline\" data-key=\"6d442d53c068b8ac7660617fe76cfacd\">oil and gas pipelines<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric_power_transmission\" title=\"Electric power transmission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fbf6feb5061cc7364cc11b7b3d8cab1\">electric power transmission<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric_power_distribution\" title=\"Electric power distribution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96df69cefaf15aed56a711b0b0429d4b\">distribution<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wind_farm\" title=\"Wind farm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3890e79c5be3cee5d22b1eba5331aeba\">wind farms<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Facility processes, including buildings, airports, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ship#Today\" title=\"Ship\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b29dd8a33ba41c1b6927563c3690a3d\">ships<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Space_station\" title=\"Space station\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d59a845d2ea7886f07e3ee2903e3aef\">space stations<\/a>. They monitor and control <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heating,_ventilation,_and_air_conditioning\" title=\"Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3668cf02b534a55f05c569594b227668\">heating, ventilation, and air conditioning<\/a> systems (HVAC), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control\" title=\"Access control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f978f594d7eee9299dbb3da18ee80a8c\">access<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Efficient_energy_use\" title=\"Efficient energy use\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23990d9aad3c8edc9cd59c0d0acd3f66\">energy consumption<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>However, SCADA systems may have security vulnerabilities, so the systems should be evaluated to identify risks and solutions implemented to mitigate those risks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"SCADA_system_components\">SCADA system components<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Scada_std_anim_no_lang.gif\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"d98c0dff772fac7bcad7ff7acfe666b8\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/88\/Scada_std_anim_no_lang.gif\/220px-Scada_std_anim_no_lang.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"157\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Scada_std_anim_no_lang.gif\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"d98c0dff772fac7bcad7ff7acfe666b8\"><\/a><\/div>Typical SCADA mimic shown as an animation. For process plant, these are based upon the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Piping_and_instrumentation_diagram\" title=\"Piping and instrumentation diagram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01f7fe804abadbb882e52dbd16026b49\">piping and instrumentation diagram<\/a>.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>A SCADA system usually consists of the following main elements:\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Supervisory_computers\">Supervisory computers<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This is the core of the SCADA system, gathering data on the process and sending control commands to the field connected devices. It refers to the computer and software responsible for communicating with the field connection controllers, which are RTUs and PLCs, and includes the HMI software running on operator workstations. In smaller SCADA systems, the supervisory computer may be composed of a single PC, in which case the HMI is a part of this computer. In larger SCADA systems, the master station may include several HMIs hosted on client computers, multiple servers for data acquisition, distributed software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To increase the integrity of the system the multiple servers will often be configured in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dual_modular_redundancy\" title=\"Dual modular redundancy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c4092737f9e2c96a615aa5e5421a31a\">dual-redundant<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hot_spare\" title=\"Hot spare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cff8ae8c52b2cc2a87ac89f2a23ed5c4\">hot-standby<\/a> formation providing continuous control and monitoring in the event of a server malfunction or breakdown.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Remote_terminal_units\">Remote terminal units<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_terminal_unit\" title=\"Remote terminal unit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"882bfdd118491b79f02a4532b92383a6\">Remote terminal unit<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_terminal_unit\" title=\"Remote terminal unit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"882bfdd118491b79f02a4532b92383a6\">Remote terminal units<\/a>, also known as (RTUs), connect to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory computer system. RTUs are \"intelligent I\/O\" and often have embedded control capabilities such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ladder_logic\" title=\"Ladder logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1232cf9dbdaf33ef0f07680000d09691\">ladder logic<\/a> in order to accomplish <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boolean_expression\" title=\"Boolean expression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b68573f9f90d6e7ccd7f37936f11552\">boolean<\/a> logic operations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hieb2008_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hieb2008-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Programmable_logic_controllers\">Programmable logic controllers<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programmable_logic_controller\" title=\"Programmable logic controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fdc9aaee22e550e6104618c6d3a34bf\">Programmable logic controller<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Also known as PLCs, these are connected to sensors and actuators in the process, and are networked to the supervisory system in the same way as RTUs. PLCs have more sophisticated embedded control capabilities than RTUs, and are programmed in one or more <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_61131-3\" title=\"IEC 61131-3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d89c32d05b417e5ae2fee75a6f8b51e\">IEC 61131-3<\/a> programming languages. PLCs are often used in place of RTUs as field devices because they are more economical, versatile, flexible and configurable.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Communication_infrastructure\">Communication infrastructure<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This connects the supervisory computer system to the RTUs and PLCs, and may use industry standard or manufacturer proprietary protocols.\nBoth RTU's and PLC's operate autonomously on the near-real time control of the process, using the last command given from the supervisory system. Failure of the communications network does not necessarily stop the plant process controls, and on resumption of communications, the operator can continue with monitoring and control. Some critical systems will have dual redundant data highways, often cabled via diverse routes.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Human-machine_interface\">Human-machine interface<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphical_user_interface\" title=\"Graphical user interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d175c82419cd6c13f710e9a4be77e8c\">Graphical user interface<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><div id=\"rdp-ebb-mwe_player_0\" class=\"PopUpMediaTransform\" style=\"width:220px;\" videopayload=\"<div class="mediaContainer" style="width:838px"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/838px--Scada_Animation.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" autoplay="" style="width:838px;height:480px" class="kskin" data-durationhint="64" data-startoffset="0" data-mwtitle="Scada_Animation.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-title="SD VP9 (480P)" data-shorttitle="VP9 480P" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="838" data-height="480" data-bandwidth="22656" data-framerate="1"\/><source src="\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.480p.webm" type="video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-title="SD WebM (480P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 480P" data-transcodekey="480p.webm" data-width="838" data-height="480" data-bandwidth="63008" data-framerate="1"\/><source src="\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv" type="video\/ogg; codecs=&quot;theora&quot;" data-title="Original Ogg file, 960 \u00d7 550 (116 kbps)" data-shorttitle="Ogg source" data-width="960" data-height="550" data-bandwidth="115987" data-framerate="1"\/><source src="\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.120p.vp9.webm" type="video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-title="Lowest bandwidth VP9 (120P)" data-shorttitle="VP9 120P" data-transcodekey="120p.vp9.webm" data-width="210" data-height="120" data-bandwidth="3176" data-framerate="1"\/><source src="\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.160p.webm" type="video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-title="Low bandwidth WebM (160P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 160P" data-transcodekey="160p.webm" data-width="280" data-height="160" data-bandwidth="14072" data-framerate="1"\/><source src="\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.180p.vp9.webm" type="video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-title="Low bandwidth VP9 (180P)" data-shorttitle="VP9 180P" data-transcodekey="180p.vp9.webm" data-width="314" data-height="180" data-bandwidth="5328" data-framerate="1"\/><source src="\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-title="Small VP9 (240P)" data-shorttitle="VP9 240P" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="418" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="6912" data-framerate="1"\/><source src="\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.240p.webm" type="video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-title="Small WebM (240P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 240P" data-transcodekey="240p.webm" data-width="418" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="25216" data-framerate="1"\/><source src="\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-title="VP9 (360P)" data-shorttitle="VP9 360P" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="628" data-height="360" data-bandwidth="12432" data-framerate="1"\/><source src="\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/Scada_Animation.ogv.360p.webm" type="video\/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-title="WebM (360P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 360P" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="628" data-height="360" data-bandwidth="36896" data-framerate="1"\/><\/video><\/div>\"><img alt=\"File:Scada Animation.ogv\" style=\"width:220px;height:126px\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\/220px--Scada_Animation.ogv.jpg\" \/><a href=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/d8\/Scada_Animation.ogv\" title=\"Play media\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"external_link\"><span class=\"play-btn-large\"><span class=\"mw-tmh-playtext\">Play media<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/div> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Scada_Animation.ogv\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"57a62c86850286ff4b83470113a9f6c9\"><\/a><\/div>More complex SCADA animation showing control of four batch cookers<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The human-machine interface (HMI) is the operator window of the supervisory system. It presents plant information to the operating personnel graphically in the form of mimic diagrams, which are a schematic representation of the plant being controlled, and alarm and event logging pages. The HMI is linked to the SCADA supervisory computer to provide live data to drive the mimic diagrams, alarm displays and trending graphs. In many installations the HMI is the graphical user interface for the operator, collects all data from external devices, creates reports, performs alarming, sends notifications, etc.\n<\/p><p>Mimic diagrams consist of line graphics and schematic symbols to represent process elements, or may consist of digital photographs of the process equipment overlain with animated symbols.\n<\/p><p>Supervisory operation of the plant is by means of the HMI, with operators issuing commands using mouse pointers, keyboards and touch screens. For example, a symbol of a pump can show the operator that the pump is running, and a flow meter symbol can show how much fluid it is pumping through the pipe. The operator can switch the pump off from the mimic by a mouse click or screen touch. The HMI will show the flow rate of the fluid in the pipe decrease in real time.\n<\/p><p>The HMI package for a SCADA system typically includes a drawing program that the operators or system maintenance personnel use to change the way these points are represented in the interface. These representations can be as simple as an on-screen traffic light, which represents the state of an actual traffic light in the field, or as complex as a multi-projector display representing the position of all of the elevators in a skyscraper or all of the trains on a railway.\n<\/p><p>A <b>\"historian\",<\/b> is a software service within the HMI which accumulates time-stamped data, events, and alarms in a database which can be queried or used to populate graphic trends in the HMI. The historian is a client that requests data from a data acquisition server.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Raul2010_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Raul2010-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Alarm_handling\">Alarm handling<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alarm_management\" title=\"Alarm management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c13ec479d0cec16e299d0a71dc7d98d5\">Alarm management<\/a><\/div>\n<p>An important part of most SCADA implementations is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alarm_management\" title=\"Alarm management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c13ec479d0cec16e299d0a71dc7d98d5\">alarm handling<\/a>. The system monitors whether certain alarm conditions are satisfied, to determine when an alarm event has occurred. Once an alarm event has been detected, one or more actions are taken (such as the activation of one or more alarm indicators, and perhaps the generation of email or text messages so that management or remote SCADA operators are informed). In many cases, a SCADA operator may have to acknowledge the alarm event; this may deactivate some alarm indicators, whereas other indicators remain active until the alarm conditions are cleared.\n<\/p><p>Alarm conditions can be explicit\u2014for example, an alarm point is a digital status point that has either the value NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated by a formula based on the values in other analogue and digital points\u2014or implicit: the SCADA system might automatically monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies outside high and low- limit values associated with that point.\n<\/p><p>Examples of alarm indicators include a siren, a pop-up box on a screen, or a coloured or flashing area on a screen (that might act in a similar way to the \"fuel tank empty\" light in a car); in each case, the role of the alarm indicator is to draw the operator's attention to the part of the system 'in alarm' so that appropriate action can be taken.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-PLC.2FRTU_programming\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"PLC\/RTU_programming\">PLC\/RTU programming<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>\"Smart\" RTUs, or standard PLCs, are capable of autonomously executing simple logic processes without involving the supervisory computer. They employ standardized control programming languages such as under, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_61131-3\" title=\"IEC 61131-3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d89c32d05b417e5ae2fee75a6f8b51e\">IEC 61131-3<\/a> (a suite of 5 programming languages including function block, ladder, structured text, sequence function charts and instruction list), is frequently used to create programs which run on these RTUs and PLCs. Unlike a procedural language such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/C_(programming_language)\" title=\"C (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bcae5a7bc976642e1a629835ef2d576\">C programming language<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FORTRAN\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"FORTRAN\" data-key=\"79813ce51e7eccde64a30a7e90acf3c1\">FORTRAN<\/a>, IEC 61131-3 has minimal training requirements by virtue of resembling historic physical control arrays. This allows SCADA system engineers to perform both the design and implementation of a program to be executed on an RTU or PLC.\n<\/p><p>A (PAC) is a compact controller that combines the features and capabilities of a PC-based control system with that of a typical PLC. PACs are deployed in SCADA systems to provide RTU and PLC functions. In many electrical substation SCADA applications, \"distributed RTUs\" use information processors or station computers to communicate with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_protective_relay\" title=\"Digital protective relay\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d14c5a13d41d3b780d17e7ee0ffb227\">digital protective relays<\/a>, PACs, and other devices for I\/O, and communicate with the SCADA master in lieu of a traditional RTU.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"PLC_commercial_integration\">PLC commercial integration<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Since about 1998, virtually all major PLC manufacturers have offered integrated HMI\/SCADA systems, many of them using open and non-proprietary communications protocols. Numerous specialized third-party HMI\/SCADA packages, offering built-in compatibility with most major PLCs, have also entered the market, allowing mechanical engineers, electrical engineers and technicians to configure HMIs themselves, without the need for a custom-made program written by a software programmer.\nThe Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals from the equipment to digital values such as the open\/closed status from a switch or a valve, or measurements such as pressure, flow, voltage or current. By converting and sending these electrical signals out to equipment the RTU can control equipment, such as opening or closing a switch or a valve, or setting the speed of a pump.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Communication_infrastructure_and_methods\">Communication infrastructure and methods<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>SCADA systems have traditionally used combinations of radio and direct wired connections, although <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synchronous_optical_networking\" title=\"Synchronous optical networking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"977937a300fd1c61ae940129c72c5c86\">SONET\/SDH<\/a> is also frequently used for large systems such as railways and power stations. The remote management or monitoring function of a SCADA system is often referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telemetry\" title=\"Telemetry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c545b141a6ba0ffe8a862c83b5264e29\">telemetry<\/a>. Some users want SCADA data to travel over their pre-established corporate networks or to share the network with other applications. The legacy of the early low-bandwidth protocols remains, though.\n<\/p><p>SCADA protocols are designed to be very compact. Many are designed to send information only when the master station polls the RTU. Typical legacy SCADA protocols include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modbus\" title=\"Modbus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08a97b574bdc2660de15a9f4ad46712f\">Modbus<\/a> RTU, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RP-570\" title=\"RP-570\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"965549dc43783510194f0a94dfac47ed\">RP-570<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Profibus\" title=\"Profibus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d166d7664ea6cb0b593963fc9c72026d\">Profibus<\/a> and Conitel. These communication protocols, with the exception of Modbus (Modbus has been made open by Schneider Electric), are all SCADA-vendor specific but are widely adopted and used. Standard protocols are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_60870-5\" title=\"IEC 60870-5\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f1204de617ada7950f626eda8ad019b\">IEC 60870-5-101 or 104<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_61850\" title=\"IEC 61850\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fedb4e9db17d9997b0fedd63167a893a\">IEC 61850<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNP3\" title=\"DNP3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10675409723204c80ee1bf2dcff659bc\">DNP3<\/a>. These communication protocols are standardized and recognized by all major SCADA vendors. Many of these protocols now contain extensions to operate over <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TCP\/IP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"TCP\/IP\" data-key=\"84b18b48751f58d72e97090dd52bdf15\">TCP\/IP<\/a>. Although the use of conventional networking specifications, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TCP\/IP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"TCP\/IP\" data-key=\"84b18b48751f58d72e97090dd52bdf15\">TCP\/IP<\/a>, blurs the line between traditional and industrial networking, they each fulfill fundamentally differing requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GallowayIntro_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GallowayIntro-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_simulation\" title=\"Network simulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"893b65707a026a3baf68c9eea352f2ac\">Network simulation<\/a> can be used in conjunction with SCADA simulators to perform various 'what-if' analyses.\n<\/p><p>With increasing security demands (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/North_American_Electric_Reliability_Corporation\" title=\"North American Electric Reliability Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da052fa8735d2287a614a023d243371b\">North American Electric Reliability Corporation<\/a> (NERC) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Critical_infrastructure_protection\" title=\"Critical infrastructure protection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6b3ba829d3402be1f3cf04c4af22ffd\">critical infrastructure protection<\/a> (CIP) in the US), there is increasing use of satellite-based communication. This has the key advantages that the infrastructure can be self-contained (not using circuits from the public telephone system), can have built-in encryption, and can be engineered to the availability and reliability required by the SCADA system operator. Earlier experiences using consumer-grade <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Very-small-aperture_terminal\" title=\"Very-small-aperture terminal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d54206de9b90854e5642c23c1dab6de3\">VSAT<\/a> were poor. Modern carrier-class systems provide the quality of service required for SCADA.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-berganELP_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-berganELP-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>RTUs and other automatic controller devices were developed before the advent of industry wide standards for interoperability. The result is that developers and their management created a multitude of control protocols. Among the larger vendors, there was also the incentive to create their own protocol to \"lock in\" their customer base. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_automation_protocols\" title=\"List of automation protocols\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60f488306d138b9861061723cc450457\">list of automation protocols<\/a> is compiled here.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OLE_for_process_control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OLE for process control\" data-key=\"de3dc74b37743d2d6d426f8485fd39a9\">OLE for process control<\/a> (OPC) can connect different hardware and software, allowing communication even between devices originally not intended to be part of an industrial network.\n<\/p><p>Standardisation in the field of mySCADA protocols resulted into the vendor independent protocol called OPC UA (Unified Architecture). OPC UA is starting to be widely adopted among multiple SCADA vendors.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"SCADA_architecture_development\">SCADA architecture development<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SCADA_C4ISR_Facilities.pdf\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e19474ef2e29b387f387b2db4e3fa26\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/de\/SCADA_C4ISR_Facilities.pdf\/page1-220px-SCADA_C4ISR_Facilities.pdf.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"285\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:SCADA_C4ISR_Facilities.pdf\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"5e19474ef2e29b387f387b2db4e3fa26\"><\/a><\/div>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Army\" title=\"United States Army\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4953a7376db554b7dca4567931273f6b\">United States Army<\/a>'s Training Manual 5-601 covers \"SCADA Systems for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/C4ISTAR\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"C4ISTAR\" data-key=\"19355e088b0f8961384bab9e3abbc2c3\">C4ISR<\/a> Facilities\"<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>SCADA systems have evolved through four generations as follows:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-First_generation:_.22monolithic.22\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"First_generation:_"monolithic"\">First generation: \"monolithic\"<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Early SCADA system computing was done by large <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Minicomputers\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Minicomputers\" data-key=\"cf25015b95746267574051d3bec5e722\">minicomputers<\/a>. Common network services did not exist at the time SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent systems with no connectivity to other systems. The communication protocols used were strictly proprietary at that time. The first-generation SCADA system redundancy was achieved using a back-up mainframe system connected to all the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_Terminal_Unit\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Remote Terminal Unit\" data-key=\"e44d4a867bdfd25535353fea456bcd07\">Remote Terminal Unit<\/a> sites and was used in the event of failure of the primary mainframe system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Proquest-text_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Proquest-text-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Some first generation SCADA systems were developed as \"turn key\" operations that ran on minicomputers such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PDP-11\" title=\"PDP-11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f35b800e752418a9aa72ddfdd7d3d9d\">PDP-11<\/a> series made by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Equipment_Corporation\" title=\"Digital Equipment Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3c857e38d5dedf2bc308a93a67955ad\">Digital Equipment Corporation<\/a>.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Second_generation:_.22distributed.22\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Second_generation:_"distributed"\">Second generation: \"distributed\"<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>SCADA information and command processing was distributed across multiple stations which were connected through a LAN. Information was shared in near real time. Each station was responsible for a particular task, which reduced the cost as compared to First Generation SCADA. The network protocols used were still not standardized. Since these protocols were proprietary, very few people beyond the developers knew enough to determine how secure a SCADA installation was. Security of the SCADA installation was usually overlooked.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Third_generation:_.22networked.22\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Third_generation:_"networked"\">Third generation: \"networked\"<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Similar to a distributed architecture, any complex SCADA can be reduced to the simplest components and connected through communication protocols. In the case of a networked design, the system may be spread across more than one LAN network called a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_control_network\" title=\"Process control network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b829bfaa002f65e7524cce14a8a85d5\">process control network (PCN)<\/a> and separated geographically. Several distributed architecture SCADAs running in parallel, with a single supervisor and historian, could be considered a network architecture. This allows for a more cost-effective solution in very large scale systems.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Fourth_generation:_.22Internet_of_things.22\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Fourth_generation:_"Internet_of_things"\">Fourth generation: \"Internet of things\"<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>With the commercial availability of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b28cb3c1977d5c04401506e9b991f1\">cloud computing<\/a>, SCADA systems have increasingly adopted <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_of_things\" title=\"Internet of things\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08e522f905854fe34747cc25ffb62f63\">Internet of things<\/a> technology to significantly improve interoperability,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> reduce infrastructure costs and increase ease of maintenance and integration.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> As a result, SCADA systems can now report state in near real-time and use the horizontal scale available in cloud environments to implement more complex control algorithms <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> than are practically feasible to implement on traditional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programmable_logic_controller\" title=\"Programmable logic controller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fdc9aaee22e550e6104618c6d3a34bf\">programmable logic controllers<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> Further, the use of open network protocols such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transport_Layer_Security\" title=\"Transport Layer Security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"117c81b4404dd73024f8bd4ccf657b71\">TLS<\/a> inherent in the Internet of things technology, provides a more readily comprehensible and manageable security boundary than the heterogeneous mix of proprietary network protocols typical of many decentralized SCADA implementations.\n<\/p><p>This decentralization of data also requires a different approach to SCADA than traditional PLC based programs. When a SCADA system is used locally, the preferred methodology involves binding the graphics on the user interface to the data stored in specific PLC memory addresses. However, when the data comes from a disparate mix of sensors, controllers and databases (which may be local or at varied connected locations), the typical 1 to 1 mapping becomes problematic. A solution to this is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_modeling\" title=\"Data modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eeb367af0f28dde6b5d2b55e69b02ddb\">data modeling<\/a>, a concept derived from object oriented programming.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In a data model, a virtual representation of each device is constructed in the SCADA software. These virtual representations (\u201cmodels\u201d) can contain not just the address mapping of the device represented, but also any other pertinent information (web based info, database entries, media files, etc.) that may be used by other facets of the SCADA\/IoT implementation. As the increased complexity of the Internet of things renders traditional SCADA increasingly \u201chouse-bound,\u201d and as communication protocols evolve to favor platform-independent, service-oriented architecture (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OPC_UA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OPC UA\" data-key=\"b19765938a736c0900fd91f3a7aaaed7\">OPC UA<\/a>),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> it is likely that more SCADA software developers will implement some form of data modeling.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_issues\">Security issues<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>SCADA systems that tie together decentralized facilities such as power, oil, gas pipelines, water distribution and wastewater collection systems were designed to be open, robust, and easily operated and repaired, but not necessarily secure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> The move from proprietary technologies to more standardized and open solutions together with the increased number of connections between SCADA systems, office networks and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a> has made them more vulnerable to types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attack_(computing)#Types_of_attacks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Attack (computing)\" data-key=\"6964a3614cad6662efd5d883e5e7941b\">network attacks<\/a> that are relatively common in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security\" title=\"Computer security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c2aa75aadd7f77c4f5ad26205c4c77b\">computer security<\/a>. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ICS-CERT\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ICS-CERT\" data-key=\"ce1609ce86367899ef66cee3704d0a51\">United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT)<\/a> released a vulnerability advisory<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> warning that unauthenticated users could download sensitive configuration information including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptographic_hash_function#File_or_data_identifier\" title=\"Cryptographic hash function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5c25925a33237b6c45563894e641285\">password hashes<\/a> from an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inductive_Automation\" title=\"Inductive Automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23ee915cbddf0bfc7476dca42b0a38ff\">Inductive Automation<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ignition_SCADA\" title=\"Ignition SCADA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce69a68e3015c106e4fca4e831ea5da1\">Ignition<\/a> system utilizing a standard <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_URL_attack\" title=\"Semantic URL attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b7544f795f8586bb109031931834a99\">attack type<\/a> leveraging access to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Tomcat\" title=\"Apache Tomcat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41ea5a3dd693b864ae027cd3a522c68e\">Tomcat<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embedded_Web_server\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Embedded Web server\" data-key=\"0b5a71aafba0a8f345ca08daa2a72e6a\">Embedded Web server<\/a>. Security researcher Jerry Brown submitted a similar advisory regarding a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Buffer_overflow\" title=\"Buffer overflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf438fc270f1a494ade76df74757bc25\">buffer overflow<\/a> vulnerability<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wonderware\" title=\"Wonderware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19933cbb00a67868ad127e4d23a40c6d\">Wonderware<\/a> InBatchClient <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ActiveX_control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ActiveX control\" data-key=\"6307d39d351807bc755b9f5b5d341c59\">ActiveX control<\/a>. Both vendors made updates available prior to public vulnerability release. Mitigation recommendations were standard <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_patching\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software patching\" data-key=\"48308dee8493b5a6786740a94d4981f3\">patching<\/a> practices and requiring <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/VPN\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"VPN\" data-key=\"2fedc043829d288ebbac275ab418a4e9\">VPN<\/a> access for secure connectivity. Consequently, the security of some SCADA-based systems has come into question as they are seen as potentially vulnerable to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber_attack\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cyber attack\" data-key=\"eb26486672f040020bd5dde1e7407979\">cyber attacks<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NGF-CA-GT-01_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NGF-CA-GT-01-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In particular, security researchers are concerned about\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>the lack of concern about security and authentication in the design, deployment and operation of some existing SCADA networks<\/li>\n<li>the belief that SCADA systems have the benefit of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_through_obscurity\" title=\"Security through obscurity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115ebd38ed59692a7d35d9af2553c78\">security through obscurity<\/a> through the use of specialized protocols and proprietary interfaces<\/li>\n<li>the belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are physically secured<\/li>\n<li>the belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are disconnected from the Internet<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>SCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, examples of which are transmission of electricity, transportation of gas and oil in pipelines, water distribution, traffic lights, and other systems used as the basis of modern society. The security of these SCADA systems is important because compromise or destruction of these systems would impact multiple areas of society far removed from the original compromise. For example, a blackout caused by a compromised electrical SCADA system would cause financial losses to all the customers that received electricity from that source. How security will affect legacy SCADA and new deployments remains to be seen.\n<\/p><p>There are many threat vectors to a modern SCADA system. One is the threat of unauthorized access to the control software, whether it is human access or changes induced intentionally or accidentally by virus infections and other software threats residing on the control host machine. Another is the threat of packet access to the network segments hosting SCADA devices. In many cases, the control protocol lacks any form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptographic security<\/a>, allowing an attacker to control a SCADA device by sending commands over a network. In many cases SCADA users have assumed that having a VPN offered sufficient protection, unaware that security can be trivially bypassed with physical access to SCADA-related network jacks and switches. Industrial control vendors suggest approaching SCADA security like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security\" title=\"Information security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f71a603755a900e335af2b5cfacd0cfc\">Information Security<\/a> with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defense_in_depth#Information_security\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Defense in depth\" data-key=\"d0219bad546db334e635385cdd7faf97\">defense in depth<\/a> strategy that leverages common IT practices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The reliable function of SCADA systems in our modern infrastructure may be crucial to public health and safety. As such, attacks on these systems may directly or indirectly threaten public health and safety. Such an attack has already occurred, carried out on Maroochy Shire Council's sewage control system in Queensland, Australia.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SlayMiller_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SlayMiller-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> Shortly after a contractor installed a SCADA system in January 2000, system components began to function erratically. Pumps did not run when needed and alarms were not reported. More critically, sewage flooded a nearby park and contaminated an open surface-water drainage ditch and flowed 500 meters to a tidal canal. The SCADA system was directing sewage valves to open when the design protocol should have kept them closed. Initially this was believed to be a system bug. Monitoring of the system logs revealed the malfunctions were the result of cyber attacks. Investigators reported 46 separate instances of malicious outside interference before the culprit was identified. The attacks were made by a disgruntled ex-employee of the company that had installed the SCADA system. The ex-employee was hoping to be hired by the utility full-time to maintain the system.\n<\/p><p>In April 2008, the Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States from Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) Attack issued a Critical Infrastructures Report which discussed the extreme vulnerability of SCADA systems to an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) event. After testing and analysis, the Commission concluded: \"SCADA systems are vulnerable to an EMP event. The large numbers and widespread reliance on such systems by all of the Nation\u2019s critical infrastructures represent a systemic threat to their continued operation following an EMP event. Additionally, the necessity to reboot, repair, or replace large numbers of geographically widely dispersed systems will considerably impede the Nation\u2019s recovery from such an assault.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Critical_Infrastructures_Report,_Congressional_EMP_Commission,_2008_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Critical_Infrastructures_Report,_Congressional_EMP_Commission,_2008-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Many vendors of SCADA and control products have begun to address the risks posed by unauthorized access by developing lines of specialized industrial <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewall_(computing)\" title=\"Firewall (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"853725a035c106719dbf2660d8eca0b8\">firewall<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/VPN\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"VPN\" data-key=\"2fedc043829d288ebbac275ab418a4e9\">VPN<\/a> solutions for TCP\/IP-based SCADA networks as well as external SCADA monitoring and recording equipment.\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Society_of_Automation\" title=\"International Society of Automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ff182414f4f7f4646636260fd3ac3d6\">International Society of Automation<\/a> (ISA) started formalizing SCADA security requirements in 2007 with a working group, WG4. WG4 \"deals specifically with unique technical requirements, measurements, and other features required to evaluate and assure security resilience and performance of industrial automation and control systems devices\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-InTechViaISA_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-InTechViaISA-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/p><p>The increased interest in SCADA vulnerabilities has resulted in vulnerability researchers discovering vulnerabilities in commercial SCADA software and more general offensive SCADA techniques presented to the general security community.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> In electric and gas utility SCADA systems, the vulnerability of the large installed base of wired and wireless serial communications links is addressed in some cases by applying <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bump-in-the-wire\" title=\"Bump-in-the-wire\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c97060ef216749fc43e46a332f6acb75\">bump-in-the-wire<\/a> devices that employ authentication and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_Encryption_Standard\" title=\"Advanced Encryption Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0411feeb59e8eb26837d638e589e3fb6\">Advanced Encryption Standard<\/a> encryption rather than replacing all existing nodes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In June 2010, anti-virus security company <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/VirusBlokAda\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"VirusBlokAda\" data-key=\"37efa169538237e74543b3f3227c9f5e\">VirusBlokAda<\/a> reported the first detection of malware that attacks SCADA systems (Siemens' <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WinCC\" title=\"WinCC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03dcbe2993d0fdee8db7c92aa108fbd3\">WinCC<\/a>\/PCS 7 systems) running on Windows operating systems. The malware is called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuxnet\" title=\"Stuxnet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fe09aa4c27ed6a49567adfe2e873a0d\">Stuxnet<\/a> and uses four <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zero-day_attack\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Zero-day attack\" data-key=\"0860a4fc3172685747936484b5e1e132\">zero-day attacks<\/a> to install a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rootkit\" title=\"Rootkit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7793d0bd5b59ddf8ae3408cb4ba7e1b\">rootkit<\/a> which in turn logs into the SCADA's database and steals design and control files.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> The malware is also capable of changing the control system and hiding those changes. The malware was found on 14 systems, the majority of which were located in Iran.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In October 2013 <i>National Geographic<\/i> released a docudrama titled <i>American Blackout<\/i> which dealt with an imagined large-scale cyber attack on SCADA and the United States' electrical grid.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNP3\" title=\"DNP3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10675409723204c80ee1bf2dcff659bc\">DNP3<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC_60870\" title=\"IEC 60870\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e294716992812261427aaa80b1871ec\">IEC 60870<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EPICS\" title=\"EPICS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a20e5ff31a56dfc872161b9afeea6b18\">EPICS<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Antunes2018-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Antunes2018_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Antunes, Ricardo; Poshdar, Mani (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/pdf\/1807.04966\" target=\"_blank\">\"Envision of an integrated information system for project-driven production in construction\"<\/a>. <i>Proc. 26th Annual Conference of the International. Group for Lean Construction (IGLC)<\/i>: 134\u2013143. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.24928%2F2018%2F0511\" target=\"_blank\">10.24928\/2018\/0511<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 December<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+26th+Annual+Conference+of+the+International.+Group+for+Lean+Construction+%28IGLC%29&rft.atitle=Envision+of+an+integrated+information+system+for+project-driven+production+in+construction&rft.pages=134-143&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.24928%2F2018%2F0511&rft.aulast=Antunes&rft.aufirst=Ricardo&rft.au=Poshdar%2C+Mani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farxiv.org%2Fpdf%2F1807.04966&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Boys, Walt (18 August 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=bfxr5DikdP0\" target=\"_blank\">\"Back to Basics: SCADA\"<\/a>. Automation TV: Control Global - Control Design.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Back+to+Basics%3A+SCADA&rft.pub=Automation+TV%3A+Control+Global+-+Control+Design&rft.date=2009-08-18&rft.au=Boys%2C+Walt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dbfxr5DikdP0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NGF-CA-GT-01-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-NGF-CA-GT-01_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-NGF-CA-GT-01_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120813015252\/http:\/\/gspp.berkeley.edu\/iths\/Tsang_SCADA%20Attacks.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cyberthreats, Vulnerabilities and Attacks on SCADA Networks\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Rosa Tang, berkeley.edu<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/gspp.berkeley.edu\/iths\/Tsang_SCADA%20Attacks.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 13 August 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 August<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rosa+Tang%2C+berkeley.edu&rft.atitle=Cyberthreats%2C+Vulnerabilities+and+Attacks+on+SCADA++Networks&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgspp.berkeley.edu%2Fiths%2FTsang_SCADA%2520Attacks.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Boyer, Stuart A. (2010). <i>SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition<\/i>. USA: ISA - International Society of Automation. p. 179. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-936007-09-7.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=SCADA+Supervisory+Control+and+Data+Acquisition&rft.place=USA&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=ISA+-+International+Society+of+Automation&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-936007-09-7&rft.aulast=Boyer&rft.aufirst=Stuart+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Hieb2008-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Hieb2008_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Jeff Hieb (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=A-_PPgAACAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Security Hardened Remote Terminal Units for SCADA Networks<\/i><\/a>. University of Louisville.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Security+Hardened+Remote+Terminal+Units+for+SCADA++Networks&rft.pub=University+of+Louisville&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Jeff+Hieb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA-_PPgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Raul2010-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Raul2010_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Aquino-Santos, Raul (30 November 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=UN2eBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA43\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Emerging Technologies in Wireless Ad-hoc Networks: Applications and Future Development: Applications and Future Development<\/i><\/a>. IGI Global. pp. 43\u2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-60960-029-7.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emerging+Technologies+in+Wireless+Ad-hoc+Networks%3A+Applications+and+Future+Development%3A+Applications+and+Future+Development&rft.pages=43-&rft.pub=IGI+Global&rft.date=2010-11-30&rft.isbn=978-1-60960-029-7&rft.au=Aquino-Santos%2C+Raul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUN2eBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GallowayIntro-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GallowayIntro_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rfidblog.org.uk\/Preprint-GallowayHancke-IndustrialControlSurvey.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Introduction to Industrial Control Networks\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials<\/i>. 2012.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Communications+Surveys+and+Tutorials&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Industrial+Control+Networks&rft.date=2012&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rfidblog.org.uk%2FPreprint-GallowayHancke-IndustrialControlSurvey.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-berganELP-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-berganELP_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Bergan, Christian (August 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.elp.com\/index\/display\/article-display\/5666163079\/articles\/utility-automation-engineering-td\/volume-16\/issue-8\/features\/demystifying-satellite-for-the-smart-grid-four-common-misconceptions.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Demystifying Satellite for the Smart Grid: Four Common Misconceptions\"<\/a>. <i>Electric Light & Powers<\/i>. Utility Automation & Engineering T&D. Tulsa, OK: PennWell. <b>16<\/b> (8). Four<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 May<\/span> 2012<\/span>. <q>satellite is a cost-effective and secure solution that can provide backup communications and easily support core smart grid applications like SCADA, telemetry, AMI backhaul and distribution automation<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electric+Light+%26+Powers&rft.atitle=Demystifying+Satellite+for+the+Smart+Grid%3A+Four+Common+Misconceptions&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=Four&rft.date=2011-08&rft.aulast=Bergan&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.elp.com%2Findex%2Fdisplay%2Farticle-display%2F5666163079%2Farticles%2Futility-automation-engineering-td%2Fvolume-16%2Fissue-8%2Ffeatures%2Fdemystifying-satellite-for-the-smart-grid-four-common-misconceptions.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">OFFICE OF THE MANAGER NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMctober 2004. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/scadahacker.com\/library\/Documents\/ICS_Basics\/SCADA%20Basics%20-%20NCS%20TIB%2004-1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Supervisory+Control+and+Data+Acquisition+%28SCADA%29+Systems&rft.pub=NATIONAL+COMMUNICATIONS+SYSTEM&rft.au=OFFICE+OF+THE+MANAGER+NATIONAL+COMMUNICATIONS+SYSTEMctober+2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscadahacker.com%2Flibrary%2FDocuments%2FICS_Basics%2FSCADA%2520Basics%2520-%2520NCS%2520TIB%252004-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/articles\/scada-systems\" target=\"_blank\">\"SCADA Systems april 2014\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SCADA+Systems+april+2014&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.engineersgarage.com%2Farticles%2Fscada-systems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">J. Russel. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150811051350\/http:\/\/scadahistory.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Brief History of SCADA\/EMS (2015)\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/scadahistory.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 11 August 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+SCADA%2FEMS+%282015%29&rft.au=J.+Russel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscadahistory.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Proquest-text-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Proquest-text_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=d5O5N1vjbQgC&pg=PA12\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Security Hardened Remote Terminal Units for SCADA Networks<\/i><\/a>. ProQuest. 2008. pp. 12\u2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-549-54831-7.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Security+Hardened+Remote+Terminal+Units+for+SCADA+Networks&rft.pages=12-&rft.pub=ProQuest&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-549-54831-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd5O5N1vjbQgC%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">\"SCADA as a service approach for interoperability of micro-grid platforms\". <i>Sustainable Energy, Grids and Network<\/i>. 2016. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.segan.2016.08.001\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.segan.2016.08.001<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sustainable+Energy%2C+Grids+and+Network&rft.atitle=SCADA+as+a+service+approach+for+interoperability+of+micro-grid+platforms&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.segan.2016.08.001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/scada.com\/verticals\/internetofthings\/\" target=\"_blank\">SCADA and the Internet of Things<\/a> Retrieved May 22, 2017<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation\">\"SCADA as a service approach for interoperability of micro-grid platforms\", <i>Sustainable Energy, Grids and Network<\/i>, 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.segan.2016.08.001\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.segan.2016.08.001<\/a><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sustainable+Energy%2C+Grids+and+Network&rft.atitle=SCADA+as+a+service+approach+for+interoperability+of+micro-grid+platforms&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.segan.2016.08.001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fastcompany.com\/biomimicry\/how-the-internet-of-things-is-turning-cities-into-organisms\/\" target=\"_blank\">How The \"Internet Of Things\" Is Turning Cities Into Living Organisms<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131021181958\/http:\/\/www.fastcompany.com\/biomimicry\/how-the-internet-of-things-is-turning-cities-into-organisms\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 21 October 2013 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> Retrieved September 16, 2013<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.exforsys.com\/tutorials\/data-modeling\/the-history-of-data-modeling.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The History of Data Modeling\"<\/a>. <i>Exforsys Inc<\/i>. 11 January 2007.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Exforsys+Inc.&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Data+Modeling&rft.date=2007-01-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.exforsys.com%2Ftutorials%2Fdata-modeling%2Fthe-history-of-data-modeling.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hal.archives-ouvertes.fr\/hal-01368458\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"CIM and OPC UA for interoperability of micro-grid platforms\"<\/a>. <i>Proceedings of the IEEE ISGT 2016 Conference<\/i>. 6 September 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+IEEE+ISGT+2016+Conference.&rft.atitle=CIM+and+OPC+UA+for+interoperability+of+micro-grid+platforms&rft.date=2016-09-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-01368458%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Boyes, Walt (2011). <i>Instrumentation Reference Book, 4th Edition<\/i>. USA: Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 27. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-7506-8308-2.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Instrumentation+Reference+Book%2C+4th+Edition&rft.place=USA&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=0-7506-8308-2&rft.aulast=Boyes&rft.aufirst=Walt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.us-cert.gov\/control_systems\/pdf\/ICSA-11-231-01.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"ICSA-11-231-01\u2014INDUCTIVE AUTOMATION IGNITION INFORMATION DISCLOSURE VULNERABILITY\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. 19 Aug 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 Jan<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ICSA-11-231-01%E2%80%94INDUCTIVE+AUTOMATION+IGNITION+INFORMATION+DISCLOSURE+VULNERABILITY&rft.date=2011-08-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.us-cert.gov%2Fcontrol_systems%2Fpdf%2FICSA-11-231-01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ics-cert.us-cert.gov\/pdf\/ICSA-11-094-01.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"ICSA-11-094-01\u2014WONDERWARE INBATCH CLIENT ACTIVEX BUFFER OVERFLOW\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. 13 Apr 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 Mar<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ICSA-11-094-01%E2%80%94WONDERWARE+INBATCH+CLIENT+ACTIVEX+BUFFER+OVERFLOW&rft.date=2011-04-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fics-cert.us-cert.gov%2Fpdf%2FICSA-11-094-01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">D. Maynor and R. Graham (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.blackhat.com\/presentations\/bh-federal-06\/BH-Fed-06-Maynor-Graham-up.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"SCADA Security and Terrorism: We're Not Crying Wolf\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SCADA+Security+and+Terrorism%3A+We%27re+Not+Crying+Wolf&rft.date=2006&rft.au=D.+Maynor+and+R.+Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackhat.com%2Fpresentations%2Fbh-federal-06%2FBH-Fed-06-Maynor-Graham-up.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Robert Lemos (26 July 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.securityfocus.com\/news\/11402\" target=\"_blank\">\"SCADA system makers pushed toward security\"<\/a>. SecurityFocus<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 May<\/span> 2007<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SCADA+system+makers+pushed+toward+security&rft.pub=SecurityFocus&rft.date=2006-07-26&rft.au=Robert+Lemos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.securityfocus.com%2Fnews%2F11402&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rockwellautomation.com\/resources\/downloads\/rockwellautomation\/pdf\/products-technologies\/security-technology\/securat001aene.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Industrial Security Best Practices\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Rockwell Automation<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 Mar<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Industrial+Security+Best+Practices&rft.pub=Rockwell+Automation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rockwellautomation.com%2Fresources%2Fdownloads%2Frockwellautomation%2Fpdf%2Fproducts-technologies%2Fsecurity-technology%2Fsecurat001aene.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SlayMiller-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SlayMiller_25-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Slay, J.; Miller, M. (November 2007). \"Chpt 6: Lessons Learned from the Maroochy Water Breach\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.springerlink.com\/content\/m1100j53q348x053\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Critical infrastructure protection<\/i><\/a> (Online-Ausg. ed.). Springer Boston. pp. 73\u201382. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-387-75461-1<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 May<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chpt+6%3A+Lessons+Learned+from+the+Maroochy+Water+Breach&rft.btitle=Critical+infrastructure+protection&rft.pages=73-82&rft.edition=Online-Ausg.&rft.pub=Springer+Boston&rft.date=2007-11&rft.isbn=978-0-387-75461-1&rft.aulast=Slay&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Miller%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.springerlink.com%2Fcontent%2Fm1100j53q348x053%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Critical_Infrastructures_Report,_Congressional_EMP_Commission,_2008-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Critical_Infrastructures_Report,_Congressional_EMP_Commission,_2008_26-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.empcommission.org\/docs\/A2473-EMP_Commission-7MB.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.empcommission.org\/docs\/A2473-EMP_Commission-7MB.pdf<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-InTechViaISA-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-InTechViaISA_27-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.isa.org\" target=\"_blank\">\"Security for all\"<\/a>. <i>InTech<\/i>. June 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 May<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=InTech&rft.atitle=Security+for+all&rft.date=2008-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isa.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090107085040\/http:\/\/www.c4-security.com\/SCADA%20Security%20-%20Generic%20Electric%20Grid%20Malware%20Design%20-%20SyScan08.pps\" target=\"_blank\">\"SCADA Security \u2013 Generic Electric Grid Malware Design\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.c4-security.com\/SCADA%20Security%20-%20Generic%20Electric%20Grid%20Malware%20Design%20-%20SyScan08.pps\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 7 January 2009.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SCADA+Security+%E2%80%93+Generic+Electric+Grid+Malware+Design&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.c4-security.com%2FSCADA%2520Security%2520-%2520Generic%2520Electric%2520Grid%2520Malware%2520Design%2520-%2520SyScan08.pps&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KEMA\" title=\"KEMA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"516bbc2192e709db85ebc8d58b8032f7\">KEMA, Inc.<\/a> (November 2006). \"Substation Communications: Enabler of Automation \/ An Assessment of Communications Technologies\". UTC \u2013 United Telecom Council: 3\u201321.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Substation+Communications%3A+Enabler+of+Automation+%2F+An+Assessment+of+Communications+Technologies&rft.pages=3-21&rft.date=2006-11&rft.au=KEMA%2C+Inc.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Mills, Elinor (21 July 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.cnet.com\/8301-27080_3-20011159-245.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Details of the first-ever control system malware (FAQ)\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CNET\" title=\"CNET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d7fa1f62b9f9bf1be2936ffd96f9142\">CNET<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 July<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Details+of+the+first-ever+control+system+malware+%28FAQ%29&rft.date=2010-07-21&rft.aulast=Mills&rft.aufirst=Elinor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.cnet.com%2F8301-27080_3-20011159-245.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/support.automation.siemens.com\/WW\/llisapi.dll?func=cslib.csinfo&lang=en&objid=43876783&caller=view\" target=\"_blank\">\"SIMATIC WinCC \/ SIMATIC PCS 7: Information concerning Malware \/ Virus \/ Trojan\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siemens\" title=\"Siemens\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c6a901b7c31bfd5653cdfb35be89a4c5\">Siemens<\/a>. 21 July 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 July<\/span> 2010<\/span>. <q>malware (trojan) which affects the visualization system WinCC SCADA.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SIMATIC+WinCC+%2F+SIMATIC+PCS+7%3A+Information+concerning+Malware+%2F+Virus+%2F+Trojan&rft.pub=Siemens&rft.date=2010-07-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsupport.automation.siemens.com%2FWW%2Fllisapi.dll%3Ffunc%3Dcslib.csinfo%26lang%3Den%26objid%3D43876783%26caller%3Dview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.is\/20120525053210\/http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/s\/article\/print\/9185419\/Siemens_Stuxnet_worm_hit_industrial_systems?taxonomyName=Network+Security&taxonomyId=142\" target=\"_blank\">\"Siemens: Stuxnet worm hit industrial systems\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/s\/article\/print\/9185419\/Siemens_Stuxnet_worm_hit_industrial_systems?taxonomyName=Network+Security&taxonomyId=142\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 25 May 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 September<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Siemens%3A+Stuxnet+worm+hit+industrial+systems&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Fs%2Farticle%2Fprint%2F9185419%2FSiemens_Stuxnet_worm_hit_industrial_systems%3FtaxonomyName%3DNetwork%2BSecurity%26taxonomyId%3D142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/channel.nationalgeographic.com\/american-blackout\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"American Blackout\"<\/a>. National Geographic Channel<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 October<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Blackout&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Channel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchannel.nationalgeographic.com%2Famerican-blackout%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASCADA\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130620125607\/http:\/\/www.cpni.gov.uk\/advice\/cyber\/scada\/\" target=\"_blank\">UK SCADA security guidelines<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.bbc.co.uk\/1\/hi\/technology\/7990997.stm\" target=\"_blank\">BBC NEWS | Technology | Spies 'infiltrate US power grid'<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1241\nCached time: 20190330210305\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.600 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.735 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1764\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 57726\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 802\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 3\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 90487\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 2\/400\nLua time usage: 0.307\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 5.2 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 561.112 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>64.66% 362.792 1 Template:Reflist\n26.14% 146.662 4 Template:Cite_journal\n12.84% 72.032 13 Template:Cite_web\n10.36% 58.118 1 Template:Citation_needed\n 9.72% 54.521 1 Template:Fix\n 8.28% 46.470 1 Template:Commons_category\n 7.13% 40.006 6 Template:Cite_news\n 6.72% 37.692 2 Template:Category_handler\n 6.31% 35.417 6 Template:Cite_book\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:62437-1!canonical and timestamp 20190330210304 and revision id 879475698\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SCADA\" data-key=\"bcdd4e4161b269208db7fefa5e48e170\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203017\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.012 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.174 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 166.058 1 - wikipedia:SCADA\n100.00% 166.058 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10541-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203017 and revision id 33018\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SCADA<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a2\/Factory.svg\/200px-Factory.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/10\/Functional_levels_of_a_Distributed_Control_System.svg\/1000px-Functional_levels_of_a_Distributed_Control_System.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fb\/Freer_Water_Control_and_Improvement_District_-_Diana_Adame.jpg\/440px-Freer_Water_Control_and_Improvement_District_-_Diana_Adame.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/88\/Scada_std_anim_no_lang.gif","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/de\/SCADA_C4ISR_Facilities.pdf\/page1-440px-SCADA_C4ISR_Facilities.pdf.jpg"],"2e9d1c3a7073bee59b3d3b6e5aca466d_timestamp":1554323417,"fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_type":"article","fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_title":"Predictive maintenance","fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Predictive_maintenance","fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tPredictive maintenance\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t The nature and degree of asphalt deterioration is analyzed for predictive maintenance of roadways. See more at Pavement Condition Index.Predictive maintenance (PdM) techniques are designed to help determine the condition of in-service equipment in order to estimate when maintenance should be performed. This approach promises cost savings over routine or time-based preventive maintenance, because tasks are performed only when warranted. Thus, it is regarded as condition-based maintenance carried out as suggested by estimations of the degradation state of an item.[1][2]\nThe main promise of predictive maintenance is to allow convenient scheduling of corrective maintenance, and to prevent unexpected equipment failures. The key is \"the right information in the right time\". By knowing which equipment needs maintenance, maintenance work can be better planned (spare parts, people, etc.) and what would have been \"unplanned stops\" are transformed to shorter and fewer \"planned stops\", thus increasing plant availability. Other potential advantages include increased equipment lifetime, increased plant safety, fewer accidents with negative impact on environment, and optimized spare parts handling.\nPredictive maintenance differs from preventive maintenance because it relies on the actual condition of equipment, rather than average or expected life statistics, to predict when maintenance will be required.\nSome of the main components that are necessary for implementing predictive maintenance are data collection and preprocessing, early fault detection, fault detection, time to failure prediction, maintenance scheduling and resource optimization.[3] Predictive maintenance has also been considered to be one of the driving forces for improving productivity and one of the ways to achieve \"just-in-time\" in manufacturing.[4]\n\nContents \n\n1 Overview \n2 Technologies \n3 Applications (by industry) \n\n3.1 Railway \n3.2 Manufacturing \n3.3 Oil and Gas \n\n\n4 See also \n5 References \n\n\nOverview \nPredictive maintenance evaluates the condition of equipment by performing periodic (offline) or continuous (online) equipment condition monitoring. The ultimate goal of the approach is to perform maintenance at a scheduled point in time when the maintenance activity is most cost-effective and before the equipment loses performance within a threshold. This results in a reduction in unplanned downtime costs because of failure where for instance costs can be in the hundreds of thousands per day depending on industry.[5] In energy production in addition to loss of revenue and component costs, fines can be levied for non delivery increasing costs even further. This is in contrast to time- and\/or operation count-based maintenance, where a piece of equipment gets maintained whether it needs it or not. Time-based maintenance is labor intensive, ineffective in identifying problems that develop between scheduled inspections, and so is not cost-effective.\nThe \"predictive\" component of predictive maintenance stems from the goal of predicting the future trend of the equipment's condition. This approach uses principles of statistical process control to determine at what point in the future maintenance activities will be appropriate.\nMost predictive inspections are performed while equipment is in service, thereby minimizing disruption of normal system operations. Adoption of PdM can result in substantial cost savings and higher system reliability.\nReliability-centered maintenance (RCM) emphasizes the use of predictive maintenance techniques in addition to traditional preventive measures. When properly implemented, RCM provides companies with a tool for achieving lowest asset net present costs (NPC) for a given level of performance and risk.[6]\nOne goal is to transfer the PdM data to a computerized maintenance management system (CMMS) so that the equipment condition data is sent to the right equipment object in the CMMS system in order to trigger maintenance planning, work order execution, and reporting.[7] Unless this is achieved, the PdM solution is of limited value, at least if the PdM solution is implemented on a medium to large size plant with tens of thousands pieces of equipment. In 2010, the mining company Boliden, as a first, implemented a combined Distributed Control System (DCS) and PdM solution integrated with the plant CMMS system on an object to object level, transferring equipment data using protocols like Highway Addressable Remote Transducer Protocol (HART), IEC61850 and OLE for process control (OPC).\n\nTechnologies \nTo evaluate equipment condition, predictive maintenance utilizes nondestructive testing technologies such as infrared, acoustic (partial discharge and airborne ultrasonic), corona detection, vibration analysis, sound level measurements, oil analysis, and other specific online tests. A new approach in this area is to utilize measurements on the actual equipment in combination with measurement of process performance, measured by other devices, to trigger equipment maintenance. This is primarily available in collaborative process automation systems (CPAS). Site measurements are often supported by wireless sensor networks to reduce the wiring cost.\nVibration analysis is most productive on high-speed rotating equipment and can be the most expensive component of a PdM program to get up and running. Vibration analysis, when properly done, allows the user to evaluate the condition of equipment and avoid failures. The latest generation of vibration analyzers comprises more capabilities and automated functions than its predecessors. Many units display the full vibration spectrum of three axes simultaneously, providing a snapshot of what is going on with a particular machine. But despite such capabilities, not even the most sophisticated equipment successfully predicts developing problems unless the operator understands and applies the basics of vibration analysis.[8]\nRemote visual inspection is the first non destructive testing. It provides a cost-efficient primary assessment. Essential information and defaults can be deduced from the external appearance of the piece, such as folds, breaks, cracks and corrosion.The remote visual inspection has to be carried out in good conditions with a sufficient lighting (350 LUX at least). When the part of the piece to be controlled is not directly accessible, an instrument made of mirrors and lenses called endoscope is used. Hidden defects with external irregularities may indicate a more serious defect inside.[citation needed ]\nAcoustical analysis can be done on a sonic or ultrasonic level. New ultrasonic techniques for condition monitoring make it possible to \"hear\" friction and stress in rotating machinery, which can predict deterioration earlier than conventional techniques.[9] Ultrasonic technology is sensitive to high-frequency sounds that are inaudible to the human ear and distinguishes them from lower-frequency sounds and mechanical vibration. Machine friction and stress waves produce distinctive sounds in the upper ultrasonic range.\nChanges in these friction and stress waves can suggest deteriorating conditions much earlier than technologies such as vibration or oil analysis. With proper ultrasonic measurement and analysis, it\u2019s possible to differentiate normal wear from abnormal wear, physical damage, imbalance conditions, and lubrication problems based on a direct relationship between asset and operating conditions.\n\n<\/p>Sonic monitoring equipment is less expensive, but it also has fewer uses than ultrasonic technologies. Sonic technology is useful only on mechanical equipment, while ultrasonic equipment can detect electrical problems and is more flexible and reliable in detecting mechanical problems.\nInfrared monitoring and analysis has the widest range of application (from high- to low-speed equipment), and it can be effective for spotting both mechanical and electrical failures; some consider it to currently be the most cost-effective technology. \nOil analysis is a long-term program that, where relevant, can eventually be more predictive than any of the other technologies. It can take years for a plant's oil program to reach this level of sophistication and effectiveness. \nAnalytical techniques performed on oil samples can be classified in two categories: used oil analysis and wear particle analysis. Used oil analysis determines the condition of the lubricant itself, determines the quality of the lubricant, and checks its suitability for continued use. Wear particle analysis determines the mechanical condition of machine components that are lubricated. Through wear particle analysis, you can identify the composition of the solid material present and evaluate particle type, size, concentration, distribution, and morphology.[10]\n\n<\/p>The use of Model Based Condition Monitoring for predictive maintenance programs is becoming increasingly popular over time. This method involves spectral analysis on the motor\u2019s current and voltage signals and then compares the measured parameters to a known and learned model of the motor to diagnose various electrical and mechanical anomalies. This process of \"model based\" condition monitoring was originally designed and used on NASA\u2019s space shuttle to monitor and detect developing faults in the space shuttle\u2019s main engine.[11] It allows for the automation of data collection and analysis tasks, providing round the clock condition monitoring and warnings about faults as they develop.\n\n Applications (by industry) \nRailway \nDetect problems before they cause downtime for linear, fixed and mobile assets. [12]\nImproving safety and track void detection through a new vehicle cab-based monitoring system\nSiemens Tracksure track monitoring system is able to identify voids underneath track from the acceleration measured in the vehicle cab. [13]\nCan also identify the type of track asset that the void is located under and provide an indication of the severity of the void\nManufacturing \nEarly fault detection and diagnosis in the manufacturing industry. [14]\nManufacturers increasingly collect big data from Internet of Things (IoT) sensors in their factories and products and using different algorithms for the collected data to detect warning signs of expensive failures before they occur. [15]\nManufacturing industry: predict equipment failures can be easily found out using big data.[16]\nOil and Gas \nOil and gas companies often lack visibility into the condition of their equipment, especially in remote offshore and deep-water locations. [17]\nBig Data can provide insight to oil and gas companies, this way equipment failures and the optimal lifetime of the system and components can be analyzed and predicted.[18]\nSee also \nRCASE\nRoot cause analysis\nProduction Flow Analysis\nReferences \n\n\n^ Goriveau, Rafael; Medjaher, Kamal; Zerhouni, Noureddine. From prognostics and health systems management to predictive maintenance 1 : monitoring and prognostics. ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-1-84821-937-3. \n\n^ Mobley, R. Keith. An introduction to predictive maintenance (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-7531-4. \n\n^ Amruthnath, Nagdev; Gupta, Tarun (2018-02-02). Fault Class Prediction in Unsupervised Learning using Model-Based Clustering Approach. doi:10.13140\/rg.2.2.22085.14563. \n\n^ Amruthnath, Nagdev; Gupta, Tarun (2018-02-01). A Research Study on Unsupervised Machine Learning Algorithms for Fault Detection in Predictive Maintenance. doi:10.13140\/rg.2.2.28822.24648. \n\n^ \"How Much Does Predictive Maintenance Save You Money?\". LearnOilAnalysis.com. Retrieved 2017-12-03 . \n\n^ Mather, D. (2008). \"The value of RCM\". Plant Services. \n\n^ Peng, K. (2012). Equipment Management in the Post-Maintenance Era: A New Alternative to Total Productive Maintenance (TPM). CRC Press. pp. 132\u2013136. ISBN 9781466501942. Retrieved 18 May 2018 . \n\n^ Yung, C. (2006) \"Vibration analysis: what does it mean?\" Plant Services [1] \n\n^ Kennedy, S. (2006) \"New tools for PdM\" Plant Services. [2] Learn about condition monitoring beyond oil analysis, temperature and vibration in Sheila Kennedy's monthly Technology Toolbox column. \n\n^ Robin, L. (2006) \"Slick tricks in oil analysis\" Plant Services \n\n^ A. Duyar and W. C. Merrill, \"Fault Diagnosis for the Space Shuttle Main Engine\", AIAA Journal of Guidance, Control and Dynamics, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 384-389, 1992 \n\n^ \nPredictive maintenance benefits for the railway industry, retrieved 19 November 2016 \n\n^ \nImproving safety through early track void detection, retrieved 19 November 2016 \n\n^ Amruthnath, Nagdev; Gupta, Tarun (2018-02-01). A Research Study on Unsupervised Machine Learning Algorithms for Fault Detection in Predictive Maintenance. doi:10.13140\/rg.2.2.28822.24648. \n\n^ \n5 Use Cases for Predictive Maintenance and Big Data, Oracle Corporation, CA 94065 USA., retrieved 8 November 2018 \n\n^ \nOracle 2018, 22 Big Data Use Cases You Want to Know, 2nd edition, Oracle Corporation, CA 94065 USA. (PDF) , retrieved 12 November 2018 \n\n^ \n22 Big Data Use Cases You Want to Know, Oracle Corporation, CA 94065 USA., retrieved 31 October 2018 \n\n^ \n22 Big Data Use Cases You Want to Know, Oracle Corporation, CA 94065 USA., retrieved 31 October 2018 \n\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Predictive_maintenance\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Predictive_maintenance<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: AutomationHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 2 March 2019, at 22:49.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 166 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Predictive_maintenance skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Predictive maintenance<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Deteriorated_asphalt.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"4245690584ffe1f67620edf4e0713bd6\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9e\/Deteriorated_asphalt.jpg\/220px-Deteriorated_asphalt.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"215\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Deteriorated_asphalt.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"4245690584ffe1f67620edf4e0713bd6\"><\/a><\/div>The nature and degree of asphalt deterioration is analyzed for predictive maintenance of roadways. See more at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pavement_Condition_Index\" title=\"Pavement Condition Index\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"875b4b3687ffdc8629816c0dfdecf4d9\">Pavement Condition Index<\/a>.<\/div><\/div><\/div><p><b>Predictive maintenance<\/b> (<b>PdM<\/b>) techniques are designed to help determine the condition of in-service equipment in order to estimate when maintenance should be performed. This approach promises cost savings over routine or time-based <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Preventive_maintenance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Preventive maintenance\" data-key=\"041cd4e1efad782449a8998592796f17\">preventive maintenance<\/a>, because tasks are performed only when warranted. Thus, it is regarded as condition-based maintenance carried out as suggested by estimations of the degradation state of an item.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The main promise of predictive maintenance is to allow convenient scheduling of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Corrective_maintenance\" title=\"Corrective maintenance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"15ab28397c16a9f93573cdf4f20ef8c6\">corrective maintenance<\/a>, and to prevent unexpected equipment failures. The key is \"the right information in the right time\". By knowing which equipment needs maintenance, maintenance work can be better planned (spare parts, people, etc.) and what would have been \"unplanned stops\" are transformed to shorter and fewer \"planned stops\", thus increasing plant availability. Other potential advantages include increased equipment lifetime, increased plant safety, fewer accidents with negative impact on environment, and optimized spare parts handling.\n<\/p><p>Predictive maintenance differs from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Preventive_maintenance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Preventive maintenance\" data-key=\"041cd4e1efad782449a8998592796f17\">preventive maintenance<\/a> because it relies on the actual condition of equipment, rather than average or expected life statistics, to predict when maintenance will be required.\n<\/p><p>Some of the main components that are necessary for implementing predictive maintenance are data collection and preprocessing, early fault detection, fault detection, time to failure prediction, maintenance scheduling and resource optimization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Predictive maintenance has also been considered to be one of the driving forces for improving productivity and one of the ways to achieve \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Just-in-time_manufacturing\" title=\"Just-in-time manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53f045cdf1b7297943c97f687e14f556\">just-in-time<\/a>\" in manufacturing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Overview\">Overview<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Predictive maintenance evaluates the condition of equipment by performing periodic (offline) or continuous (online) equipment <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Condition_monitoring\" title=\"Condition monitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44fc7b254400902a353d684eabf415f9\">condition monitoring<\/a>. The ultimate goal of the approach is to perform maintenance at a scheduled point in time when the maintenance activity is most cost-effective and before the equipment loses performance within a threshold. This results in a reduction in unplanned downtime costs because of failure where for instance costs can be in the hundreds of thousands per day depending on industry.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> In energy production in addition to loss of revenue and component costs, fines can be levied for non delivery increasing costs even further. This is in contrast to time- and\/or operation count-based maintenance, where a piece of equipment gets maintained whether it needs it or not. Time-based maintenance is labor intensive, ineffective in identifying problems that develop between scheduled inspections, and so is not cost-effective.\n<\/p><p>The \"predictive\" component of predictive maintenance stems from the goal of predicting the future trend of the equipment's condition. This approach uses principles of statistical process control to determine at what point in the future maintenance activities will be appropriate.\n<\/p><p>Most predictive inspections are performed while equipment is in service, thereby minimizing disruption of normal system operations. Adoption of PdM can result in substantial cost savings and higher system reliability.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reliability_centered_maintenance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Reliability centered maintenance\" data-key=\"67034ecde550d3f9dcbda5da16a2d371\">Reliability-centered maintenance<\/a> (RCM) emphasizes the use of predictive maintenance techniques in addition to traditional preventive measures. When properly implemented, RCM provides companies with a tool for achieving lowest asset net present costs (NPC) for a given level of performance and risk.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>One goal is to transfer the PdM data to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computerized_maintenance_management_system\" title=\"Computerized maintenance management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"779e4b2fce1a3fe1a4f9280466707a84\">computerized maintenance management system<\/a> (CMMS) so that the equipment condition data is sent to the right equipment object in the CMMS system in order to trigger maintenance planning, work order execution, and reporting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PengEquip12_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PengEquip12-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Unless this is achieved, the PdM solution is of limited value, at least if the PdM solution is implemented on a medium to large size plant with tens of thousands pieces of equipment. In 2010, the mining company Boliden, as a first, implemented a combined <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_Control_System\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Distributed Control System\" data-key=\"7f3dbdf6286cefe9bb31df67d6951c1f\">Distributed Control System<\/a> (DCS) and PdM solution integrated with the plant CMMS system on an object to object level, transferring equipment data using protocols like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Highway_Addressable_Remote_Transducer_Protocol\" title=\"Highway Addressable Remote Transducer Protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ce00a020534f1a196c9040b10338977\">Highway Addressable Remote Transducer Protocol<\/a> (HART), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEC61850\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IEC61850\" data-key=\"8a46c40532110d10cf2f94545fc6f0af\">IEC61850<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OLE_for_process_control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OLE for process control\" data-key=\"de3dc74b37743d2d6d426f8485fd39a9\">OLE for process control<\/a> (OPC).\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technologies\">Technologies<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>To evaluate equipment condition, predictive maintenance utilizes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nondestructive_testing\" title=\"Nondestructive testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bc004a9f55961b4396f855b7c495d02\">nondestructive testing<\/a> technologies such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrared\" title=\"Infrared\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b2c07d211563e8beacf68339b2123c4\">infrared<\/a>, acoustic (partial discharge and airborne ultrasonic), corona detection, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vibration_analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Vibration analysis\" data-key=\"5dc2425bae434a7726ecf4747e9c8803\">vibration analysis<\/a>, sound level measurements, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oil_analysis\" title=\"Oil analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc9b4ffe2ff04a27ebbff2f5481a23a7\">oil analysis<\/a>, and other specific online tests. A new approach in this area is to utilize measurements on the actual equipment in combination with measurement of process performance, measured by other devices, to trigger equipment maintenance. This is primarily available in collaborative process automation systems (CPAS). Site measurements are often supported by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wireless_sensor_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wireless sensor networks\" data-key=\"6a39ac9d0f48f6f56d7aec66e3a05ee0\">wireless sensor networks<\/a> to reduce the wiring cost.\n<\/p><p>Vibration analysis is most productive on high-speed rotating equipment and can be the most expensive component of a PdM program to get up and running. Vibration analysis, when properly done, allows the user to evaluate the condition of equipment and avoid failures. The latest generation of vibration analyzers comprises more capabilities and automated functions than its predecessors. Many units display the full vibration spectrum of three axes simultaneously, providing a snapshot of what is going on with a particular machine. But despite such capabilities, not even the most sophisticated equipment successfully predicts developing problems unless the operator understands and applies the basics of vibration analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Remote visual inspection is the first non destructive testing. It provides a cost-efficient primary assessment. Essential information and defaults can be deduced from the external appearance of the piece, such as folds, breaks, cracks and corrosion.The remote visual inspection has to be carried out in good conditions with a sufficient lighting (350 LUX at least). When the part of the piece to be controlled is not directly accessible, an instrument made of mirrors and lenses called endoscope is used. Hidden defects with external irregularities may indicate a more serious defect inside.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Acoustical analysis can be done on a sonic or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ultrasound\" title=\"Ultrasound\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d42ab16427dfb155eb13358d8b27768b\">ultrasonic<\/a> level. New ultrasonic techniques for condition monitoring make it possible to \"hear\" friction and stress in rotating machinery, which can predict deterioration earlier than conventional techniques.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PlantServices_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PlantServices-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> Ultrasonic technology is sensitive to high-frequency sounds that are inaudible to the human ear and distinguishes them from lower-frequency sounds and mechanical vibration. Machine friction and stress waves produce distinctive sounds in the upper ultrasonic range.\n<p>Changes in these friction and stress waves can suggest deteriorating conditions much earlier than technologies such as vibration or oil analysis. With proper ultrasonic measurement and analysis, it\u2019s possible to differentiate normal wear from abnormal wear, physical damage, imbalance conditions, and lubrication problems based on a direct relationship between asset and operating conditions.\n<\/p>\n<\/p><p>Sonic monitoring equipment is less expensive, but it also has fewer uses than ultrasonic technologies. Sonic technology is useful only on mechanical equipment, while ultrasonic equipment can detect electrical problems and is more flexible and reliable in detecting mechanical problems.\n<\/p><p>Infrared monitoring and analysis has the widest range of application (from high- to low-speed equipment), and it can be effective for spotting both mechanical and electrical failures; some consider it to currently be the most cost-effective technology. \n<p>Oil analysis is a long-term program that, where relevant, can eventually be more predictive than any of the other technologies. It can take years for a plant's oil program to reach this level of sophistication and effectiveness. \nAnalytical techniques performed on oil samples can be classified in two categories: used oil analysis and wear particle analysis. Used oil analysis determines the condition of the lubricant itself, determines the quality of the lubricant, and checks its suitability for continued use. Wear particle analysis determines the mechanical condition of machine components that are lubricated. Through wear particle analysis, you can identify the composition of the solid material present and evaluate particle type, size, concentration, distribution, and morphology.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/p><p>The use of <b>Model Based Condition Monitoring<\/b> for predictive maintenance programs is becoming increasingly popular over time. This method involves spectral analysis on the motor\u2019s current and voltage signals and then compares the measured parameters to a known and learned model of the motor to diagnose various electrical and mechanical anomalies. This process of \"model based\" condition monitoring was originally designed and used on NASA\u2019s space shuttle to monitor and detect developing faults in the space shuttle\u2019s main engine.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> It allows for the automation of data collection and analysis tasks, providing round the clock condition monitoring and warnings about faults as they develop.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Applications_.28by_industry.29\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications_(by_industry)\">Applications (by industry)<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Railway\">Railway<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Detect problems before they cause downtime for linear, fixed and mobile assets. <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Improving safety and track void detection through a new vehicle cab-based monitoring system<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siemens\" title=\"Siemens\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c6a901b7c31bfd5653cdfb35be89a4c5\">Siemens<\/a> Tracksure track monitoring system is able to identify voids underneath track from the acceleration measured in the vehicle cab. <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Can also identify the type of track asset that the void is located under and provide an indication of the severity of the void<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Manufacturing\">Manufacturing<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Early fault detection and diagnosis in the manufacturing industry. <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Manufacturers increasingly collect big data from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_of_Things\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Internet of Things\" data-key=\"247baf5e89a754e68fab48977f38b4f5\">Internet of Things<\/a> (IoT) sensors in their factories and products and using different algorithms for the collected data to detect warning signs of expensive failures before they occur. <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Manufacturing industry: predict equipment failures can be easily found out using big data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Oil_and_Gas\">Oil and Gas<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Oil and gas companies often lack visibility into the condition of their equipment, especially in remote offshore and deep-water locations. <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Big Data can provide insight to oil and gas companies, this way equipment failures and the optimal lifetime of the system and components can be analyzed and predicted.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RCASE\" title=\"RCASE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b1e95a87761c5e1e03a7867b1db27ca\">RCASE<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Root_cause_analysis\" title=\"Root cause analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c64ff2824493f1c5a46c88047b979134\">Root cause analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Production_flow_analysis\" title=\"Production flow analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21c30d243076e2585d585c6b2b558d2c\">Production Flow Analysis<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Goriveau, Rafael; Medjaher, Kamal; Zerhouni, Noureddine. <i>From prognostics and health systems management to predictive maintenance 1 : monitoring and prognostics<\/i>. ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-84821-937-3.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+prognostics+and+health+systems+management+to+predictive+maintenance+1+%3A+monitoring+and+prognostics&rft.pub=ISTE+Ltd+and+John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc.&rft.isbn=978-1-84821-937-3&rft.aulast=Goriveau&rft.aufirst=Rafael&rft.au=Medjaher%2C+Kamal&rft.au=Zerhouni%2C+Noureddine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredictive+maintenance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Mobley, R. Keith. <i>An introduction to predictive maintenance<\/i> (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-7506-7531-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+predictive+maintenance&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.isbn=0-7506-7531-4&rft.aulast=Mobley&rft.aufirst=R.+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredictive+maintenance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Amruthnath, Nagdev; Gupta, Tarun (2018-02-02). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/322900854_Fault_Class_Prediction_in_Unsupervised_Learning_using_Model-Based_Clustering_Approach?channel=doi&linkId=5a74cec40f7e9b41dbce3114&showFulltext=true\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Fault Class Prediction in Unsupervised Learning using Model-Based Clustering Approach<\/i><\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.13140%2Frg.2.2.22085.14563\" target=\"_blank\">10.13140\/rg.2.2.22085.14563<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fault+Class+Prediction+in+Unsupervised+Learning+using+Model-Based+Clustering+Approach&rft.date=2018-02-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.13140%2Frg.2.2.22085.14563&rft.aulast=Amruthnath&rft.aufirst=Nagdev&rft.au=Gupta%2C+Tarun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F322900854_Fault_Class_Prediction_in_Unsupervised_Learning_using_Model-Based_Clustering_Approach%3Fchannel%3Ddoi%26linkId%3D5a74cec40f7e9b41dbce3114%26showFulltext%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredictive+maintenance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Amruthnath, Nagdev; Gupta, Tarun (2018-02-01). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/322869981_A_Research_Study_on_Unsupervised_Machine_Learning_Algorithms_for_Fault_Detection_in_Predictive_Maintenance?channel=doi&linkId=5a738a1ca6fdcc53fe1474b5&showFulltext=true\" target=\"_blank\"><i>A Research Study on Unsupervised Machine Learning Algorithms for Fault Detection in Predictive Maintenance<\/i><\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.13140%2Frg.2.2.28822.24648\" target=\"_blank\">10.13140\/rg.2.2.28822.24648<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Research+Study+on+Unsupervised+Machine+Learning+Algorithms+for+Fault+Detection+in+Predictive+Maintenance&rft.date=2018-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.13140%2Frg.2.2.28822.24648&rft.aulast=Amruthnath&rft.aufirst=Nagdev&rft.au=Gupta%2C+Tarun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F322869981_A_Research_Study_on_Unsupervised_Machine_Learning_Algorithms_for_Fault_Detection_in_Predictive_Maintenance%3Fchannel%3Ddoi%26linkId%3D5a738a1ca6fdcc53fe1474b5%26showFulltext%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredictive+maintenance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/learnoilanalysis.com\/oil-analysis-saves-you-money-but-how-much\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Much Does Predictive Maintenance Save You Money?\"<\/a>. <i>LearnOilAnalysis.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2017-12-03<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LearnOilAnalysis.com&rft.atitle=How+Much+Does+Predictive+Maintenance+Save+You+Money%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flearnoilanalysis.com%2Foil-analysis-saves-you-money-but-how-much%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredictive+maintenance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Mather, D. (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.plantservices.com\/articles\/2008\/177.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The value of RCM\"<\/a>. <i>Plant Services<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Plant+Services&rft.atitle=The+value+of+RCM&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Mather&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plantservices.com%2Farticles%2F2008%2F177.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredictive+maintenance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PengEquip12-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PengEquip12_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Peng, K. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=9uYSIH2eP_oC&pg=PA132\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Equipment Management in the Post-Maintenance Era: A New Alternative to Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp. 132\u2013136. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781466501942<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Equipment+Management+in+the+Post-Maintenance+Era%3A+A+New+Alternative+to+Total+Productive+Maintenance+%28TPM%29&rft.pages=132-136&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781466501942&rft.au=Peng%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9uYSIH2eP_oC%26pg%3DPA132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredictive+maintenance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Yung, C. (2006) \"Vibration analysis: what does it mean?\" <i>Plant Services<\/i> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http:\/\/www.plantservices.com\/articles\/2006\/154.html\" target=\"_blank\">[1]<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PlantServices-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PlantServices_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Kennedy, S. (2006) \"New tools for PdM\" <i>Plant Services<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http:\/\/www.plantservices.com\/articles\/2006\/072.html\" target=\"_blank\">[2]<\/a> Learn about condition monitoring beyond oil analysis, temperature and vibration in Sheila Kennedy's monthly Technology Toolbox column.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.plantservices.com\/articles\/2006\/212.html\" target=\"_blank\">Robin, L. (2006) \"Slick tricks in oil analysis\" <i>Plant Services<\/i><\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">A. Duyar and W. C. Merrill, \"Fault Diagnosis for the Space Shuttle Main Engine\", AIAA Journal of Guidance, Control and Dynamics, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 384-389, 1992<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www-01.ibm.com\/common\/ssi\/cgi-bin\/ssialias?htmlfid=TTE03007USEN\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Predictive maintenance benefits for the railway industry<\/i><\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 November<\/span> 2016<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Predictive+maintenance+benefits+for+the+railway+industry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-01.ibm.com%2Fcommon%2Fssi%2Fcgi-bin%2Fssialias%3Fhtmlfid%3DTTE03007USEN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredictive+maintenance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.railtechnologymagazine.com\/Comment\/improving-safety-through-early-track-void-detection\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Improving safety through early track void detection<\/i><\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 November<\/span> 2016<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Improving+safety+through+early+track+void+detection&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.railtechnologymagazine.com%2FComment%2Fimproving-safety-through-early-track-void-detection&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredictive+maintenance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Amruthnath, Nagdev; Gupta, Tarun (2018-02-01). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/322869981_A_Research_Study_on_Unsupervised_Machine_Learning_Algorithms_for_Fault_Detection_in_Predictive_Maintenance?channel=doi&linkId=5a738a1ca6fdcc53fe1474b5&showFulltext=true\" target=\"_blank\"><i>A Research Study on Unsupervised Machine Learning Algorithms for Fault Detection in Predictive Maintenance<\/i><\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.13140%2Frg.2.2.28822.24648\" target=\"_blank\">10.13140\/rg.2.2.28822.24648<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Research+Study+on+Unsupervised+Machine+Learning+Algorithms+for+Fault+Detection+in+Predictive+Maintenance&rft.date=2018-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.13140%2Frg.2.2.28822.24648&rft.aulast=Amruthnath&rft.aufirst=Nagdev&rft.au=Gupta%2C+Tarun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F322869981_A_Research_Study_on_Unsupervised_Machine_Learning_Algorithms_for_Fault_Detection_in_Predictive_Maintenance%3Fchannel%3Ddoi%26linkId%3D5a738a1ca6fdcc53fe1474b5%26showFulltext%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredictive+maintenance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blogs.oracle.com\/bigdata\/predictive-maintenance-big-data-use-cases\" target=\"_blank\"><i>5 Use Cases for Predictive Maintenance and Big Data, Oracle Corporation, CA 94065 USA.<\/i><\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 November<\/span> 2018<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=5+Use++Cases++for++Predictive++Maintenance++and++Big++Data%2C+Oracle+Corporation%2C+CA+94065+USA.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.oracle.com%2Fbigdata%2Fpredictive-maintenance-big-data-use-cases&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredictive+maintenance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oracle.com\/a\/ocom\/docs\/dc\/top22usecasesforbigdatav2.pdf?source=:ow:lp:pt::RC_WWMK180502P00084:LPD100713386&intcmp=:ow:lp:pt::RC_WWMK180502P00084:LPD100713386\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Oracle 2018, 22 Big Data Use Cases You Want to Know, 2nd edition, Oracle Corporation, CA 94065 USA.<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 November<\/span> 2018<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oracle+2018%2C+22+Big+Data+Use+Cases+You+Want+to+Know%2C+2nd+edition%2C+Oracle+Corporation%2C+CA+94065+USA.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oracle.com%2Fa%2Focom%2Fdocs%2Fdc%2Ftop22usecasesforbigdatav2.pdf%3Fsource%3D%3Aow%3Alp%3Apt%3A%3ARC_WWMK180502P00084%3ALPD100713386%26intcmp%3D%3Aow%3Alp%3Apt%3A%3ARC_WWMK180502P00084%3ALPD100713386&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredictive+maintenance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/go.oracle.com\/LP=69908?elqCampaignid=149836&src1=:so:bl:or::BDBlog&SC=:so:bl:or::BDBlog&pcode=WWMK180502P00084\" target=\"_blank\"><i>22 Big Data Use Cases You Want to Know, Oracle Corporation, CA 94065 USA.<\/i><\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 October<\/span> 2018<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=22+Big+Data+Use+Cases+You+Want+to+Know%2C+Oracle+Corporation%2C+CA+94065+USA.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.oracle.com%2FLP%3D69908%3FelqCampaignid%3D149836%26src1%3D%3Aso%3Abl%3Aor%3A%3ABDBlog%26SC%3D%3Aso%3Abl%3Aor%3A%3ABDBlog%26pcode%3DWWMK180502P00084&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredictive+maintenance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/go.oracle.com\/LP=69908?elqCampaignid=149836&src1=:so:bl:or::BDBlog&SC=:so:bl:or::BDBlog&pcode=WWMK180502P00084\" target=\"_blank\"><i>22 Big Data Use Cases You Want to Know, Oracle Corporation, CA 94065 USA.<\/i><\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">, retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 October<\/span> 2018<\/span><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=22+Big+Data+Use+Cases+You+Want+to+Know%2C+Oracle+Corporation%2C+CA+94065+USA.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.oracle.com%2FLP%3D69908%3FelqCampaignid%3D149836%26src1%3D%3Aso%3Abl%3Aor%3A%3ABDBlog%26SC%3D%3Aso%3Abl%3Aor%3A%3ABDBlog%26pcode%3DWWMK180502P00084&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APredictive+maintenance\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1321\nCached time: 20190324164704\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.228 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.302 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 813\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 31374\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 620\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 11\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 2\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 44542\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\nLua time usage: 0.132\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 3.92 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 262.660 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>68.17% 179.060 1 Template:Reflist\n41.58% 109.222 6 Template:Cite_book\n29.43% 77.294 1 Template:Cn\n19.54% 51.330 1 Template:Fix\n12.49% 32.808 2 Template:Category_handler\n 9.92% 26.064 6 Template:Citation\n 5.63% 14.794 1 Template:Delink\n 3.97% 10.436 2 Template:Cite_web\n 1.66% 4.373 1 Template:Fix\/category\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:3064522-1!canonical and timestamp 20190324164703 and revision id 881893324\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_maintenance\" data-key=\"3f463ab7bb793745fc5ea96e1976e12a\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203017\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.010 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.141 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 134.549 1 - wikipedia:Predictive_maintenance\n100.00% 134.549 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10590-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203017 and revision id 35099\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Predictive_maintenance\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Predictive_maintenance<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9e\/Deteriorated_asphalt.jpg\/440px-Deteriorated_asphalt.jpg"],"fad029fc2cfce528b947912a1100541b_timestamp":1554323417,"68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_type":"article","68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_title":"Inventory control","68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inventory_control","68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tInventory control\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tSee also: Stock management\nInventory control or stock control can be broadly defined as \"the activity of checking a shop\u2019s stock.\"[1] However, a more focused definition takes into account the more science-based, methodical practice of not only verifying a business' inventory but also focusing on the many related facets of inventory management (such as forecasting future demand) \"within an organisation to meet the demand placed upon that business economically.\"[2] Other facets of inventory control include supply chain management, production control, financial flexibility, and customer satisfaction.[3] At the root of inventory control, however, is the inventory control problem, which involves determining when to order, how much to order, and the logistics (where) of those decisions.[3]\nAn extension of inventory control is the inventory control system. This may come in the form of a technological system and its programmed software used for managing various aspects of inventory problems[4] , or it may refer to a methodology (which may include the use of technological barriers) for handling loss prevention in a business.[5][6]\n\nContents \n\n1 Inventory control systems \n2 Advantages and disadvantages \n3 See also \n4 References \n\n\nInventory control systems \n Wireless barcoder reader with docking stationAn inventory control system is used to keep inventories in a desired state while continuing to adequately supply customers[7][8], and its success depends on maintaining clear records on a periodic or perpetual basis.[8][9] \nInventory management software often plays an important role in the modern inventory control system, providing timely and accurate analytical, optimization, and forecasting techniques for complex inventory management problems.[10][11] Typical features of this type of software include[8][11]:\n\ninventory tracking and forecasting tools that use selectable algorithms and review cycles to identify anomalies and other areas of concern\ninventory optimization\npurchase and replenishment tools that include automated and manual replenishment components, inventory calculations, and lot size optimization\nlead time variability management\nsafety stock calculation and forecasting\ninventory cost management\nshelf-life and slow-mover logic\nmultiple location support\nThrough this functionality, a business may better detail what has sold, how quickly, and at what price, for example. Reports could be used to predict when to stock up on extra products around a holiday or to make decisions about special offers, discontinuing products, and so on. \nInventory control techniques often rely upon barcodes and radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags to provide automatic identification of inventory objects\u2014including but not limited to merchandise, consumables, fixed assets, circulating tools, library books, and capital equipment\u2014which in turn can be processed with inventory management software.[12] A new trend in inventory management is to label inventory and assets with a QR Code, which can then be read with smart-phones to keep track of inventory count and movement.[13] These new systems are especially useful for field service operations, where an employee needs to record inventory transaction or look up inventory stock in the field, away from the computers and hand-held scanners.\n\nAdvantages and disadvantages \nInventory control systems have advantages and disadvantages, based on what style of system is being run. A purely periodic (physical) inventory control system takes \"an actual physical count and valuation of all inventory on hand ... at the close of an accounting period,\"[14] whereas a perpetual inventory control system takes an initial count of an entire inventory and then closely monitors any additions and deletions as they occur.[14][9] Various advantages and disadvantages, in comparison, include:\n\nPeriodic is technically the more accurate as it considers both counted and valued inventory.[14]\nPeriodic is more time-consuming than perpetual.[14]\nPerpetual can lower the cost of carrying inventory vs. periodic.[9]\nPerpetual is typically more costly to run than periodic.[9]\nPerpetual needs to be verified from time to time against an actual physical count, due to scrap, human error, theft, and other variables.[14][15]\nSee also \n\n \n\n\n\nSupply chain management\nDocument automation\nWarehouse management system\nStorage management system\nAutomated identification and data capture\n \n\n\n\nEconomic order quantity\nEconomic lot scheduling problem\nNewsvendor model\nVendor-managed inventory\nScan-based trading\n \n\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"stock control\". Macmillan Dictionary. Macmillan Publishers Limited. Retrieved 21 June 2018 . \n\n^ Lewis, C. (2012). \"Chapter 1: Demand forecasting and inventory control\". Demand Forecasting and Inventory Control. Routledge. p. 3\u201320. ISBN 9781136346835. \n\n^ a b Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). \"Chapter 1: Introduction\". Inventory Control. Springer. p. 1\u20136. ISBN 9783319157290. \n\n^ Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). \"Chapter 2: Forecasting\". Inventory Control. Springer. p. 7\u201335. ISBN 9783319157290. \n\n^ Hayes, R. (2014). Retail Security and Loss Prevention. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 30. ISBN 9781483296005. \n\n^ Wesley, R.L.; Wanat, J.A. (2016). A Guide to Internal Loss Prevention. Elsevier. pp. 81\u20133. ISBN 9781483135731. \n\n^ Chorafas, D.N. (ed.). \"Chapter 13: Specifications for Inventory Control\". Systems and Simulation. Elsevier. pp. 233\u201352. doi:10.1016\/S0076-5392(09)60019-9. ISBN 9780123749185. \n\n^ a b c Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). \"Chapter 11: Implementation\". Inventory Control. Springer. p. 223\u201334. ISBN 9783319157290. \n\n^ a b c d Wild, R. (2002). Essentials of Operations Management. Cengage Learning. pp. 332\u20133. ISBN 9781844800520. \n\n^ Azadivar, F.; Rangarajan, A. (2016). \"10.6 Inventory Management in Practice\". In Ravindran, A.R. Operations Research and Management Science Handbook. CRC Press. pp. 10\u201334\u201310\u201335. ISBN 9781420009712. \n\n^ a b Donath, B.; Mazel, J.; Dubin, C.; Patterson, P., eds. (2002). \"Part II Inventory Management - Chapter 4: Software and Technology\". The IOMA Handbook of Logistics and Inventory Management. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 504\u201338. ISBN 9780471209355. \n\n^ Gulati, R.; Smith, R. (2009). Maintenance and Reliability Best Practices. Industrial Press, Inc. pp. 122\u20134. ISBN 9780831133115. \n\n^ Pantano, E.; Nguyen, B.; Dennis, C.; et al. (2017). Internet Retailing and Future Perspectives. Routledge. p. PT301. ISBN 9781317378761. \n\n^ a b c d e Dopson, L.R.; Hayes, D.K. (2015). Food and Beverage Cost Control. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 115\u201317. ISBN 9781118988497. \n\n^ Waller, M.A.; Esper, T.L. (2014). The Definitive Guide to Inventory Management: Principles and Strategies for the Efficient Flow of Inventory Across the Supply Chain. Pearson Education. pp. 150\u20131. ISBN 9780133448825. \n\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inventory_control\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inventory_control<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain 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\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 21 June 2018, at 19:43.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 491 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Inventory_control skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Inventory control<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stock_management\" title=\"Stock management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95ee989c342fb4969c0ef7e4ab3da248\">Stock management<\/a><\/div>\n<p><b>Inventory control<\/b> or <b>stock control<\/b> can be broadly defined as \"the activity of checking a shop\u2019s stock.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MacDiction_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MacDiction-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> However, a more focused definition takes into account the more science-based, methodical practice of not only verifying a business' inventory but also focusing on the many related facets of inventory management (such as forecasting future demand) \"within an organisation to meet the demand placed upon that business economically.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LewisDemand12_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LewisDemand12-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Other facets of inventory control include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Supply chain management\" data-key=\"a9ab29cff9b4cb170ab64c685242c8b0\">supply chain management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Production_control\" title=\"Production control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52910a29f58322182b24677bdd33a987\">production control<\/a>, financial flexibility, and customer satisfaction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-1_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-1-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> At the root of inventory control, however, is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_control_problem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Inventory control problem\" data-key=\"981aef2a8ecf0e644a761d43c6549e55\">inventory control problem<\/a>, which involves determining when to order, how much to order, and the logistics (where) of those decisions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-1_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-1-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An extension of inventory control is the inventory control system. This may come in the form of a technological system and its programmed software used for managing various aspects of inventory problems<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-2_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-2-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> , or it may refer to a methodology (which may include the use of technological barriers) for handling <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loss_prevention\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Loss prevention\" data-key=\"c37cfd1e02fe32cf4c70ea912872fb20\">loss prevention<\/a> in a business.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HayesRetail14_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HayesRetail14-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WesleyAGuide16_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WesleyAGuide16-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Inventory_control_systems\">Inventory control systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:HDWR_HD2000_Wireless_Barcode_Reader.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"bef24b93fb1380c6c2724f436b8dca94\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b6\/HDWR_HD2000_Wireless_Barcode_Reader.png\/220px-HDWR_HD2000_Wireless_Barcode_Reader.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"242\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:HDWR_HD2000_Wireless_Barcode_Reader.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"bef24b93fb1380c6c2724f436b8dca94\"><\/a><\/div>Wireless barcoder reader with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Docking_station\" title=\"Docking station\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f6c3f6663b0cfb42eb2ee61bd9d7aa3\">docking station<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/div><p>An inventory control system is used to keep inventories in a desired state while continuing to adequately supply customers<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChorafasSystems65_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChorafasSystems65-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>, and its success depends on maintaining clear records on a periodic or perpetual basis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WildEssentials02_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WildEssentials02-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_management_software\" title=\"Inventory management software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ba6892940d566697709847f1ce530d8\">Inventory management software<\/a> often plays an important role in the modern inventory control system, providing timely and accurate analytical, optimization, and forecasting techniques for complex inventory management problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AzadivarOperations16_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AzadivarOperations16-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DonathIOMA02_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DonathIOMA02-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> Typical features of this type of software include<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_8-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DonathIOMA02_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DonathIOMA02-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>inventory tracking and forecasting tools that use selectable algorithms and review cycles to identify anomalies and other areas of concern<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_optimization\" title=\"Inventory optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46ef225e7e40d52d6016f0272514731f\">inventory optimization<\/a><\/li>\n<li>purchase and replenishment tools that include automated and manual replenishment components, inventory calculations, and lot size optimization<\/li>\n<li>lead time variability management<\/li>\n<li>safety stock calculation and forecasting<\/li>\n<li>inventory cost management<\/li>\n<li>shelf-life and slow-mover logic<\/li>\n<li>multiple location support<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Through this functionality, a business may better detail what has sold, how quickly, and at what <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Price\" title=\"Price\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"407990f1b54f4308cf1bf0fcfe0bc1af\">price<\/a>, for example. Reports could be used to predict when to stock up on extra products around a holiday or to make decisions about <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Special_offer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Special offer\" data-key=\"8631c8e2d8d01fe69647af4cdf0f806a\">special offers<\/a>, discontinuing products, and so on. \n<\/p><p>Inventory control techniques often rely upon <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Barcode\" title=\"Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1852a2c48f6042c16ca0c8a87abed56\">barcodes<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radio-frequency_identification\" title=\"Radio-frequency identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142e22fc78bf4acc0c1806ea4d00e395\">radio-frequency identification<\/a> (RFID) tags to provide automatic identification of inventory objects\u2014including but not limited to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Merchandise\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Merchandise\" data-key=\"4e67a1d55dca02b3ed79e5ae1d838b5e\">merchandise<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consumable\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Consumable\" data-key=\"90f04ba6b9b520b2afd23d68ca47fb80\">consumables<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fixed_asset\" title=\"Fixed asset\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5b34315f53a1826ae82b51aae4a3b3e\">fixed assets<\/a>, circulating tools, library books, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capital_equipment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Capital equipment\" data-key=\"23b6ccebd9d90518dd882474e82a17b3\">capital equipment<\/a>\u2014which in turn can be processed with inventory management software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GulatiMaint09_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GulatiMaint09-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> A new trend in inventory management is to label inventory and assets with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QR_Code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"QR Code\" data-key=\"fe1e6436e7c024095606b74293cbd082\">QR Code<\/a>, which can then be read with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart-phone\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Smart-phone\" data-key=\"7c83c2b55dc5cd7666e93de7c79bdf6d\">smart-phones<\/a> to keep track of inventory count and movement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PantanoInternet17_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PantanoInternet17-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> These new systems are especially useful for field service operations, where an employee needs to record inventory transaction or look up inventory stock in the field, away from the computers and hand-held scanners.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Advantages_and_disadvantages\">Advantages and disadvantages<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Inventory control systems have advantages and disadvantages, based on what style of system is being run. A purely periodic (physical) inventory control system takes \"an actual physical count and valuation of all inventory on hand ... at the close of an accounting period,\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DopsonFood15_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DopsonFood15-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> whereas a perpetual inventory control system takes an initial count of an entire inventory and then closely monitors any additions and deletions as they occur.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DopsonFood15_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DopsonFood15-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WildEssentials02_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WildEssentials02-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> Various advantages and disadvantages, in comparison, include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Periodic is technically the more accurate as it considers both counted and valued inventory.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DopsonFood15_14-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DopsonFood15-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Periodic is more time-consuming than perpetual.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DopsonFood15_14-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DopsonFood15-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Perpetual can lower the cost of carrying inventory vs. periodic.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WildEssentials02_9-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WildEssentials02-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Perpetual is typically more costly to run than periodic.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WildEssentials02_9-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WildEssentials02-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Perpetual needs to be verified from time to time against an actual physical count, due to scrap, human error, theft, and other variables.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DopsonFood15_14-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DopsonFood15-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WallerTheDef14_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WallerTheDef14-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div>\n<p> \n<\/p>\n<table class=\"multicol\" role=\"presentation\" style=\"border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; border: 0; background:transparent; width:100%;\"><tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"text-align: left; vertical-align: top;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Supply chain management\" data-key=\"a9ab29cff9b4cb170ab64c685242c8b0\">Supply chain management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_automation\" title=\"Document automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20ee72738e1b69bef62898c10122f938\">Document automation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Warehouse_management_system\" title=\"Warehouse management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d3d157e8aa6d091a9d57df3cc86d375\">Warehouse management system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Storage_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Storage management system\" data-key=\"466823bd9b86587b701c65363693f283\">Storage management system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_identification_and_data_capture\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated identification and data capture\" data-key=\"6a095044168dde4006e55605a3f7de37\">Automated identification and data capture<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p> \n<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"text-align: left; vertical-align: top;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economic_order_quantity\" title=\"Economic order quantity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ed9237e8432a705dbdc45132e983e49\">Economic order quantity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economic_lot_scheduling_problem\" title=\"Economic lot scheduling problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"010af2642af9f5fcc98ae6ed8a71edb9\">Economic lot scheduling problem<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Newsvendor_model\" title=\"Newsvendor model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc31bb7a6a084e72f53da010477632e7\">Newsvendor model<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vendor-managed_inventory\" title=\"Vendor-managed inventory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18f173e4ab573c37e0fde78e9e6c2b27\">Vendor-managed inventory<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scan-based_trading\" title=\"Scan-based trading\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84eaf2ef6825e0563775e9b9161188eb\">Scan-based trading<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p> \n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-MacDiction-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MacDiction_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.macmillandictionary.com\/dictionary\/british\/stock-control\" target=\"_blank\">\"stock control\"<\/a>. <i>Macmillan Dictionary<\/i>. Macmillan Publishers Limited<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Macmillan+Dictionary&rft.atitle=stock+control&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.macmillandictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fbritish%2Fstock-control&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LewisDemand12-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LewisDemand12_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Lewis, C. (2012). \"Chapter 1: Demand forecasting and inventory control\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=NOOmR2D88Q0C\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Demand Forecasting and Inventory Control<\/i><\/a>. Routledge. p. 3\u201320. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781136346835.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Demand+forecasting+and+inventory+control&rft.btitle=Demand+Forecasting+and+Inventory+Control&rft.pages=3-20&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781136346835&rft.au=Lewis%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNOOmR2D88Q0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-1-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-1_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-1_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). \"Chapter 1: Introduction\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=v9YjCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Inventory Control<\/i><\/a>. Springer. p. 1\u20136. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783319157290.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction&rft.btitle=Inventory+Control&rft.pages=1-6&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9783319157290&rft.au=Axs%C3%A4ter%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv9YjCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-2-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-2_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). \"Chapter 2: Forecasting\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=v9YjCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Inventory Control<\/i><\/a>. Springer. p. 7\u201335. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783319157290.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Forecasting&rft.btitle=Inventory+Control&rft.pages=7-35&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9783319157290&rft.au=Axs%C3%A4ter%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv9YjCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HayesRetail14-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HayesRetail14_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Hayes, R. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=MEGjBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA30\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Retail Security and Loss Prevention<\/i><\/a>. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 30. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781483296005.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Retail+Security+and+Loss+Prevention&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781483296005&rft.au=Hayes%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMEGjBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WesleyAGuide16-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WesleyAGuide16_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Wesley, R.L.; Wanat, J.A. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pA4SBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA81\" target=\"_blank\"><i>A Guide to Internal Loss Prevention<\/i><\/a>. Elsevier. pp. 81\u20133. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781483135731.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+Internal+Loss+Prevention&rft.pages=81-3&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781483135731&rft.au=Wesley%2C+R.L.&rft.au=Wanat%2C+J.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpA4SBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChorafasSystems65-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChorafasSystems65_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Chorafas, D.N. (ed.). \"Chapter 13: Specifications for Inventory Control\". <i>Systems and Simulation<\/i>. Elsevier. pp. 233\u201352. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0076-5392%2809%2960019-9\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/S0076-5392(09)60019-9<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780123749185.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+13%3A+Specifications+for+Inventory+Control&rft.btitle=Systems+and+Simulation&rft.pages=233-52&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0076-5392%2809%2960019-9&rft.isbn=9780123749185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Axs\u00e4terInventory15-11_8-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Axs\u00e4ter, S. (2015). \"Chapter 11: Implementation\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=v9YjCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA223\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Inventory Control<\/i><\/a>. Springer. p. 223\u201334. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783319157290.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+11%3A+Implementation&rft.btitle=Inventory+Control&rft.pages=223-34&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9783319157290&rft.au=Axs%C3%A4ter%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv9YjCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WildEssentials02-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-WildEssentials02_9-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-WildEssentials02_9-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-WildEssentials02_9-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-WildEssentials02_9-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Wild, R. (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=B5j4D0U6QA0C&pg=PA333\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Essentials of Operations Management<\/i><\/a>. Cengage Learning. pp. 332\u20133. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781844800520.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essentials+of+Operations+Management&rft.pages=332-3&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781844800520&rft.au=Wild%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB5j4D0U6QA0C%26pg%3DPA333&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AzadivarOperations16-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AzadivarOperations16_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Azadivar, F.; Rangarajan, A. (2016). \"10.6 Inventory Management in Practice\". In Ravindran, A.R. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JSCHFC9zaD4C&pg=SA10-PA34\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Operations Research and Management Science Handbook<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp. 10\u201334\u201310\u201335. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781420009712.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=10.6+Inventory+Management+in+Practice&rft.btitle=Operations+Research+and+Management+Science+Handbook&rft.pages=10-34-10-35&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781420009712&rft.au=Azadivar%2C+F.&rft.au=Rangarajan%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJSCHFC9zaD4C%26pg%3DSA10-PA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DonathIOMA02-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-DonathIOMA02_11-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DonathIOMA02_11-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Donath, B.; Mazel, J.; Dubin, C.; Patterson, P., eds. (2002). \"Part II Inventory Management - Chapter 4: Software and Technology\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=G8E5bMwTrBQC&pg=PA505\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The IOMA Handbook of Logistics and Inventory Management<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 504\u201338. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780471209355.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+II+Inventory+Management+-+Chapter+4%3A+Software+and+Technology&rft.btitle=The+IOMA+Handbook+of+Logistics+and+Inventory+Management&rft.pages=504-38&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780471209355&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG8E5bMwTrBQC%26pg%3DPA505&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GulatiMaint09-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GulatiMaint09_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Gulati, R.; Smith, R. (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=igFCp-nz1n8C&pg=PA122\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Maintenance and Reliability Best Practices<\/i><\/a>. Industrial Press, Inc. pp. 122\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780831133115.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maintenance+and+Reliability+Best+Practices&rft.pages=122-4&rft.pub=Industrial+Press%2C+Inc&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780831133115&rft.au=Gulati%2C+R.&rft.au=Smith%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DigFCp-nz1n8C%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PantanoInternet17-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PantanoInternet17_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Pantano, E.; Nguyen, B.; Dennis, C.; et al. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=kmyuDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT301\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Internet Retailing and Future Perspectives<\/i><\/a>. Routledge. p. PT301. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781317378761.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Internet+Retailing+and+Future+Perspectives&rft.pages=PT301&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781317378761&rft.au=Pantano%2C+E.&rft.au=Nguyen%2C+B.&rft.au=Dennis%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkmyuDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT301&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DopsonFood15-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-DopsonFood15_14-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DopsonFood15_14-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DopsonFood15_14-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DopsonFood15_14-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DopsonFood15_14-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Dopson, L.R.; Hayes, D.K. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=yxotCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA115\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Food and Beverage Cost Control<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 115\u201317. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781118988497.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Food+and+Beverage+Cost+Control&rft.pages=115-17&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781118988497&rft.au=Dopson%2C+L.R.&rft.au=Hayes%2C+D.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxotCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WallerTheDef14-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WallerTheDef14_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Waller, M.A.; Esper, T.L. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cq8_AwAAQBAJ&pg=150\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Definitive Guide to Inventory Management: Principles and Strategies for the Efficient Flow of Inventory Across the Supply Chain<\/i><\/a>. Pearson Education. pp. 150\u20131. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780133448825.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Definitive+Guide+to+Inventory+Management%3A+Principles+and+Strategies+for+the+Efficient+Flow+of+Inventory+Across+the+Supply+Chain&rft.pages=150-1&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780133448825&rft.au=Waller%2C+M.A.&rft.au=Esper%2C+T.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dcq8_AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3D150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInventory+control\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1257\nCached time: 20190403103548\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.324 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.370 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 776\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 25088\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 98\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 7\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 48786\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\nLua time usage: 0.181\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 3.36 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 312.750 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>82.04% 256.590 1 Template:Reflist\n38.96% 121.859 14 Template:Cite_book\n27.96% 87.436 1 Template:Cite_web\n 9.03% 28.251 1 Template:See_also\n 1.04% 3.240 2 Template:Col-break\n 0.99% 3.088 1 Template:Main_other\n 0.94% 2.927 1 Template:Column-width\n 0.81% 2.530 1 Template:Col-begin\n 0.80% 2.516 1 Template:Col-end\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:2759248-1!canonical and timestamp 20190403103547 and revision id 884481066\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_control\" data-key=\"29ef56ddbe09d7c185cf3436effd130b\">article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203016\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.009 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.157 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 151.239 1 - wikipedia:Inventory_control\n100.00% 151.239 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10657-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203016 and revision id 33470\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inventory_control\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Inventory_control<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b6\/HDWR_HD2000_Wireless_Barcode_Reader.png\/440px-HDWR_HD2000_Wireless_Barcode_Reader.png"],"68d5914491fa43799d716e60c5a9f1b1_timestamp":1554323416,"13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_type":"article","13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_title":"Internet of things","13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things","13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tInternet of things\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\n A representation of the Internet of things (IoT).\nThe Internet of things (IoT) is the extension of Internet connectivity into physical devices and everyday objects. Embedded with electronics, Internet connectivity, and other forms of hardware (such as sensors), these devices can communicate and interact with others over the Internet, and they can be remotely monitored and controlled.[1][2][3][4]\nThe definition of the Internet of things has evolved due to convergence of multiple technologies, real-time analytics, machine learning, commodity sensors, and embedded systems.[5] Traditional fields of embedded systems, wireless sensor networks, control systems, automation (including home and building automation), and others all contribute to enabling the Internet of things. In the consumer market, IoT technology is most synonymous with products pertaining to the concept of the \"smart home\", covering devices and appliances (such as lighting fixtures, thermostats, home security systems and cameras, and other home appliances) that support one or more common ecosystems, and can be controlled via devices associated with that ecosystem, such as smartphones and smart speakers. \nThe IoT concept has faced prominent criticism, especially in regards to privacy and security concerns related to these devices and their intention of pervasive presence.\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Applications \n\n2.1 Consumer applications \n\n2.1.1 Smart home \n2.1.2 Elder care \n\n\n2.2 Commercial application \n\n2.2.1 Medical and healthcare \n2.2.2 Transportation \n2.2.3 V2X Communications \n2.2.4 Building and home automation \n\n\n2.3 Industrial applications \n\n2.3.1 Manufacturing \n2.3.2 Agriculture \n\n\n2.4 Infrastructure applications \n\n2.4.1 Metropolitan scale deployments \n2.4.2 Energy management \n2.4.3 Environmental monitoring \n\n\n\n\n3 Trends and characteristics \n\n3.1 Intelligence \n3.2 Architecture \n\n3.2.1 Network architecture \n\n\n3.3 Complexity \n3.4 Size considerations \n3.5 Space considerations \n3.6 A solution to \"basket of remotes\" \n\n\n4 Enabling technologies for IoT \n\n4.1 Addressability \n4.2 Short-range wireless \n4.3 Medium-range wireless \n4.4 Long-range wireless \n4.5 Wired \n4.6 Standards and standards organizations \n\n\n5 Politics and civic engagement \n6 Government regulation on IoT \n7 Criticism and controversies \n\n7.1 Platform fragmentation \n7.2 Privacy, autonomy, and control \n7.3 Data storage \n7.4 Security \n7.5 Safety \n7.6 Design \n7.7 Environmental sustainability impact \n7.8 Intentional obsolescence of devices \n7.9 Confusing terminology \n\n\n8 IoT adoption barriers \n\n8.1 Lack of interoperability and unclear value propositions \n8.2 Privacy and security concerns \n8.3 Traditional governance structures \n8.4 Business planning and models \n\n\n9 See also \n10 References \n11 Bibliography \n\n\nHistory \nThe concept of a network of smart devices was discussed as early as 1982, with a modified Coke vending machine at Carnegie Mellon University becoming the first Internet-connected appliance,[6] able to report its inventory and whether newly loaded drinks were cold or not.[7] Mark Weiser's 1991 paper on ubiquitous computing, \"The Computer of the 21st Century\", as well as academic venues such as UbiComp and PerCom produced the contemporary vision of the IoT.[8][9] In 1994, Reza Raji described the concept in IEEE Spectrum as \"[moving] small packets of data to a large set of nodes, so as to integrate and automate everything from home appliances to entire factories\".[10] Between 1993 and 1997, several companies proposed solutions like Microsoft's at Work or Novell's NEST. The field gained momentum when Bill Joy envisioned device-to-device communication as a part of his \"Six Webs\" framework, presented at the World Economic Forum at Davos in 1999.[11]\nThe term \"Internet of things\" was likely coined by Kevin Ashton of Procter & Gamble, later MIT's Auto-ID Center, in 1999,[12] though he prefers the phrase \"Internet for things\".[13] At that point, he viewed Radio-frequency identification (RFID) as essential to the Internet of things,[14] which would allow computers to manage all individual things.[15][16][17]\nA research article mentioning the Internet of Things was submitted to the conference for Nordic Researchers in Norway, in June 2002,[18] which was preceded by an article published in Finnish in January 2002.[19] The implementation described there was developed by Kary Fr\u00e4mling and his team at Helsinki University of Technology and more closely matches the modern one, i.e. an information system infrastructure for implementing smart, connected objects.[20]\nDefining the Internet of things as \"simply the point in time when more 'things or objects' were connected to the Internet than people\", Cisco Systems estimated that the IoT was \"born\" between 2008 and 2009, with the things\/people ratio growing from 0.08 in 2003 to 1.84 in 2010.[21]\n\nApplications \n A Nest learning thermostat reporting on energy usage and local weather.\n A Ring doorbell connected to the Internet\n An August Home smart lock connected to the Internet\nThe extensive set of applications for IoT devices[22] is often divided into consumer, commercial, industrial, and infrastructure spaces.[23][24]\n\nConsumer applications \nA growing portion of IoT devices are created for consumer use, including connected vehicles, home automation, wearable technology (as part of Internet of Wearable Things (IoWT)[25]), connected health, and appliances with remote monitoring capabilities.[26]\n\nSmart home \nIoT devices are a part of the larger concept of home automation, which can include lighting, heating and air conditioning, media and security systems.[27][28] Long term benefits could include energy savings by automatically ensuring lights and electronics are turned off.\nA smart home or automated home could be based on a platform or hubs that control smart devices and appliances.[29] For instance, using Apple's HomeKit, manufacturers can have their home products and accessories controlled by an application in iOS devices such as the iPhone and the Apple Watch.[30][31] This could be a dedicated app or iOS native applications such as Siri.[32] This can be demonstrated in the case of Lenovo's Smart Home Essentials, which is a line of smart home devices that are controlled through Apple's Home app or Siri without the need for a Wi-Fi bridge.[32] There are also dedicated smart home hubs that are offered as standalone platforms to connect different smart home products and these include the Amazon Echo, Google Home, Apple's HomePod, and Samsung's SmartThings Hub.[33]\n\nElder care \nOne key application of smart home is to provide assistance for those with disabilities and elderly individuals. These home systems use assistive technology to accommodate an owner's specific disabilities.[34] Voice control can assist users with sight and mobility limitations while alert systems can be connected directly to cochlear implants worn by hearing impaired users.[35] They can also be equipped with additional safety features. These features can include sensors that monitor for medical emergencies such as falls or seizures.[36] Smart home technology applied in this way can provide users with more freedom and a higher quality of life.[34]\nThe term \"Enterprise IoT\" refers to devices used in business and corporate settings. By 2019, it is estimated that the EIoT will account for 9.1 billion devices.[23]\n\nCommercial application \nMedical and healthcare \nThe Internet of Medical Things (also called the internet of health things) is an application of the IoT for medical and health related purposes, data collection and analysis for research, and monitoring.[37][38][39][40][41] This 'Smart Healthcare',[42] as it is also called, led to the creation of a digitized healthcare system, connecting available medical resources and healthcare services.[43]\nIoT devices can be used to enable remote health monitoring and emergency notification systems. These health monitoring devices can range from blood pressure and heart rate monitors to advanced devices capable of monitoring specialized implants, such as pacemakers, Fitbit electronic wristbands, or advanced hearing aids.[44] Some hospitals have begun implementing \"smart beds\" that can detect when they are occupied and when a patient is attempting to get up. It can also adjust itself to ensure appropriate pressure and support is applied to the patient without the manual interaction of nurses.[37] A 2015 Goldman Sachs report indicated that healthcare IoT devices \"can save the United States more than $300 billion in annual healthcare expenditures by increasing revenue and decreasing cost.\"[45][46] Moreover, the use of mobile devices to support medical follow-up led to the creation of 'm-health', used \"to analyze, capture, transmit and store health statistics from multiple resources, including sensors and other biomedical acquisition systems\".[47]\nSpecialized sensors can also be equipped within living spaces to monitor the health and general well-being of senior citizens, while also ensuring that proper treatment is being administered and assisting people regain lost mobility via therapy as well.[48] These sensors create a network of intelligent sensors that are able to collect, process, transfer and analyse valuable information in different environments, such as connecting in-home monitoring devices to hospital-based systems.[42] Other consumer devices to encourage healthy living, such as connected scales or wearable heart monitors, are also a possibility with the IoT.[49] End-to-end health monitoring IoT platforms are also available for antenatal and chronic patients, helping one manage health vitals and recurring medication requirements.[50]\nAdvances in plastic and fabric electronics fabrication methods have enabled ultra-low cost, use-and-throw IoMT sensors. These sensors, along with the required RFID electronics, can be fabricated on paper or e-textiles for wirelessly powered disposable sensing devices.[51] Applications have been established for point-of-care medical diagnostics, where portability and low system-complexity is essential.[52]\nAs of 2018[update] IoMT was not only being applied in the clinical laboratory industry,[39] but also in the healthcare and health insurance industries. IoMT in the healthcare industry is now permitting doctors, patients and others involved (i.e. guardians of patients, nurses, families, etc.) to be part of a system, where patient records are saved in a database, allowing doctors and the rest of the medical staff to have access to the patient's information.[43] Moreover, IoT-based systems are patient-centered, which involves being flexible to the patient's medical conditions.[43] IoMT in the insurance industry provides access to better and new types of dynamic information. This includes sensor-based solutions such as biosensors, wearables, connected health devices and mobile apps to track customer behaviour. This can lead to more accurate underwriting and new pricing models.[53]\nThe application of the IOT in healthcare plays a fundamental role in managing chronic diseases\nand in disease prevention and control. Remote monitoring is made possible\nthrough the connection of powerful wireless solutions. The connectivity enables health\npractitioners to capture patient\u2019s data and applying complex algorithms in health data analysis.[54]\n\n<\/p>\nTransportation \n Digital variable speed-limit sign.\nThe IoT can assist in the integration of communications, control, and information processing across various transportation systems. Application of the IoT extends to all aspects of transportation systems (i.e. the vehicle,[55] the infrastructure, and the driver or user). Dynamic interaction between these components of a transport system enables inter and intra vehicular communication,[56] smart traffic control, smart parking, electronic toll collection systems, logistic and fleet management, vehicle control, safety and road assistance.[44][57] In Logistics and Fleet Management for example, an IoT platform can continuously monitor the location and conditions of cargo and assets via wireless sensors and send specific alerts when management exceptions occur (delays, damages, thefts, etc.). This can only be possible with the IoT and its seamless connectivity among devices. Sensors such as GPS, Humidity, Temperature, send data to the IoT platform and then the data is analyzed and send further to the users. This way, users can track the real-time status of vehicles and can make appropriate decisions. If combined with Machine Learning then it also helps in reducing traffic accidents by introducing drowsiness alerts to drivers and providing self-driven cars too.\n\nV2X Communications \nIoT enables vehicle-to-everything communication (V2X), which consists of three main components of connected environment: vehicle to vehicle communication (V2V), vehicle to infrastructure communication (V2I) and vehicle to pedestrian communications (V2P). V2V empowers vehicles to exchange data, V2I allows them to network with the transport infrastructure (traffic signs and lights etc.) and V2P senses signals from the users smartphones to prevent collisions, involving pedestrians. By constantly analyzing real-time data, V2X designs a transport ecosystem where vehicles, infrastructure and people are interconnected with each other to keep the environment safe from any type of accidents. V2X is the first step to autonomous driving and connected road infrastructure that provides connected cars with needed safety.\n\nBuilding and home automation \nIoT devices can be used to monitor and control the mechanical, electrical and electronic systems used in various types of buildings (e.g., public and private, industrial, institutions, or residential)[44] in home automation and building automation systems. In this context, three main areas are being covered in literature:[58]\n\nThe integration of the Internet with building energy management systems in order to create energy efficient and IOT-driven \"smart buildings\".[58]\nThe possible means of real-time monitoring for reducing energy consumption[59] and monitoring occupant behaviors.[58]\nThe integration of smart devices in the built environment and how they might to know how to be used in future applications.[58]\nIndustrial applications \nMain article: Industrial Internet of Things\n Manufacturing \nThe IoT can realize the seamless integration of various manufacturing devices equipped with sensing, identification, processing, communication, actuation, and networking capabilities. Based on such a highly integrated smart cyberphysical space, it opens the door to create whole new business and market opportunities for manufacturing.[60]\nNetwork control and management of manufacturing equipment, asset and situation management, or manufacturing process control bring the IoT within the realm of industrial applications and smart manufacturing as well.[61] The IoT intelligent systems enable rapid manufacturing of new products, dynamic response to product demands, and real-time optimization of manufacturing production and supply chain networks, by networking machinery, sensors and control systems together.[44]\nDigital control systems to automate process controls, operator tools and service information systems to optimize plant safety and security are within the purview of the IoT.[62] But it also extends itself to asset management via predictive maintenance, statistical evaluation, and measurements to maximize reliability.[63] Smart industrial management systems can also be integrated with the Smart Grid, thereby enabling real-time energy optimization. Measurements, automated controls, plant optimization, health and safety management, and other functions are provided by a large number of networked sensors.[44]\nThe term industrial Internet of things (IIoT) is often encountered in the manufacturing industries, referring to the industrial subset of the IoT. IIoT in manufacturing could generate so much business value that it will eventually lead to the Fourth Industrial Revolution, so the so-called Industry 4.0. It is estimated that in the future, successful companies will be able to increase their revenue through Internet of things by creating new business models and improve productivity, exploit analytics for innovation, and transform workforce.[64] The potential of growth by implementing IIoT may generate $12 trillion of global GDP by 2030.[64]\n\n Design architecture of cyber-physical systems-enabled manufacturing system[65] \nIndustrial big data analytics will play a vital role in manufacturing asset predictive maintenance, although that is not the only capability of industrial big data.[66][67] Cyber-physical systems (CPS) is the core technology of industrial big data and it will be an interface between human and the cyber world. Cyber-physical systems can be designed by following the 5C (connection, conversion, cyber, cognition, configuration) architecture,[65] and it will transform the collected data into actionable information, and eventually interfere with the physical assets to optimize processes.\nAn IoT-enabled intelligent system of such cases was proposed in 2001 and later demonstrated in 2014 by the National Science Foundation Industry\/University Collaborative Research Center for Intelligent Maintenance Systems (IMS) at the University of Cincinnati on a bandsaw machine in IMTS 2014 in Chicago.[68][69][70] Bandsaw machines are not necessarily expensive, but the bandsaw belt expenses are enormous since they degrade much faster. However, without sensing and intelligent analytics, it can be only determined by experience when the band saw belt will actually break. The developed prognostics system will be able to recognize and monitor the degradation of band saw belts even if the condition is changing, advising users when is the best time to replace the belt. This will significantly improve user experience and operator safety and ultimately save on costs.[70]\n\nAgriculture \nThere are numerous IoT applications in farming[71] such as collecting data on temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, pest infestation, and soil content. This data can be used to automate farming techniques, take informed decisions to improve quality and quantity, minimize risk and waste, and reduce effort required to manage crops. For example, farmers can now monitor soil temperature and moisture from afar, and even apply IoT-acquired data to precision fertilization programs.[72]\nIn August 2018, Toyota Tsusho began a partnership with Microsoft to create fish farming tools using the Microsoft Azure application suite for IoT technologies related to water management. Developed in part by researchers from Kindai University, the water pump mechanisms use artificial intelligence to count the number of fish on a conveyor belt, analyze the number of fish, and deduce the effectiveness of water flow from the data the fish provide. The specific computer programs used in the process fall under the Azure Machine Learning and the Azure IoT Hub platforms.[73]\n\nInfrastructure applications \nMonitoring and controlling operations of sustainable urban and rural infrastructures like bridges, railway tracks and on- and offshore wind-farms is a key application of the IoT.[62] The IoT infrastructure can be used for monitoring any events or changes in structural conditions that can compromise safety and increase risk. The IoT can benefit the construction industry by cost saving, time reduction, better quality workday, paperless workflow and increase in productivity. It can help in taking faster decisions and save money with Real-Time Data Analytics. It can also be used for scheduling repair and maintenance activities in an efficient manner, by coordinating tasks between different service providers and users of these facilities.[44] IoT devices can also be used to control critical infrastructure like bridges to provide access to ships. Usage of IoT devices for monitoring and operating infrastructure is likely to improve incident management and emergency response coordination, and quality of service, up-times and reduce costs of operation in all infrastructure related areas.[74] Even areas such as waste management can benefit[75] from automation and optimization that could be brought in by the IoT.[76]\n\nMetropolitan scale deployments \nThere are several planned or ongoing large-scale deployments of the IoT, to enable better management of cities and systems. For example, Songdo, South Korea, the first of its kind fully equipped and wired smart city, is gradually being built, with approximately 70 percent of the business district completed as of June 2018[update]. Much of the city is planned to be wired and automated, with little or no human intervention.[77]\nAnother application is a currently undergoing project in Santander, Spain. For this deployment, two approaches have been adopted. This city of 180,000 inhabitants has already seen 18,000 downloads of its city smartphone app. The app is connected to 10,000 sensors that enable services like parking search, environmental monitoring, digital city agenda, and more. City context information is used in this deployment so as to benefit merchants through a spark deals mechanism based on city behavior that aims at maximizing the impact of each notification.[78]\nOther examples of large-scale deployments underway include the Sino-Singapore Guangzhou Knowledge City;[79] work on improving air and water quality, reducing noise pollution, and increasing transportation efficiency in San Jose, California;[80] and smart traffic management in western Singapore.[81] French company, Sigfox, commenced building an Ultra Narrowband wireless data network in the San Francisco Bay Area in 2014, the first business to achieve such a deployment in the U.S.[82][83] It subsequently announced it would set up a total of 4000 base stations to cover a total of 30 cities in the U.S. by the end of 2016, making it the largest IoT network coverage provider in the country thus far.[84][85] Cisco also participates in smart cities projects. Cisco has started deploying technologies for Smart Wi-Fi, Smart Safety & Security, Smart Lighting, Smart Parking, Smart Transports, Smart Bus Stops, Smart Kiosks, Remote Expert for Government Services (REGS) and Smart Education in the five km area in the city of Vijaywada.[86]\nAnother example of a large deployment is the one completed by New York Waterways in New York City to connect all the city's vessels and be able to monitor them live 24\/7. The network was designed and engineered by Fluidmesh Networks, a Chicago-based company developing wireless networks for critical applications. The NYWW network is currently providing coverage on the Hudson River, East River, and Upper New York Bay. With the wireless network in place, NY Waterway is able to take control of its fleet and passengers in a way that was not previously possible. New applications can include security, energy and fleet management, digital signage, public Wi-Fi, paperless ticketing and others.[87]\n\nEnergy management \nSignificant numbers of energy-consuming devices (e.g. switches, power outlets, bulbs, televisions, etc.) already integrate Internet connectivity, which can allow them to communicate with utilities to balance power generation and energy usage[88] and optimize energy consumption as a whole.[44] These devices allow for remote control by users, or central management via a cloud-based interface, and enable functions like scheduling (e.g., remotely powering on or off heating systems, controlling ovens, changing lighting conditions etc.).[44] The smart grid is a utility-side IoT application; systems gather and act on energy and power-related information to improve the efficiency of the production and distribution of electricity.[88] Using advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) Internet-connected devices, electric utilities not only collect data from end-users, but also manage distribution automation devices like transformers.[44]\n\nEnvironmental monitoring \nEnvironmental monitoring applications of the IoT typically use sensors to assist in environmental protection[89] by monitoring air or water quality,[90] atmospheric or soil conditions,[91] and can even include areas like monitoring the movements of wildlife and their habitats.[92] Development of resource-constrained devices connected to the Internet also means that other applications like earthquake or tsunami early-warning systems can also be used by emergency services to provide more effective aid. IoT devices in this application typically span a large geographic area and can also be mobile.[44] It has been argued that the standardization IoT brings to wireless sensing will revolutionize this area.[93]\nLiving Lab\nAnother example of integrating the IoT is Living Lab which integrates and combines research and innovation process, establishing within a public-private-people-partnership.[94] There are currently 320 Living Labs that use the IoT to collaborate and share knowledge between stakeholders to co-create innovative and technological products. For companies to implement and develop IoT services for smart cities, they need to have incentives. The governments play key roles in smart cities projects as changes in policies will help cities to implement the IoT which provides effectiveness, efficiency, and accuracy of the resources that are being used. For instance, the government provides tax incentives and cheap rent, improves public transports, and offers an environment where start-up companies, creative industries, and multinationals may co-create, share common infrastructure and labor markets, and take advantages of locally embedded technologies, production process, and transaction costs.[94] The relationship between the technology developers and governments who manage city's assets, is key to provide open access of resources to users in an efficient way.\n\nTrends and characteristics \n Technology roadmap: Internet of things.\nThe IoT's major significant trend in recent years is the explosive growth of devices connected and controlled by the Internet.[95] The wide range of applications for IoT technology mean that the specifics can be very different from one device to the next but there are basic characteristics shared by most.\nThe IoT creates opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer-based systems, resulting in efficiency improvements, economic benefits, and reduced human exertions.[96][97][98][99]\nThe number of IoT devices increased 31% year-over-year to 8.4 billion in the year 2017[100] and it is estimated that there will be 30 billion devices by 2020.[95] The global market value of IoT is projected to reach $7.1 trillion by 2020.[101]\n\nIntelligence \nAmbient intelligence and autonomous control are not part of the original concept of the Internet of things. Ambient intelligence and autonomous control do not necessarily require Internet structures, either. However, there is a shift in research (by companies such as Intel) to integrate the concepts of the IoT and autonomous control, with initial outcomes towards this direction considering objects as the driving force for autonomous IoT.[102] A promising approach in this context is deep reinforcement learning where most of IoT systems provide a dynamic and interactive environment.[103] Training an agent (i.e., IoT device) to behave smartly in such an environment cannot be addressed by conventional machine learning algorithms such as supervised learning. By reinforcement learning approach, a learning agent can sense the environment\u2019s state (e.g., sensing home temperature), perform actions (e.g., turn HVAC on or off) and learn through the maximizing accumulated rewards it receives in long term.\nIoT intelligence can be offered at three levels: IoT devices, Edge\/Fog nodes, and Cloud computing.[104] The need for intelligent control and decision at each level depends on the time sensitiveness of the IoT application. For example, an autonomous vehicle's camera needs to make real-time obstacle detection to avoid an accident. This fast decision making would not be possible through transferring data from the vehicle to cloud instances and return the predictions back to the vehicle. Instead, all the operation should be performed locally in the vehicle. Integrating advanced machine learning algorithms including deep learning into IoT devices is an active research area to make smart objects closer to reality. Moreover, it is possible to get the most value out of IoT deployments through analyzing IoT data, extracting hidden information, and predicting control decisions. A wide variety of machine learning techniques have been used in IoT domain ranging from traditional methods such as regression, support vector machine, and random forest to advanced ones such as convolutional neural networks, LSTM, and variational autoencoder.[105][104]\nIn the future, the Internet of Things may be a non-deterministic and open network in which auto-organized or intelligent entities (web services, SOA components) and virtual objects (avatars) will be interoperable and able to act independently (pursuing their own objectives or shared ones) depending on the context, circumstances or environments. Autonomous behavior through the collection and reasoning of context information as well as the object's ability to detect changes in the environment (faults affecting sensors) and introduce suitable mitigation measures constitutes a major research trend,[106] clearly needed to provide credibility to the IoT technology. Modern IoT products and solutions in the marketplace use a variety of different technologies to support such context-aware automation, but more sophisticated forms of intelligence are requested to permit sensor units and intelligent cyber-physical systems to be deployed in real environments.[107]\n\nArchitecture \nThis section needs attention from an expert in Technology. The specific problem is: The information is partially outdated, unclear, and uncited. Requires more details, but not so technical that others won't understand it.. WikiProject Technology may be able to help recruit an expert. (July 2018 )\nIoT system architecture, in its simplistic view, consists of three tiers: Tier 1: Devices, Tier 2: the Edge Gateway, and Tier 3: the Cloud.[108] Devices include networked things, such as the sensors and actuators found in IIoT equipment, particularly those that use protocols such as Modbus, Zigbee, or proprietary protocols, to connect to an Edge Gateway.[108] The Edge Gateway consists of sensor data aggregation systems called Edge Gateways that provide functionality, such as pre-processing of the data, securing connectivity to cloud, using systems such as WebSockets, the event hub, and, even in some cases, edge analytics or fog computing.[108] The final tier includes the cloud application built for IIoT using the microservices architecture, which are usually polyglot and inherently secure in nature using HTTPS\/OAuth. It includes various database systems that store sensor data, such as time series databases or asset stores using backend data storage systems (e.g. Cassandra, Postgres).[108] The cloud tier in most cloud-based IoT system features event queuing and messaging system that handles communication that transpires in all tiers.[109] Some experts classified the three-tiers in the IIoT system as edge, platform, and enterprise and these are connected by proximity network, access network, and service network, respectively.[110]\nBuilding on the Internet of things, the web of things is an architecture for the application layer of the Internet of things looking at the convergence of data from IoT devices into Web applications to create innovative use-cases. In order to program and control the flow of information in the Internet of things, a predicted architectural direction is being called BPM Everywhere which is a blending of traditional process management with process mining and special capabilities to automate the control of large numbers of coordinated devices.[citation needed ]\n\nNetwork architecture \nThe Internet of things requires huge scalability in the network space to handle the surge of devices.[111] IETF 6LoWPAN would be used to connect devices to IP networks. With billions of devices[112] being added to the Internet space, IPv6 will play a major role in handling the network layer scalability. IETF's Constrained Application Protocol, ZeroMQ, and MQTT would provide lightweight data transport.\nFog computing is a viable alternative to prevent such large burst of data flow through Internet.[113] The edge devices' computation power can be used to analyse and process data, thus providing easy real time scalability.[citation needed ]\n\nComplexity \nIn semi-open or closed loops (i.e. value chains, whenever a global finality can be settled) the IoT will often be considered and studied as a complex system[114] due to the huge number of different links, interactions between autonomous actors, and its capacity to integrate new actors. At the overall stage (full open loop) it will likely be seen as a chaotic environment (since systems always have finality).\nAs a practical approach, not all elements in the Internet of things run in a global, public space. Subsystems are often implemented to mitigate the risks of privacy, control and reliability. For example, domestic robotics (domotics) running inside a smart home might only share data within and be available via a local network.[115] Managing and controlling a high dynamic ad hoc IoT things\/devices network is a tough task with the traditional networks architecture, Software Defined Networking (SDN) provides the agile dynamic solution that can cope with the special requirements of the diversity of innovative IoT applications.[116]\n\nSize considerations \nThe Internet of things would encode 50 to 100 trillion objects, and be able to follow the movement of those objects. Human beings in surveyed urban environments are each surrounded by 1000 to 5000 trackable objects.[117] In 2015 there were already 83 million smart devices in people's homes. This number is about to grow up to 193 million devices in 2020 and will for sure go on growing in the near future.[28]\nThe figure of online capable devices grew 31% from 2016 to 8.4 billion in 2017.[100]\n\nSpace considerations \nIn the Internet of things, the precise geographic location of a thing\u2014and also the precise geographic dimensions of a thing\u2014will be critical.[118] Therefore, facts about a thing, such as its location in time and space, have been less critical to track because the person processing the information can decide whether or not that information was important to the action being taken, and if so, add the missing information (or decide to not take the action). (Note that some things in the Internet of things will be sensors, and sensor location is usually important.[119]) The GeoWeb and Digital Earth are promising applications that become possible when things can become organized and connected by location. However, the challenges that remain include the constraints of variable spatial scales, the need to handle massive amounts of data, and an indexing for fast search and neighbor operations. In the Internet of things, if things are able to take actions on their own initiative, this human-centric mediation role is eliminated. Thus, the time-space context that we as humans take for granted must be given a central role in this information ecosystem. Just as standards play a key role in the Internet and the Web, geospatial standards will play a key role in the Internet of things.[120][121]\n\n A solution to \"basket of remotes\" \nMany IoT devices have a potential to take a piece of this market. Jean-Louis Gass\u00e9e (Apple initial alumni team, and BeOS co-founder) has addressed this topic in an article on Monday Note,[122] where he predicts that the most likely problem will be what he calls the \"basket of remotes\" problem, where we'll have hundreds of applications to interface with hundreds of devices that don't share protocols for speaking with one another.[122] For improved user interaction, some technology leaders are joining forces to create standards for communication between devices to solve this problem. Others are turning to the concept of predictive interaction of devices, \"where collected data is used to predict and trigger actions on the specific devices\" while making them work together.[123]\n\nEnabling technologies for IoT \nThere are many technologies that enable the IoT. Crucial to the field is the network used to communicate between devices of an IoT installation, a role that several wireless or wired technologies may fulfill:[124][125][126]\n\nAddressability \nThe original idea of the Auto-ID Center is based on RFID-tags and distinct identification through the Electronic Product Code. This has evolved into objects having an IP address or URI.[127] An alternative view, from the world of the Semantic Web[128] focuses instead on making all things (not just those electronic, smart, or RFID-enabled) addressable by the existing naming protocols, such as URI. The objects themselves do not converse, but they may now be referred to by other agents, such as powerful centralized servers acting for their human owners.[129] Integration with the Internet implies that devices will use an IP address as a distinct identifier. Due to the limited address space of IPv4 (which allows for 4.3 billion different addresses), objects in the IoT will have to use the next generation of the Internet protocol (IPv6) to scale to the extremely large address space required.[130][131][132]\nInternet-of-things devices additionally will benefit from the stateless address auto-configuration present in IPv6,[133] as it reduces the configuration overhead on the hosts,[131] and the IETF 6LoWPAN header compression. To a large extent, the future of the Internet of things will not be possible without the support of IPv6; and consequently, the global adoption of IPv6 in the coming years will be critical for the successful development of the IoT in the future.[132]\n\nShort-range wireless \nBluetooth mesh networking \u2013 Specification providing a mesh networking variant to Bluetooth low energy (BLE) with increased number of nodes and standardized application layer (Models).\nLight-Fidelity (Li-Fi) \u2013 Wireless communication technology similar to the Wi-Fi standard, but using visible light communication for increased bandwidth.\nNear-field communication (NFC) \u2013 Communication protocols enabling two electronic devices to communicate within a 4 cm range.\nRadio-frequency identification (RFID) \u2013 Technology using electromagnetic fields to read data stored in tags embedded in other items.\nWi-Fi \u2013 technology for local area networking based on the IEEE 802.11 standard, where devices may communicate through a shared access point or directly between individual devices.\nZigBee \u2013 Communication protocols for personal area networking based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, providing low power consumption, low data rate, low cost, and high throughput.\nZ-Wave - Wireless communications protocol used primarily for home automation and security applications\nMedium-range wireless \nLTE-Advanced \u2013 High-speed communication specification for mobile networks. Provides enhancements to the LTE standard with extended coverage, higher throughput, and lower latency.\nLong-range wireless \nLow-power wide-area networking (LPWAN) \u2013 Wireless networks designed to allow long-range communication at a low data rate, reducing power and cost for transmission. Available LPWAN technologies and protocols: LoRaWan, Sigfox, NB-IoT, Weightless.\nVery small aperture terminal (VSAT) \u2013 Satellite communication technology using small dish antennas for narrowband and broadband data.\nWired \nEthernet \u2013 General purpose networking standard using twisted pair and fiber optic links in conjunction with hubs or switches.\nPower-line communication (PLC) \u2013 Communication technology using electrical wiring to carry power and data. Specifications such as HomePlug or G.hn utilize PLC for networking IoT devices.\nStandards and standards organizations \nThis section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2016 )\nThis is a list of technical standards for the IoT, most of which are open standards, and the standards organizations that aspire to successfully setting them.[134][135]\n\n\n\n\nShort name\n\nLong name\n\nStandards under development\n\nOther notes\n\n\nAuto-ID Labs\nAuto Identification Center\nNetworked RFID (radiofrequency identification) and emerging sensing technologies\n\n\n\nEPCglobal\nElectronic Product code Technology\nStandards for adoption of EPC (Electronic Product Code) technology\n\n\n\nFDA\nU.S. Food and Drug Administration\nUDI (Unique Device Identification) system for distinct identifiers for medical devices\n\n\n\nGS1\n\u2014\nStandards for UIDs (\"unique\" identifiers) and RFID of fast-moving consumer goods (consumer packaged goods), health care supplies, and other things\nParent organization comprises member organizations such as GS1 US\n\n\nIEEE\nInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers\nUnderlying communication technology standards such as IEEE 802.15.4\n\n\n\nIETF\nInternet Engineering Task Force\nStandards that comprise TCP\/IP (the Internet protocol suite)\n\n\n\nMTConnect Institute\n\u2014\nMTConnect is a manufacturing industry standard for data exchange with machine tools and related industrial equipment. It is important to the IIoT subset of the IoT.\n\n\n\nO-DF\nOpen Data Format\nO-DF is a standard published by the Internet of Things Work Group of The Open Group in 2014, which specifies a generic information model structure that is meant to be applicable for describing any \"Thing\", as well as for publishing, updating and querying information when used together with O-MI (Open Messaging Interface).\n\n\n\nO-MI\nOpen Messaging Interface\nO-MI is a standard published by the Internet of Things Work Group of The Open Group in 2014, which specifies a limited set of key operations needed in IoT systems, notably different kinds of subscription mechanisms based on the Observer pattern.\n\n\n\nOCF\nOpen Connectivity Foundation\nStandards for simple devices using CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol)\nOCF (Open Connectivity Foundation) supersedes OIC (Open Interconnect Consortium)\n\n\nOMA\n\nOpen Mobile Alliance\n\nOMA DM and OMA LWM2M for IoT device management, as well as GotAPI, which provides a secure framework for IoT applications\n\n\n\n\nXSF\nXMPP Standards Foundation\nProtocol extensions of XMPP (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol), the open standard of instant messaging\n\n\n\n\nPolitics and civic engagement \nSome scholars and activists argue that the IoT can be used to create new models of civic engagement if device networks can be open to user control and inter-operable platforms. Philip N. Howard, a professor and author, writes that political life in both democracies and authoritarian regimes will be shaped by the way the IoT will be used for civic engagement. For that to happen, he argues that any connected device should be able to divulge a list of the \"ultimate beneficiaries\" of its sensor data and that individual citizens should be able to add new organizations to the beneficiary list. In addition, he argues that civil society groups need to start developing their IoT strategy for making use of data and engaging with the public.[136]\n\nGovernment regulation on IoT \nOne of the key drivers of the IoT is data. The success of the idea of connecting devices to make them more efficient is dependent upon access to and storage & processing of data. For this purpose, companies working on the IoT collect data from multiple sources and store it in their cloud network for further processing. This leaves the door wide open for privacy and security dangers and single point vulnerability of multiple systems.[137] The other issues pertain to consumer choice and ownership of data[138] and how it is used. Though still in their infancy, regulations and governance regarding these issues of privacy, security, and data ownership continue to develop.[139][140][141] IoT regulation depends on the country. Some examples of legislation that is relevant to privacy and data collection are: the US Privacy Act of 1974, OECD Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Personal Data of 1980, and the EU Directive 95\/46\/EC of 1995.[142]\nCurrent regulatory environment:\nA report published by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in January 2015 made the following three recommendations:[143]\n\nData security \u2013 At the time of designing IoT companies should ensure that data collection, storage and processing would be secure at all times. Companies should adopt a \"defence in depth\" approach and encrypt data at each stage.[144]\nData consent \u2013 users should have a choice as to what data they share with IoT companies and the users must be informed if their data gets exposed.\nData minimization \u2013 IoT companies should collect only the data they need and retain the collected information only for a limited time.\nHowever, the FTC stopped at just making recommendations for now. According to an FTC analysis, the existing framework, consisting of the FTC Act, the Fair Credit Reporting Act, and the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act, along with developing consumer education and business guidance, participation in multi-stakeholder efforts and advocacy to other agencies at the federal, state and local level, is sufficient to protect consumer rights.[145]\nA resolution passed by the Senate in March 2015, is already being considered by the Congress.[146] This resolution recognized the need for formulating a National Policy on IoT and the matter of privacy, security and spectrum. Furthermore, to provide an impetus to the IoT ecosystem, in March 2016, a bipartisan group of four Senators proposed a bill, The Developing Innovation and Growing the Internet of Things (DIGIT) Act, to direct the Federal Communications Commission to assess the need for more spectrum to connect IoT devices.\nSeveral standards for the IoT industry are actually being established relating to automobiles because most concerns arising from use of connected cars apply to healthcare devices as well. In fact, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) is preparing cybersecurity guidelines and a database of best practices to make automotive computer systems more secure.[147]\nA recent report from the World Bank examines the challenges and opportunities in government adoption of IoT.[148] These include \u2013\n\nStill early days for the IoT in government \nUnderdeveloped policy and regulatory frameworks \nUnclear business models, despite strong value proposition \nClear institutional and capacity gap in government AND the private sector \nInconsistent data valuation and management \nInfrastructure a major barrier \nGovernment as an enabler \nMost successful pilots share common characteristics (public-private partnership, local, leadership)\nCriticism and controversies \nPlatform fragmentation \nThe IoT suffers from platform fragmentation and lack of technical standards[149][150][151][152][153][154][155] a situation where the variety of IoT devices, in terms of both hardware variations and differences in the software running on them, makes the task of developing applications that work consistently between different inconsistent technology ecosystems hard.[1] For example, wireless connectivity for IoT devices can be done using Bluetooth, Zigbee, Z-Wave, LoRa, NB-IoT, Cat M1 as well as completely custom proprietary radios, each with its own advantages and disadvantages, creating a separate ecosystem for IoT devices[156]. Customers may be hesitant to bet their IoT future on a proprietary software or hardware devices that uses proprietary protocols that may fade or become difficult to customize and interconnect.[2]\nThe IoT's amorphous computing nature is also a problem for security, since patches to bugs found in the core operating system often do not reach users of older and lower-price devices.[157][158][159] One set of researchers say that the failure of vendors to support older devices with patches and updates leaves more than 87% of active Android devices vulnerable.[160][161]\n\n Privacy, autonomy, and control \nPhilip N. Howard, a professor and author, writes that the Internet of things offers immense potential for empowering citizens, making government transparent, and broadening information access. Howard cautions, however, that privacy threats are enormous, as is the potential for social control and political manipulation.[162]\nConcerns about privacy have led many to consider the possibility that big data infrastructures such as the Internet of things and data mining are inherently incompatible with privacy.[163] Writer Adam Greenfield claims that these technologies are not only an invasion of public space but are also being used to perpetuate normative behavior, citing an instance of billboards with hidden cameras that tracked the demographics of passersby who stopped to read the advertisement.[164]\nThe Internet of Things Council compared the increased prevalence of digital surveillance due to the Internet of things to the conceptual panopticon described by Jeremy Bentham in the 18th Century.[165] The assertion was defended by the works of French philosophers Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze. In Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison Foucault asserts that the panopticon was a central element of the discipline society developed during the Industrial Era.[166] Foucault also argued that the discipline systems established in factories and school reflected Bentham's vision of panopticism.[166] In his 1992 paper \"Postscripts on the Societies of Control,\" Deleuze wrote that the discipline society had transitioned into a control society, with the computer replacing the panopticon as an instrument of discipline and control while still maintaining the qualities similar to that of panopticism.[167]\nThe privacy of households could be compromised by solely analyzing smart home network traffic patterns without dissecting the contents of encrypted application data, yet a synthetic packet injection scheme can be used to safely overcome such invasion of privacy.[168]\nPeter-Paul Verbeek, a professor of philosophy of technology at the University of Twente, Netherlands, writes that technology already influences our moral decision making, which in turn affects human agency, privacy and autonomy. He cautions against viewing technology merely as a human tool and advocates instead to consider it as an active agent.[169]\nJustin Brookman, of the Center for Democracy and Technology, expressed concern regarding the impact of the IoT on consumer privacy, saying that \"There are some people in the commercial space who say, 'Oh, big data \u2014 well, let's collect everything, keep it around forever, we'll pay for somebody to think about security later.' The question is whether we want to have some sort of policy framework in place to limit that.\"[170]\nTim O'Reilly believes that the way companies sell the IoT devices on consumers are misplaced, disputing the notion that the IoT is about gaining efficiency from putting all kinds of devices online and postulating that the \"IoT is really about human augmentation. The applications are profoundly different when you have sensors and data driving the decision-making.\"[171]\nEditorials at WIRED have also expressed concern, one stating \"What you're about to lose is your privacy. Actually, it's worse than that. You aren't just going to lose your privacy, you're going to have to watch the very concept of privacy be rewritten under your nose.\"[172]\nThe American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) expressed concern regarding the ability of IoT to erode people's control over their own lives. The ACLU wrote that \"There's simply no way to forecast how these immense powers \u2013 disproportionately accumulating in the hands of corporations seeking financial advantage and governments craving ever more control \u2013 will be used. Chances are big data and the Internet of things will make it harder for us to control our own lives, as we grow increasingly transparent to powerful corporations and government institutions that are becoming more opaque to us.\"[173]\nIn response to rising concerns about privacy and smart technology, in 2007 the British Government stated it would follow formal Privacy by Design principles when implementing their smart metering program. The program would lead to replacement of traditional power meters with smart power meters, which could track and manage energy usage more accurately.[174] However the British Computer Society is doubtful these principles were ever actually implemented.[175] In 2009 the Dutch Parliament rejected a similar smart metering program, basing their decision on privacy concerns. The Dutch program later revised and passed in 2011.[175]\n\nData storage \nA challenge for producers of IoT applications is to clean, process and interpret the vast amount of data which is gathered by the sensors. There is a solution proposed for the analytics of the information referred to as Wireless Sensor Networks.[176] These networks share data among sensor nodes that are sent to a distributed system for the analytics of the sensory data.[177]\nAnother challenge is the storage of this bulk data. Depending on the application, there could be high data acquisition requirements, which in turn lead to high storage requirements. Currently the Internet is already responsible for 5% of the total energy generated,[176] and a \"daunting challenge to power\" IoT devices to collect and even store data still remains.[178]\n\nSecurity \nConcerns have been raised that the IoT is being developed rapidly without appropriate consideration of the profound security challenges involved[179] and the regulatory changes that might be necessary.[180][181] Most of the technical security concerns are similar to those of conventional servers, workstations and smartphones, but security challenges unique to the IoT continue to develop, including industrial security controls, hybrid systems, IoT-specific business processes, and end nodes.[182]\nSecurity is the biggest concern in adopting Internet of things technology.[183] In particular, as the Internet of things spreads widely, cyber attacks are likely to become an increasingly physical (rather than simply virtual) threat.[184] The current IoT space comes with numerous security vulnerabilities. These vulnerabilities include weak authentication (IoT devices are being used with default credentials), unencrypted messages sent between devices, SQL injections and lack of verification or encryption of software updates.[185] This allows attackers to easily intercept data to collect PII (Personally Identifiable Information), user credentials can be stolen at login or malware can be injected into newly updated firmware.[185]\nIn a January 2014 article in Forbes, cyber-security columnist Joseph Steinberg listed many Internet-connected appliances that can already \"spy on people in their own homes\" including televisions, kitchen appliances,[186] cameras, and thermostats.[187] Computer-controlled devices in automobiles such as brakes, engine, locks, hood and trunk releases, horn, heat, and dashboard have been shown to be vulnerable to attackers who have access to the on-board network. In some cases, vehicle computer systems are Internet-connected, allowing them to be exploited remotely.[188] For example, a hacker can gain unauthorized access to IoT devices due to their set-up; that is, because these devices are connected, Internet-enabled, and lack the necessary protective measures.[189] By 2008 security researchers had shown the ability to remotely control pacemakers without authority. Later hackers demonstrated remote control of insulin pumps[190] and implantable cardioverter defibrillators.[191] Many of these IoT devices have severe operational limitations on their physical size and by extension the computational power available to them.  These constraints often make them unable to directly use basic security measures such as implementing firewalls or using strong cryptosystems to encrypt their communications with other devices.[192]\nThe U.S. National Intelligence Council in an unclassified report maintains that it would be hard to deny \"access to networks of sensors and remotely-controlled objects by enemies of the United States, criminals, and mischief makers... An open market for aggregated sensor data could serve the interests of commerce and security no less than it helps criminals and spies identify vulnerable targets. Thus, massively parallel sensor fusion may undermine social cohesion, if it proves to be fundamentally incompatible with Fourth-Amendment guarantees against unreasonable search.\"[193] In general, the intelligence community views the Internet of things as a rich source of data.[194]\nIn 2016, a distributed denial of service attack powered by Internet of things devices running the Mirai malware took down a DNS provider and major web sites.[195] The Mirai Botnet had infected roughly 65,000 IoT devices within the first 20 hours.[196] Eventually the infections increased to 200,000 to 300,000 infections.[196] Brazil, Columbia and Vietnam made up of 41.5% of the infections.[196] The Mirai Botnet had singled out specific IoT devices that consisted of DVRs, IP cameras, routers and printers.[196] Top vendors that contained the most infected devices were identified as Dahua, Huawei, ZTE, Cisco, ZyXEL and MikroTik.[196] In May 2017, Junade Ali, a Computer Scientist at Cloudflare noted that native DDoS vulnerabilities exist in IoT devices due to a poor implementation of the Publish\u2013subscribe pattern.[197][198] These sorts of attacks have caused security experts to view IoT as a real threat to Internet services.[199]\nOn 31 January 2019, the Washington Post wrote an article regarding the security and ethical challenges that can occur with IoT doorbells and cameras: \"Last month, Ring got caught allowing its team in Ukraine to view and annotate certain user videos; the company says it only looks at publicly shared videos and those from Ring owners who provide consent. Just last week, a California family\u2019s Nest camera let a hacker take over and broadcast fake audio warnings about a missile attack, not to mention peer in on them, when they used a weak password\"[200]\nThere have been a range of responses to concerns over security. The Internet of Things Security Foundation (IoTSF) was launched on 23 September 2015 with a mission to secure the Internet of things by promoting knowledge and best practice. Its founding board is made from technology providers and telecommunications companies. In addition, large IT companies are continuously developing innovative solutions to ensure the security for IoT devices. In 2017, Mozilla launched Project Things, which allows to route IoT devices through a safe Web of Things gateway.[201] As per the estimates from KBV Research,[202] the overall IoT security market[203] would grow at 27.9% rate during 2016\u20132022 as a result of growing infrastructural concerns and diversified usage of Internet of things.[204][205]\nGovernmental regulation is argued by some to be necessary to secure IoT devices and the wider Internet \u2013 as market incentives to secure IoT devices is insufficient.[206][180][181]\n\nSafety \nIoT systems are typically controlled by event-driven smart apps that take as input either sensed data, user inputs, or other external triggers (from the Internet) and command one or more actuators towards providing different forms of automation.[207] Examples of sensors include smoke detectors, motion sensors, and contact sensors. Examples of actuators include smart locks, smart power outlets, and door controls. Popular control platforms on which third-party developers can build smart apps that interact wirelessly with these sensors and actuators include Samsung's SmartThings,[208] Apple's HomeKit,[209] and Amazon's Alexa,[210] among others.\nA problem specific to IoT systems is that buggy apps, unforeseen bad app interactions, or device\/communication failures, can cause unsafe and dangerous physical states, e.g., \"unlock the entrance door when no one is at home\" or \"turn off the heater when the temperature is below 0 degrees Celsius and people are sleeping at night\".[207] Detecting flaws that lead to such states, requires a holistic view of installed apps, component devices, their configurations, and more importantly, how they interact. Recently, researchers from the University of California Riverside have proposed IotSan, a novel practical system that uses model checking as a building block to reveal \"interaction-level\" flaws by identifying events that can lead the system to unsafe states.[207] They have evaluated IotSan on the Samsung SmartThings platform. From 76 manually configured systems, IotSan detects 147 vulnerabilities (i.e., violations of safe physical states\/properties).\n\nDesign \nGiven widespread recognition of the evolving nature of the design and management of the Internet of things, sustainable and secure deployment of IoT solutions must design for \"anarchic scalability.\"[211] Application of the concept of anarchic scalability can be extended to physical systems (i.e. controlled real-world objects), by virtue of those systems being designed to account for uncertain management futures. This hard anarchic scalability thus provides a pathway forward to fully realize the potential of Internet-of-things solutions by selectively constraining physical systems to allow for all management regimes without risking physical failure.[211]\nBrown University computer scientist Michael Littman has argued that successful execution of the Internet of things requires consideration of the interface's usability as well as the technology itself. These interfaces need to be not only more user-friendly but also better integrated: \"If users need to learn different interfaces for their vacuums, their locks, their sprinklers, their lights, and their coffeemakers, it's tough to say that their lives have been made any easier.\"[212]\n\nEnvironmental sustainability impact \nA concern regarding Internet-of-things technologies pertains to the environmental impacts of the manufacture, use, and eventual disposal of all these semiconductor-rich devices.[213] Modern electronics are replete with a wide variety of heavy metals and rare-earth metals, as well as highly toxic synthetic chemicals. This makes them extremely difficult to properly recycle. Electronic components are often incinerated or placed in regular landfills. Furthermore, the human and environmental cost of mining the rare-earth metals that are integral to modern electronic components continues to grow. This leads to societal questions concerning the environmental impacts of IoT devices over its lifetime.[214]\n\nIntentional obsolescence of devices \nThe Electronic Frontier Foundation has raised concerns that companies can use the technologies necessary to support connected devices to intentionally disable or \"brick\" their customers' devices via a remote software update or by disabling a service necessary to the operation of the device. In one example, home automation devices sold with the promise of a \"Lifetime Subscription\" were rendered useless after Nest Labs acquired Revolv and made the decision to shut down the central servers the Revolv devices had used to operate.[215] As Nest is a company owned by Alphabet (Google's parent company), the EFF argues this sets a \"terrible precedent for a company with ambitions to sell self-driving cars, medical devices, and other high-end gadgets that may be essential to a person's livelihood or physical safety.\"[216]\nOwners should be free to point their devices to a different server or collaborate on improved software. But such action violates the United States DMCA section 1201, which only has an exemption for \"local use\". This forces tinkerers who want to keep using their own equipment into a legal grey area. EFF thinks buyers should refuse electronics and software that prioritize the manufacturer's wishes above their own.[216]\nExamples of post-sale manipulations include Google Nest Revolv, disabled privacy settings on Android, Sony disabling Linux on PlayStation 3, enforced EULA on Wii U.[216]\n\nConfusing terminology \nKevin Lonergan at Information Age, a business-technology magazine, has referred to the terms surrounding the IoT as a \"terminology zoo\".[217] The lack of clear terminology is not \"useful from a practical point of view\" and a \"source of confusion for the end user\".[217] A company operating in the IoT space could be working in anything related to sensor technology, networking, embedded systems, or analytics.[217] According to Lonergan, the term IoT was coined before smart phones, tablets, and devices as we know them today existed, and there is a long list of terms with varying degrees of overlap and technological convergence: Internet of things, Internet of everything (IoE), Internet of Goods (Supply Chain), industrial Internet, pervasive computing, pervasive sensing, ubiquitous computing, cyber-physical systems (CPS), wireless sensor networks (WSN), smart objects, digital twin, cyberobjects or avatars,[114] cooperating objects, machine to machine (M2M), ambient intelligence (AmI), Operational technology (OT), and information technology (IT).[217] Regarding IIoT, an industrial sub-field of IoT, the Industrial Internet Consortium's Vocabulary Task Group has created a \"common and reusable vocabulary of terms\"[218] to ensure \"consistent terminology\"[218][219] across publications issued by the Industrial Internet Consortium. IoT One has created an IoT Terms Database including a New Term Alert[220] to be notified when a new term is published. As of March 2017[update], this database aggregates 711 IoT-related terms, while keeping material \"transparent and comprehensive.\"[221][222]\n\nIoT adoption barriers \n GE Digital CEO William Ruh speaking about GE's attempts to gain a foothold in the market for IoT services at the first IEEE Computer Society TechIgnite conference.\nLack of interoperability and unclear value propositions \nDespite a shared belief in the potential of the IoT, industry leaders and consumers are facing barriers to adopt IoT technology more widely. Mike Farley argued in Forbes that while IoT solutions appeal to early adopters, they either lack interoperability or a clear use case for end-users.[223] A study by Ericsson regarding the adoption of IoT among Danish companies suggests that many struggle \"to pinpoint exactly where the value of IoT lies for them\".[224]\n\nPrivacy and security concerns \nAccording to a recent study by Noura Aleisa and Karen Renaud at the University of Glasgow, \"the Internet of things' potential for major privacy invasion is a concern\"[225] with much of research \"disproportionally focused on the security concerns of IoT.\"[225] Among the \"proposed solutions in terms of the techniques they deployed and the extent to which they satisfied core privacy principles\",[225] only very few turned out to be fully satisfactory. Louis Basenese, investment director at Wall Street Daily, has criticized the industry's lack of attention to security issues: \"Despite high-profile and alarming hacks, device manufacturers remain undeterred, focusing on profitability over security. Consumers need to have ultimate control over collected data, including the option to delete it if they choose...Without privacy assurances, wide-scale consumer adoption simply won't happen.\"[226]\nIn a post-Snowden world of global surveillance disclosures, consumers take a more active interest in protecting their privacy and demand IoT devices to be screened for potential security vulnerabilities and privacy violations before purchasing them. According to the 2016 Accenture Digital Consumer Survey, in which 28000 consumers in 28 countries were polled on their use of consumer technology, security \"has moved from being a nagging problem to a top barrier as consumers are now choosing to abandon IoT devices and services over security concerns.\"[227] The survey revealed that \"out of the consumers aware of hacker attacks and owning or planning to own IoT devices in the next five years, 18 percent decided to terminate the use of the services and related services until they get safety guarantees.\"[227] This suggests that consumers increasingly perceive privacy risks and security concerns to outweigh the value propositions of IoT devices and opt to postpone planned purchases or service subscriptions.[227]\n\nTraditional governance structures \n Town of Internet of Things in Hangzhou, China\nA study issued by Ericsson regarding the adoption of Internet of things among Danish companies identified a \"clash between IoT and companies' traditional governance structures, as IoT still presents both uncertainties and a lack of historical precedence.\"[224] Among the respondents interviewed, 60 percent stated that they \"do not believe they have the organizational capabilities, and three of four do not believe they have the processes needed, to capture the IoT opportunity.\"[224] This has led to a need to understand organizational culture in order to facilitate organizational design processes and to test new innovation management practices. A lack of digital leadership in the age of digital transformation has also stifled innovation and IoT adoption to a degree that many companies, in the face of uncertainty, \"were waiting for the market dynamics to play out\",[224] or further action in regards to IoT \"was pending competitor moves, customer pull, or regulatory requirements.\"[224] Some of these companies risk being 'kodaked' \u2013 \"Kodak was a market leader until digital disruption eclipsed film photography with digital photos\"[228] \u2013 failing to \"see the disruptive forces affecting their industry\"[229] and \"to truly embrace the new business models the disruptive change opens up.\"[229] Scott Anthony has written in Harvard Business Review that Kodak \"created a digital camera, invested in the technology, and even understood that photos would be shared online\"[229] but ultimately failed to realize that \"online photo sharing was the new business, not just a way to expand the printing business.\"[229]\n\nBusiness planning and models \nAccording to 2018 study, 70\u201375% of IoT deployments were stuck in the pilot or prototype stage, unable to reach scale due in part to a lack of business planning.[230][page needed ]\nStudies on IoT literature and projects show a disproportionate prominence of technology in the IoT projects, which are often driven by technological interventions rather than business model innovation.[231][232][improper synthesis? ]\n\nSee also \n\n5G\nCloud manufacturing\nCyber-physical system\nData Distribution Service\nDigital object memory\nDigital twin\nEdge computing\nFour-dimensional product\nHome automation\nIndoor positioning system\nIndustry 4.0\nOpen Interconnect Consortium\nOpenWSN\nResponsive computer-aided design\nSmart grid\nWeb of things\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b Brown, Eric (13 September 2016). \"Who Needs the Internet of Things?\". 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SmartThings.com. \n\n^ \"HomeKit \u2013 Apple Developer\". developer.apple.com. \n\n^ \"Amazon Alexa\". developer.amazon.com. \n\n^ a b Fielding, Roy Thomas (2000). \"Architectural Styles and the Design of Network-based Software Architectures\" (PDF) . University Of California, Irvine. \n\n^ Littman, Michael; Kortchmar, Samuel (2014-06-11). \"The Path To A Programmable World\". Footnote. Retrieved 14 June 2014 . \n\n^ Finley, Klint (6 May 2014). \"The Internet of Things Could Drown Our Environment in Gadgets\". Wired. \n\n^ Light, A.; Rowland, C. (2015). \"Chapter 11: Responsible IoT Design\". In Rowland, C.; Goodman, E.; Charlier, M.; et al. Designing Connected Products: UX for the Consumer Internet of Things. O'Reilly Media. pp. 457\u201364. ISBN 9781449372569. \n\n^ Gilbert, Arlo (3 April 2016). \"The time that Tony Fadell sold me a container of hummus\". 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Retrieved 28 March 2017 . \n\n^ a b c Aleisa, Noura; Renaud, Karen; Jayawardena, Srimal (2016). \"Privacy of the Internet of Things: A Systematic Literature Review (Extended Discussion)\". arXiv:1611.03340 [cs.CY]. \n\n^ Basenese, Louis (2015-12-21). \"The Best Play on the Internet of Things Trend\". Wall Street Daily. Wall Street Daily. Retrieved 28 March 2017 . \n\n^ a b c \"Igniting Growth in Consumer Technology\" (PDF) . Accenture. Retrieved 27 March 2017 . \n\n^ Yarmoluk, Dan. \"5 Barriers to IoT Adoption & How to Overcome Them\". ATEK Access Technologies. Retrieved 30 March 2017 . \n\n^ a b c d Anthony, Scott (2016-07-15). \"Disruptive Innovation: Kodak's Downfall Wasn't About Technology\". Harvard Business Review. Harvard Business Publishing. Retrieved 30 March 2017 . \n\n^ \"World Economic Forum: The Next Economic Growth Engine \u2013 Scaling Fourth Industrial Revolution Technologies in Production\" (PDF) . World Economic Forum. \n\n^ Solaimani, Sam; Keijzer-Broers, Wally; Bouwman, Harry (2015-05-01). \"What we do \u2013 and don't \u2013 know about the Smart Home: An analysis of the Smart Home literature\". Indoor and Built Environment. 24 (3): 370\u2013383. doi:10.1177\/1420326X13516350. ISSN 1420-326X. \n\n^ Westerlund, Mika; Leminen, Seppo; Rajahonka, Mervi (2014). \"Designing Business Models for the Internet of Things\". Technology Innovation Management Review. 4 (7). ISSN 1927-0321. \n\n\nBibliography \n\n\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Internet of things.\nAcharjya, D.P.; Geetha, M.K., eds. (2017). Internet of Things: Novel Advances and Envisioned Applications. Springer. p. 311. ISBN 9783319534725. \nLi, S.; Xu, L.D., eds. (2017). Securing the Internet of Things. Syngress. p. 154. ISBN 9780128045053. \nRowland, C.; Goodman, E.; Charlier, M.; et al., eds. (2015). Designing Connected Products: UX for the Consumer Internet of Things. O'Reilly Media. p. 726. ISBN 9781449372569. \nThomas, Jayant; Traukina, Alena (2018). Industrial Internet Application Development: Simplify IIoT development using the elasticity of Public Cloud and Native Cloud Services. Packt Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 978-1788298599. \nStephenson, W. David. (2018). The Future Is Smart: how your company can capitalize on the Internet of Things--and win in a connected economy. HarperCollins Leadership. p. 250. ISBN 9780814439777. \nvteAmbient intelligenceConcepts\nContext awareness\nInternet of things\nObject hyperlinking\nProfiling\nSpime\nSupranet\nUbiquitous computing\nWeb of Things\nWireless sensor networks\nTechnologies\n6LoWPAN\nANT+\nDASH7\nIEEE 802.15.4\nInternet 0\nMachine to machine\nRadio-frequency identification\nSmartdust\nXBee\nPlatforms\nArduino\nContiki\nElectric Imp\nGadgeteer\nioBridge\nNetduino\nRaspberry Pi\nTinyOS\nWiring\nXively\nNodeMCU\nApplications\nAmbient device\nCeNSE\nConnected car\nHome automation\nHomeOS\nInternet refrigerator\nNabaztag\nSmart city\nSmart TV\nSmarter Planet\nPioneers\nKevin Ashton\nGaetano Borriello\nAdam Dunkels\nStefano Marzano\nDon Norman\nRoel Pieper\nJosef Preishuber-Pfl\u00fcgl\nJohn Seely Brown\nBruce Sterling\nMark Weiser\nOther\nAmbient Devices\nAmbieSense\nEbbits project\nIPSO Alliance\n\nvteEmbedded systemsGeneral terms\nEmbedded software\nOriginal equipment manufacturer (OEM)\nEmbedded database\nEmbedded hypervisor\nConsumer electronics\nMicrocontroller\nASIC\nFPGA\nSoC\nMemory footprint\nSingle-board computer\nRaspberry pi\nIoT\nBoard support package\nCross compiler\nEmbedded OS\nBootloader\nFirmware and controls\nProprietary firmware\nCustom firmware\nRooting (Android)\niOS jailbreaking\nPlayStation 3 Jailbreak\nClosed platform\nVendor lock-in\nDefective by Design\nHacking of consumer electronics\nHomebrew (video games)\nCrippleware\nSoftware libraries\nuClibc\ndietlibc\nEmbedded GLIBC\nmusl\nProgramming tools\nBitbake\nBuildroot\nBusyBox\nYocto Project\nAlmquist shell\nStand-alone shell\nOpenEmbedded\nOperating systems\nLinux on embedded systems\nLinux for mobile devices\nLight-weight Linux distribution\nWindows IoT\nWin CE\nReal-time operating system\nProgramming languages\nAda\nAssembly language\nCAPL\nEmbedded C\nMISRA C\nEmbedded C++\nEmbedded Java\n\nLightweight browsers\nOpen-source computing hardware\nOpen-source robotics\n\nAuthority control \nGND: 7713781-4 \n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis 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\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 2 March 2019, at 22:05.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 261 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Internet_of_things skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Internet of things<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Internet_of_Things.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"10deb1d23f226574b106e9b8bbf91dba\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/ab\/Internet_of_Things.jpg\/220px-Internet_of_Things.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"211\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Internet_of_Things.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"10deb1d23f226574b106e9b8bbf91dba\"><\/a><\/div>A representation of the Internet of things (IoT).<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The <b>Internet of things<\/b> (<b>IoT<\/b>) is the extension of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a> connectivity into physical devices and everyday objects. Embedded with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronics\" title=\"Electronics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cc4c102223083779a5fa0e7a609cbe0\">electronics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_access\" title=\"Internet access\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ce90853b88ba9207babcc9241a6c4f\">Internet connectivity<\/a>, and other forms of hardware (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sensor\" title=\"Sensor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f309353c1f8a54286958707160bba6d\">sensors<\/a>), these devices can communicate and interact with others over the Internet, and they can be remotely monitored and controlled.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Linux_Things_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Linux_Things-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Linux_21OSP_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Linux_21OSP-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ITU_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ITU-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The definition of the Internet of things has evolved due to convergence of multiple technologies, real-time <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytics\" title=\"Analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a9e129b74020e51d9761f09f2d4652\">analytics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">machine learning<\/a>, commodity sensors, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embedded_system\" title=\"Embedded system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9040d0f831e8e1f3fa9fc769bf290d5\">embedded systems<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Definition-IoT_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Definition-IoT-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Traditional fields of embedded systems, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wireless_sensor_network\" title=\"Wireless sensor network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6de477762202654fbd88d90d554bf13\">wireless sensor networks<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_system\" title=\"Control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1de85e21d2395f64ea337c4e8194d71\">control systems<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automation\" title=\"Automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4566aa9781d28b2291b4efec7b5bdd82\">automation<\/a> (including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Home_automation\" title=\"Home automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57ae87ba9c509562151e6599939ab60\">home<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Building_automation\" title=\"Building automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2d365505b98f3b6aceb1e91f172d85c\">building automation<\/a>), and others all contribute to enabling the Internet of things. In the consumer market, IoT technology is most synonymous with products pertaining to the concept of the \"smart home\", covering devices and appliances (such as lighting fixtures, thermostats, home security systems and cameras, and other home appliances) that support one or more common ecosystems, and can be controlled via devices associated with that ecosystem, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smartphone\" title=\"Smartphone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49a2d39877c99c533d1236c163ea0100\">smartphones<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_speaker\" title=\"Smart speaker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e45a77baa5153e2816a419e757b16ee2\">smart speakers<\/a>. \n<\/p><p>The IoT concept has faced prominent criticism, especially in regards to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_privacy\" title=\"Digital privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"695af0c3887aeb6c967ac81329f95b62\">privacy<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_security\" title=\"Digital security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26e1925f60e68459c1dea59726edc341\">security<\/a> concerns related to these devices and their intention of pervasive presence.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The concept of a network of smart devices was discussed as early as 1982, with a modified <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vending_machine\" title=\"Vending machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d740b88598c4b2424e81a2f6c48cc799\">Coke vending machine<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Mellon_University\" title=\"Carnegie Mellon University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edc1e7b9266be3eeab86296d0abca43b\">Carnegie Mellon University<\/a> becoming the first Internet-connected appliance,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> able to report its inventory and whether newly loaded drinks were cold or not.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mark_Weiser\" title=\"Mark Weiser\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"15e322201a98db79f00007f02771a8f6\">Mark Weiser<\/a>'s 1991 paper on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ubiquitous_computing\" title=\"Ubiquitous computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91323387ab400644a01565aeb3f259bd\">ubiquitous computing<\/a>, \"The Computer of the 21st Century\", as well as academic venues such as UbiComp and PerCom produced the contemporary vision of the IoT.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IoT_journal2_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IoT_journal2-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UbiquitiousComputing_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UbiquitiousComputing-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> In 1994, Reza Raji described the concept in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE_Spectrum\" title=\"IEEE Spectrum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb31bac59e904a476465eedf8472a85e\">IEEE Spectrum<\/a><\/i> as \"[moving] small packets of data to a large set of nodes, so as to integrate and automate everything from home appliances to entire factories\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> Between 1993 and 1997, several companies proposed solutions like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/At_Work\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"At Work\" data-key=\"d4700c54db6edffa76dba9f96d9ca9ae\">at Work<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Novell\" title=\"Novell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5c3e66d7a65e47507655e36237cf261\">Novell<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Novell_Embedded_Systems_Technology\" title=\"Novell Embedded Systems Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1296677bd47c2173094e3031dde34b63\">NEST<\/a>. The field gained momentum when <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bill_Joy\" title=\"Bill Joy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32e306c0a748b122cbb17192de104971\">Bill Joy<\/a> envisioned <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Device-to-device\" title=\"Device-to-device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e36b4b6dc0bf263dd95b863201e0544b\">device-to-device<\/a> communication as a part of his \"Six Webs\" framework, presented at the World Economic Forum at Davos in 1999.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ETC:_Bill_Joy's_Six_Webs_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#39;s_Six_Webs-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The term \"Internet of things\" was likely coined by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kevin_Ashton\" title=\"Kevin Ashton\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6ee9aa5a4f85ce9f6b23ca1ed9f9345\">Kevin Ashton<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Procter_%26_Gamble\" title=\"Procter & Gamble\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07f30bd028deac23dd8b314396c5ca72\">Procter & Gamble<\/a>, later <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology\" title=\"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6d082af902828b7c6c2395cc18da224\">MIT<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Auto-ID_Labs\" title=\"Auto-ID Labs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0eafacffdd9b53167f00c1a0e000fc7b\">Auto-ID Center<\/a>, in 1999,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> though he prefers the phrase \"Internet <i>for<\/i> things\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> At that point, he viewed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radio-frequency_identification\" title=\"Radio-frequency identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142e22fc78bf4acc0c1806ea4d00e395\">Radio-frequency identification<\/a> (RFID) as essential to the Internet of things,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-gartner.com_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-gartner.com-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> which would allow computers to manage all individual things.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-gartner_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-gartner-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EC,_Action_plan_for_Europe_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EC,_Action_plan_for_Europe-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A research article mentioning the Internet of Things was submitted to the conference for Nordic Researchers in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Norway\" title=\"Norway\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c72ebccd3a4fab105ad34cfe74ec11b\">Norway<\/a>, in June 2002,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IOT_2002_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IOT_2002-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> which was preceded by an article published in Finnish in January 2002.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TIEKE_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TIEKE-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> The implementation described there was developed by Kary Fr\u00e4mling and his team at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Helsinki_University_of_Technology\" title=\"Helsinki University of Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ecd31ba195271fb2b5c9fb94e602045\">Helsinki University of Technology<\/a> and more closely matches the modern one, i.e. an information system infrastructure for implementing smart, connected objects.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FRAMLING_2003_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FRAMLING_2003-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Defining the Internet of things as \"simply the point in time when more 'things or objects' were connected to the Internet than people\", <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cisco_Systems\" title=\"Cisco Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2908ba971801323030c65072529f060d\">Cisco Systems<\/a> estimated that the IoT was \"born\" between 2008 and 2009, with the things\/people ratio growing from 0.08 in 2003 to 1.84 in 2010.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications\">Applications<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nest_Learning_Thermostat_(cropped).JPG\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"76f52c45b6046833437eed16f0a677f0\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/87\/Nest_Learning_Thermostat_%28cropped%29.JPG\/220px-Nest_Learning_Thermostat_%28cropped%29.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"224\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nest_Learning_Thermostat_(cropped).JPG\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"76f52c45b6046833437eed16f0a677f0\"><\/a><\/div>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nest_Labs\" title=\"Nest Labs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2212dd32323c349da16492ec003162bc\">Nest<\/a> learning thermostat reporting on energy usage and local weather.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ring_video_doorbell.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c9fe0170278bb32e4665791da2cbb1c\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/26\/Ring_video_doorbell.jpg\/220px-Ring_video_doorbell.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"179\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ring_video_doorbell.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"8c9fe0170278bb32e4665791da2cbb1c\"><\/a><\/div>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ring_(company)\" title=\"Ring (company)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"115e72110a9c906a13c9fcd442d4e0d5\">Ring<\/a> doorbell connected to the Internet<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:August_2nd-gen_smart_lock.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"b7381a4b70a77a9231e61a3923bc8987\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/4e\/August_2nd-gen_smart_lock.jpg\/220px-August_2nd-gen_smart_lock.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:August_2nd-gen_smart_lock.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"b7381a4b70a77a9231e61a3923bc8987\"><\/a><\/div>An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/August_Home\" title=\"August Home\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36bc868789b88010eaec2c1993d9c10d\">August Home<\/a> smart lock connected to the Internet<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The extensive set of applications for IoT devices<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> is often divided into consumer, commercial, industrial, and infrastructure spaces.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Business_Insider_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Business_Insider-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Consumer_applications\">Consumer applications<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A growing portion of IoT devices are created for consumer use, including connected vehicles, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Home_automation\" title=\"Home automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57ae87ba9c509562151e6599939ab60\">home automation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wearable_technology\" title=\"Wearable technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68eedc92ec557c31c03118c0b572a919\">wearable technology<\/a> (as part of Internet of Wearable Things (IoWT)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>), connected health, and appliances with remote monitoring capabilities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Smart_home\">Smart home<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>IoT devices are a part of the larger concept of home automation, which can include lighting, heating and air conditioning, media and security systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-businessinsider.com_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-businessinsider.com-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> Long term benefits could include energy savings by automatically ensuring lights and electronics are turned off.\n<\/p><p>A smart home or automated home could be based on a platform or hubs that control smart devices and appliances.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> For instance, using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apple_Inc.\" title=\"Apple Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"071b1bca39b3a61799e49233d2df16a3\">Apple<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HomeKit\" title=\"HomeKit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4eec80c4881f377cdee89f00b2c12499\">HomeKit<\/a>, manufacturers can have their home products and accessories controlled by an application in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IOS\" title=\"IOS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d92449bf346a22bfc5dca25cc426d93\">iOS<\/a> devices such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPhone\" title=\"IPhone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0fbfa769f394b81468b61e051b5eafa7\">iPhone<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apple_Watch\" title=\"Apple Watch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"623d478a53d5b5e82f5db4656a92ce70\">Apple Watch<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> This could be a dedicated app or iOS native applications such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siri\" title=\"Siri\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4992c7151554c6a2f8f7236549c6f6e\">Siri<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> This can be demonstrated in the case of Lenovo's Smart Home Essentials, which is a line of smart home devices that are controlled through Apple's Home app or Siri without the need for a Wi-Fi bridge.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_32-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> There are also dedicated smart home hubs that are offered as standalone platforms to connect different smart home products and these include the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amazon_Echo\" title=\"Amazon Echo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"914a61c54f4ac0201a67d5951ba5335a\">Amazon Echo<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Home\" title=\"Google Home\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50f58d4c0a6a67e1c546d3ac08a5671b\">Google Home<\/a>, Apple's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HomePod\" title=\"HomePod\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f3997fbb8c409523a80f46da864570a\">HomePod<\/a>, and Samsung's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SmartThings\" title=\"SmartThings\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26ec5e9f27cb79551a0b61a4aa79d786\">SmartThings Hub<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Elder_care\">Elder care<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>One key application of smart home is to provide <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Home_automation_for_the_elderly_and_disabled\" title=\"Home automation for the elderly and disabled\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7b838e6ae5055a783e60cc64ca94050\">assistance for those with disabilities and elderly individuals<\/a>. These home systems use assistive technology to accommodate an owner's specific disabilities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-auto1_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-auto1-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voice_Control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Voice Control\" data-key=\"e12071af9e5ef9f0028f79962553d8d7\">Voice control<\/a> can assist users with sight and mobility limitations while alert systems can be connected directly to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cochlear_implant\" title=\"Cochlear implant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"75ff5307e1fdf4c178c2901416599bc5\">cochlear implants<\/a> worn by hearing impaired users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> They can also be equipped with additional safety features. These features can include sensors that monitor for medical emergencies such as falls or seizures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> Smart home technology applied in this way can provide users with more freedom and a higher quality of life.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-auto1_34-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-auto1-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The term \"Enterprise IoT\" refers to devices used in business and corporate settings. By 2019, it is estimated that the EIoT will account for 9.1 billion devices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Business_Insider_23-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Business_Insider-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Commercial_application\">Commercial application<\/span><\/h3>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Medical_and_healthcare\">Medical and healthcare<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The <b>Internet of Medical Things<\/b> (also called the <b>internet of health things<\/b>) is an application of the IoT for medical and health related purposes, data collection and analysis for research, and monitoring.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Wards_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Wards-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Geron_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Geron-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ClinLab_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ClinLab-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> This 'Smart Healthcare',<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-auto2_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-auto2-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> as it is also called, led to the creation of a digitized healthcare system, connecting available medical resources and healthcare services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReferenceA_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReferenceA-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>IoT devices can be used to enable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_patient_monitoring\" title=\"Remote patient monitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93704aea76530b4219bad1587c47bdfd\">remote health monitoring<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emergency_notification_system\" title=\"Emergency notification system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46ecd8a5e3cae60d42732221ca3ecbfb\">emergency notification systems<\/a>. These health monitoring devices can range from blood pressure and heart rate monitors to advanced devices capable of monitoring specialized implants, such as pacemakers, Fitbit electronic wristbands, or advanced hearing aids.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CoMAN_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CoMAN-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> Some hospitals have begun implementing \"smart beds\" that can detect when they are occupied and when a patient is attempting to get up. It can also adjust itself to ensure appropriate pressure and support is applied to the patient without the manual interaction of nurses.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Wards_37-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Wards-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> A 2015 Goldman Sachs report indicated that healthcare IoT devices \"can save the United States more than $300 billion in annual healthcare expenditures by increasing revenue and decreasing cost.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Engage16_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Engage16-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RomanTheDigital15_46-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RomanTheDigital15-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> Moreover, the use of mobile devices to support medical follow-up led to the creation of 'm-health', used \"to analyze, capture, transmit and store health statistics from multiple resources, including sensors and other biomedical acquisition systems\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Specialized sensors can also be equipped within living spaces to monitor the health and general well-being of senior citizens, while also ensuring that proper treatment is being administered and assisting people regain lost mobility via therapy as well.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-mHealth_48-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-mHealth-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup> These sensors create a network of intelligent sensors that are able to collect, process, transfer and analyse valuable information in different environments, such as connecting in-home monitoring devices to hospital-based systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-auto2_42-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-auto2-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> Other consumer devices to encourage healthy living, such as connected scales or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wearable_technology\" title=\"Wearable technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68eedc92ec557c31c03118c0b572a919\">wearable heart monitors<\/a>, are also a possibility with the IoT.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SensorMania_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SensorMania-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup> End-to-end health monitoring IoT platforms are also available for antenatal and chronic patients, helping one manage health vitals and recurring medication requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Advances in plastic and fabric electronics fabrication methods have enabled ultra-low cost, use-and-throw IoMT sensors. These sensors, along with the required RFID electronics, can be fabricated on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paper\" title=\"Paper\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ad8798fd98787098b00bb0f261f81d0\">paper<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-textiles\" title=\"E-textiles\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67920e290ab6ae96f0c862927eaf9d59\">e-textiles<\/a> for wirelessly powered disposable sensing devices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> Applications have been established for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Point-of-care_testing\" title=\"Point-of-care testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"694b4142a6221fdca65b562bb24ee035\">point-of-care medical diagnostics<\/a>, where portability and low system-complexity is essential.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As of 2018<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup> IoMT was not only being applied in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_laboratory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Clinical laboratory\" data-key=\"612f93fa53c0d870cd26f542ee0b88a9\">clinical laboratory<\/a> industry,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ClinLab_39-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ClinLab-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup> but also in the healthcare and health insurance industries. IoMT in the healthcare industry is now permitting doctors, patients and others involved (i.e. guardians of patients, nurses, families, etc.) to be part of a system, where patient records are saved in a database, allowing doctors and the rest of the medical staff to have access to the patient's information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReferenceA_43-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReferenceA-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup> Moreover, IoT-based systems are patient-centered, which involves being flexible to the patient's medical conditions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReferenceA_43-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReferenceA-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup> IoMT in the insurance industry provides access to better and new types of dynamic information. This includes sensor-based solutions such as biosensors, wearables, connected health devices and mobile apps to track customer behaviour. This can lead to more accurate underwriting and new pricing models.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The application of the IOT in healthcare plays a fundamental role in managing chronic diseases\n<p>and in disease prevention and control. Remote monitoring is made possible\nthrough the connection of powerful wireless solutions. The connectivity enables health\npractitioners to capture patient\u2019s data and applying complex algorithms in health data analysis.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Transportation\">Transportation<\/span><\/h4>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:172px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Variable_speed_limit_digital_speed_limit_sign.jpeg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd1b74d69d191a1c7fc369586854aa1d\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2e\/Variable_speed_limit_digital_speed_limit_sign.jpeg\/170px-Variable_speed_limit_digital_speed_limit_sign.jpeg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"170\" height=\"210\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Variable_speed_limit_digital_speed_limit_sign.jpeg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"bd1b74d69d191a1c7fc369586854aa1d\"><\/a><\/div>Digital variable speed-limit sign.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The IoT can assist in the integration of communications, control, and information processing across various <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_transportation_system\" title=\"Intelligent transportation system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f25241aba5ce759b731ffc853fb23137\">transportation systems<\/a>. Application of the IoT extends to all aspects of transportation systems (i.e. the vehicle,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup> the infrastructure, and the driver or user). Dynamic interaction between these components of a transport system enables inter and intra vehicular communication,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-XieTRB17_56-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-XieTRB17-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_traffic_light\" title=\"Smart traffic light\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71bfd7a043598069ce92f7270dca7ae7\">smart traffic control<\/a>, smart parking, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_toll_collection\" title=\"Electronic toll collection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95c7ff9c5cc9eef9ed6a6fb8c43c07bc\">electronic toll collection systems<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logistics_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Logistics management\" data-key=\"4a27bb7377c25f40ef4e8490e367e579\">logistic<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fleet_management\" title=\"Fleet management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1acd5afa8be72acf61ce06741393fc4a\">fleet management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autonomous_cruise_control_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Autonomous cruise control system\" data-key=\"39a3e70330a7ebbeaddcc7cce1d96c20\">vehicle control<\/a>, safety and road assistance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CoMAN_44-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CoMAN-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SmartIoT2017_57-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SmartIoT2017-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup> In Logistics and Fleet Management for example, an IoT platform can continuously monitor the location and conditions of cargo and assets via wireless sensors and send specific alerts when management exceptions occur (delays, damages, thefts, etc.). This can only be possible with the IoT and its seamless connectivity among devices. Sensors such as GPS, Humidity, Temperature, send data to the IoT platform and then the data is analyzed and send further to the users. This way, users can track the real-time status of vehicles and can make appropriate decisions. If combined with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">Machine Learning<\/a> then it also helps in reducing traffic accidents by introducing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Driver_drowsiness_detection\" title=\"Driver drowsiness detection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e141bb23b5d7b8180ded5b53c84731cf\">drowsiness<\/a> alerts to drivers and providing self-driven cars too.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"V2X_Communications\">V2X Communications<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>IoT enables vehicle-to-everything communication (V2X), which consists of three main components of connected environment: vehicle to vehicle communication (V2V), vehicle to infrastructure communication (V2I) and vehicle to pedestrian communications (V2P). V2V empowers vehicles to exchange data, V2I allows them to network with the transport infrastructure (traffic signs and lights etc.) and V2P senses signals from the users smartphones to prevent collisions, involving pedestrians. By constantly analyzing real-time data, V2X designs a transport ecosystem where vehicles, infrastructure and people are interconnected with each other to keep the environment safe from any type of accidents. V2X is the first step to autonomous driving and connected road infrastructure that provides connected cars with needed safety.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Building_and_home_automation\">Building and home automation<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>IoT devices can be used to monitor and control the mechanical, electrical and electronic systems used in various types of buildings (e.g., public and private, industrial, institutions, or residential)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CoMAN_44-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CoMAN-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Home_automation\" title=\"Home automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57ae87ba9c509562151e6599939ab60\">home automation<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Building_automation\" title=\"Building automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2d365505b98f3b6aceb1e91f172d85c\">building automation<\/a> systems. In this context, three main areas are being covered in literature:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_58-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The integration of the Internet with building energy management systems in order to create energy efficient and IOT-driven \"smart buildings\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_58-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The possible means of real-time monitoring for reducing energy consumption<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IoTEnergyKettle_59-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IoTEnergyKettle-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup> and monitoring occupant behaviors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_58-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The integration of smart devices in the built environment and how they might to know how to be used in future applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_58-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Industrial_applications\">Industrial applications<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_Internet_of_Things\" title=\"Industrial Internet of Things\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c088268f5b43c860f57cecdb2a7037ae\">Industrial Internet of Things<\/a><\/div>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Manufacturing\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-IIoT\"><\/span>Manufacturing<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The IoT can realize the seamless integration of various manufacturing devices equipped with sensing, identification, processing, communication, actuation, and networking capabilities. Based on such a highly integrated smart cyberphysical space, it opens the door to create whole new business and market opportunities for manufacturing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IoT-Manufacturing_Survey_60-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IoT-Manufacturing_Survey-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup>\nNetwork control and management of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reconfigurable_Manufacturing_System\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Reconfigurable Manufacturing System\" data-key=\"831fc16e5bf5a0cae2e61e0be42b912d\">manufacturing equipment<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Asset_management\" title=\"Asset management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1390a11e683d0eff107c334424ba9a71\">asset<\/a> and situation management, or manufacturing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_control\" title=\"Process control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d54acfdf96b6148908918addebc4599d\">process control<\/a> bring the IoT within the realm of industrial applications and smart manufacturing as well.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Butler-M2M_61-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Butler-M2M-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup> The IoT intelligent systems enable rapid manufacturing of new products, dynamic response to product demands, and real-time optimization of manufacturing production and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Supply chain network\" data-key=\"436a27fd4f48ebcc9019227c1ad1faa7\">supply chain networks<\/a>, by networking machinery, sensors and control systems together.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CoMAN_44-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CoMAN-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_control\" title=\"Digital control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"088fc27afdd3dcc1b30f7f3c019564ae\">Digital control systems<\/a> to automate process controls, operator tools and service information systems to optimize plant safety and security are within the purview of the IoT.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IoT-Survey_62-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IoT-Survey-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup> But it also extends itself to asset management via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_maintenance\" title=\"Predictive maintenance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f463ab7bb793745fc5ea96e1976e12a\">predictive maintenance<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_model\" title=\"Statistical model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"471ef69d6cb5a7420b7742ce0844575d\">statistical evaluation<\/a>, and measurements to maximize reliability.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Future-IoT_63-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Future-IoT-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup> Smart industrial management systems can also be integrated with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_Grid\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Smart Grid\" data-key=\"1df0bf5fbdad9f978b013a3adffc31fb\">Smart Grid<\/a>, thereby enabling real-time energy optimization. Measurements, automated controls, plant optimization, health and safety management, and other functions are provided by a large number of networked sensors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CoMAN_44-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CoMAN-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The term industrial Internet of things (IIoT) is often encountered in the manufacturing industries, referring to the industrial subset of the IoT. IIoT in manufacturing could generate so much business value that it will eventually lead to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution\" title=\"Fourth Industrial Revolution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dba24798007375135a163877f572900f\">Fourth Industrial Revolution<\/a>, so the so-called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industry_4.0\" title=\"Industry 4.0\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b44209c53bd0e0746152f2290ad4377d\">Industry 4.0<\/a>. It is estimated that in the future, successful companies will be able to increase their revenue through Internet of things by creating new business models and improve productivity, exploit analytics for innovation, and transform workforce.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-auto_64-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-auto-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup> The potential of growth by implementing IIoT may generate $12 trillion of global GDP by 2030.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-auto_64-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-auto-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:402px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:CPS_for_Manufacturing.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"be1e735474c60fe1c51d128e86ac4829\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/f\/fb\/CPS_for_Manufacturing.png\/400px-CPS_for_Manufacturing.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:CPS_for_Manufacturing.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"be1e735474c60fe1c51d128e86ac4829\"><\/a><\/div>Design architecture of cyber-physical systems-enabled manufacturing system<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-A_cyber-physical_systems_architecture_for_industry_4.0-based_manufacturing_systems_65-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-A_cyber-physical_systems_architecture_for_industry_4.0-based_manufacturing_systems-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup><\/div><\/div><\/div> \n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_big_data\" title=\"Industrial big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20287f2c41b64e7a15e32709d3e6cffd\">Industrial big data<\/a> analytics will play a vital role in manufacturing asset predictive maintenance, although that is not the only capability of industrial big data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Industrial_Big_Data_66-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Industrial_Big_Data-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber-physical_system\" title=\"Cyber-physical system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b854f4dc2076c65aca7a7dee92f4b929\">Cyber-physical systems<\/a> (CPS) is the core technology of industrial big data and it will be an interface between human and the cyber world. Cyber-physical systems can be designed by following the <i>5C<\/i> (connection, conversion, cyber, cognition, configuration) architecture,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-A_cyber-physical_systems_architecture_for_industry_4.0-based_manufacturing_systems_65-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-A_cyber-physical_systems_architecture_for_industry_4.0-based_manufacturing_systems-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup> and it will transform the collected data into actionable information, and eventually interfere with the physical assets to optimize processes.\n<\/p><p>An IoT-enabled intelligent system of such cases was proposed in 2001 and later demonstrated in 2014 by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Science_Foundation\" title=\"National Science Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b983b6300da8173be7a1ef05e52e9568\">National Science Foundation<\/a> Industry\/University Collaborative Research Center for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_maintenance_system\" title=\"Intelligent maintenance system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ad2127f3f493f5063be2de399bb36cbf\">Intelligent Maintenance Systems<\/a> (IMS) at the University of Cincinnati on a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bandsaw\" title=\"Bandsaw\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9d32395c93de46b8d6dd3b0a2ff72b7\">bandsaw<\/a> machine in IMTS 2014 in Chicago.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-69\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Keynote_Presentation:_Recent_Advances_and_Transformation_Direction_of_PHM_70-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Keynote_Presentation:_Recent_Advances_and_Transformation_Direction_of_PHM-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup> Bandsaw machines are not necessarily expensive, but the bandsaw belt expenses are enormous since they degrade much faster. However, without sensing and intelligent analytics, it can be only determined by experience when the band saw belt will actually break. The developed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prognostics\" title=\"Prognostics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f828cacd2d99509cabbdd5d5a16f6f11\">prognostics<\/a> system will be able to recognize and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_maintenance_system\" title=\"Intelligent maintenance system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ad2127f3f493f5063be2de399bb36cbf\">monitor the degradation<\/a> of band saw belts even if the condition is changing, advising users when is the best time to replace the belt. This will significantly improve user experience and operator safety and ultimately save on costs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Keynote_Presentation:_Recent_Advances_and_Transformation_Direction_of_PHM_70-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Keynote_Presentation:_Recent_Advances_and_Transformation_Direction_of_PHM-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Agriculture\">Agriculture<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>There are numerous IoT applications in farming<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MeolaWhy16_71-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MeolaWhy16-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup> such as collecting data on temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, pest infestation, and soil content. This data can be used to automate farming techniques, take informed decisions to improve quality and quantity, minimize risk and waste, and reduce effort required to manage crops. For example, farmers can now monitor soil temperature and moisture from afar, and even apply IoT-acquired data to precision fertilization programs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ZhangPrecision15_72-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ZhangPrecision15-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In August 2018, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toyota_Tsusho\" title=\"Toyota Tsusho\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4b02b6506cfdc8c6cb6dca037f5bf51\">Toyota Tsusho<\/a> began a partnership with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a> to create <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fish_farming\" title=\"Fish farming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"766fc0b05f278328fb01658fd4b81f69\">fish farming<\/a> tools using the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Azure\" title=\"Microsoft Azure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7425502813a74a72d2910d4a8d90b67d\">Microsoft Azure<\/a> application suite for IoT technologies related to water management. Developed in part by researchers from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kindai_University\" title=\"Kindai University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d4d23ce31ef9720dcc5d0db520c4c0a\">Kindai University<\/a>, the water pump mechanisms use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">artificial intelligence<\/a> to count the number of fish on a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conveyor_belt\" title=\"Conveyor belt\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b43bfa6f8719280868bd14ce21dffcf6\">conveyor belt<\/a>, analyze the number of fish, and deduce the effectiveness of water flow from the data the fish provide. The specific <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_programs\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer programs\" data-key=\"5769be6ff24ccb620841e6b9059b5651\">computer programs<\/a> used in the process fall under the Azure Machine Learning and the Azure IoT Hub platforms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-73\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Infrastructure_applications\">Infrastructure applications<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Monitoring and controlling operations of sustainable urban and rural infrastructures like bridges, railway tracks and on- and offshore wind-farms is a key application of the IoT.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IoT-Survey_62-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IoT-Survey-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup> The IoT infrastructure can be used for monitoring any events or changes in structural conditions that can compromise safety and increase risk. The IoT can benefit the construction industry by cost saving, time reduction, better quality workday, paperless workflow and increase in productivity. It can help in taking faster decisions and save money with Real-Time Data Analytics. It can also be used for scheduling repair and maintenance activities in an efficient manner, by coordinating tasks between different service providers and users of these facilities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CoMAN_44-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CoMAN-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> IoT devices can also be used to control critical infrastructure like bridges to provide access to ships. Usage of IoT devices for monitoring and operating infrastructure is likely to improve incident management and emergency response coordination, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_of_service\" title=\"Quality of service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c56f9ddc8bd39c0b2e32a48b0f5bc004\">quality of service<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uptime\" title=\"Uptime\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c4f7bc2ff5486bb3086dcd5f42e7eb3\">up-times<\/a> and reduce costs of operation in all infrastructure related areas.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IoT-McKinsey_74-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IoT-McKinsey-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> Even areas such as waste management can benefit<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SmartTrash_75-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SmartTrash-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup> from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automation\" title=\"Automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4566aa9781d28b2291b4efec7b5bdd82\">automation<\/a> and optimization that could be brought in by the IoT.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IOT_76-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IOT-76\">[76]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Metropolitan_scale_deployments\">Metropolitan scale deployments<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>There are several planned or ongoing large-scale deployments of the IoT, to enable better management of cities and systems. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Songdo_International_Business_District\" title=\"Songdo International Business District\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42bea9ee99dae085d341a508509dc25b\">Songdo<\/a>, South Korea, the first of its kind fully equipped and wired <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_city\" title=\"Smart city\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23ca728e458d9f1ebf6c9970c8c7cf3c\">smart city<\/a>, is gradually being built, with approximately 70 percent of the business district completed as of June 2018<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>. Much of the city is planned to be wired and automated, with little or no human intervention.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PoonSleepy18_77-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PoonSleepy18-77\">[77]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Another application is a currently undergoing project in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Santander,_Spain\" title=\"Santander, Spain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"961f0a6d8704c2cf101df072870e3be3\">Santander<\/a>, Spain. For this deployment, two approaches have been adopted. This city of 180,000 inhabitants has already seen 18,000 downloads of its city smartphone app. The app is connected to 10,000 sensors that enable services like parking search, environmental monitoring, digital city agenda, and more. City context information is used in this deployment so as to benefit merchants through a spark deals mechanism based on city behavior that aims at maximizing the impact of each notification.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[78]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other examples of large-scale deployments underway include the Sino-Singapore Guangzhou Knowledge City;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup> work on improving air and water quality, reducing noise pollution, and increasing transportation efficiency in San Jose, California;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[80]<\/a><\/sup> and smart traffic management in western Singapore.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-81\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup> French company, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sigfox\" title=\"Sigfox\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9a6c66a92d9a9a022fa2e8af214c53e\">Sigfox<\/a>, commenced building an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ultra_Narrowband\" title=\"Ultra Narrowband\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1743769fb3564f7d8a92e7c31fe85136\">Ultra Narrowband<\/a> wireless data network in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/San_Francisco_Bay_Area\" title=\"San Francisco Bay Area\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7714a275578ab3e83cc9641c6001e16\">San Francisco Bay Area<\/a> in 2014, the first business to achieve such a deployment in the U.S.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EETimes_82-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EETimes-82\">[82]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fierce_Wireless_Tech_83-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fierce_Wireless_Tech-83\">[83]<\/a><\/sup> It subsequently announced it would set up a total of 4000 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Base_station\" title=\"Base station\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03126b1a91cbca3ce023cef816a21e43\">base stations<\/a> to cover a total of 30 cities in the U.S. by the end of 2016, making it the largest IoT network coverage provider in the country thus far.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EETimes2_84-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EETimes2-84\">[84]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gigaom2_85-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gigaom2-85\">[85]<\/a><\/sup> Cisco also participates in smart cities projects. Cisco has started deploying technologies for Smart Wi-Fi, Smart Safety & Security, Smart Lighting, Smart Parking, Smart Transports, Smart Bus Stops, Smart Kiosks, Remote Expert for Government Services (REGS) and Smart Education in the five km area in the city of Vijaywada.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-86\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Another example of a large deployment is the one completed by New York Waterways in New York City to connect all the city's vessels and be able to monitor them live 24\/7. The network was designed and engineered by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fluidmesh\" title=\"Fluidmesh\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c68ece4f3a538659484e3f8eaad1d9e\">Fluidmesh<\/a> Networks, a Chicago-based company developing wireless networks for critical applications. The NYWW network is currently providing coverage on the Hudson River, East River, and Upper New York Bay. With the wireless network in place, NY Waterway is able to take control of its fleet and passengers in a way that was not previously possible. New applications can include security, energy and fleet management, digital signage, public Wi-Fi, paperless ticketing and others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-87\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87\">[87]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Energy_management\">Energy management<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Significant numbers of energy-consuming devices (e.g. switches, power outlets, bulbs, televisions, etc.) already integrate Internet connectivity, which can allow them to communicate with utilities to balance <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electricity_generation\" title=\"Electricity generation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"037edab3dff03fc578d37a439e85d0ec\">power generation<\/a> and energy usage<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EMAN_88-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EMAN-88\">[88]<\/a><\/sup> and optimize energy consumption as a whole.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CoMAN_44-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CoMAN-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> These devices allow for remote control by users, or central management via a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b28cb3c1977d5c04401506e9b991f1\">cloud<\/a>-based interface, and enable functions like scheduling (e.g., remotely powering on or off heating systems, controlling ovens, changing lighting conditions etc.).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CoMAN_44-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CoMAN-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_grid\" title=\"Smart grid\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ed86c3bb0ec7d4cffc526c131d27e7b\">smart grid<\/a> is a utility-side IoT application; systems gather and act on energy and power-related information to improve the efficiency of the production and distribution of electricity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EMAN_88-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EMAN-88\">[88]<\/a><\/sup> Using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_meter\" title=\"Smart meter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acc9b39fe57889f9dcb2e1c6aeb365f8\">advanced metering infrastructure (AMI)<\/a> Internet-connected devices, electric utilities not only collect data from end-users, but also manage distribution automation devices like transformers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CoMAN_44-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CoMAN-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Environmental_monitoring\">Environmental monitoring<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_monitoring\" title=\"Environmental monitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8a4b57b749e044e06fc362fba59f330\">Environmental monitoring<\/a> applications of the IoT typically use sensors to assist in environmental protection<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-89\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-89\">[89]<\/a><\/sup> by monitoring air or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_quality\" title=\"Water quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"779fe26ba1dc26d6e5a4018e9fcb49b6\">water quality<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MolluSCAN_eye_90-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MolluSCAN_eye-90\">[90]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_pollution\" title=\"Air pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff93abe12fa3d63865b44e344db1d1bb\">atmospheric<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_pollution\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Soil pollution\" data-key=\"735aeedb75933134c1494f116854ec3b\">soil conditions<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IoT-EnvProt_91-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IoT-EnvProt-91\">[91]<\/a><\/sup> and can even include areas like monitoring the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Animal_migration_tracking\" title=\"Animal migration tracking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d81825c33207f2aff7f1fe43bb5c2b7e\">movements of wildlife<\/a> and their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Habitat\" title=\"Habitat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"988f72870bcadfbc93781ce36eb88319\">habitats<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FIT_92-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FIT-92\">[92]<\/a><\/sup> Development of resource-constrained devices connected to the Internet also means that other applications like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Earthquake_warning_system\" title=\"Earthquake warning system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"752dda7244fb997ca31899412be89239\">earthquake<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tsunami_warning_system\" title=\"Tsunami warning system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"505c655285a36ca8be71563b71996f61\">tsunami early-warning systems<\/a> can also be used by emergency services to provide more effective aid. IoT devices in this application typically span a large geographic area and can also be mobile.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CoMAN_44-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CoMAN-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> It has been argued that the standardization IoT brings to wireless sensing will revolutionize this area.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-93\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-93\">[93]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>Living Lab<\/b>\n<\/p><p>Another example of integrating the IoT is Living Lab which integrates and combines research and innovation process, establishing within a public-private-people-partnership.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Scuotto_357\u2013367_94-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Scuotto_357\u2013367-94\">[94]<\/a><\/sup> There are currently 320 Living Labs that use the IoT to collaborate and share knowledge between stakeholders to co-create innovative and technological products. For companies to implement and develop IoT services for smart cities, they need to have incentives. The governments play key roles in smart cities projects as changes in policies will help cities to implement the IoT which provides effectiveness, efficiency, and accuracy of the resources that are being used. For instance, the government provides tax incentives and cheap rent, improves public transports, and offers an environment where start-up companies, creative industries, and multinationals may co-create, share common infrastructure and labor markets, and take advantages of locally embedded technologies, production process, and transaction costs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Scuotto_357\u2013367_94-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Scuotto_357\u2013367-94\">[94]<\/a><\/sup> The relationship between the technology developers and governments who manage city's assets, is key to provide open access of resources to users in an efficient way.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Trends_and_characteristics\">Trends and characteristics<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:452px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Internet_of_Things.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6f3396540c84569033bd9d623703dec\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9b\/Internet_of_Things.svg\/450px-Internet_of_Things.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Internet_of_Things.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"b6f3396540c84569033bd9d623703dec\"><\/a><\/div>Technology roadmap: Internet of things.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The IoT's major significant trend in recent years is the explosive growth of devices connected and controlled by the Internet.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-auto3_95-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-auto3-95\">[95]<\/a><\/sup> The wide range of applications for IoT technology mean that the specifics can be very different from one device to the next but there are basic characteristics shared by most.\n<\/p><p>The IoT creates opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer-based systems, resulting in efficiency improvements, economic benefits, and reduced human exertions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-96\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-96\">[96]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-97\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-97\">[97]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-98\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-98\">[98]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-99\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-99\">[99]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The number of IoT devices increased 31% year-over-year to 8.4 billion in the year 2017<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-faz.net_100-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-faz.net-100\">[100]<\/a><\/sup> and it is estimated that there will be 30 billion devices by 2020.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-auto3_95-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-auto3-95\">[95]<\/a><\/sup> The global market value of IoT is projected to reach $7.1 trillion by 2020.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-101\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-101\">[101]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Intelligence\">Intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ambient_intelligence\" title=\"Ambient intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b681d22db203b30f37fc1afa46fda9c4\">Ambient intelligence<\/a> and autonomous control are not part of the original concept of the Internet of things. Ambient intelligence and autonomous control do not necessarily require Internet structures, either. However, there is a shift in research (by companies such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intel\" title=\"Intel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"82dfff15d5a47aea4e92ca0f1462fc2d\">Intel<\/a>) to integrate the concepts of the IoT and autonomous control, with initial outcomes towards this direction considering objects as the driving force for autonomous IoT.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GDRSmarter18_102-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GDRSmarter18-102\">[102]<\/a><\/sup> A promising approach in this context is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">deep reinforcement learning<\/a> where most of IoT systems provide a dynamic and interactive environment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-103\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-103\">[103]<\/a><\/sup> Training an agent (i.e., IoT device) to behave smartly in such an environment cannot be addressed by conventional machine learning algorithms such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">supervised learning<\/a>. By reinforcement learning approach, a learning agent can sense the environment\u2019s state (e.g., sensing home temperature), perform actions (e.g., turn <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HVAC\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HVAC\" data-key=\"3d741b93dae8ed0fb94c542d5a3ec5fc\">HVAC<\/a> on or off) and learn through the maximizing accumulated rewards it receives in long term.\n<\/p><p>IoT intelligence can be offered at three levels: IoT devices, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fog_computing\" title=\"Fog computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb77d1158b6f7affcb45b7c8ec4aabfd\">Edge\/Fog nodes<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b28cb3c1977d5c04401506e9b991f1\">Cloud computing<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-deep_learning_iot_104-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-deep_learning_iot-104\">[104]<\/a><\/sup> The need for intelligent control and decision at each level depends on the time sensitiveness of the IoT application. For example, an autonomous vehicle's camera needs to make real-time obstacle detection to avoid an accident. This fast decision making would not be possible through transferring data from the vehicle to cloud instances and return the predictions back to the vehicle. Instead, all the operation should be performed locally in the vehicle. Integrating advanced machine learning algorithms including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">deep learning<\/a> into IoT devices is an active research area to make smart objects closer to reality. Moreover, it is possible to get the most value out of IoT deployments through analyzing IoT data, extracting hidden information, and predicting control decisions. A wide variety of machine learning techniques have been used in IoT domain ranging from traditional methods such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/regression\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:regression\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">regression<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Support_vector_machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Support vector machine\" data-key=\"01aa5bcb5f310503db0370be4d7dde0c\">support vector machine<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Random_forest\" title=\"Random forest\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7498be71bed6e2fdcf84fe40492498aa\">random forest<\/a> to advanced ones such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Convolutional_neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Convolutional neural networks\" data-key=\"6d0e638aea3a0244190acd3ee51b1d95\">convolutional neural networks<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LSTM\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LSTM\" data-key=\"ab7e9738be61aa9f7a677605fa340ca0\">LSTM<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autoencoder\" title=\"Autoencoder\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0b18c427d5281fd5736ceb757f8273d\">variational autoencoder<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-105\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-105\">[105]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-deep_learning_iot_104-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-deep_learning_iot-104\">[104]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the future, the Internet of Things may be a non-deterministic and open network in which auto-organized or intelligent entities (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_service\" title=\"Web service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e72dffc79d570a758fb072280ae0ca6e\">web services<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Service-oriented_architecture\" title=\"Service-oriented architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baeda155bcadf284dc1b57450100a5e3\">SOA<\/a> components) and virtual objects (avatars) will be interoperable and able to act independently (pursuing their own objectives or shared ones) depending on the context, circumstances or environments. Autonomous behavior through the collection and reasoning of context information as well as the object's ability to detect changes in the environment (faults affecting sensors) and introduce suitable mitigation measures constitutes a major research trend,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Alippi2014_106-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Alippi2014-106\">[106]<\/a><\/sup> clearly needed to provide credibility to the IoT technology. Modern IoT products and solutions in the marketplace use a variety of different technologies to support such context-aware automation, but more sophisticated forms of intelligence are requested to permit sensor units and intelligent cyber-physical systems to be deployed in real environments.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DelicatoSmart18_107-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DelicatoSmart18-107\">[107]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Architecture\">Architecture<\/span><\/h3>\n\n<p>IoT system architecture, in its simplistic view, consists of three tiers: Tier 1: Devices, Tier 2: the Edge Gateway, and Tier 3: the Cloud.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:4_108-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:4-108\">[108]<\/a><\/sup> Devices include networked things, such as the sensors and actuators found in IIoT equipment, particularly those that use protocols such as Modbus, Zigbee, or proprietary protocols, to connect to an Edge Gateway.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:4_108-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:4-108\">[108]<\/a><\/sup> The Edge Gateway consists of sensor data aggregation systems called Edge Gateways that provide functionality, such as pre-processing of the data, securing connectivity to cloud, using systems such as WebSockets, the event hub, and, even in some cases, edge analytics or fog computing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:4_108-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:4-108\">[108]<\/a><\/sup> The final tier includes the cloud application built for IIoT using the microservices architecture, which are usually polyglot and inherently secure in nature using HTTPS\/OAuth. It includes various database systems that store sensor data, such as time series databases or asset stores using backend data storage systems (e.g. Cassandra, Postgres).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:4_108-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:4-108\">[108]<\/a><\/sup> The cloud tier in most cloud-based IoT system features event queuing and messaging system that handles communication that transpires in all tiers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-109\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-109\">[109]<\/a><\/sup> Some experts classified the three-tiers in the IIoT system as edge, platform, and enterprise and these are connected by proximity network, access network, and service network, respectively.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-110\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-110\">[110]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Building on the Internet of things, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_of_things\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Web of things\" data-key=\"450e0000f06a6fb6b95672e8d10dd3bc\">web of things<\/a> is an architecture for the application layer of the Internet of things looking at the convergence of data from IoT devices into Web applications to create innovative use-cases. In order to program and control the flow of information in the Internet of things, a predicted architectural direction is being called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BPM_Everywhere\" title=\"BPM Everywhere\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13a4267959f6e54d1eee75e18c34537b\">BPM Everywhere<\/a> which is a blending of traditional process management with process mining and special capabilities to automate the control of large numbers of coordinated devices.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Network_architecture\">Network architecture<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The Internet of things requires huge scalability in the network space to handle the surge of devices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-111\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-111\">[111]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/6LoWPAN\" title=\"6LoWPAN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa918c5652c20ca8ce9ffbc3199a6dd3\">IETF 6LoWPAN<\/a> would be used to connect devices to IP networks. With billions of devices<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gartner_112-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gartner-112\">[112]<\/a><\/sup> being added to the Internet space, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPv6\" title=\"IPv6\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a35e02a1d40523ed05508841dd1c899\">IPv6<\/a> will play a major role in handling the network layer scalability. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Constrained_Application_Protocol\" title=\"Constrained Application Protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4a7d5f5c822004cccd45a137e8b0b9c7\">IETF's Constrained Application Protocol<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%C3%98MQ\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"\u00d8MQ\" data-key=\"0cb8b93533118c608af2b6b20f9ecd41\">ZeroMQ<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MQTT\" title=\"MQTT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23fed2584b31b893189873d1f33dcec2\">MQTT<\/a> would provide lightweight data transport.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fog_computing\" title=\"Fog computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb77d1158b6f7affcb45b7c8ec4aabfd\">Fog computing<\/a> is a viable alternative to prevent such large burst of data flow through Internet.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MIST_113-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MIST-113\">[113]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edge_device\" title=\"Edge device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1a87bbf4768211ea4879c4c4afec180\">edge devices<\/a>' computation power can be used to analyse and process data, thus providing easy real time scalability.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Complexity\">Complexity<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In semi-open or closed loops (i.e. value chains, whenever a global finality can be settled) the IoT will often be considered and studied as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Complex_system\" title=\"Complex system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7e79c15750dd2c2f671ee141706c158b\">complex system<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gautier_2011_114-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gautier_2011-114\">[114]<\/a><\/sup> due to the huge number of different links, interactions between autonomous actors, and its capacity to integrate new actors. At the overall stage (full open loop) it will likely be seen as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chaos_theory\" title=\"Chaos theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"551b2ad06dcbdb5b88913b98a62c6f37\">chaotic<\/a> environment (since <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System\" title=\"System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca080f9487afe3b315fe16a2d522534\">systems<\/a> always have finality).\nAs a practical approach, not all elements in the Internet of things run in a global, public space. Subsystems are often implemented to mitigate the risks of privacy, control and reliability. For example, domestic robotics (domotics) running inside a smart home might only share data within and be available via a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local_area_network\" title=\"Local area network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27704f795ba72a77fd1013022ee668e5\">local network<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MargineanSDOMO16_115-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MargineanSDOMO16-115\">[115]<\/a><\/sup> Managing and controlling a high dynamic ad hoc IoT things\/devices network is a tough task with the traditional networks architecture, Software Defined Networking (SDN) provides the agile dynamic solution that can cope with the special requirements of the diversity of innovative IoT applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-116\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-116\">[116]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Size_considerations\">Size considerations<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The Internet of things would encode 50 to 100 trillion objects, and be able to follow the movement of those objects. Human beings in surveyed urban environments are each surrounded by 1000 to 5000 trackable objects.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Waldner,_2007_117-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Waldner,_2007-117\">[117]<\/a><\/sup> In 2015 there were already 83 million smart devices in people's homes. This number is about to grow up to 193 million devices in 2020 and will for sure go on growing in the near future.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-businessinsider.com_28-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-businessinsider.com-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The figure of online capable devices grew 31% from 2016 to 8.4 billion in 2017.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-faz.net_100-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-faz.net-100\">[100]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Space_considerations\">Space considerations<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the Internet of things, the precise geographic location of a thing\u2014and also the precise geographic dimensions of a thing\u2014will be critical.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-118\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-118\">[118]<\/a><\/sup> Therefore, facts about a thing, such as its location in time and space, have been less critical to track because the person processing the information can decide whether or not that information was important to the action being taken, and if so, add the missing information (or decide to not take the action). (Note that some things in the Internet of things will be sensors, and sensor location is usually important.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-119\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-119\">[119]<\/a><\/sup>) The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GeoWeb\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GeoWeb\" data-key=\"b72ce2694bf98410f15dc26b4ba7750d\">GeoWeb<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Earth\" title=\"Digital Earth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7677fc161af2235eb3899c044de156a0\">Digital Earth<\/a> are promising applications that become possible when things can become organized and connected by location. However, the challenges that remain include the constraints of variable spatial scales, the need to handle massive amounts of data, and an indexing for fast search and neighbor operations. In the Internet of things, if things are able to take actions on their own initiative, this human-centric mediation role is eliminated. Thus, the time-space context that we as humans take for granted must be given a central role in this information ecosystem. Just as standards play a key role in the Internet and the Web, geospatial standards will play a key role in the Internet of things.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MinteerAnalytics17_120-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MinteerAnalytics17-120\">[120]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-vanderZeeSpatial14_121-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-vanderZeeSpatial14-121\">[121]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-A_solution_to_.22basket_of_remotes.22\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"A_solution_to_"basket_of_remotes"\">A solution to \"basket of remotes\"<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Many IoT devices have a potential to take a piece of this market. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jean-Louis_Gass%C3%A9e\" title=\"Jean-Louis Gass\u00e9e\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"161f62023438d43de408f62839ba52f6\">Jean-Louis Gass\u00e9e<\/a> (Apple initial alumni team, and BeOS co-founder) has addressed this topic in an article on <i>Monday Note<\/i>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gass\u00e9eInternet14_122-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gass\u00e9eInternet14-122\">[122]<\/a><\/sup> where he predicts that the most likely problem will be what he calls the \"basket of remotes\" problem, where we'll have hundreds of applications to interface with hundreds of devices that don't share protocols for speaking with one another.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gass\u00e9eInternet14_122-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gass\u00e9eInternet14-122\">[122]<\/a><\/sup> For improved user interaction, some technology leaders are joining forces to create standards for communication between devices to solve this problem. Others are turning to the concept of predictive interaction of devices, \"where collected data is used to predict and trigger actions on the specific devices\" while making them work together.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-deSousaInternet2015_123-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-deSousaInternet2015-123\">[123]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Enabling_technologies_for_IoT\">Enabling technologies for IoT<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>There are many technologies that enable the IoT. Crucial to the field is the network used to communicate between devices of an IoT installation, a role that several wireless or wired technologies may fulfill:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-124\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-124\">[124]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-125\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-125\">[125]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-126\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-126\">[126]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Addressability\">Addressability<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The original idea of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Auto-ID_Labs\" title=\"Auto-ID Labs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0eafacffdd9b53167f00c1a0e000fc7b\">Auto-ID Center<\/a> is based on RFID-tags and distinct identification through the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Product_Code\" title=\"Electronic Product Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17be47ef327b1384a6cd55eef37eee1a\">Electronic Product Code<\/a>. This has evolved into objects having an IP address or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uniform_resource_identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Uniform resource identifier\" data-key=\"34b2d6ed74c70bab0ae2e65a4462ff22\">URI<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HassanInternet18_127-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HassanInternet18-127\">[127]<\/a><\/sup> An alternative view, from the world of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_Web\" title=\"Semantic Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9ae7ad3bff2f083332c721eff5ad88f\">Semantic Web<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Brickley_et_al,_2001_128-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Brickley_et_al,_2001-128\">[128]<\/a><\/sup> focuses instead on making all things (not just those electronic, smart, or RFID-enabled) addressable by the existing naming protocols, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/URI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"URI\" data-key=\"217882730d64427fbcde84aab153feeb\">URI<\/a>. The objects themselves do not converse, but they may now be referred to by other agents, such as powerful centralized servers acting for their human owners.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShengManaging17_129-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShengManaging17-129\">[129]<\/a><\/sup> Integration with the Internet implies that devices will use an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IP_address\" title=\"IP address\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40883980a0cbe2c89a23dfaa0ca04d81\">IP address<\/a> as a distinct identifier. Due to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPv4_address_exhaustion\" title=\"IPv4 address exhaustion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fde49130a454b2f0d1943236f4708f72\">limited address space<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPv4\" title=\"IPv4\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8bfa919f638d986fec99b30f46916c5\">IPv4<\/a> (which allows for 4.3 billion different addresses), objects in the IoT will have to use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPv6\" title=\"IPv6\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a35e02a1d40523ed05508841dd1c899\">the next generation<\/a> of the Internet protocol (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPv6\" title=\"IPv6\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a35e02a1d40523ed05508841dd1c899\">IPv6<\/a>) to scale to the extremely large address space required.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Waldner,_2008_130-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Waldner,_2008-130\">[130]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6LoWPAN_131-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6LoWPAN-131\">[131]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-computerworld.com_132-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-computerworld.com-132\">[132]<\/a><\/sup>\nInternet-of-things devices additionally will benefit from the stateless address auto-configuration present in IPv6,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IPv6-autoconfiguration_133-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IPv6-autoconfiguration-133\">[133]<\/a><\/sup> as it reduces the configuration overhead on the hosts,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6LoWPAN_131-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6LoWPAN-131\">[131]<\/a><\/sup> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/6LoWPAN\" title=\"6LoWPAN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa918c5652c20ca8ce9ffbc3199a6dd3\">IETF 6LoWPAN<\/a> header compression. To a large extent, the future of the Internet of things will not be possible without the support of IPv6; and consequently, the global adoption of IPv6 in the coming years will be critical for the successful development of the IoT in the future.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-computerworld.com_132-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-computerworld.com-132\">[132]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Short-range_wireless\">Short-range wireless<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bluetooth_mesh_networking\" title=\"Bluetooth mesh networking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b372b48c0d94d05d380ab2614ec31ad\">Bluetooth mesh networking<\/a> \u2013 Specification providing a mesh networking variant to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bluetooth_low_energy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bluetooth low energy\" data-key=\"a4af3b155bbebde0981e8fc9f004f8ec\">Bluetooth low energy<\/a> (BLE) with increased number of nodes and standardized application layer (Models).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Li-Fi\" title=\"Li-Fi\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2b7a6b6ea715a88211cab433d4c3089\">Light-Fidelity<\/a> (Li-Fi) \u2013 Wireless communication technology similar to the Wi-Fi standard, but using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visible_light_communication\" title=\"Visible light communication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79d918e0cba148b420dbcc16b2c17a74\">visible light communication<\/a> for increased bandwidth.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Near_field_communication\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Near field communication\" data-key=\"430745a804666795d54a9bd175a2bbc3\">Near-field communication<\/a> (NFC) \u2013 Communication protocols enabling two electronic devices to communicate within a 4 cm range.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radio-frequency_identification\" title=\"Radio-frequency identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142e22fc78bf4acc0c1806ea4d00e395\">Radio-frequency identification<\/a> (RFID) \u2013 Technology using electromagnetic fields to read data stored in tags embedded in other items.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wi-Fi\" title=\"Wi-Fi\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdb282d61ec9d86932b6b3179e79ecf1\">Wi-Fi<\/a> \u2013 technology for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local_area_network\" title=\"Local area network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27704f795ba72a77fd1013022ee668e5\">local area networking<\/a> based on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE_802.11\" title=\"IEEE 802.11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46cc88904bb8647228e030befd69591c\">IEEE 802.11<\/a> standard, where devices may communicate through a shared access point or directly between individual devices.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ZigBee\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ZigBee\" data-key=\"362649f573ab3a735b7ccfc274e280e7\">ZigBee<\/a> \u2013 Communication protocols for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_area_network\" title=\"Personal area network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78e8b337442f3d3920c7578bf5143004\">personal area networking<\/a> based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, providing low power consumption, low data rate, low cost, and high throughput.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Z-Wave\" title=\"Z-Wave\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe65d11f2e08f447df30d446e52a9723\">Z-Wave<\/a> - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wireless\" title=\"Wireless\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9138266dddc63e98db94acd5258362dc\">Wireless<\/a> communications protocol used primarily for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Home_automation\" title=\"Home automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57ae87ba9c509562151e6599939ab60\">home automation<\/a> and security applications<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Medium-range_wireless\">Medium-range wireless<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LTE_Advanced\" title=\"LTE Advanced\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"100bbbf7cadecef6722d87392c7ea6ed\">LTE-Advanced<\/a> \u2013 High-speed communication specification for mobile networks. Provides enhancements to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LTE_(telecommunication)\" title=\"LTE (telecommunication)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"745708dc51d839544ba2922df6f18c53\">LTE<\/a> standard with extended coverage, higher throughput, and lower latency.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Long-range_wireless\">Long-range wireless<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LPWAN\" title=\"LPWAN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14a1fc383b2b598727c83c7d3b93ce3d\">Low-power wide-area networking<\/a> (LPWAN) \u2013 Wireless networks designed to allow long-range communication at a low data rate, reducing power and cost for transmission. Available LPWAN technologies and protocols: LoRaWan, Sigfox, NB-IoT, Weightless.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Very-small-aperture_terminal\" title=\"Very-small-aperture terminal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d54206de9b90854e5642c23c1dab6de3\">Very small aperture terminal<\/a> (VSAT) \u2013 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Satellite\" title=\"Satellite\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c7daf92a6c446a989a06b6d0441e06f\">Satellite<\/a> communication technology using small <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parabolic_antenna\" title=\"Parabolic antenna\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c1b768a09a4f32f63711a65abce15cdc\">dish antennas<\/a> for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Narrowband\" title=\"Narrowband\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"598f0a5fbeb2e18d8cf0845810d23b4b\">narrowband<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Broadband\" title=\"Broadband\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02f0478e839b93cf07e72c149222d17f\">broadband<\/a> data.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Wired\">Wired<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethernet\" title=\"Ethernet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8604e2ab3dc54bee1192999e4cf7d867\">Ethernet<\/a> \u2013 General purpose networking standard using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Twisted_pair\" title=\"Twisted pair\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14fd6f656d18e99f24cccfda3a28dfa4\">twisted pair<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_fiber\" title=\"Optical fiber\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed64becdbcfcc0c032bf470f3914ae63\">fiber optic<\/a> links in conjunction with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethernet_hub\" title=\"Ethernet hub\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57fc00204e4f5082eba7844e2d7af1fb\">hubs<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethernet_switch\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ethernet switch\" data-key=\"d24e9760e05459535c1055c734f46372\">switches<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Power-line_communication\" title=\"Power-line communication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"befdcbf1212b286ab1b7fd0ed319fc26\">Power-line communication<\/a> (PLC) \u2013 Communication technology using electrical wiring to carry power and data. Specifications such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HomePlug\" title=\"HomePlug\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f05b708537629b2c23e1fd670a2376c2\">HomePlug<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/G.hn\" title=\"G.hn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47f628c02e510aecefa4c3d64ea0d6ab\">G.hn<\/a> utilize PLC for networking IoT devices.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standards_and_standards_organizations\">Standards and standards organizations<\/span><\/h3>\n\n<p>This is a list of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technical_standard\" title=\"Technical standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"236f27b5a7367b86d988d1a879dbd6e6\">technical standards<\/a> for the IoT, most of which are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_standard\" title=\"Open standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05251d14a661a056ff2be85a187bcdbb\">open standards<\/a>, and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Standards_organization\" title=\"Standards organization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f6cd7fd2123c2b3c872d20cf00c1b01\">standards organizations<\/a> that aspire to successfully setting them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JingResearch12_134-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JingResearch12-134\">[134]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MahmoodConnected18_135-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MahmoodConnected18-135\">[135]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable sortable\" border=\"1\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th scope=\"col\" style=\"width: 15%;\">Short name\n<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\" style=\"width: 30%;\">Long name\n<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\" style=\"width: 30%;\">Standards under development\n<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\" style=\"width: 25%;\">Other notes\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Auto-ID_Labs\" title=\"Auto-ID Labs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0eafacffdd9b53167f00c1a0e000fc7b\">Auto-ID Labs<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Auto Identification Center<\/td>\n<td>Networked <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radiofrequency_identification\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Radiofrequency identification\" data-key=\"c9329072c3a393ea40b4703a41b8a087\">RFID<\/a> (radiofrequency identification) and emerging <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sensor\" title=\"Sensor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f309353c1f8a54286958707160bba6d\">sensing<\/a> technologies<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EPCglobal\" title=\"EPCglobal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"87a50279148614f99a37caf4bbfdf421\">EPCglobal<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Electronic Product code Technology<\/td>\n<td>Standards for adoption of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Product_Code\" title=\"Electronic Product Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17be47ef327b1384a6cd55eef37eee1a\">EPC<\/a> (Electronic Product Code) technology<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">FDA<\/a><\/td>\n<td>U.S. Food and Drug Administration<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unique_Device_Identification\" title=\"Unique Device Identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74a989beeda1a6763155ff29b3eb210e\">UDI<\/a> (Unique Device Identification) system for distinct identifiers for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_device\" title=\"Medical device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7e69f7ffce562c468cf167b4e8baa38\">medical devices<\/a><\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1\" title=\"GS1\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55f7c1df51e52b385a4231dbcd9c48e1\">GS1<\/a><\/td>\n<td>\u2014<\/td>\n<td>Standards for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unique_identifier\" title=\"Unique identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6397ca724da267fa8a2e201d8342fb2\">UIDs<\/a> (\"unique\" identifiers) and RFID of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fast-moving_consumer_goods\" title=\"Fast-moving consumer goods\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a371f20ac4dc9cdc7e5978ca434b93b9\">fast-moving consumer goods<\/a> (consumer packaged goods), health care supplies, and other things<\/td>\n<td>Parent organization comprises member organizations such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GS1_US\" title=\"GS1 US\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03a342b81eeb0a5956ea1b989f2bae46\">GS1 US<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers\" title=\"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f59f91778922e317c3722d620206111b\">IEEE<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers<\/td>\n<td>Underlying communication technology standards such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE_802.15.4\" title=\"IEEE 802.15.4\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0120f1f4f16a97798eb67a4f2d89f57\">IEEE 802.15.4<\/a><\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force\" title=\"Internet Engineering Task Force\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88d05b50307366450526102068246161\">IETF<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Internet Engineering Task Force<\/td>\n<td>Standards that comprise <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_protocol_suite\" title=\"Internet protocol suite\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a0e6b6ef689177f389dc4aac28dcb90\">TCP\/IP<\/a> (the Internet protocol suite)<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>MTConnect Institute<\/td>\n<td>\u2014<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MTConnect\" title=\"MTConnect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b5d3e8400420ede9edd1f05501378a5\">MTConnect<\/a> is a manufacturing industry standard for data exchange with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_tool\" title=\"Machine tool\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e465701a2a0775f91cdf2374374f3863\">machine tools<\/a> and related industrial equipment. It is important to the IIoT subset of the IoT.<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Open Data Format<\/td>\n<td>O-DF is a standard published by the Internet of Things Work Group of The Open Group in 2014, which specifies a generic information model structure that is meant to be applicable for describing any \"Thing\", as well as for publishing, updating and querying information when used together with (Open Messaging Interface).<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td>Open Messaging Interface<\/td>\n<td>O-MI is a standard published by the Internet of Things Work Group of The Open Group in 2014, which specifies a limited set of key operations needed in IoT systems, notably different kinds of subscription mechanisms based on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Observer_pattern\" title=\"Observer pattern\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17cd70d236156aee57b6ebdfc2143764\">Observer pattern<\/a>.<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_Connectivity_Foundation\" title=\"Open Connectivity Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c88f5597375d64782cad39fb79a3f5a\">OCF<\/a><\/td>\n<td>Open Connectivity Foundation<\/td>\n<td>Standards for simple devices using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Constrained_Application_Protocol\" title=\"Constrained Application Protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4a7d5f5c822004cccd45a137e8b0b9c7\">CoAP<\/a> (Constrained Application Protocol)<\/td>\n<td>OCF (Open Connectivity Foundation) supersedes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_Interconnect_Consortium\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Open Interconnect Consortium\" data-key=\"452927b0aa4d94a13e57c4b096545b7e\">OIC<\/a> (Open Interconnect Consortium)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_Mobile_Alliance\" title=\"Open Mobile Alliance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d274cf642dce662d4e16f631fd35a43\">OMA<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>Open Mobile Alliance\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OMA_DM\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OMA DM\" data-key=\"c198d1327d33ee54cbb8b950ba3f8e68\">OMA DM<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OMA_LWM2M\" title=\"OMA LWM2M\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aaea314c58690c961d5e9cb8d8e24a9e\">OMA LWM2M<\/a> for IoT device management, as well as GotAPI, which provides a secure framework for IoT applications\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XMPP_Standards_Foundation\" title=\"XMPP Standards Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da2389212726475c8c24195db05a5073\">XSF<\/a><\/td>\n<td>XMPP Standards Foundation<\/td>\n<td>Protocol extensions of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XMPP\" title=\"XMPP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcd51af5c8681d0b7fc159a0e6502c67\">XMPP<\/a> (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol), the open standard of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Instant_messaging\" title=\"Instant messaging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d4d94e28454df237e19617998f09bf3\">instant messaging<\/a><\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<ul><li class=\"mw-empty-elt\"><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Politics_and_civic_engagement\">Politics and civic engagement<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Some scholars and activists argue that the IoT can be used to create new models of civic engagement if device networks can be open to user control and inter-operable platforms. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philip_N._Howard\" title=\"Philip N. Howard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e45f91c168eaead1ae46b05e0281f0b\">Philip N. Howard<\/a>, a professor and author, writes that political life in both democracies and authoritarian regimes will be shaped by the way the IoT will be used for civic engagement. For that to happen, he argues that any connected device should be able to divulge a list of the \"ultimate beneficiaries\" of its sensor data and that individual citizens should be able to add new organizations to the beneficiary list. In addition, he argues that civil society groups need to start developing their IoT strategy for making use of data and engaging with the public.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-136\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-136\">[136]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Government_regulation_on_IoT\">Government regulation on IoT<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>One of the key drivers of the IoT is data. The success of the idea of connecting devices to make them more efficient is dependent upon access to and storage & processing of data. For this purpose, companies working on the IoT collect data from multiple sources and store it in their cloud network for further processing. This leaves the door wide open for privacy and security dangers and single point vulnerability of multiple systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-137\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-137\">[137]<\/a><\/sup> The other issues pertain to consumer choice and ownership of data<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-138\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-138\">[138]<\/a><\/sup> and how it is used. Though still in their infancy, regulations and governance regarding these issues of privacy, security, and data ownership continue to develop.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WeberInternet10_139-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WeberInternet10-139\">[139]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HassanInternet18-2_140-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HassanInternet18-2-140\">[140]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HassanInternet17_141-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HassanInternet17-141\">[141]<\/a><\/sup> IoT regulation depends on the country. Some examples of legislation that is relevant to privacy and data collection are: the US Privacy Act of 1974, OECD Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Personal Data of 1980, and the EU Directive 95\/46\/EC of 1995.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-142\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-142\">[142]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Current regulatory environment:\n<\/p><p>A report published by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Trade_Commission\" title=\"Federal Trade Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33171fd8a02cab952ca3335ce510d273\">Federal Trade Commission<\/a> (FTC) in January 2015 made the following three recommendations:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-143\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-143\">[143]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_security\" title=\"Data security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7e9e5ee008f52b19272642e6cf8fb9\">Data security<\/a> \u2013 At the time of designing IoT companies should ensure that data collection, storage and processing would be secure at all times. Companies should adopt a \"defence in depth\" approach and encrypt data at each stage.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-144\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-144\">[144]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Data consent \u2013 users should have a choice as to what data they share with IoT companies and the users must be informed if their data gets exposed.<\/li>\n<li>Data minimization \u2013 IoT companies should collect only the data they need and retain the collected information only for a limited time.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>However, the FTC stopped at just making recommendations for now. According to an FTC analysis, the existing framework, consisting of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FTC_Act\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"FTC Act\" data-key=\"097171c822d3edb93b101e88a4f52afd\">FTC Act<\/a>, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fair_Credit_Reporting_Act\" title=\"Fair Credit Reporting Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0f010b6b8a28b8bfa5ed2ee1dc67ee6\">Fair Credit Reporting Act<\/a>, and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Children%27s_Online_Privacy_Protection_Act\" title=\"Children's Online Privacy Protection Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3770257b7469e88248e1903211add84\">Children's Online Privacy Protection Act<\/a>, along with developing consumer education and business guidance, participation in multi-stakeholder efforts and advocacy to other agencies at the federal, state and local level, is sufficient to protect consumer rights.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-145\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-145\">[145]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A resolution passed by the Senate in March 2015, is already being considered by the Congress.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-146\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-146\">[146]<\/a><\/sup> This resolution recognized the need for formulating a National Policy on IoT and the matter of privacy, security and spectrum. Furthermore, to provide an impetus to the IoT ecosystem, in March 2016, a bipartisan group of four Senators proposed a bill, The Developing Innovation and Growing the Internet of Things (DIGIT) Act, to direct the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Communications_Commission\" title=\"Federal Communications Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea7282cb6b52e3ce58faf3954ca2141b\">Federal Communications Commission<\/a> to assess the need for more spectrum to connect IoT devices.\n<\/p><p>Several standards for the IoT industry are actually being established relating to automobiles because most concerns arising from use of connected cars apply to healthcare devices as well. In fact, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Highway_Traffic_Safety_Administration\" title=\"National Highway Traffic Safety Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7916a0925dd11eff1e86f056bc318c28\">National Highway Traffic Safety Administration<\/a> (NHTSA) is preparing cybersecurity guidelines and a database of best practices to make automotive computer systems more secure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-147\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-147\">[147]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A recent report from the World Bank examines the challenges and opportunities in government adoption of IoT.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-148\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-148\">[148]<\/a><\/sup> These include \u2013\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Still early days for the IoT in government <\/li>\n<li>Underdeveloped policy and regulatory frameworks <\/li>\n<li>Unclear business models, despite strong value proposition <\/li>\n<li>Clear institutional and capacity gap in government AND the private sector <\/li>\n<li>Inconsistent data valuation and management <\/li>\n<li>Infrastructure a major barrier <\/li>\n<li>Government as an enabler <\/li>\n<li>Most successful pilots share common characteristics (public-private partnership, local, leadership)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Criticism_and_controversies\">Criticism and controversies<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Platform_fragmentation\">Platform fragmentation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The IoT suffers from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Platform_fragmentation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Platform fragmentation\" data-key=\"0532bfb31d22bc32db76b5ec69221e9e\">platform fragmentation<\/a> and lack of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technical_standard\" title=\"Technical standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"236f27b5a7367b86d988d1a879dbd6e6\">technical standards<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-149\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-149\">[149]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-150\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-150\">[150]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-151\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-151\">[151]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-152\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-152\">[152]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-153\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-153\">[153]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-154\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-154\">[154]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-155\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-155\">[155]<\/a><\/sup> a situation where the variety of IoT devices, in terms of both hardware variations and differences in the software running on them, makes the task of developing applications that work consistently between different inconsistent technology <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecosystem\" title=\"Ecosystem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1039e556849de8f2a26580ff6d9403c9\">ecosystems<\/a> hard.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Linux_Things_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Linux_Things-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> For example, wireless connectivity for IoT devices can be done using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bluetooth\" title=\"Bluetooth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf7b2ce888d74d287b869156ab12eee2\">Bluetooth<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zigbee\" title=\"Zigbee\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"788276f558b433337f033441ef0e609a\">Zigbee<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Z-Wave\" title=\"Z-Wave\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe65d11f2e08f447df30d446e52a9723\">Z-Wave<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LoRa\" title=\"LoRa\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c980ede50cc44a39c647f1b81d56661\">LoRa<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Narrowband_IoT\" title=\"Narrowband IoT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f98e07fe6bf84a7aaecb3818b21c5419\">NB-IoT<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cat-M1\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cat-M1\" data-key=\"e821281e5b08e8034831624c23d1c77f\">Cat M1<\/a> as well as completely custom proprietary radios, each with its own advantages and disadvantages, creating a separate ecosystem for IoT devices<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-156\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-156\">[156]<\/a><\/sup>. Customers may be hesitant to bet their IoT future on a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proprietary_software\" title=\"Proprietary software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5eed10213068e32a88a812799ed69c58\">proprietary software<\/a> or hardware devices that uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proprietary_protocol\" title=\"Proprietary protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a792a0a653ca90f2a931d891004c34a\">proprietary protocols<\/a> that may fade or become difficult to customize and interconnect.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Linux_21OSP_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Linux_21OSP-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The IoT's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amorphous_computing\" title=\"Amorphous computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdb6ec3db563ee8d283c9cd9751e3719\">amorphous computing<\/a> nature is also a problem for security, since patches to bugs found in the core operating system often do not reach users of older and lower-price devices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-157\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-157\">[157]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Goodbye,_Android_158-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Goodbye,_Android-158\">[158]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-159\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-159\">[159]<\/a><\/sup> One set of researchers say that the failure of vendors to support older devices with patches and updates leaves more than 87% of active Android devices vulnerable.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-160\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-160\">[160]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-161\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-161\">[161]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Privacy.2C_autonomy.2C_and_control\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Privacy,_autonomy,_and_control\">Privacy, autonomy, and control<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philip_N._Howard\" title=\"Philip N. Howard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e45f91c168eaead1ae46b05e0281f0b\">Philip N. Howard<\/a>, a professor and author, writes that the Internet of things offers immense potential for empowering citizens, making government transparent, and broadening information access. Howard cautions, however, that privacy threats are enormous, as is the potential for social control and political manipulation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-162\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-162\">[162]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Concerns about privacy have led many to consider the possibility that big data infrastructures such as the Internet of things and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a> are inherently incompatible with privacy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-163\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-163\">[163]<\/a><\/sup> Writer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adam_Greenfield\" title=\"Adam Greenfield\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa1f6a9f06f3e67909aa6427e6023e02\">Adam Greenfield<\/a> claims that these technologies are not only an invasion of public space but are also being used to perpetuate normative behavior, citing an instance of billboards with hidden cameras that tracked the demographics of passersby who stopped to read the advertisement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-164\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-164\">[164]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The Internet of Things Council compared the increased prevalence of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surveillance\" title=\"Surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b2e3ae2beab3ec421b301bf765e28f8\">digital surveillance<\/a> due to the Internet of things to the conceptual <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Panopticon\" title=\"Panopticon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52319240f56a5b6a0c0f5dc8ca573763\">panopticon<\/a> described by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jeremy_Bentham\" title=\"Jeremy Bentham\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f0adb43c918c75831869c2cc511ef0c\">Jeremy Bentham<\/a> in the 18th Century.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-165\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-165\">[165]<\/a><\/sup> The assertion was defended by the works of French philosophers <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michel_Foucault\" title=\"Michel Foucault\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8dc21bc6202acdfbf43d2c55064a627\">Michel Foucault<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gilles_Deleuze\" title=\"Gilles Deleuze\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a69042a12d3589740007e428718eee4\">Gilles Deleuze<\/a>. In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discipline_and_Punish\" title=\"Discipline and Punish\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66c2c90ed7265db44ca62cd27cfe4a8a\"><i>Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison<\/i><\/a> Foucault asserts that the panopticon was a central element of the discipline society developed during the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_Era\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Industrial Era\" data-key=\"ff7f90e893716840b38bbfb0e13d1f0e\">Industrial Era<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ccle.ucla.edu_166-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ccle.ucla.edu-166\">[166]<\/a><\/sup> Foucault also argued that the discipline systems established in factories and school reflected Bentham's vision of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Panopticism\" title=\"Panopticism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2656bc6ace644d9798c1d3427990b6cd\">panopticism<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ccle.ucla.edu_166-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ccle.ucla.edu-166\">[166]<\/a><\/sup> In his 1992 paper \"Postscripts on the Societies of Control,\" Deleuze wrote that the discipline society had transitioned into a control society, with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer\" title=\"Computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90ce149db23a6fc17d1d225fac611846\">computer<\/a> replacing the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Panopticon\" title=\"Panopticon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52319240f56a5b6a0c0f5dc8ca573763\">panopticon<\/a> as an instrument of discipline and control while still maintaining the qualities similar to that of panopticism.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-167\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-167\">[167]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The privacy of households could be compromised by solely analyzing smart home network traffic patterns without dissecting the contents of encrypted application data, yet a synthetic packet injection scheme can be used to safely overcome such invasion of privacy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-168\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-168\">[168]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter-Paul_Verbeek\" title=\"Peter-Paul Verbeek\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b9f72a5adf3123356a7a16b14a7455a\">Peter-Paul Verbeek<\/a>, a professor of philosophy of technology at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Twente\" title=\"University of Twente\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2326e5337d22990a0d16382315e54809\">University of Twente<\/a>, Netherlands, writes that technology already influences our moral decision making, which in turn affects human agency, privacy and autonomy. He cautions against viewing technology merely as a human tool and advocates instead to consider it as an active agent.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-169\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-169\">[169]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Justin Brookman, of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Center_for_Democracy_and_Technology\" title=\"Center for Democracy and Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f3521e12b2c7693f4931d03b1661c17\">Center for Democracy and Technology<\/a>, expressed concern regarding the impact of the IoT on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consumer_privacy\" title=\"Consumer privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4282e921f156822763d2de02727f339\">consumer privacy<\/a>, saying that \"There are some people in the commercial space who say, 'Oh, big data \u2014 well, let's collect everything, keep it around forever, we'll pay for somebody to think about security later.' The question is whether we want to have some sort of policy framework in place to limit that.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-170\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-170\">[170]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tim_O%27Reilly\" title=\"Tim O'Reilly\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1cd587637c2780390b97043b791760cd\">Tim O'Reilly<\/a> believes that the way companies sell the IoT devices on consumers are misplaced, disputing the notion that the IoT is about gaining efficiency from putting all kinds of devices online and postulating that the \"IoT is really about human augmentation. The applications are profoundly different when you have sensors and data driving the decision-making.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-171\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-171\">[171]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Editorials at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WIRED\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"WIRED\" data-key=\"183cd68776f226afff1d272825630829\">WIRED<\/a> have also expressed concern, one stating \"What you're about to lose is your privacy. Actually, it's worse than that. You aren't just going to lose your privacy, you're going to have to watch the very concept of privacy be rewritten under your nose.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-172\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-172\">[172]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/American_Civil_Liberties_Union\" title=\"American Civil Liberties Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7077328034ff770fa37dbb3811e8eaf8\">American Civil Liberties Union<\/a> (ACLU) expressed concern regarding the ability of IoT to erode people's control over their own lives. The ACLU wrote that \"There's simply no way to forecast how these immense powers \u2013 disproportionately accumulating in the hands of corporations seeking financial advantage and governments craving ever more control \u2013 will be used. Chances are big data and the Internet of things will make it harder for us to control our own lives, as we grow increasingly transparent to powerful corporations and government institutions that are becoming more opaque to us.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-173\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-173\">[173]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In response to rising concerns about privacy and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_Technologies\" title=\"Smart Technologies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ce64608da7f991a0cdf10c62acfc004\">smart technology<\/a>, in 2007 the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/British_Government\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"British Government\" data-key=\"a9a93778f52258cac7a92f433563291e\">British Government<\/a> stated it would follow formal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_by_Design\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Privacy by Design\" data-key=\"14e30e9db831d7aa8657dd4915ca43b4\">Privacy by Design<\/a> principles when implementing their smart metering program. The program would lead to replacement of traditional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electricity_Meter\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Electricity Meter\" data-key=\"c841b731b1ef685b588c3f245ff75857\">power meters<\/a> with smart power meters, which could track and manage energy usage more accurately.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-174\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-174\">[174]<\/a><\/sup> However the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/British_Computer_Society\" title=\"British Computer Society\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3925901e66a18bb2c39356cdc0614b2\">British Computer Society<\/a> is doubtful these principles were ever actually implemented.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bcs.org_175-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bcs.org-175\">[175]<\/a><\/sup> In 2009 the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dutch_Parliament\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dutch Parliament\" data-key=\"e87fff55a89c2aca23ee62a8d4208e34\">Dutch Parliament<\/a> rejected a similar smart metering program, basing their decision on privacy concerns. The Dutch program later revised and passed in 2011.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bcs.org_175-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bcs.org-175\">[175]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_storage\">Data storage<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A challenge for producers of IoT applications is to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_cleansing\" title=\"Data cleansing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"303f88729b9598a891be17e734e10ebf\">clean<\/a>, process and interpret the vast amount of data which is gathered by the sensors. There is a solution proposed for the analytics of the information referred to as Wireless Sensor Networks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_176-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-176\">[176]<\/a><\/sup> These networks share data among sensor nodes that are sent to a distributed system for the analytics of the sensory data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AcharjyaRecognizing17_177-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AcharjyaRecognizing17-177\">[177]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Another challenge is the storage of this bulk data. Depending on the application, there could be high data acquisition requirements, which in turn lead to high storage requirements. Currently the Internet is already responsible for 5% of the total energy generated,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_176-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-176\">[176]<\/a><\/sup> and a \"daunting challenge to power\" IoT devices to collect and even store data still remains.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HussainEnergy17_178-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HussainEnergy17-178\">[178]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security\">Security<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Concerns have been raised that the IoT is being developed rapidly without appropriate consideration of the profound security challenges involved<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-179\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-179\">[179]<\/a><\/sup> and the regulatory changes that might be necessary.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-forbes_180-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-forbes-180\">[180]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tinker_181-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tinker-181\">[181]<\/a><\/sup> Most of the technical security concerns are similar to those of conventional servers, workstations and smartphones, but security challenges unique to the IoT continue to develop, including industrial security controls, hybrid systems, IoT-specific business processes, and end nodes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LiSecuring17_182-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LiSecuring17-182\">[182]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Security is the biggest concern in adopting Internet of things technology.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-183\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-183\">[183]<\/a><\/sup> In particular, as the Internet of things spreads widely, cyber attacks are likely to become an increasingly physical (rather than simply virtual) threat.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-184\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-184\">[184]<\/a><\/sup> The current IoT space comes with numerous security vulnerabilities. These vulnerabilities include weak authentication (IoT devices are being used with default credentials), unencrypted messages sent between devices, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SQL_injection\" title=\"SQL injection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"241ac5083c3ddb380c01ac1166f0c108\">SQL injections<\/a> and lack of verification or encryption of software updates.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:5_185-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:5-185\">[185]<\/a><\/sup> This allows attackers to easily intercept data to collect PII (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personally_identifiable_information\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Personally identifiable information\" data-key=\"e4c271adb170f3060365fdae55299b88\">Personally Identifiable Information<\/a>), user credentials can be stolen at login or malware can be injected into newly updated firmware.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:5_185-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:5-185\">[185]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In a January 2014 article in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forbes\" title=\"Forbes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb3293e493bd0bf1a338c2e818d7d71f\">Forbes<\/a><\/i>, cyber-security columnist Joseph Steinberg listed many Internet-connected appliances that can already \"spy on people in their own homes\" including televisions, kitchen appliances,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-186\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-186\">[186]<\/a><\/sup> cameras, and thermostats.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-187\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-187\">[187]<\/a><\/sup> Computer-controlled devices in automobiles such as brakes, engine, locks, hood and trunk releases, horn, heat, and dashboard have been shown to be vulnerable to attackers who have access to the on-board network. In some cases, vehicle computer systems are Internet-connected, allowing them to be exploited remotely.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-188\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-188\">[188]<\/a><\/sup> For example, a hacker can gain unauthorized access to IoT devices due to their set-up; that is, because these devices are connected, Internet-enabled, and lack the necessary protective measures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-189\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-189\">[189]<\/a><\/sup> By 2008 security researchers had shown the ability to remotely control pacemakers without authority. Later hackers demonstrated remote control of insulin pumps<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-190\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-190\">[190]<\/a><\/sup> and implantable cardioverter defibrillators.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-191\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-191\">[191]<\/a><\/sup> Many of these IoT devices have severe operational limitations on their physical size and by extension the computational power available to them.  These constraints often make them unable to directly use basic security measures such as implementing firewalls or using strong cryptosystems to encrypt their communications with other devices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-192\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-192\">[192]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Intelligence_Council\" title=\"National Intelligence Council\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44545247aa01704ea42568a0c2411f28\">National Intelligence Council<\/a> in an unclassified report maintains that it would be hard to deny \"access to networks of sensors and remotely-controlled objects by enemies of the United States, criminals, and mischief makers... An open market for aggregated sensor data could serve the interests of commerce and security no less than it helps criminals and spies identify vulnerable targets. Thus, massively parallel <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sensor_fusion\" title=\"Sensor fusion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69febe3a5f77c9713946007fc1bb762\">sensor fusion<\/a> may undermine social cohesion, if it proves to be fundamentally incompatible with Fourth-Amendment guarantees against unreasonable search.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-193\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-193\">[193]<\/a><\/sup> In general, the intelligence community views the Internet of things as a rich source of data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-194\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-194\">[194]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2016, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_denial_of_service_attack\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Distributed denial of service attack\" data-key=\"096d6d24bcc6f89726e97956f20fa45f\">distributed denial of service attack<\/a> powered by Internet of things devices running the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mirai_(malware)\" title=\"Mirai (malware)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0560785d611f7bbd5ea1a3f5b30cc8e1\">Mirai<\/a> malware <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2016_Dyn_cyberattack\" title=\"2016 Dyn cyberattack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"11794005b923d045c5c5ce53e3ed8432\">took down a DNS provider and major web sites<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-195\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-195\">[195]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mirai_(malware)\" title=\"Mirai (malware)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0560785d611f7bbd5ea1a3f5b30cc8e1\">Mirai Botnet<\/a> had infected roughly 65,000 IoT devices within the first 20 hours.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_196-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-196\">[196]<\/a><\/sup> Eventually the infections increased to 200,000 to 300,000 infections.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_196-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-196\">[196]<\/a><\/sup> Brazil, Columbia and Vietnam made up of 41.5% of the infections.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_196-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-196\">[196]<\/a><\/sup> The Mirai Botnet had singled out specific IoT devices that consisted of DVRs, IP cameras, routers and printers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_196-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-196\">[196]<\/a><\/sup> Top vendors that contained the most infected devices were identified as Dahua, Huawei, ZTE, Cisco, ZyXEL and MikroTik<b>.<\/b><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_196-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-196\">[196]<\/a><\/sup> In May 2017, Junade Ali, a Computer Scientist at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloudflare\" title=\"Cloudflare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43c6f0a4d5fff10fc162df3122cd1437\">Cloudflare<\/a> noted that native DDoS vulnerabilities exist in IoT devices due to a poor implementation of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Publish%E2%80%93subscribe_pattern\" title=\"Publish\u2013subscribe pattern\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7e6d1dbf849a89e3c58978a884a3ba0\">Publish\u2013subscribe pattern<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-197\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-197\">[197]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-198\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-198\">[198]<\/a><\/sup> These sorts of attacks have caused security experts to view IoT as a real threat to Internet services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-199\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-199\">[199]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On 31 January 2019, the Washington Post wrote an article regarding the security and ethical challenges that can occur with IoT doorbells and cameras: \"Last month, Ring got caught allowing its team in Ukraine to view and annotate certain user videos; the company says it only looks at publicly shared videos and those from Ring owners who provide consent. Just last week, a California family\u2019s Nest camera let a hacker take over and broadcast fake audio warnings about a missile attack, not to mention peer in on them, when they used a weak password\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-200\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-200\">[200]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There have been a range of responses to concerns over security. The Internet of Things Security Foundation (IoTSF) was launched on 23 September 2015 with a mission to secure the Internet of things by promoting knowledge and best practice. Its founding board is made from technology providers and telecommunications companies. In addition, large IT companies are continuously developing innovative solutions to ensure the security for IoT devices. In 2017, Mozilla launched , which allows to route IoT devices through a safe Web of Things gateway.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-201\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-201\">[201]<\/a><\/sup> As per the estimates from KBV Research,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-202\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-202\">[202]<\/a><\/sup> the overall IoT security market<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-203\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-203\">[203]<\/a><\/sup> would grow at 27.9% rate during 2016\u20132022 as a result of growing infrastructural concerns and diversified usage of Internet of things.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-204\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-204\">[204]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-205\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-205\">[205]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Governmental regulation is argued by some to be necessary to secure IoT devices and the wider Internet \u2013 as market incentives to secure IoT devices is insufficient.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-206\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-206\">[206]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-forbes_180-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-forbes-180\">[180]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tinker_181-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tinker-181\">[181]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Safety\">Safety<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>IoT systems are typically controlled by event-driven smart apps that take as input either sensed data, user inputs, or other external triggers (from the Internet) and command one or more actuators towards providing different forms of automation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IoTSan_207-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IoTSan-207\">[207]<\/a><\/sup> Examples of sensors include smoke detectors, motion sensors, and contact sensors. Examples of actuators include smart locks, smart power outlets, and door controls. Popular control platforms on which third-party developers can build smart apps that interact wirelessly with these sensors and actuators include Samsung's SmartThings,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-208\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-208\">[208]<\/a><\/sup> Apple's HomeKit,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-209\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-209\">[209]<\/a><\/sup> and Amazon's Alexa,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-210\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-210\">[210]<\/a><\/sup> among others.\n<\/p><p>A problem specific to IoT systems is that buggy apps, unforeseen bad app interactions, or device\/communication failures, can cause unsafe and dangerous physical states, e.g., \"unlock the entrance door when no one is at home\" or \"turn off the heater when the temperature is below 0 degrees Celsius and people are sleeping at night\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IoTSan_207-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IoTSan-207\">[207]<\/a><\/sup> Detecting flaws that lead to such states, requires a holistic view of installed apps, component devices, their configurations, and more importantly, how they interact. Recently, researchers from the University of California Riverside have proposed IotSan, a novel practical system that uses model checking as a building block to reveal \"interaction-level\" flaws by identifying events that can lead the system to unsafe states.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IoTSan_207-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IoTSan-207\">[207]<\/a><\/sup> They have evaluated IotSan on the Samsung SmartThings platform. From 76 manually configured systems, IotSan detects 147 vulnerabilities (i.e., violations of safe physical states\/properties).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Design\">Design<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Given widespread recognition of the evolving nature of the design and management of the Internet of things, sustainable and secure deployment of IoT solutions must design for \"anarchic scalability.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FieldingArch00_211-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FieldingArch00-211\">[211]<\/a><\/sup> Application of the concept of anarchic scalability can be extended to physical systems (i.e. controlled real-world objects), by virtue of those systems being designed to account for uncertain management futures. This hard anarchic scalability thus provides a pathway forward to fully realize the potential of Internet-of-things solutions by selectively constraining physical systems to allow for all management regimes without risking physical failure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FieldingArch00_211-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FieldingArch00-211\">[211]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Brown University computer scientist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_Littman\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Michael Littman\" data-key=\"93d59066257593fb8ba6adae4aad0967\">Michael Littman<\/a> has argued that successful execution of the Internet of things requires consideration of the interface's usability as well as the technology itself. These interfaces need to be not only more user-friendly but also better integrated: \"If users need to learn different interfaces for their vacuums, their locks, their sprinklers, their lights, and their coffeemakers, it's tough to say that their lives have been made any easier.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-212\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-212\">[212]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Environmental_sustainability_impact\">Environmental sustainability impact<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A concern regarding Internet-of-things technologies pertains to the environmental impacts of the manufacture, use, and eventual disposal of all these semiconductor-rich devices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-The_Internet_of_Things_Could_Drown_Our_Environment_in_Gadgets_213-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-The_Internet_of_Things_Could_Drown_Our_Environment_in_Gadgets-213\">[213]<\/a><\/sup> Modern electronics are replete with a wide variety of heavy metals and rare-earth metals, as well as highly toxic synthetic chemicals. This makes them extremely difficult to properly recycle. Electronic components are often incinerated or placed in regular landfills. Furthermore, the human and environmental cost of mining the rare-earth metals that are integral to modern electronic components continues to grow. This leads to societal questions concerning the environmental impacts of IoT devices over its lifetime.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RowlandDesigning15_214-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RowlandDesigning15-214\">[214]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Intentional_obsolescence_of_devices\">Intentional obsolescence of devices<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation\" title=\"Electronic Frontier Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"448ef28a1a41cd9c59b4b7b93093d3fe\">Electronic Frontier Foundation<\/a> has raised concerns that companies can use the technologies necessary to support connected devices to intentionally disable or \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brick_(electronics)\" title=\"Brick (electronics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce0b108c0288d886fb84b00fad95941c\">brick<\/a>\" their customers' devices via a remote software update or by disabling a service necessary to the operation of the device. In one example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Home_automation\" title=\"Home automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57ae87ba9c509562151e6599939ab60\">home automation<\/a> devices sold with the promise of a \"Lifetime Subscription\" were rendered useless after <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nest_Labs\" title=\"Nest Labs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2212dd32323c349da16492ec003162bc\">Nest Labs<\/a> acquired Revolv and made the decision to shut down the central servers the Revolv devices had used to operate.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-215\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-215\">[215]<\/a><\/sup> As Nest is a company owned by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alphabet_Inc.\" title=\"Alphabet Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5df0c90b4321a3e75d3065190158e3e\">Alphabet<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google\" title=\"Google\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b915ee8daf11a90fecc2d0bd0513feb\">Google's<\/a> parent company), the EFF argues this sets a \"terrible precedent for a company with ambitions to sell self-driving cars, medical devices, and other high-end gadgets that may be essential to a person's livelihood or physical safety.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-effrem_216-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-effrem-216\">[216]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Owners should be free to point their devices to a different server or collaborate on improved software. But such action violates the United States <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act\" title=\"Digital Millennium Copyright Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9c36274935fab2f24fbbb4b95bc41ca\">DMCA<\/a> section 1201, which only has an exemption for \"local use\". This forces tinkerers who want to keep using their own equipment into a legal grey area. EFF thinks buyers should refuse electronics and software that prioritize the manufacturer's wishes above their own.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-effrem_216-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-effrem-216\">[216]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Examples of post-sale manipulations include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_mergers_and_acquisitions_by_Google\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"List of mergers and acquisitions by Google\" data-key=\"c2a3547bb5d968ccc9292b1d2cd89670\">Google Nest<\/a> Revolv, disabled privacy settings on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Android_(operating_system)\" title=\"Android (operating system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4367a4e67ff6009ca76098e827576ad\">Android<\/a>, Sony disabling <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linux\" title=\"Linux\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccfb1826b029961cb72ef84704ee2bcb\">Linux<\/a> on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PlayStation_3\" title=\"PlayStation 3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d2aa5e1bcd911d1a9439c95e64a50d7\">PlayStation 3<\/a>, enforced <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/End-user_license_agreement\" title=\"End-user license agreement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a32dcb97dc114c9d9747a269d43e225\">EULA<\/a> on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wii_U\" title=\"Wii U\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"883016f302350d80da0c511c0a59316f\">Wii U<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-effrem_216-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-effrem-216\">[216]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Confusing_terminology\">Confusing terminology<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Kevin Lonergan at Information Age, a business-technology magazine, has referred to the terms surrounding the IoT as a \"terminology zoo\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Vitesse_Media_Plc_217-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Vitesse_Media_Plc-217\">[217]<\/a><\/sup> The lack of clear terminology is not \"useful from a practical point of view\" and a \"source of confusion for the end user\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Vitesse_Media_Plc_217-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Vitesse_Media_Plc-217\">[217]<\/a><\/sup> A company operating in the IoT space could be working in anything related to sensor technology, networking, embedded systems, or analytics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Vitesse_Media_Plc_217-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Vitesse_Media_Plc-217\">[217]<\/a><\/sup> According to Lonergan, the term IoT was coined before smart phones, tablets, and devices as we know them today existed, and there is a long list of terms with varying degrees of overlap and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technological_convergence\" title=\"Technological convergence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"741d53e7e69effabedfb19ac892f6b06\">technological convergence<\/a>: Internet of things, Internet of everything (IoE), Internet of Goods (Supply Chain), industrial Internet, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pervasive_computing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Pervasive computing\" data-key=\"762dad63cf34e286aa8affa84c799907\">pervasive computing<\/a>, pervasive sensing, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ubiquitous_computing\" title=\"Ubiquitous computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91323387ab400644a01565aeb3f259bd\">ubiquitous computing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber-physical_system\" title=\"Cyber-physical system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b854f4dc2076c65aca7a7dee92f4b929\">cyber-physical systems<\/a> (CPS), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wireless_sensor_network\" title=\"Wireless sensor network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6de477762202654fbd88d90d554bf13\">wireless sensor networks<\/a> (WSN), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_object\" title=\"Smart object\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b94e2e6acc89b51b5c2904e723b991b6\">smart objects<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_twin\" title=\"Digital twin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1509c8ceed18e547178e17dfd6726c73\">digital twin<\/a>, cyberobjects or avatars,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gautier_2011_114-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gautier_2011-114\">[114]<\/a><\/sup> cooperating objects, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_to_machine\" title=\"Machine to machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"def016755527756d382ccca83160f2e7\">machine to machine<\/a> (M2M), ambient intelligence (AmI), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_Technology\" title=\"Operational Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fed1b9bf04e0e924928431b67e4f8a48\">Operational technology<\/a> (OT), and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">information technology<\/a> (IT).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Vitesse_Media_Plc_217-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Vitesse_Media_Plc-217\">[217]<\/a><\/sup> Regarding IIoT, an industrial sub-field of IoT, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_Internet_Consortium\" title=\"Industrial Internet Consortium\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34fb4565d6f2de3d8ee72b89e57e8369\">Industrial Internet Consortium<\/a>'s Vocabulary Task Group has created a \"common and reusable vocabulary of terms\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Technology_Working_Group_218-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Technology_Working_Group-218\">[218]<\/a><\/sup> to ensure \"consistent terminology\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Technology_Working_Group_218-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Technology_Working_Group-218\">[218]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-219\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-219\">[219]<\/a><\/sup> across publications issued by the Industrial Internet Consortium. IoT One has created an IoT Terms Database including a New Term Alert<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-220\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-220\">[220]<\/a><\/sup> to be notified when a new term is published. As of March 2017<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, this database aggregates 711 IoT-related terms, while keeping material \"transparent and comprehensive.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-221\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-221\">[221]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IoTONEGuide_222-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IoTONEGuide-222\">[222]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"IoT_adoption_barriers\">IoT adoption barriers<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:WilliamRuhAtIEEETechIgnite2017.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"7563c3fb319a56ba366a06525f06943e\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/48\/WilliamRuhAtIEEETechIgnite2017.jpg\/220px-WilliamRuhAtIEEETechIgnite2017.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"124\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:WilliamRuhAtIEEETechIgnite2017.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"7563c3fb319a56ba366a06525f06943e\"><\/a><\/div>GE Digital CEO William Ruh speaking about GE's attempts to gain a foothold in the market for IoT services at the first <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE_Computer_Society\" title=\"IEEE Computer Society\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c05bae3845ca95d7032b65bfa47246cf\">IEEE Computer Society<\/a> TechIgnite conference.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Lack_of_interoperability_and_unclear_value_propositions\">Lack of interoperability and unclear value propositions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Despite a shared belief in the potential of the IoT, industry leaders and consumers are facing barriers to adopt IoT technology more widely. Mike Farley argued in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forbes\" title=\"Forbes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb3293e493bd0bf1a338c2e818d7d71f\">Forbes<\/a> that while IoT solutions appeal to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Early_adopters\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Early adopters\" data-key=\"e2b843e73c4d671ce9e95b8b95476453\">early adopters<\/a>, they either lack interoperability or a clear use case for end-users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Forbes_223-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Forbes-223\">[223]<\/a><\/sup> A study by Ericsson regarding the adoption of IoT among Danish companies suggests that many struggle \"to pinpoint exactly where the value of IoT lies for them\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-every_224-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-every-224\">[224]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Privacy_and_security_concerns\">Privacy and security concerns<\/span><\/h3><p>\nAccording to a recent study by Noura Aleisa and Karen Renaud at the University of Glasgow, \"the Internet of things' potential for major privacy invasion is a concern\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-extd_225-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-extd-225\">[225]<\/a><\/sup> with much of research \"disproportionally focused on the security concerns of IoT.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-extd_225-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-extd-225\">[225]<\/a><\/sup> Among the \"proposed solutions in terms of the techniques they deployed and the extent to which they satisfied core privacy principles\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-extd_225-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-extd-225\">[225]<\/a><\/sup> only very few turned out to be fully satisfactory. Louis Basenese, investment director at Wall Street Daily, has criticized the industry's lack of attention to security issues: <\/p><blockquote><p>\"Despite high-profile and alarming hacks, device manufacturers remain undeterred, focusing on profitability over security. Consumers need to have ultimate control over collected data, including the option to delete it if they choose...Without privacy assurances, wide-scale consumer adoption simply won't happen.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-basen_226-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-basen-226\">[226]<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>In a post-<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_Snowden\" title=\"Edward Snowden\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e534e33ca161d9c70f94325947d8166\">Snowden<\/a> world of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_surveillance_disclosures\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Global surveillance disclosures\" data-key=\"70d4b7a41a5ec18c9302f71b1738180e\">global surveillance disclosures<\/a>, consumers take a more active interest in protecting their privacy and demand IoT devices to be screened for potential security vulnerabilities and privacy violations before purchasing them. According to the 2016 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accenture\" title=\"Accenture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"431600ac3fd7f171bdba15fcc6786266\">Accenture<\/a> Digital Consumer Survey, in which 28000 consumers in 28 countries were polled on their use of consumer technology, security \"has moved from being a nagging problem to a top barrier as consumers are now choosing to abandon IoT devices and services over security concerns.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-igniting_227-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-igniting-227\">[227]<\/a><\/sup> The survey revealed that \"out of the consumers aware of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacker\" title=\"Hacker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cba04173cfc5578ce8e60371390b450\">hacker<\/a> attacks and owning or planning to own IoT devices in the next five years, 18 percent decided to terminate the use of the services and related services until they get safety guarantees.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-igniting_227-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-igniting-227\">[227]<\/a><\/sup> This suggests that consumers increasingly perceive <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy\" title=\"Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c0e284f1b9cc1e2e6e7c31286443366\">privacy<\/a> risks and security concerns to outweigh the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Value_proposition\" title=\"Value proposition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e75f3992c7e1b8d2318e37d5d99fe2a4\">value propositions<\/a> of IoT devices and opt to postpone planned purchases or service subscriptions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-igniting_227-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-igniting-227\">[227]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Traditional_governance_structures\">Traditional governance structures<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:TownOfInternetOfThingsHangzhou.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f2c2d3aebae88f585d2ee5f429d7ea0\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/20\/TownOfInternetOfThingsHangzhou.jpg\/220px-TownOfInternetOfThingsHangzhou.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"146\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:TownOfInternetOfThingsHangzhou.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"5f2c2d3aebae88f585d2ee5f429d7ea0\"><\/a><\/div>Town of Internet of Things in Hangzhou, China<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>A study issued by Ericsson regarding the adoption of Internet of things among Danish companies identified a \"clash between IoT and companies' traditional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Governance\" title=\"Governance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38799e581efee59d0a8566b3be10a03e\">governance<\/a> structures, as IoT still presents both uncertainties and a lack of historical precedence.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-every_224-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-every-224\">[224]<\/a><\/sup> Among the respondents interviewed, 60 percent stated that they \"do not believe they have the organizational capabilities, and three of four do not believe they have the processes needed, to capture the IoT opportunity.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-every_224-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-every-224\">[224]<\/a><\/sup> This has led to a need to understand <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organizational_culture\" title=\"Organizational culture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"353d4b07c8c2a9eb389679a0af512aa7\">organizational culture<\/a> in order to facilitate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organizational_architecture\" title=\"Organizational architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff5da35ac163f45525fc644b6ab3a790\">organizational design<\/a> processes and to test new <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Innovation_management\" title=\"Innovation management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c00f35c34f748fba2260a325245d55a\">innovation management<\/a> practices. A lack of digital leadership in the age of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_transformation\" title=\"Digital transformation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa6ba2f5048a89acfa74ad9a952bddc7\">digital transformation<\/a> has also stifled innovation and IoT adoption to a degree that many companies, in the face of uncertainty, \"were waiting for the market dynamics to play out\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-every_224-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-every-224\">[224]<\/a><\/sup> or further action in regards to IoT \"was pending competitor moves, customer pull, or regulatory requirements.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-every_224-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-every-224\">[224]<\/a><\/sup> Some of these companies risk being 'kodaked' \u2013 \"Kodak was a market leader until digital disruption eclipsed film photography with digital photos\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5bar_228-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5bar-228\">[228]<\/a><\/sup> \u2013 failing to \"see the disruptive forces affecting their industry\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-kodak_229-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-kodak-229\">[229]<\/a><\/sup> and \"to truly embrace the new business models the disruptive change opens up.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-kodak_229-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-kodak-229\">[229]<\/a><\/sup> Scott Anthony has written in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harvard_Business_Review\" title=\"Harvard Business Review\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fdc67a24802d913a6175ca7c3f6571f\">Harvard Business Review<\/a> that Kodak \"created a digital camera, invested in the technology, and even understood that photos would be shared online\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-kodak_229-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-kodak-229\">[229]<\/a><\/sup> but ultimately failed to realize that \"online photo sharing <i>was<\/i> the new business, not just a way to expand the printing business.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-kodak_229-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-kodak-229\">[229]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Business_planning_and_models\">Business planning and models<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>According to 2018 study, 70\u201375% of IoT deployments were stuck in the pilot or prototype stage, unable to reach scale due in part to a lack of business planning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-230\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-230\">[230]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citing_sources\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citing sources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27db2d557ba5b9a353b953f4b640a66d\"><span title=\"This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2018)\">page needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Studies on IoT literature and projects show a disproportionate prominence of technology in the IoT projects, which are often driven by technological interventions rather than business model innovation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-231\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-231\">[231]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-232\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-232\">[232]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Synthesis_of_published_material\" title=\"Wikipedia:No original research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8b5ad11a32277ec2c4362d54f17edc3\"><span title=\"The material near this tag may be based upon an improper synthesis of sources. (August 2018)\">improper synthesis?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/5G\" title=\"5G\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66261422cedbc0aecee3eb98dd133fee\">5G<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_manufacturing\" title=\"Cloud manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86b6543d49dc3246d1527afb75110c20\">Cloud manufacturing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber-physical_system\" title=\"Cyber-physical system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b854f4dc2076c65aca7a7dee92f4b929\">Cyber-physical system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Distribution_Service\" title=\"Data Distribution Service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62946a8be73a68be87ca74388fb432b5\">Data Distribution Service<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_memory\" title=\"Digital object memory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5092a46d814cf49b429997ad61da95ee\">Digital object memory<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_twin\" title=\"Digital twin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1509c8ceed18e547178e17dfd6726c73\">Digital twin<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edge_computing\" title=\"Edge computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce613f793b0b6951d3736b82a352ff67\">Edge computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Four-dimensional_product\" title=\"Four-dimensional product\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b910616e2be991b5af03408a08761f0\">Four-dimensional product<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Home_automation\" title=\"Home automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57ae87ba9c509562151e6599939ab60\">Home automation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Indoor_positioning_system\" title=\"Indoor positioning system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b39a67d5bb49d1aabbd4ffdac26b9bf3\">Indoor positioning system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industry_4.0\" title=\"Industry 4.0\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b44209c53bd0e0746152f2290ad4377d\">Industry 4.0<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_Interconnect_Consortium\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Open Interconnect Consortium\" data-key=\"452927b0aa4d94a13e57c4b096545b7e\">Open Interconnect Consortium<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenWSN\" title=\"OpenWSN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45ed764d915b551f5445fcc475331a1b\">OpenWSN<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Responsive_computer-aided_design\" title=\"Responsive computer-aided design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"931146497a095cbc3f04cc902ed49779\">Responsive computer-aided design<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_grid\" title=\"Smart grid\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ed86c3bb0ec7d4cffc526c131d27e7b\">Smart grid<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_of_things\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Web of things\" data-key=\"450e0000f06a6fb6b95672e8d10dd3bc\">Web of things<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Linux_Things-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Linux_Things_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Linux_Things_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Brown, Eric (13 September 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linux.com\/news\/who-needs-internet-things\" target=\"_blank\">\"Who Needs the Internet of Things?\"<\/a>. <i>Linux.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 October<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Linux.com&rft.atitle=Who+Needs+the+Internet+of+Things%3F&rft.date=2016-09-13&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linux.com%2Fnews%2Fwho-needs-internet-things&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Linux_21OSP-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Linux_21OSP_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Linux_21OSP_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Brown, Eric (20 September 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.linux.com\/NEWS\/21-OPEN-SOURCE-PROJECTS-IOT\" target=\"_blank\">\"21 Open Source Projects for IoT\"<\/a>. <i>Linux.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 October<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Linux.com&rft.atitle=21+Open+Source+Projects+for+IoT&rft.date=2016-09-20&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.linux.com%2FNEWS%2F21-OPEN-SOURCE-PROJECTS-IOT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ITU-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ITU_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.itu.int\/en\/ITU-T\/gsi\/iot\/Pages\/default.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Internet of Things Global Standards Initiative\"<\/a>. <i>ITU<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 June<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ITU&rft.atitle=Internet+of+Things+Global+Standards+Initiative&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itu.int%2Fen%2FITU-T%2Fgsi%2Fiot%2FPages%2Fdefault.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Hendricks, Drew. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/data.london.gov.uk\/blog\/the-trouble-with-the-internet-of-things\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Trouble with the Internet of Things\"<\/a>. <i>London Datastore<\/i>. Greater London Authority<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 August<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=London+Datastore&rft.atitle=The+Trouble+with+the+Internet+of+Things&rft.aulast=Hendricks&rft.aufirst=Drew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdata.london.gov.uk%2Fblog%2Fthe-trouble-with-the-internet-of-things%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Definition-IoT-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Definition-IoT_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Wigmore, I. (June 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/whatis.techtarget.com\/definition\/Internet-of-Things\" target=\"_blank\">\"Internet of Things (IoT)\"<\/a>. <i>TechTarget<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TechTarget&rft.atitle=Internet+of+Things+%28IoT%29&rft.date=2014-06&rft.aulast=Wigmore&rft.aufirst=I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhatis.techtarget.com%2Fdefinition%2FInternet-of-Things&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cs.cmu.edu\/~coke\/history_long.txt\" target=\"_blank\">\"The \"Only\" Coke Machine on the Internet\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Mellon_University\" title=\"Carnegie Mellon University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edc1e7b9266be3eeab86296d0abca43b\">Carnegie Mellon University<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Springer Verlag. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-3-319-05278-6.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intelligence+for+Embedded+Systems&rft.pub=Springer+Verlag&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-319-05278-6&rft.aulast=Alippi&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.springer.com%2Fengineering%2Felectronics%2Fbook%2F978-3-319-05277-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DelicatoSmart18-107\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DelicatoSmart18_107-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Delicato, F.C.; Al-Anbuky, A.; Wang, K., eds. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Smart+Cyber-Physical+Systems%3A+towards+Pervasive+Intelligence+systems&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.elsevier.com%2Ffuture-generation-computer-systems%2Fcall-for-papers%2Fsmart-cyber-physical-systems-towards-pervasive-intelligence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:4-108\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:4_108-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:4_108-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:4_108-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:4_108-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Traukina, Alena; Thomas, Jayant; Tyagi, Prashant; Reddipalli, Kishore (2018-09-29). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Industrial-Internet-Application-Development-development-ebook\/dp\/B075V92JW7\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Industrial Internet Application Development: Simplify IIoT development using the elasticity of Public Cloud and Native Cloud Services<\/i><\/a> (1st ed.). Packt Publishing. p. 18.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Industrial+Internet+Application+Development%3A+Simplify+IIoT+development+using+the+elasticity+of+Public+Cloud+and+Native+Cloud+Services&rft.pages=18&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Packt+Publishing&rft.date=2018-09-29&rft.aulast=Traukina&rft.aufirst=Alena&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Jayant&rft.au=Tyagi%2C+Prashant&rft.au=Reddipalli%2C+Kishore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2FIndustrial-Internet-Application-Development-development-ebook%2Fdp%2FB075V92JW7%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-109\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-109\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Hassan, Qusay; Khan, Atta; Madani, Sajjad (2017). <i>Internet of Things: Challenges, Advances, and Applications<\/i>. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 198. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781498778510.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Internet+of+Things%3A+Challenges%2C+Advances%2C+and+Applications&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+Florida&rft.pages=198&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781498778510&rft.aulast=Hassan&rft.aufirst=Qusay&rft.au=Khan%2C+Atta&rft.au=Madani%2C+Sajjad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-110\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-110\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Chauhuri, Abhik (2018). <i>Internet of Things, for Things, and by Things<\/i>. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781138710443.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Internet+of+Things%2C+for+Things%2C+and+by+Things&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+Florida&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781138710443&rft.aulast=Chauhuri&rft.aufirst=Abhik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-111\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-111\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Pal, Arpan (May\u2013June 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computer.org\/cms\/Computer.org\/ComputingNow\/issues\/2015\/07\/mit2015030002.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Internet of Things: Making the Hype a Reality\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IT Pro<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 April<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IT+Pro&rft.atitle=Internet+of+Things%3A+Making+the+Hype+a+Reality&rft.date=2015-05%2F2015-06&rft.aulast=Pal&rft.aufirst=Arpan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computer.org%2Fcms%2FComputer.org%2FComputingNow%2Fissues%2F2015%2F07%2Fmit2015030002.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Gartner-112\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Gartner_112-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/3165317\" target=\"_blank\">\"Gartner Says 6.4 Billion Connected \"Things\" Will Be in Use in 2016, Up 30 Percent From 2015\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gartner\" title=\"Gartner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f7668963d7e19c93d13754e7e1b8a52\">Gartner<\/a><\/i>. 10 November 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 April<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gartner&rft.atitle=Gartner+Says+6.4+Billion+Connected+%22Things%22+Will+Be+in+Use+in+2016%2C+Up+30+Percent+From+2015&rft.date=2015-11-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gartner.com%2Fnewsroom%2Fid%2F3165317&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MIST-113\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MIST_113-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Reza Arkian, Hamid (2017). \"MIST: Fog-based Data Analytics Scheme with Cost-Efficient Resource Provisioning for IoT Crowdsensing Applications\". <i>Journal of Network and Computer Applications<\/i>. <b>82<\/b>: 152\u2013165. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode\" title=\"Bibcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8d53091b41d79b165d88661365dde91\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2017JNCA...93...27H\" target=\"_blank\">2017JNCA...93...27H<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.jnca.2017.01.012\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.jnca.2017.01.012<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Network+and+Computer+Applications&rft.atitle=MIST%3A+Fog-based+Data+Analytics+Scheme+with+Cost-Efficient+Resource+Provisioning+for+IoT+Crowdsensing+Applications&rft.volume=82&rft.pages=152-165&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jnca.2017.01.012&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017JNCA...93...27H&rft.aulast=Reza+Arkian&rft.aufirst=Hamid&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Gautier_2011-114\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Gautier_2011_114-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Gautier_2011_114-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Gautier, Philippe; Gonzalez, Laurent (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/excerpts.numilog.com\/books\/9782124653164.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>L'Internet des Objets... Internet, mais en mieux<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Foreword by G\u00e9rald Santucci (European commission), postword by Daniel Kaplan (FING) and Michel Volle. Paris: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AFNOR\" title=\"AFNOR\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b9184eeb60aba4c243436c0a4065850\">AFNOR<\/a> editions. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-2-12-465316-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27Internet+des+Objets...+Internet%2C+mais+en+mieux&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=AFNOR+editions&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-2-12-465316-4&rft.aulast=Gautier&rft.aufirst=Philippe&rft.au=Gonzalez%2C+Laurent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fexcerpts.numilog.com%2Fbooks%2F9782124653164.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MargineanSDOMO16-115\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MargineanSDOMO16_115-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Marginean, M.-T.; Lu, C. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=OGltDQAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA151\" target=\"_blank\">\"sDOMO communication protocol for home robotic systems in the context of the internet of things\"<\/a>. <i>Computer Science, Technology And Application<\/i>. World Scientific. pp. 151\u201360. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9789813200432.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=sDOMO+communication+protocol+for+home+robotic+systems+in+the+context+of+the+internet+of+things&rft.btitle=Computer+Science%2C+Technology+And+Application&rft.pages=151-60&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9789813200432&rft.au=Marginean%2C+M.-T.&rft.au=Lu%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOGltDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPAPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-116\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-116\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Rowayda, A. Sadek (May 2018). \"\u2013 An Agile Internet of Things (IoT) based Software Defined Network (SDN) Architecture\". <i>Egyptian Computer Science Journal<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Egyptian+Computer+Science+Journal&rft.atitle=%E2%80%93+An+Agile+Internet+of+Things+%28IoT%29+based+Software+Defined+Network+%28SDN%29+Architecture&rft.date=2018-05&rft.aulast=Rowayda&rft.aufirst=A.+Sadek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Waldner,_2007-117\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Waldner,_2007_117-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jean-Baptiste_Waldner\" title=\"Jean-Baptiste Waldner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94516d223aac3efd10de6f0f46748eca\">Waldner, Jean-Baptiste<\/a> (2007). <i>Nanoinformatique et intelligence ambiante. Inventer l'Ordinateur du XXIeme Si\u00e8cle<\/i>. London: . p. 254. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-2-7462-1516-0.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nanoinformatique+et+intelligence+ambiante.+Inventer+l%27Ordinateur+du+XXIeme+Si%C3%A8cle&rft.place=London&rft.pages=254&rft.pub=Hermes+Science&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-2-7462-1516-0&rft.aulast=Waldner&rft.aufirst=Jean-Baptiste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-118\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-118\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/portal.opengeospatial.org\/files\/?artifact_id=64146\" target=\"_blank\">\"OGC SensorThings API standard specification\"<\/a>. <i>OGC<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 February<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OGC&rft.atitle=OGC+SensorThings+API+standard+specification&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fportal.opengeospatial.org%2Ffiles%2F%3Fartifact_id%3D64146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-119\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-119\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/portal.opengeospatial.org\/files\/?artifact_id=25562\" target=\"_blank\">\"OGC Sensor Web Enablement: Overview And High Level Architecture\"<\/a>. <i>OGC<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 February<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OGC&rft.atitle=OGC+Sensor+Web+Enablement%3A+Overview+And+High+Level+Architecture&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.opengeospatial.org%2Ffiles%2F%3Fartifact_id%3D25562&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MinteerAnalytics17-120\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MinteerAnalytics17_120-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Minteer, A. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FedDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA230\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 9: Applying Geospatial Analytics to IoT Data\"<\/a>. <i>Analytics for the Internet of Things (IoT)<\/i>. Packt Publishing. pp. 230\u201357. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781787127579.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+9%3A+Applying+Geospatial+Analytics+to+IoT+Data&rft.btitle=Analytics+for+the+Internet+of+Things+%28IoT%29&rft.pages=230-57&rft.pub=Packt+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781787127579&rft.au=Minteer%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFedDDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPAPA230&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-vanderZeeSpatial14-121\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-vanderZeeSpatial14_121-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">van der Zee, E.; Scholten, H. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=tEC5BQAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA160\" target=\"_blank\">\"Spatial Dimensions of Big Data: Application of Geographical Concepts and Spatial Technology to the Internet of Things\"<\/a>. In Bessis, N.; Dobre, C. <i>Big Data and Internet of Things: A Roadmap for Smart Environments<\/i>. Springer. pp. 137\u201368. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783319050294.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Spatial+Dimensions+of+Big+Data%3A+Application+of+Geographical+Concepts+and+Spatial+Technology+to+the+Internet+of+Things&rft.btitle=Big+Data+and+Internet+of+Things%3A+A+Roadmap+for+Smart+Environments&rft.pages=137-68&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9783319050294&rft.au=van+der+Zee%2C+E.&rft.au=Scholten%2C+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtEC5BQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPAPA160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Gass\u00e9eInternet14-122\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Gass\u00e9eInternet14_122-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Gass\u00e9eInternet14_122-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Gass\u00e9e, J.-L. (12 January 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mondaynote.com\/2014\/01\/12\/internet-of-things-the-basket-of-remotes-problem\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Internet of Things: The \"Basket of Remotes\" Problem\"<\/a>. <i>Monday Note<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 June<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Monday+Note&rft.atitle=Internet+of+Things%3A+The+%22Basket+of+Remotes%22+Problem&rft.date=2014-01-12&rft.au=Gass%C3%A9e%2C+J.-L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mondaynote.com%2F2014%2F01%2F12%2Finternet-of-things-the-basket-of-remotes-problem%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-deSousaInternet2015-123\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-deSousaInternet2015_123-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">de Sousa, M. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=CFtICgAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA163\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 10: Integrating with Muzzley\"<\/a>. <i>Internet of Things with Intel Galileo<\/i>. Packt Publishing. p. 163. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781782174912.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+10%3A+Integrating+with+Muzzley&rft.btitle=Internet+of+Things+with+Intel+Galileo&rft.pages=163&rft.pub=Packt+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781782174912&rft.au=de+Sousa%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCFtICgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPAPA163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-124\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-124\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Want, Roy; Bill N. Schilit, Scott Jenson (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/stamp\/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=7030240\" target=\"_blank\">\"Enabling the Internet of Things\"<\/a>. <b>1<\/b>. Sponsored by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE_Computer_Society\" title=\"IEEE Computer Society\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c05bae3845ca95d7032b65bfa47246cf\">IEEE Computer Society<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IEEE\" data-key=\"30289c6e7bc018ea0ccd2e21ff172ff0\">IEEE<\/a>. pp. 28\u201335.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Enabling+the+Internet+of+Things&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=28-35&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Want&rft.aufirst=Roy&rft.au=Bill+N.+Schilit%2C+Scott+Jenson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fstamp%2Fstamp.jsp%3Ftp%3D%26arnumber%3D7030240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-125\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-125\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theregister.co.uk\/2015\/05\/14\/the_internet_of_things_a_jumbled_mess_or_a_jumbled_mess\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Internet of Things: a jumbled mess or a jumbled mess?\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Register\" title=\"The Register\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2eb0545423025dd1f51e39f5eed0591\">The Register<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Register&rft.atitle=The+Internet+of+Things%3A+a+jumbled+mess+or+a+jumbled+mess%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.co.uk%2F2015%2F05%2F14%2Fthe_internet_of_things_a_jumbled_mess_or_a_jumbled_mess%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-126\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-126\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2488373\/emerging-technology\/can-we-talk--internet-of-things-vendors-face-a-communications--mess-.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Can we talk? Internet of Things vendors face a communications 'mess<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\">'<\/span>\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computerworld\" title=\"Computerworld\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8213155a2744e5ab08a96367d82662e8\">Computerworld<\/a><\/i>. 2014-04-18<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computerworld&rft.atitle=Can+we+talk%3F+Internet+of+Things+vendors+face+a+communications+%27mess%27&rft.date=2014-04-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Farticle%2F2488373%2Femerging-technology%2Fcan-we-talk--internet-of-things-vendors-face-a-communications--mess-.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HassanInternet18-127\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HassanInternet18_127-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Hassan, Q.F. (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=YmpaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA27\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Internet of Things A to Z: Technologies and Applications<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 27\u20138. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781119456759.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Internet+of+Things+A+to+Z%3A+Technologies+and+Applications&rft.pages=27-8&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781119456759&rft.au=Hassan%2C+Q.F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYmpaDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPAPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Brickley_et_al,_2001-128\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Brickley_et_al,_2001_128-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dan Brickley et al., c. 2001<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShengManaging17-129\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ShengManaging17_129-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Sheng, M.; Qun, Y.; Yao, L.; Benatallah, B. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=q0PQDAAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA256\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Managing the Web of Things: Linking the Real World to the Web<\/i><\/a>. Morgan Kaufmann. pp. 256\u20138. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780128097656.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Managing+the+Web+of+Things%3A+Linking+the+Real+World+to+the+Web&rft.pages=256-8&rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780128097656&rft.au=Sheng%2C+M.&rft.au=Qun%2C+Y.&rft.au=Yao%2C+L.&rft.au=Benatallah%2C+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq0PQDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPAPA256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Waldner,_2008-130\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Waldner,_2008_130-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jean-Baptiste_Waldner\" title=\"Jean-Baptiste Waldner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94516d223aac3efd10de6f0f46748eca\">Waldner, Jean-Baptiste<\/a> (2008). <i>Nanocomputers and Swarm Intelligence<\/i>. London: ISTE. pp. 227\u2013231. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-84704-002-2.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nanocomputers+and+Swarm+Intelligence&rft.place=London&rft.pages=227-231&rft.pub=ISTE&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84704-002-2&rft.aulast=Waldner&rft.aufirst=Jean-Baptiste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6LoWPAN-131\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-6LoWPAN_131-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-6LoWPAN_131-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation\">Kushalnagar, N.; Montenegro, G.; Schumacher, C. (August 2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/html\/rfc4919\" target=\"_blank\"><i>IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPANs): Overview, Assumptions, Problem Statement, and Goals<\/i><\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force\" title=\"Internet Engineering Task Force\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88d05b50307366450526102068246161\">IETF<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17487%2FRFC4919\" target=\"_blank\">10.17487\/RFC4919<\/a><\/span>. RFC 4919.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=IPv6+over+Low-Power+Wireless+Personal+Area+Networks+%286LoWPANs%29%3A+Overview%2C+Assumptions%2C+Problem+Statement%2C+and+Goals&rft.pub=IETF&rft.date=2007-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC4919&rft.aulast=Kushalnagar&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Montenegro%2C+G.&rft.au=Schumacher%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftools.ietf.org%2Fhtml%2Frfc4919&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-computerworld.com-132\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-computerworld.com_132-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-computerworld.com_132-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Sun, Charles C. (1 May 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/2488886\/networking\/stop-using-internet-protocol-version-4-.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stop using Internet Protocol Version 4!\"<\/a>. <i>Computerworld<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computerworld&rft.atitle=Stop+using+Internet+Protocol+Version+4%21&rft.date=2014-05-01&rft.aulast=Sun&rft.aufirst=Charles+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Farticle%2F2488886%2Fnetworking%2Fstop-using-internet-protocol-version-4-.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IPv6-autoconfiguration-133\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-IPv6-autoconfiguration_133-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation\">Thomson, S.; Narten, T.; Jinmei, T. (September 2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/html\/rfc4862\" target=\"_blank\"><i>IPv6 Stateless Address Autoconfiguration<\/i><\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force\" title=\"Internet Engineering Task Force\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88d05b50307366450526102068246161\">IETF<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17487%2FRFC4862\" target=\"_blank\">10.17487\/RFC4862<\/a><\/span>. RFC 4862.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=IPv6+Stateless+Address+Autoconfiguration&rft.pub=IETF&rft.date=2007-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17487%2FRFC4862&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Narten%2C+T.&rft.au=Jinmei%2C+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftools.ietf.org%2Fhtml%2Frfc4862&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JingResearch12-134\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-JingResearch12_134-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Jing, J.; Li, H. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=VAG7BQAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA627\" target=\"_blank\">\"Research on the Relevant Standards of Internet of Things\"<\/a>. In Wang, Y.; Zhang, X. <i>Internet of Things: International Workshop, IOT 2012<\/i>. Springer. pp. 627\u201332. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783642324277.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Research+on+the+Relevant+Standards+of+Internet+of+Things&rft.btitle=Internet+of+Things%3A+International+Workshop%2C+IOT+2012&rft.pages=627-32&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9783642324277&rft.au=Jing%2C+J.&rft.au=Li%2C+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVAG7BQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPAPA627&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MahmoodConnected18-135\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MahmoodConnected18_135-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Mahmood, Z. (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=dKVFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA89\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Connected Environments for the Internet of Things: Challenges and Solutions<\/i><\/a>. Springer. pp. 89\u201390. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783319701028.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Connected+Environments+for+the+Internet+of+Things%3A+Challenges+and+Solutions&rft.pages=89-90&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9783319701028&rft.au=Mahmood%2C+Z.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdKVFDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPAPA89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-136\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-136\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philip_N._Howard\" title=\"Philip N. Howard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e45f91c168eaead1ae46b05e0281f0b\">Howard, Philip N.<\/a> (1 June 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.politico.com\/agenda\/story\/2015\/06\/philip-howard-on-iot-transformation-000099\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Internet of Things is Posed to Change Democracy Itself\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Politico\" title=\"Politico\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2e94295e6f82017b9e2b3b3bedf2280\">Politico<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 59\u201364. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783642117107.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Internet+of+Things%3A+Legal+Perspectives&rft.pages=59-64&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9783642117107&rft.au=Weber%2C+R.H.&rft.au=Weber%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9adAAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPAPA59&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HassanInternet18-2-140\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HassanInternet18-2_140-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Hassan, Q.F. (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=YmpaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA41\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Internet of Things A to Z: Technologies and Applications<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 41\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781119456759.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Internet+of+Things+A+to+Z%3A+Technologies+and+Applications&rft.pages=41-4&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781119456759&rft.au=Hassan%2C+Q.F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYmpaDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPAPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HassanInternet17-141\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HassanInternet17_141-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Hassan, Q.F.; Khan, A. ur R.; Madani, S.A. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=iGpQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA41\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Internet of Things: Challenges, Advances, and Applications<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp. 41\u20132. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781498778534.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Internet+of+Things%3A+Challenges%2C+Advances%2C+and+Applications&rft.pages=41-2&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781498778534&rft.au=Hassan%2C+Q.F.&rft.au=Khan%2C+A.+ur+R.&rft.au=Madani%2C+S.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiGpQDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPAPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-142\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-142\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Lopez, Javier; Rios, Ruben; Bao, Feng; Wang, Guilin (2017). \"Evolving privacy: From sensors to the Internet of Things\". <i>Future Generation Computer Systems<\/i>. <b>75<\/b>: 46\u201357. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.future.2017.04.045\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.future.2017.04.045<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Future+Generation+Computer+Systems&rft.atitle=Evolving+privacy%3A+From+sensors+to+the+Internet+of+Things&rft.volume=75&rft.pages=46-57&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.future.2017.04.045&rft.aulast=Lopez&rft.aufirst=Javier&rft.au=Rios%2C+Ruben&rft.au=Bao%2C+Feng&rft.au=Wang%2C+Guilin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-143\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-143\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mhc.ie\/latest\/blog\/the-internet-of-things-legal-challenges-in-an-ultra-connected-world\" target=\"_blank\">\"The 'Internet of Things': Legal Challenges in an Ultra-connected World\"<\/a>. <i>Mason Hayes & Curran<\/i>. 22 January 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 October<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MIS-Asia&rft.atitle=IoT+users+could+win+with+a+new+bill+in+the+US+Senate&rft.date=2016-03-02&rft.aulast=Lawson&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mis-asia.com%2Ftech%2Finternet%2Fiot-users-could-win-with-a-new-bill-in-the-us-senate%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-147\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-147\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Pittman, F. Paul (2 February 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lexology.com\/library\/detail.aspx?g=fd6bc26e-dd20-4c4f-897a-5d62484d37ba\" target=\"_blank\">\"Legal Developments in Connected Car Arena Provide Glimpse of Privacy and Data Security Regulation in Internet of Things\"<\/a>. <i>Lexology<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 October<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lexology&rft.atitle=Legal+Developments+in+Connected+Car+Arena+Provide+Glimpse+of+Privacy+and+Data+Security+Regulation+in+Internet+of+Things&rft.date=2016-02-02&rft.aulast=Pittman&rft.aufirst=F.+Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lexology.com%2Flibrary%2Fdetail.aspx%3Fg%3Dfd6bc26e-dd20-4c4f-897a-5d62484d37ba&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-148\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-148\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Rasit, Yuce, Mehmet; Claus, Beisswenger, Stefan; Mangalam, Srikanth; Das, Prasanna, Lal; Martin, Lukac (2017-11-02). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/documents.worldbank.org\/curated\/en\/610081509689089303\/Internet-of-things-the-new-government-to-business-platform-a-review-of-opportunities-practices-and-challenges\" target=\"_blank\">\"Internet of things : the new government to business platform \u2013 a review of opportunities, practices, and challenges\"<\/a>: 1\u2013112.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Internet+of+things+%3A+the+new+government+to+business+platform+%E2%80%93+a+review+of+opportunities%2C+practices%2C+and+challenges&rft.pages=1-112&rft.date=2017-11-02&rft.aulast=Rasit&rft.aufirst=Yuce%2C+Mehmet&rft.au=Claus%2C+Beisswenger%2C+Stefan&rft.au=Mangalam%2C+Srikanth&rft.au=Das%2C+Prasanna%2C+Lal&rft.au=Martin%2C+Lukac&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocuments.worldbank.org%2Fcurated%2Fen%2F610081509689089303%2FInternet-of-things-the-new-government-to-business-platform-a-review-of-opportunities-practices-and-challenges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-149\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-149\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Wieland, Ken (25 February 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mobileworldlive.com\/mwc16-articles\/iot-experts-fret-over-fragmentation\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"IoT experts fret over fragmentation\"<\/a>. <i>Mobile World<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mobile+World&rft.atitle=IoT+experts+fret+over+fragmentation&rft.date=2016-02-25&rft.aulast=Wieland&rft.aufirst=Ken&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mobileworldlive.com%2Fmwc16-articles%2Fiot-experts-fret-over-fragmentation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-150\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-150\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Wallace, Michael (19 February 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.qualcomm.com\/news\/onq\/2016\/02\/19\/fragmentation-enemy-internet-things\" target=\"_blank\">\"Fragmentation is the enemy of the Internet of Things\"<\/a>. <i>Qualcomm.com<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Qualcomm.com&rft.atitle=Fragmentation+is+the+enemy+of+the+Internet+of+Things&rft.date=2016-02-19&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.qualcomm.com%2Fnews%2Fonq%2F2016%2F02%2F19%2Ffragmentation-enemy-internet-things&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-151\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-151\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Bauer, Harald; Patel, Mark; Veira, Jan (October 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mckinsey.com\/industries\/semiconductors\/our-insights\/internet-of-things-opportunities-and-challenges-for-semiconductor-companies\" target=\"_blank\">\"Internet of Things: Opportunities and challenges for semiconductor companies\"<\/a>. <i>McKinsey & Co<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=McKinsey+%26+Co.&rft.atitle=Internet+of+Things%3A+Opportunities+and+challenges+for+semiconductor+companies&rft.date=2015-10&rft.aulast=Bauer&rft.aufirst=Harald&rft.au=Patel%2C+Mark&rft.au=Veira%2C+Jan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mckinsey.com%2Findustries%2Fsemiconductors%2Four-insights%2Finternet-of-things-opportunities-and-challenges-for-semiconductor-companies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-152\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-152\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Ardiri, Aaron (8 July 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/evothings.com\/will-fragmentation-of-standards-only-hinder-the-true-potential-of-the-iot-industry\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Will fragmentation of standards only hinder the true potential of the IoT industry?\"<\/a>. <i>evothings.com<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=evothings.com&rft.atitle=Will+fragmentation+of+standards+only+hinder+the+true+potential+of+the+IoT+industry%3F&rft.date=2014-07-08&rft.aulast=Ardiri&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fevothings.com%2Fwill-fragmentation-of-standards-only-hinder-the-true-potential-of-the-iot-industry%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-153\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-153\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.arm.com\/zh\/files\/event\/ATF2015SZ_A6_Thundersoft.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"IOT Brings Fragmentation in Platform\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>arm.com<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=arm.com&rft.atitle=IOT+Brings+Fragmentation+in+Platform&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arm.com%2Fzh%2Ffiles%2Fevent%2FATF2015SZ_A6_Thundersoft.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-154\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-154\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Raggett, Dave (27 April 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/Talks\/2016\/04-27-countering-fragmentation.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Countering Fragmentation with the Web of Things: Interoperability across IoT platforms\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>W3C<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=W3C&rft.atitle=Countering+Fragmentation+with+the+Web+of+Things%3A+Interoperability+across+IoT+platforms&rft.date=2016-04-27&rft.aulast=Raggett&rft.aufirst=Dave&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2FTalks%2F2016%2F04-27-countering-fragmentation.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-155\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-155\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Kovach, Steve (30 July 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/android-fragmentation-report-2013-7\" target=\"_blank\">\"Android Fragmentation Report\"<\/a>. <i>Business Insider<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 October<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=Android+Fragmentation+Report&rft.date=2013-07-30&rft.aulast=Kovach&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fandroid-fragmentation-report-2013-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-156\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-156\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.argenox.com\/library\/iot\/ultimate-guide-iot-connectivity\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ultimate Guide to Internet of Things (IoT) Connectivity\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ultimate+Guide+to+Internet+of+Things+%28IoT%29+Connectivity&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.argenox.com%2Flibrary%2Fiot%2Fultimate-guide-iot-connectivity%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-157\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-157\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Piedad, Floyd N. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/techbeacon.com\/will-android-fragmentation-spoil-its-iot-appeal\" target=\"_blank\">\"Will Android fragmentation spoil its IoT appeal?\"<\/a>. <i>TechBeacon<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TechBeacon&rft.atitle=Will+Android+fragmentation+spoil+its+IoT+appeal%3F&rft.aulast=Piedad&rft.aufirst=Floyd+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftechbeacon.com%2Fwill-android-fragmentation-spoil-its-iot-appeal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Goodbye,_Android-158\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Goodbye,_Android_158-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Franceschi-Bicchierai, Lorenzo (2015-07-29). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/motherboard.vice.com\/read\/goodbye-android\" target=\"_blank\">\"Goodbye, Android\"<\/a>. <i>Motherboard<\/i>. Vice<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 August<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Motherboard&rft.atitle=Goodbye%2C+Android&rft.date=2015-07-29&rft.aulast=Franceschi-Bicchierai&rft.aufirst=Lorenzo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmotherboard.vice.com%2Fread%2Fgoodbye-android&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-159\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-159\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Kingsley-Hughes, Adrian. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/article\/the-android-toxic-hellstew-survival-guide\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The toxic hellstew survival guide\"<\/a>. <i>ZDnet<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 August<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ZDnet&rft.atitle=The+toxic+hellstew+survival+guide&rft.aulast=Kingsley-Hughes&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdnet.com%2Farticle%2Fthe-android-toxic-hellstew-survival-guide%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-160\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-160\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Tung, Liam (13 October 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/article\/android-security-a-market-for-lemons-that-leaves-87-percent-insecure\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Android security a 'market for lemons' that leaves 87 percent vulnerable\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ZDNet\" title=\"ZDNet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5fa07541f19f9d11405fdf3da0e58d0f\">ZDNet<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ZDNet&rft.atitle=Android+security+a+%27market+for+lemons%27+that+leaves+87+percent+vulnerable&rft.date=2015-10-13&rft.aulast=Tung&rft.aufirst=Liam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdnet.com%2Farticle%2Fandroid-security-a-market-for-lemons-that-leaves-87-percent-insecure%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-161\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-161\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Thomas, Daniel R.; Beresford, Alastair R.; Rice, Andrew (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cl.cam.ac.uk\/~drt24\/papers\/spsm-scoring.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Proceedings of the 5th Annual ACM CCS Workshop on Security and Privacy in Smartphones and Mobile Devices \u2013 SPSM '15<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_Laboratory,_University_of_Cambridge\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer Laboratory, University of Cambridge\" data-key=\"1b3cfb89344dbf7d0f7b54af8a43ff8a\">Computer Laboratory, University of Cambridge<\/a><\/i>. pp. 87\u201398. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F2808117.2808118\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/2808117.2808118<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781450338196<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+5th+Annual+ACM+CCS+Workshop+on+Security+and+Privacy+in+Smartphones+and+Mobile+Devices+%E2%80%93+SPSM+%2715&rft.pages=87-98&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2808117.2808118&rft.isbn=9781450338196&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Daniel+R.&rft.au=Beresford%2C+Alastair+R.&rft.au=Rice%2C+Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cl.cam.ac.uk%2F~drt24%2Fpapers%2Fspsm-scoring.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-162\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-162\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philip_N._Howard\" title=\"Philip N. Howard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e45f91c168eaead1ae46b05e0281f0b\">Howard, Philip N.<\/a> (2015). <i>Pax Technica: How the internet of things May Set Us Free, Or Lock Us Up<\/i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-30019-947-5.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pax+Technica%3A+How+the+internet+of+things+May+Set+Us+Free%2C+Or+Lock+Us+Up&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-30019-947-5&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=Philip+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-163\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-163\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">McEwan, Adrian (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/madsg.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/12\/Designing_the_Internet_of_Things.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Designing the Internet of Things\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Designing+the+Internet+of+Things&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=McEwan&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmadsg.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F12%2FDesigning_the_Internet_of_Things.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-164\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-164\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Reddington, Clare. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/storify.com\/clarered\/adam-greenfield-connected-things-and-civic-respons\" target=\"_blank\">\"Connected Things and Civic Responsibilities\"<\/a>. <i>Storify<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Storify&rft.atitle=Connected+Things+and+Civic+Responsibilities&rft.aulast=Reddington&rft.aufirst=Clare&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstorify.com%2Fclarered%2Fadam-greenfield-connected-things-and-civic-respons&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" title=\"Wikipedia:Link rot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\" Dead link since March 2019\">dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/span><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-165\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-165\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.theinternetofthings.eu\/sites\/default\/files\/Rob%20van%20Kranenburg\/Panopticon%20as%20metaphor%20for%20the%20IoT_GS%20Dec2011.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Panopticon as a metaphor for the internet of things\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>The Council of the Internet of Things<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Council+of+the+Internet+of+Things&rft.atitle=Panopticon+as+a+metaphor+for+the+internet+of+things&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theinternetofthings.eu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FRob%2520van%2520Kranenburg%2FPanopticon%2520as%2520metaphor%2520for%2520the%2520IoT_GS%2520Dec2011.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ccle.ucla.edu-166\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ccle.ucla.edu_166-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ccle.ucla.edu_166-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ccle.ucla.edu\/pluginfile.php\/1330126\/mod_resource\/content\/0\/foucault.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Foucault\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. UCLA.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Foucault&rft.pub=UCLA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fccle.ucla.edu%2Fpluginfile.php%2F1330126%2Fmod_resource%2Fcontent%2F0%2Ffoucault.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-167\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-167\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ccle.ucla.edu\/pluginfile.php\/1330127\/mod_resource\/content\/0\/Deleuze%20-%201992%20-%20Postscript%20on%20the%20Societies%20of%20Control.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Deleuze \u2013 1992 \u2013 Postscript on the Societies of Control\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. UCLA.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Deleuze+%E2%80%93+1992+%E2%80%93+Postscript+on+the+Societies+of+Control&rft.pub=UCLA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fccle.ucla.edu%2Fpluginfile.php%2F1330127%2Fmod_resource%2Fcontent%2F0%2FDeleuze%2520-%25201992%2520-%2520Postscript%2520on%2520the%2520Societies%2520of%2520Control.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-168\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-168\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Yoshigoe, Kenji; Dai, Wei; Abramson, Melissa; Jacobs, Alexander (2015). <i>Overcoming Invasion of Privacy in Smart Home Environment with Synthetic Packet Injection<\/i>. <i>TRON Symposium (TRONSHOW)<\/i>. p. 1. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FTRONSHOW.2014.7396875\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/TRONSHOW.2014.7396875<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-4-8936-2317-1.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Overcoming+Invasion+of+Privacy+in+Smart+Home+Environment+with+Synthetic+Packet+Injection&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTRONSHOW.2014.7396875&rft.isbn=978-4-8936-2317-1&rft.aulast=Yoshigoe&rft.aufirst=Kenji&rft.au=Dai%2C+Wei&rft.au=Abramson%2C+Melissa&rft.au=Jacobs%2C+Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-169\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-169\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Verbeek, Peter-Paul (2011). <i>Moralizing Technology: Understanding and Designing the Morality of Things<\/i>. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-22685-291-1.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moralizing+Technology%3A+Understanding+and+Designing+the+Morality+of+Things&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-22685-291-1&rft.aulast=Verbeek&rft.aufirst=Peter-Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-170\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-170\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Cardwell, Diane (18 February 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2014\/02\/18\/business\/at-newark-airport-the-lights-are-on-and-theyre-watching-you.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"At Newark Airport, the Lights Are On, and They're Watching You\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_York_Times\" title=\"The New York Times\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"623c682760636b635e0bd6f2cf164389\">The New York Times<\/a><\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=At+Newark+Airport%2C+the+Lights+Are+On%2C+and+They%27re+Watching+You&rft.date=2014-02-18&rft.aulast=Cardwell&rft.aufirst=Diane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2014%2F02%2F18%2Fbusiness%2Fat-newark-airport-the-lights-are-on-and-theyre-watching-you.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-171\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-171\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Hardy, Quentin (4 February 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/bits.blogs.nytimes.com\/2015\/02\/04\/tim-oreilly-explains-the-internet-of-things\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tim O'Reilly Explains the Internet of Things\"<\/a>. <i>The New York Times Bits<\/i>. The New York Times<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 May<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times+Bits&rft.atitle=Tim+O%27Reilly+Explains+the+Internet+of+Things&rft.date=2015-02-04&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=Quentin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbits.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2015%2F02%2F04%2Ftim-oreilly-explains-the-internet-of-things%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-172\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-172\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Webb, Geoff (5 February 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/2015\/02\/say-goodbye-to-privacy\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Say Goodbye to Privacy\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WIRED\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"WIRED\" data-key=\"183cd68776f226afff1d272825630829\">WIRED<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 February<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WIRED&rft.atitle=Say+Goodbye+to+Privacy&rft.date=2015-02-05&rft.aulast=Webb&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2015%2F02%2Fsay-goodbye-to-privacy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-173\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-173\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Crump, Catherine; Harwood, Matthew (25 March 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tomdispatch.com\/post\/175822\/tomgram%3A_crump_and_harwood%2C_the_net_closes_around_us\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Net Closes Around Us\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tom_Engelhardt\" title=\"Tom Engelhardt\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a16fd436a5886ccb060ebd7e4fb62a8c\">TomDispatch<\/a><\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TomDispatch&rft.atitle=The+Net+Closes+Around+Us&rft.date=2014-03-25&rft.aulast=Crump&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft.au=Harwood%2C+Matthew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tomdispatch.com%2Fpost%2F175822%2Ftomgram%253A_crump_and_harwood%252C_the_net_closes_around_us%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-174\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-174\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Brown, Ian (12 February 2013). \"Britain's Smart Meter Programme: A Case Study in Privacy by Design\". <i>International Review of Law, Computers & Technology<\/i>. <b>28<\/b> (2): 172\u2013184. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F13600869.2013.801580\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/13600869.2013.801580<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_Science_Research_Network\" title=\"Social Science Research Network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faf9d44135e3fc6107b00574c00f06ae\">SSRN<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=2215646\" target=\"_blank\">2215646<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Review+of+Law%2C+Computers+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=Britain%27s+Smart+Meter+Programme%3A+A+Case+Study+in+Privacy+by+Design&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=172-184&rft.date=2013-02-12&rft_id=%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D2215646&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13600869.2013.801580&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-bcs.org-175\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-bcs.org_175-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-bcs.org_175-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bcs.org\/upload\/pdf\/societal-impact-report-feb13.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Societal Impact of the Internet of Things\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>British Computer Society<\/i>. 14 February 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Including Special sections: Cyber-enabled Distributed Computing for Ubiquitous Cloud and Network Services & Cloud Computing and Scientific Applications \u2014 Big Data, Scalable Analytics, and Beyond. <b>29<\/b> (7): 1645\u20131660. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv\" title=\"ArXiv\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b604eac0fe0659f490c93649bb7700\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1207.0203\" target=\"_blank\">1207.0203<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.future.2013.01.010\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.future.2013.01.010<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Future+Generation+Computer+Systems&rft.atitle=Internet+of+Things+%28IoT%29%3A+A+vision%2C+architectural+elements%2C+and+future+directions&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1645-1660&rft.date=2013-09-01&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1207.0203&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.future.2013.01.010&rft.aulast=Gubbi&rft.aufirst=Jayavardhana&rft.au=Buyya%2C+Rajkumar&rft.au=Marusic%2C+Slaven&rft.au=Palaniswami%2C+Marimuthu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0167739X13000241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AcharjyaRecognizing17-177\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AcharjyaRecognizing17_177-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Acharjya, D.P.; Ahmed, N.S.S. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=4UW4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA149\" target=\"_blank\">\"Recognizing Attacks in Wireless Sensor Network in View of Internet of Things\"<\/a>. In Acharjya, D.P.; Geetha, M.K. <i>Internet of Things: Novel Advances and Envisioned Applications<\/i>. Springer. pp. 149\u201350. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783319534725.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Recognizing+Attacks+in+Wireless+Sensor+Network+in+View+of+Internet+of+Things&rft.btitle=Internet+of+Things%3A+Novel+Advances+and+Envisioned+Applications&rft.pages=149-50&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9783319534725&rft.au=Acharjya%2C+D.P.&rft.au=Ahmed%2C+N.S.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4UW4DgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HussainEnergy17-178\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HussainEnergy17_178-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Hussain, A. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Energy+Consumption+of+Wireless+IoT+Nodes&rft.pub=Norwegian+University+of+Science+and+Technology&rft.date=2017-06&rft.au=Hussain%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrage.bibsys.no%2Fxmlui%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F11250%2F2458157%2F17677_FULLTEXT.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-179\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-179\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Singh, Jatinder; Pasquier, Thomas; Bacon, Jean; Ko, Hajoon; Eyers, David (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/xpl\/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=7165580\" target=\"_blank\">\"Twenty Cloud Security Considerations for Supporting the Internet of Things\"<\/a>. <i>IEEE Internet of Things Journal<\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (3): 1. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FJIOT.2015.2460333\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/JIOT.2015.2460333<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Internet+of+Things+Journal&rft.atitle=Twenty+Cloud+Security+Considerations+for+Supporting+the+Internet+of+Things&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FJIOT.2015.2460333&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Jatinder&rft.au=Pasquier%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Bacon%2C+Jean&rft.au=Ko%2C+Hajoon&rft.au=Eyers%2C+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpl%2FarticleDetails.jsp%3Farnumber%3D7165580&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-forbes-180\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-forbes_180-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-forbes_180-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Clearfield, Chris. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/chrisclearfield\/2013\/09\/18\/why-the-ftc-cant-regulate-the-internet-of-things\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why The FTC Can't Regulate The Internet Of Things\"<\/a>. <i>Forbes<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 June<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=Why+The+FTC+Can%27t+Regulate+The+Internet+Of+Things&rft.aulast=Clearfield&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fchrisclearfield%2F2013%2F09%2F18%2Fwhy-the-ftc-cant-regulate-the-internet-of-things%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-tinker-181\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-tinker_181-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-tinker_181-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Feamster, Nick (18 February 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/freedom-to-tinker.com\/2017\/02\/18\/mitigating-the-increasing-risks-of-an-insecure-internet-of-things\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Mitigating the Increasing Risks of an Insecure Internet of Things\"<\/a>. 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Syngress. p. 4. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780128045053.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction%3A+Securing+the+Internet+of+Things&rft.btitle=Securing+the+Internet+of+Things&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Syngress&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780128045053&rft.au=Li%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuW1_CwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPAPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-183\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-183\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.businessinsider.in\/We-Asked-Executives-About-The-Internet-Of-Things-And-Their-Answers-Reveal-That-Security-Remains-A-Huge-Concern\/articleshow\/45959921.cms\" target=\"_blank\">\"We Asked Executives About The Internet Of Things And Their Answers Reveal That Security Remains A Huge Concern\"<\/a>. <i>Business Insider<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 June<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=We+Asked+Executives+About+The+Internet+Of+Things+And+Their+Answers+Reveal+That+Security+Remains+A+Huge+Concern&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.in%2FWe-Asked-Executives-About-The-Internet-Of-Things-And-Their-Answers-Reveal-That-Security-Remains-A-Huge-Concern%2Farticleshow%2F45959921.cms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-184\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-184\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Clearfield, Christopher (26 June 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blogs.hbr.org\/2013\/06\/rethinking-security-for-the-in\" target=\"_blank\">\"Rethinking Security for the Internet of Things\"<\/a>. <i>Harvard Business Review Blog<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Business+Review+Blog&rft.atitle=Rethinking+Security+for+the+Internet+of+Things&rft.date=2013-06-26&rft.aulast=Clearfield&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.hbr.org%2F2013%2F06%2Frethinking-security-for-the-in&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:5-185\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:5_185-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:5_185-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Bastos, D.; Shackleton, M.; El-Moussa, F. (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/mr.crossref.org\/iPage?doi=10.1049%2Fcp.2018.0030\" target=\"_blank\">\"Internet of Things: A Survey of Technologies and Security Risks in Smart Home and City Environments\"<\/a>. <i>Living in the Internet of Things: Cybersecurity of the IoT \u2013 2018<\/i>. Institution of Engineering and Technology. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1049%2Fcp.2018.0030\" target=\"_blank\">10.1049\/cp.2018.0030<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781785618437.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Living+in+the+Internet+of+Things%3A+Cybersecurity+of+the+IoT+%E2%80%93+2018&rft.atitle=Internet+of+Things%3A+A+Survey+of+Technologies+and+Security+Risks+in+Smart+Home+and+City+Environments&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1049%2Fcp.2018.0030&rft.isbn=9781785618437&rft.aulast=Bastos&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Shackleton%2C+M.&rft.au=El-Moussa%2C+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmr.crossref.org%2FiPage%3Fdoi%3D10.1049%252Fcp.2018.0030&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-186\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-186\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">A. Witkovski; A. O. Santin; J. E. Marynowski; V. Abreu Jr. (December 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/294889554\" target=\"_blank\"><i>2015 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM)<\/i><\/a>. IEEE Globecom. pp. 1\u20136. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FGLOCOM.2014.7417597\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/GLOCOM.2014.7417597<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-4799-5952-5.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=2015+IEEE+Global+Communications+Conference+%28GLOBECOM%29&rft.pages=1-6&rft.pub=IEEE+Globecom&rft.date=2016-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FGLOCOM.2014.7417597&rft.isbn=978-1-4799-5952-5&rft.au=A.+Witkovski&rft.au=A.+O.+Santin&rft.au=J.+E.+Marynowski&rft.au=V.+Abreu+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F294889554&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-187\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-187\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Steinberg, Joseph (27 January 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/josephsteinberg\/2014\/01\/27\/these-devices-may-be-spying-on-you-even-in-your-own-home\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"These Devices May Be Spying On You (Even In Your Own Home)\"<\/a>. <i>Forbes<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 May<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=These+Devices+May+Be+Spying+On+You+%28Even+In+Your+Own+Home%29&rft.date=2014-01-27&rft.aulast=Steinberg&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fjosephsteinberg%2F2014%2F01%2F27%2Fthese-devices-may-be-spying-on-you-even-in-your-own-home%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-188\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-188\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Andy_Greenberg\" title=\"Andy Greenberg\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4aca4b55582e75ea9d3cec205dac5842\">Greenberg, Andy<\/a> (21 July 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/2015\/07\/hackers-remotely-kill-jeep-highway\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hackers Remotely Kill a Jeep on the Highway\u2014With Me in It\"<\/a>. <i>Wired<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 July<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=Hackers+Remotely+Kill+a+Jeep+on+the+Highway%E2%80%94With+Me+in+It&rft.date=2015-07-21&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2015%2F07%2Fhackers-remotely-kill-jeep-highway%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-189\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-189\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Maras, M.-H. (2015-04-07). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/idpl\/article-abstract\/5\/2\/99\/645234?redirectedFrom=fulltext\" target=\"_blank\">\"Internet of Things: security and privacy implications\"<\/a>. <i>International Data Privacy Law<\/i>. <b>5<\/b> (2): 99\u2013104. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093%2Fidpl%2Fipv004\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/idpl\/ipv004<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2044-3994\" target=\"_blank\">2044-3994<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Data+Privacy+Law&rft.atitle=Internet+of+Things%3A+security+and+privacy+implications&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=99-104&rft.date=2015-04-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fidpl%2Fipv004&rft.issn=2044-3994&rft.aulast=Maras&rft.aufirst=M.-H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fidpl%2Farticle-abstract%2F5%2F2%2F99%2F645234%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-190\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-190\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><i>Scientific American<\/i>, April 2015, p.68.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-191\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-191\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Loukas, George (June 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?id=2818550\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Cyber-Physical Attacks A growing invisible threat<\/i><\/a>. Oxford, UK: Butterworh-Heinemann (Elsevier). p. 65. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780128012901.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cyber-Physical+Attacks+A+growing+invisible+threat&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Butterworh-Heinemann+%28Elsevier%29&rft.date=2015-06&rft.isbn=9780128012901&rft.aulast=Loukas&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdl.acm.org%2Fcitation.cfm%3Fid%3D2818550&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-192\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-192\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Liu, Ximeng; Yang, Yang; Choo, Kim-Kwang Raymond; Wang, Huaqun (2018-09-24). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2018\/9373961\" target=\"_blank\">\"Security and Privacy Challenges for Internet-of-Things and Fog Computing\"<\/a>. <i>Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing<\/i>. <b>2018<\/b>: 1\u20133. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155%2F2018%2F9373961\" target=\"_blank\">10.1155\/2018\/9373961<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1530-8669\" target=\"_blank\">1530-8669<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wireless+Communications+and+Mobile+Computing&rft.atitle=Security+and+Privacy+Challenges+for+Internet-of-Things+and+Fog+Computing&rft.volume=2018&rft.pages=1-3&rft.date=2018-09-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2018%2F9373961&rft.issn=1530-8669&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Ximeng&rft.au=Yang%2C+Yang&rft.au=Choo%2C+Kim-Kwang+Raymond&rft.au=Wang%2C+Huaqun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1155%2F2018%2F9373961&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-193\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-193\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/fas.org\/irp\/nic\/disruptive.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Disruptive Technologies Global Trends 2025\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>National Intelligence Council (NIC)<\/i>. April 2008. p. 27.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Intelligence+Council+%28NIC%29&rft.atitle=Disruptive+Technologies+Global+Trends+2025&rft.pages=27&rft.date=2008-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Firp%2Fnic%2Fdisruptive.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-194\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-194\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Ackerman, Spencer (15 March 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/dangerroom\/2012\/03\/petraeus-tv-remote\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"CIA Chief: We'll Spy on You Through Your Dishwasher\"<\/a>. <i>WIRED<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 June<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WIRED&rft.atitle=CIA+Chief%3A+We%27ll+Spy+on+You+Through+Your+Dishwasher&rft.date=2012-03-15&rft.aulast=Ackerman&rft.aufirst=Spencer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fdangerroom%2F2012%2F03%2Fpetraeus-tv-remote%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-195\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-195\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Woolf, Nicky (26 October 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2016\/oct\/26\/ddos-attack-dyn-mirai-botnet\" target=\"_blank\">\"DDoS attack that disrupted internet was largest of its kind in history, experts say\"<\/a>. <i>The Guardian<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=DDoS+attack+that+disrupted+internet+was+largest+of+its+kind+in+history%2C+experts+say&rft.date=2016-10-26&rft.aulast=Woolf&rft.aufirst=Nicky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2016%2Foct%2F26%2Fddos-attack-dyn-mirai-botnet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:2-196\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_196-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_196-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_196-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_196-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_196-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Antonakakis, Manos; April, Tim; Bailey, Michael; Bernhard, Matt; Bursztein, Elie; Cochran, Jaime; Durumeric, Zakir; Halderman, J. Alex; Invernizzi, Luca (August 18, 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.usenix.org\/system\/files\/conference\/usenixsecurity17\/sec17-antonakakis.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Understanding the Mirai Botnet<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Usenix<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-931971-40-9<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">May 13,<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+the+Mirai+Botnet&rft.date=2017-08-18&rft.isbn=978-1-931971-40-9&rft.aulast=Antonakakis&rft.aufirst=Manos&rft.au=April%2C+Tim&rft.au=Bailey%2C+Michael&rft.au=Bernhard%2C+Matt&rft.au=Bursztein%2C+Elie&rft.au=Cochran%2C+Jaime&rft.au=Durumeric%2C+Zakir&rft.au=Halderman%2C+J.+Alex&rft.au=Invernizzi%2C+Luca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usenix.org%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Fconference%2Fusenixsecurity17%2Fsec17-antonakakis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-197\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-197\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/boingboing.net\/2017\/05\/03\/bad-design-thinking.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The \"anti-patterns\" that turned the IoT into the Internet of Shit \/ Boing Boing\"<\/a>. <i>boingboing.net<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=boingboing.net&rft.atitle=The+%22anti-patterns%22+that+turned+the+IoT+into+the+Internet+of+Shit+%2F+Boing+Boing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fboingboing.net%2F2017%2F05%2F03%2Fbad-design-thinking.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-198\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-198\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Ali, Junade (2 May 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.cloudflare.com\/iot-security-anti-patterns\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"IoT Security Anti-Patterns\"<\/a>. <i>Cloudflare Blog<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cloudflare+Blog&rft.atitle=IoT+Security+Anti-Patterns&rft.date=2017-05-02&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Junade&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.cloudflare.com%2Fiot-security-anti-patterns%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-199\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-199\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Schneier, Bruce (6 October 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.schneier.com\/essays\/archives\/2016\/10\/we_need_to_save_the_.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"We Need to Save the Internet from the Internet of Things\"<\/a>. <i>Motherboard<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Motherboard&rft.atitle=We+Need+to+Save+the+Internet+from+the+Internet+of+Things&rft.date=2016-10-06&rft.aulast=Schneier&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.schneier.com%2Fessays%2Farchives%2F2016%2F10%2Fwe_need_to_save_the_.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-200\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-200\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/geoffreyfowler\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/geoffreyfowler<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/technology\/2019\/01\/31\/doorbells-have-eyes-privacy-battle-brewing-over-home-security-cameras\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The doorbells have eyes: The privacy battle brewing over home security cameras\"<\/a>. <i>Washington Post<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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target=\"_blank\">\"Building the Web of Things \u2013 Mozilla Hacks \u2013 the Web developer blog\"<\/a>. <i>Mozilla Hacks \u2013 the Web developer blog<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mozilla+Hacks+%E2%80%93+the+Web+developer+blog&rft.atitle=Building+the+Web+of+Things+%E2%80%93+Mozilla+Hacks+%E2%80%93+the+Web+developer+blog&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhacks.mozilla.org%2F2017%2F06%2Fbuilding-the-web-of-things&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-202\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-202\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/kbvresearch.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Step Towards Innovation\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Step+Towards+Innovation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkbvresearch.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-203\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-203\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/kbvresearch.com\/global-iot-security-market\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Global IoT Security Market to reach a market size of $29.2 billion by 2022\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span 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target=\"_blank\">\"The Path To A Programmable World\"<\/a>. <i>Footnote<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 June<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Footnote&rft.atitle=The+Path+To+A+Programmable+World&rft.date=2014-06-11&rft.aulast=Littman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Kortchmar%2C+Samuel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffootnote1.com%2Fthe-path-to-a-programmable-world%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-The_Internet_of_Things_Could_Drown_Our_Environment_in_Gadgets-213\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-The_Internet_of_Things_Could_Drown_Our_Environment_in_Gadgets_213-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Finley, Klint (6 May 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/2014\/06\/green-iot\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Internet of Things Could Drown Our Environment in Gadgets\"<\/a>. <i>Wired<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=The+Internet+of+Things+Could+Drown+Our+Environment+in+Gadgets&rft.date=2014-05-06&rft.aulast=Finley&rft.aufirst=Klint&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2014%2F06%2Fgreen-iot%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RowlandDesigning15-214\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-RowlandDesigning15_214-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Light, A.; Rowland, C. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=PP1xCQAAQBAJ&pg=PASA10-PA69\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 11: Responsible IoT Design\"<\/a>. In Rowland, C.; Goodman, E.; Charlier, M.; et al. <i>Designing Connected Products: UX for the Consumer Internet of Things<\/i>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 March<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Every.+Thing.+Connected.+A+study+of+the+adoption+of+%27Internet+of+Things%27+among+Danish+companies&rft.pub=Ericsson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.di.dk%2FSiteCollectionDocuments%2FAnalyser%2FIoT_Report_onlineversion.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-extd-225\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-extd_225-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-extd_225-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-extd_225-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation arxiv\">Aleisa, Noura; Renaud, Karen; Jayawardena, Srimal (2016). \"Privacy of the Internet of Things: A Systematic Literature Review (Extended Discussion)\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv\" title=\"ArXiv\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b604eac0fe0659f490c93649bb7700\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1611.03340\" target=\"_blank\">1611.03340<\/a><\/span> [<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/archive\/cs.CY\" target=\"_blank\">cs.CY<\/a>].<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=Privacy+of+the+Internet+of+Things%3A+A+Systematic+Literature+Review+%28Extended+Discussion%29&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1611.03340&rft.aulast=Aleisa&rft.aufirst=Noura&rft.au=Renaud%2C+Karen&rft.au=Jayawardena%2C+Srimal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-basen-226\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-basen_226-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Basenese, Louis (2015-12-21). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wallstreetdaily.com\/2015\/12\/21\/internet-of-things-future\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Best Play on the Internet of Things Trend\"<\/a>. <i>Wall Street Daily<\/i>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 March<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Business+Review&rft.atitle=Disruptive+Innovation%3A+Kodak%27s+Downfall+Wasn%27t+About+Technology&rft.date=2016-07-15&rft.aulast=Anthony&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhbr.org%2F2016%2F07%2Fkodaks-downfall-wasnt-about-technology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-230\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-230\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www3.weforum.org\/docs\/WEF_Technology_and_Innovation_The_Next_Economic_Growth_Engine.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"World Economic Forum: The Next Economic Growth Engine \u2013 Scaling Fourth Industrial Revolution Technologies in Production\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>World Economic Forum<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Economic+Forum&rft.atitle=World+Economic+Forum%3A+The+Next+Economic+Growth+Engine+%E2%80%93+Scaling+Fourth+Industrial+Revolution+Technologies+in+Production&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.weforum.org%2Fdocs%2FWEF_Technology_and_Innovation_The_Next_Economic_Growth_Engine.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-231\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-231\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Solaimani, Sam; Keijzer-Broers, Wally; Bouwman, Harry (2015-05-01). \"What we do \u2013 and don't \u2013 know about the Smart Home: An analysis of the Smart Home literature\". <i>Indoor and Built Environment<\/i>. <b>24<\/b> (3): 370\u2013383. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F1420326X13516350\" target=\"_blank\">10.1177\/1420326X13516350<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1420-326X\" target=\"_blank\">1420-326X<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indoor+and+Built+Environment&rft.atitle=What+we+do+%E2%80%93+and+don%27t+%E2%80%93+know+about+the+Smart+Home%3A+An+analysis+of+the+Smart+Home+literature&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=370-383&rft.date=2015-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1420326X13516350&rft.issn=1420-326X&rft.aulast=Solaimani&rft.aufirst=Sam&rft.au=Keijzer-Broers%2C+Wally&rft.au=Bouwman%2C+Harry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-232\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-232\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Westerlund, Mika; 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(2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=PP1xCQAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Designing Connected Products: UX for the Consumer Internet of Things<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly Media. p. 726. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781449372569.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Designing+Connected+Products%3A+UX+for+the+Consumer+Internet+of+Things&rft.pages=726&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781449372569&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPP1xCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Thomas, Jayant; Traukina, Alena (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Industrial-Internet-Application-Development-development-ebook\/dp\/B075V92JW7\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Industrial Internet Application Development: Simplify IIoT development using the elasticity of Public Cloud and Native Cloud Services<\/i><\/a>. Packt Publishing. p. 25. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1788298599.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Industrial+Internet+Application+Development%3A+Simplify+IIoT+development+using+the+elasticity+of+Public+Cloud+and+Native+Cloud+Services&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Packt+Publishing&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1788298599&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Jayant&rft.au=Traukina%2C+Alena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2FIndustrial-Internet-Application-Development-development-ebook%2Fdp%2FB075V92JW7%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Stephenson, W. David. (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.harpercollinsleadership.com\/9780814439777\/the-future-is-smart\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Future Is Smart: how your company can capitalize on the Internet of Things--and win in a connected economy<\/i><\/a>. HarperCollins Leadership. p. 250. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780814439777.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Future+Is+Smart%3A+how+your+company+can+capitalize+on+the+Internet+of+Things--and+win+in+a+connected+economy&rft.pages=250&rft.pub=HarperCollins+Leadership&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780814439777&rft.au=Stephenson%2C+W.+David.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.harpercollinsleadership.com%2F9780814439777%2Fthe-future-is-smart%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternet+of+things\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1320\nCached time: 20190403174307\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 2.244 seconds\nReal time usage: 2.433 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 12736\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 442013\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 6209\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 19\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 18\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 711699\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 7\/400\nLua time usage: 1.309\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6.74 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 2050.308 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>77.21% 1582.960 1 Template:Reflist\n27.61% 566.149 109 Template:Cite_web\n17.57% 360.139 51 Template:Cite_journal\n12.32% 252.673 45 Template:Cite_book\n 4.48% 91.953 19 Template:Cite_news\n 2.99% 61.381 2 Template:Cite_IETF\n 2.39% 48.914 1 Template:Expert_needed\n 2.31% 47.435 5 Template:Fix\n 2.05% 42.063 1 Template:Commons_category\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:12057519-1!canonical and timestamp 20190403174305 and revision id 890807001\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_of_things\" data-key=\"08e522f905854fe34747cc25ffb62f63\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203015\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.032 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.229 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 209.818 1 - wikipedia:Internet_of_things\n100.00% 209.818 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10701-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203015 and revision id 35088\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internet_of_things<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/ab\/Internet_of_Things.jpg\/440px-Internet_of_Things.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/87\/Nest_Learning_Thermostat_%28cropped%29.JPG\/440px-Nest_Learning_Thermostat_%28cropped%29.JPG","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/26\/Ring_video_doorbell.jpg\/440px-Ring_video_doorbell.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/4e\/August_2nd-gen_smart_lock.jpg\/440px-August_2nd-gen_smart_lock.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2e\/Variable_speed_limit_digital_speed_limit_sign.jpeg\/340px-Variable_speed_limit_digital_speed_limit_sign.jpe","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/f\/fb\/CPS_for_Manufacturing.png\/800px-CPS_for_Manufacturing.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9b\/Internet_of_Things.svg\/900px-Internet_of_Things.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/1c\/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg\/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/48\/WilliamRuhAtIEEETechIgnite2017.jpg\/440px-WilliamRuhAtIEEETechIgnite2017.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/20\/TownOfInternetOfThingsHangzhou.jpg\/440px-TownOfInternetOfThingsHangzhou.jpg"],"13e0b826fa1770fe4bea72e3cb942f0f_timestamp":1554323415,"4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_type":"article","4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_title":"Environmental monitoring","4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_monitoring","4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tEnvironmental monitoring\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tEnvironmental monitoring describes the processes and activities that need to take place to characterise and monitor the quality of the environment. Environmental monitoring is used in the preparation of environmental impact assessments, as well as in many circumstances in which human activities carry a risk of harmful effects on the natural environment.\nAll monitoring strategies and programmes have reasons and justifications which are often designed to establish the current status of an environment or to establish trends in environmental parameters. In all cases the results of monitoring will be reviewed, analysed statistically and published. The design of a monitoring programme must therefore have regard to the final use of the data before monitoring starts.\n\n<\/p>\nContents \n\n1 Air quality monitoring \n\n1.1 Air sampling \n\n\n2 Soil monitoring \n\n2.1 Soil sampling \n2.2 Monitoring programs \n\n2.2.1 Soil contamination monitoring \n2.2.2 Soil erosion monitoring \n2.2.3 Soil salinity monitoring \n\n\n\n\n3 Water quality monitoring \n\n3.1 Design of environmental monitoring programmes \n3.2 Parameters \n\n3.2.1 Chemical \n3.2.2 Biological \n3.2.3 Radiological \n3.2.4 Microbiological \n3.2.5 Populations \n\n\n3.3 Monitoring programmes \n3.4 Environmental monitoring data management systems \n3.5 Sampling methods \n\n3.5.1 Judgmental sampling \n3.5.2 Simple random sampling \n3.5.3 Stratified sampling \n3.5.4 Systematic and grid sampling \n3.5.5 Adaptive cluster sampling \n3.5.6 Grab samples \n3.5.7 Semi-continuous monitoring and continuous \n3.5.8 Passive sampling \n3.5.9 Remote surveillance \n3.5.10 Remote sensing \n3.5.11 Bio-monitoring \n3.5.12 Other sampling methods \n\n\n3.6 Data interpretations \n3.7 Environmental quality indices \n\n\n4 See also \n5 References \n\n\nAir quality monitoring \n Air quality monitoring station\nFurther information: Air quality index, Continuous emissions monitoring system, Particulate matter sampler, and Portable emissions measurement system\nAir pollutants are atmospheric substances\u2014both naturally occurring and anthropogenic\u2014which may potentially have a negative impact on the environment and organism health. With the evolution of new chemicals and industrial processes has come the introduction or elevation of pollutants in the atmosphere, as well as environmental research and regulations, increasing the demand for air quality monitoring.[1]\nAir quality monitoring is challenging to enact as it requires the effective integration of multiple environmental data sources, which often originate from different environmental networks and institutions.[2] These challenges require specialized observation equipment and tools to establish air pollutant concentrations, including sensor networks, geographic information system (GIS) models, and the Sensor Observation Service (SOS), a web service for querying real-time sensor data.[2] Air dispersion models that combine topographic, emissions, and meteorological data to predict air pollutant concentrations are often helpful in interpreting air monitoring data. Additionally, consideration of anemometer data in the area between sources and the monitor often provides insights on the source of the air contaminants recorded by an air pollution monitor.\nAir quality monitors are operated by citizens[3][4][5], regulatory agencies[6][7], and researchers[8] to investigate air quality and the effects of air pollution. Interpretation of ambient air monitoring data often involves a consideration of the spatial and temporal representativeness[9] of the data gathered, and the health effects associated with exposure to the monitored levels.[10] If the interpretation reveals concentrations of multiple chemical compounds, a unique \"chemical fingerprint\" of a particular air pollution source may emerge from analysis of the data.[11]\n\nAir sampling \nPassive or \"diffusive\" air sampling depends on meteorological conditions such as wind to diffuse air pollutants to a sorbent medium. Passive samplers have the advantage of typically being small, quiet, and easy to deploy, and they are particularly useful in air quality studies that determine key areas for future continuous monitoring.[12] \nAir pollution can also be assessed by biomonitoring with organisms that bioaccumulate air pollutants, such as lichens, mosses, fungi, and other biomass.[13][14] One of the benefits of this type of sampling is how quantitative information can be obtained via measurements of accumulated compounds, representative of the environment from which they came. However, careful considerations must be made in choosing the particular organism, how it's dispersed, and relevance to the pollutant.[14]\nOther sampling methods include the use of a denuder[15][16], needle trap devices, and microextraction techniques.[17]\n\nSoil monitoring \n Collecting a soil sample in Mexico for pathogen testing\nFurther information: Environmental soil science\nSoil monitoring involves the collection and\/or analysis of soil and its associated quality, constituents, and physical status to determine or guarantee its fitness for use. Soil faces many threats, including compaction, contamination, organic material loss, biodiversity loss, slope stability issues, erosion, salinization, and acidification. Soil monitoring helps characterize these and other potential risks to the soil, surrounding environments, animal health, and human health.[18]\nAssessing these and other risks to soil can be challenging due to a variety of factors, including soil's heterogeneity and complexity, scarcity of toxicity data, lack of understanding of a contaminant's fate, and variability in levels of soil screening.[18] This requires a risk assessment approach and analysis techniques that prioritize environmental protection, risk reduction, and, if necessary, remediation methods.[18] Soil monitoring plays a significant role in that risk assessment, not only aiding in the identification of at-risk and affected areas but also in the establishment of base background values of soil.[18]\nSoil monitoring has historically focused on more classical conditions and contaminants, including toxic elements (e.g., mercury, lead, and arsenic) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs).[18] Historically, testing for these and other aspects of soil, however, has had its own set of challenges, as sampling in most cases is of a destructive in nature, requiring multiple samples over time. Additionally, procedural and analytical errors may be introduced due to variability among references and methods, particularly over time.[19] However, as analytical techniques evolve and new knowledge about ecological processes and contaminant effects disseminate, the focus of monitoring will likely broaden over time and the quality of monitoring will continue to improve.[18] \n\nSoil sampling \nThe two primary types of soil sampling are grab sampling and composite sampling. Grab sampling involves the collection of an individual sample at a specific time and place, while composite sampling involves the collection of a homogenized mixture of multiple individual samples at either a specific place over different times or multiple locations at a specific time.[20] Soil sampling may occur both at shallow ground levels or deep in the ground, with collection methods varying by level collected from. Scoops, augers, core barrel and solid-tube samplers, and other tools are used shallow, whereas split-tube, solid-tube, or hydraulic methods may be used in deep ground.[21]\n\nMonitoring programs \n A portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyzer can be used in the field for testing soils for metal contamination\nSoil contamination monitoring \nFurther information: Soil contamination\nSoil contamination monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in contaminant deposition, movement, and effect. Human-based pressures such as tourism, industrial activity, urban sprawl, construction work, and inadequate agriculture\/forestry practices can contribute to and make worse soil contamination and lead to the soil becoming unfit for its intended use. Both inorganic and organic pollutants may make their way to the soil, having a wide variety of detrimental effects. Soil contamination monitoring is therefor important to identify risk areas, set baselines, and identify contaminated zones for remediation. Monitoring efforts may range from local farms to nationwide efforts, such as those made by China in the late 2000s[18], providing details such as the nature of contaminants, their quantity, effects, concentration patterns, and remediation feasibility.[22] Monitoring and analytical equipment will ideally will have high response times, high levels of resolution and automation, and a certain degree of self-sufficiency.[23] Chemical techniques may be used to measure toxic elements and POPs using chromatography and spectrometry, geophysical techniques may assess physical properties of large terrains, and biological techniques may use specific organisms to gauge not only contaminant level but also byproducts of contaminant biodegradation. These techniques and others are increasingly becoming more efficient, and laboratory instrumentation is becoming more precise, resulting in more meaningful monitoring outcomes.[24]\n\nSoil erosion monitoring \nFurther information: Soil erosion\nSoil erosion monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil and sediment movement. Monitoring programs have varied over the years, from long-term academic research on university plots to reconnaissance-based surveys of biogeoclimatic areas. In most methods, however, the general focus is on identifying and measuring all the dominant erosion processes in a given area.[25] Additionally, soil erosion monitoring may attempt to quantify the effects of erosion on crop productivity, though challenging \"because of the many complexities in the relationship between soils and plants and their management under a variable climate.\"[26]\n\nSoil salinity monitoring \nFurther information: Soil salinity\nSoil salinity monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil salt content. Both the natural process of seawater intrusion and the human-induced processes of inappropriate soil and water management can lead to salinity problems in soil, with up to one billion hectares of land affected globally (as of 2013).[27] Salinity monitoring at the local level may look closely at the root zone to gauge salinity impact and develop management options, where at the regional and national level salinity monitoring may help with identifying areas at-risk and aiding policymakers in tackling the issue before it spreads.[27] The monitoring process itself may be performed using technologies such as remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) to identify salinity via greenness, brightness, and whiteness at the surface level. Direct analysis of soil up close, including the use of electromagnetic induction techniques, may also be used to monitor soil salinity.[27]\n\nWater quality monitoring \n Electrofishing survey methods use a mild electric shock to temporarily stun fish for capture, identification and counting. The fish are then returned to the water unharmed.\nDesign of environmental monitoring programmes \nWater quality monitoring is of little use without a clear and unambiguous definition of the reasons for the monitoring and the objectives that it will satisfy. Almost all monitoring (except perhaps remote sensing) is in some part invasive of the environment under study and extensive and poorly planned monitoring carries a risk of damage to the environment. This may be a critical consideration in wilderness areas or when monitoring very rare organisms or those that are averse to human presence. Some monitoring techniques, such as gill netting fish to estimate populations, can be very damaging, at least to the local population and can also degrade public trust in scientists carrying out the monitoring.\nAlmost all mainstream environmentalism monitoring projects form part of an overall monitoring strategy or research field, and these field and strategies are themselves derived from the high levels objectives or aspirations of an organisation. Unless individual monitoring projects fit into a wider strategic framework, the results are unlikely to be published and the environmental understanding produced by the monitoring will be lost.[28][29]\n\nParameters \nsee also Freshwater environmental quality parameters\n\nChemical \n Analyzing water samples for pesticides\nThe range of chemical parameters that have the potential to affect any ecosystem is very large and in all monitoring programmes it is necessary to target a suite of parameters based on local knowledge and past practice for an initial review. The list can be expanded or reduced based on developing knowledge and the outcome of the initial surveys.\nFreshwater environments have been extensively studied for many years and there is a robust understanding of the interactions between chemistry and the environment across much of the world. However, as new materials are developed and new pressures come to bear, revisions to monitoring programmes will be required. In the last 20 years acid rain, synthetic hormone analogues, halogenated hydrocarbons, greenhouse gases and many others have required changes to monitoring strategies.\n\nBiological \nIn ecological monitoring, the monitoring strategy and effort is directed at the plants and animals in the environment under review and is specific to each individual study.\nHowever, in more generalised environmental monitoring, many animals act as robust indicators of the quality of the environment that they are experiencing or have experienced in the recent past.[30] One of the most familiar examples is the monitoring of numbers of Salmonid fish such as brown trout or Atlantic salmon in river systems and lakes to detect slow trends in adverse environmental effects. The steep decline in salmonid fish populations was one of the early indications of the problem that later became known as acid rain.\nIn recent years much more attention has been given to a more holistic approach in which the ecosystem health is assessed and used as the monitoring tool itself.[31] It is this approach that underpins the monitoring protocols of the Water Framework Directive in the European Union.\n\nRadiological \nRadiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to ionizing radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results.[32] The \u2018measurement\u2019 of dose often means the measurement of a dose equivalent quantity as a proxy (i.e. substitute) for a dose quantity that cannot be measured directly. Also, sampling may be involved as a preliminary step to measurement of the content of radionuclides in environmental media. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of monitoring programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of facility are given in IAEA Safety Guide RS\u2013G-1.8[33] and in IAEA Safety Report No. 64.[34]\nRadiation monitoring is often carried out using networks of fixed and deployable sensors such as the US Environmental Protection Agency's Radnet and the SPEEDI network in Japan. Airborne surveys are also made by organizations like the Nuclear Emergency Support Team.\n\nMicrobiological \nBacteria and viruses are the most commonly monitored groups of microbiological organisms and even these are only of great relevance where water in the aquatic environment is subsequently used as drinking water or where water contact recreation such as swimming or canoeing is practised.\nAlthough pathogens are the primary focus of attention, the principal monitoring effort is almost always directed at much more common indicator species such as Escherichia coli[35], supplemented by overall coliform bacteria counts. The rationale behind this monitoring strategy is that most human pathogens originate from other humans via the sewage stream. Many sewage treatment plants have no sterilisation final stage and therefore discharge an effluent which, although having a clean appearance, still contains many millions of bacteria per litre, the majority of which are relatively harmless coliform bacteria. Counting the number of harmless (or less harmful) sewage bacteria allows a judgement to be made about the probability of significant numbers of pathogenic bacteria or viruses being present. Where E. coli or coliform levels exceed pre-set trigger values, more intensive monitoring including specific monitoring for pathogenic species is then initiated.\n\nPopulations \nMonitoring strategies can produce misleading answers when relaying on counts of species or presence or absence of particular organisms if there is no regard to population size. Understanding the populations dynamics of an organism being monitored is critical.\nAs an example if presence or absence of a particular organism within a 10 km square is the measure adopted by a monitoring strategy, then a reduction of population from 10,000 per square to 10 per square will go unnoticed despite the very significant impact experienced by the organism.\n\nMonitoring programmes \nAll scientifically reliable environmental monitoring is performed in line with a published programme. The programme may include the overall objectives of the organisation, references to the specific strategies that helps deliver the objective and details of specific projects or tasks within those strategies. However the key feature of any programme is the listing of what is being monitored and how that monitoring is to take place and the time-scale over which it should all happen. Typically, and often as an appendix, a monitoring programme will provide a table of locations, dates and sampling methods that are proposed and which, if undertaken in full, will deliver the published monitoring programme.\nThere are a number of commercial software packages which can assist with the implementation of the programme, monitor its progress and flag up inconsistencies or omissions but none of these can provide the key building block which is the programme itself.\n\nEnvironmental monitoring data management systems \nGiven the multiple types and increasing volumes and importance of monitoring data, commercial software Environmental Data Management Systems (EDMS) or E-MDMS are increasingly in common use by regulated industries. They provide a means of managing all monitoring data in a single central place. Quality validation, compliance checking, verifying all data has been received, and sending alerts are generally automated. Typical interrogation functionality enables comparison of data sets both temporarily and spatially. They will also generate regulatory and other reports.\nOne formal certification scheme exists specifically for environmental data management software. This is provided by the Environment Agency in the U.K. under its Monitoring Certification Scheme (MCERTS).[36][37][38]\n\nSampling methods \nThere are a wide range of sampling methods which depend on the type of environment, the material being sampled and the subsequent analysis of the sample.\nAt its simplest a sample can be filling a clean bottle with river water and submitting it for conventional chemical analysis. At the more complex end, sample data may be produced by complex electronic sensing devices taking sub-samples over fixed or variable time periods.\n\nJudgmental sampling \nIn judgmental sampling, the selection of sampling units (i.e., the number and location and\/or timing of collecting samples) is based on knowledge of the feature or condition under investigation and on professional judgment. Judgmental sampling is distinguished from probability-based sampling in that inferences are based on professional judgment, not statistical scientific theory. Therefore, conclusions about the target population are limited and depend entirely on the validity and accuracy of professional judgment; probabilistic statements about parameters are not possible. As described in subsequent chapters, expert judgment may also be used in conjunction with other sampling designs to produce effective sampling for defensible decisions.[39]\n\nSimple random sampling \nIn simple random sampling, particular sampling units (for example, locations and\/or times) are selected using random numbers, and all possible selections of a given number of units are equally likely. For example, a simple random sample of a set of drums can be taken by numbering all the drums and randomly selecting numbers from that list or by sampling an area by using pairs of random coordinates. This method is easy to understand, and the equations for determining sample size are relatively straightforward. An example is shown in Figure 2-2. This figure illustrates a possible simple random sample for a square area of soil. Simple random sampling is most useful when the population of interest is relatively homogeneous; i.e., no major patterns of contamination or \u201chot spots\u201d are expected. The main advantages of this design are:\n\nIt provides statistically unbiased estimates of the mean, proportions, and variability.\nIt is easy to understand and easy to implement.\nSample size calculations and data analysis are very straightforward.\nIn some cases, implementation of a simple random sample can be more difficult than some other types of designs (for example, grid samples) because of the difficulty of precisely identifying random geographic locations. Additionally, simple random sampling can be more costly than other plans if difficulties in obtaining samples due to location causes an expenditure of extra effort.[39]\n\nStratified sampling \nIn stratified sampling, the target population is separated into non-overlapping strata, or subpopulations that are known or thought to be more homogeneous (relative to the environmental medium or the contaminant), so that there tends to be less variation among sampling units in the same stratum than among sampling units in different strata. Strata may be chosen on the basis of spatial or temporal proximity of the units, or on the basis of preexisting information or professional judgment about the site or process. Advantages of this sampling design are that it has potential for achieving greater precision in estimates of the mean and variance, and that it allows computation of reliable estimates for population subgroups of special interest. Greater precision can be obtained if the measurement of interest is strongly correlated with the variable used to make the strata.[39]\n\nSystematic and grid sampling \nIn systematic and grid sampling, samples are taken at regularly spaced intervals over space or time. An initial location or time is chosen at random, and then the remaining sampling locations are defined so that all locations are at regular intervals over an area (grid) or time (systematic). Examples Systematic Grid Sampling - Square Grid Systematic Grid Sampling - Triangular Grids of systematic grids include square, rectangular, triangular, or radial grids.\nCressie, 1993. In random systematic sampling, an initial sampling location (or time) is chosen at random and the remaining sampling sites are specified so that they are located according to a regular pattern. Random systematic sampling is used to search for hot spots and to infer means, percentiles, or other parameters and is also useful for estimating spatial patterns or trends over time. This design provides a practical and easy method for designating sample locations and ensures uniform coverage of a site, unit, or process.[39]\nRanked set sampling is an innovative design that can be highly useful and cost efficient in obtaining better estimates of mean concentration levels in soil and other environmental media by explicitly incorporating the professional judgment of a field investigator or a field screening measurement method to pick specific sampling locations in the field. Ranked set sampling uses a two-phase sampling design that identifies sets of field locations, utilizes inexpensive measurements to rank locations within each set, and then selects one location from each set for sampling. In ranked set sampling, m sets (each of size r) of field locations are identified using simple random sampling. The locations are ranked independently within each set using professional judgment or inexpensive, fast, or surrogate measurements. One sampling unit from each set is then selected (based on the observed ranks) for subsequent measurement using a more accurate and reliable (hence, more expensive) method for the contaminant of interest. Relative to simple random sampling, this design results in more representative samples and so leads to more precise estimates of the population parameters. Ranked set sampling is useful when the cost of locating and ranking locations in the field is low compared to laboratory measurements. It is also appropriate when an inexpensive auxiliary variable (based on expert knowledge or measurement) is available to rank population units with respect to the variable of interest. To use this design effectively, it is important that the ranking method and analytical method are strongly correlated.[39]\n\nAdaptive cluster sampling \nIn adaptive cluster sampling, samples are taken using simple random sampling, and additional samples are taken at locations where measurements exceed some threshold value. Several additional rounds of sampling and analysis may be needed. Adaptive cluster sampling tracks the selection probabilities for later phases of sampling so that an unbiased estimate of the population mean can be calculated despite oversampling of certain areas. An example application of adaptive cluster sampling is delineating the borders of a plume of contamination. Adaptive sampling is useful for estimating or searching for rare characteristics in a population and is appropriate for inexpensive, rapid measurements. It enables delineating the boundaries of hot spots, while also using all data collected with appropriate weighting to give unbiased estimates of the population mean.[39][40]\n\nGrab samples \n Collecting a grab sample on a stream\nGrab samples are samples taken of a homogeneous material, usually water, in a single vessel. Filling a clean bottle with river water is a very common example. Grab samples provide a good snap-shot view of the quality of the sampled environment at the point of sampling and at the time of sampling. Without additional monitoring, the results cannot be extrapolated to other times or to other parts of the river, lake or ground-water.[40]:3 \nIn order to enable grab samples or rivers to be treated as representative, repeat transverse and longitudinal transect surveys taken at different times of day and times of year are required to establish that the grab-sample location is as representative as is reasonably possible. For large rivers such surveys should also have regard to the depth of the sample and how to best manage the sampling locations at times of flood and drought.[40]:8\u20139 \n\n A rosette sampler used for ocean monitoring\nIn lakes grab samples are relatively simple to take using depth samplers which can be lowered to a pre-determined depth and then closed trapping a fixed volume of water from the required depth. In all but the shallowest lakes, there are major changes in the chemical composition of lake water at different depths, especially during the summer months when many lakes stratify into a warm, well oxygenated upper layer (epilimnion) and a cool de-oxygenated lower layer (hypolimnion).\nIn the open seas marine environment grab samples can establish a wide range of base-line parameters such as salinity and a range of cation and anion concentrations. However, where changing conditions are an issue such as near river or sewage discharges, close to the effects of volcanism or close to areas of freshwater input from melting ice, a grab sample can only give a very partial answer when taken on its own.\n\nSemi-continuous monitoring and continuous \n An automated sampling station and data logger (to record temperature, specific conductance, and dissolved oxygen levels)\nThere is a wide range of specialized sampling equipment available that can be programmed to take samples at fixed or variable time intervals or in response to an external trigger. For example, a sampler can be programmed to start taking samples of a river at 8 minute intervals when the rainfall intensity rises above 1 mm \/ hour. The trigger in this case may be a remote rain gauge communicating with the sampler by using cell phone or meteor burst[41] technology. Samplers can also take individual discrete samples at each sampling occasion or bulk up samples into composite so that in the course of one day, such a sampler might produce 12 composite samples each composed of 6 sub-samples taken at 20 minute intervals.\nContinuous or quasi-continuous monitoring involves having an automated analytical facility close to the environment being monitored so that results can, if required, be viewed in real time. Such systems are often established to protect important water supplies such as in the River Dee regulation system but may also be part of an overall monitoring strategy on large strategic rivers where early warning of potential problems is essential. Such systems routinely provide data on parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, turbidity and colour but it is also possible to operate gas liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry technologies (GLC\/MS) to examine a wide range of potential organic pollutants. In all examples of automated bank-side analysis there is a requirement for water to be pumped from the river into the monitoring station. Choosing a location for the pump inlet is equally as critical as deciding on the location for a river grab sample. The design of the pump and pipework also requires careful design to avoid artefacts being introduced through the action of pumping the water. Dissolved oxygen concentration is difficult to sustain through a pumped system and GLC\/MS facilities can detect micro-organic contaminants from the pipework and glands.\n\nPassive sampling \nMain article: Passive sampling\nThe use of passive samplers greatly reduces the cost and the need of infrastructure on the sampling location. Passive samplers are semi-disposable and can be produced at a relatively low cost, thus they can be employed in great numbers, allowing for a better cover and more data being collected. Due to being small the passive sampler can also be hidden, and thereby lower the risk of vandalism. Examples of passive sampling devices are the diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) sampler, Chemcatcher, Polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS), semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs), stabilized liquid membrane devices (SLMDs), and an air sampling pump.\n\nRemote surveillance \nAlthough on-site data collection using electronic measuring equipment is common-place, many monitoring programmes also use remote surveillance and remote access to data in real time. This requires the on-site monitoring equipment to be connected to a base station via either a telemetry network, land-line, cell phone network or other telemetry system such as Meteor burst. The advantage of remote surveillance is that many data feeds can come into a single base station for storing and analysis. It also enable trigger levels or alert levels to be set for individual monitoring sites and\/or parameters so that immediate action can be initiated if a trigger level is exceeded. The use of remote surveillance also allows for the installation of very discrete monitoring equipment which can often be buried, camouflaged or tethered at depth in a lake or river with only a short whip aerial protruding. Use of such equipment tends to reduce vandalism and theft when monitoring in locations easily accessible by the public.\n\nRemote sensing \nMain article: Remote sensing\nEnvironmental remote sensing uses aircraft or satellites to monitor the environment using multi-channel sensors.\nThere are two kinds of remote sensing. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors and in environmental remote sensing, the sensors used are tuned to specific wavelengths from far infrared through visible light frequencies to the far ultraviolet. The volumes of data that can be collected are very large and require dedicated computational support . The output of data analysis from remote sensing are false colour images which differentiate small differences in the radiation characteristics of the environment being monitored. With a skilful operator choosing specific channels it is possible to amplify differences which are imperceptible to the human eye. In particular it is possible to discriminate subtle changes in chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b concentrations in plants and show areas of an environment with slightly different nutrient regimes.\nActive remote sensing emits energy and uses a passive sensor to detect and measure the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. LIDAR is often used to acquire information about the topography of an area, especially when the area is large and manual surveying would be prohibitively expensive or difficult.\nRemote sensing makes it possible to collect data on dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoring deforestation in areas such as the Amazon Basin, the effects of climate change on glaciers and Arctic and Antarctic regions, and depth sounding of coastal and ocean depths.\nOrbital platforms collect and transmit data from different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, which in conjunction with larger scale aerial or ground-based sensing and analysis, provides information to monitor trends such as El Ni\u00f1o and other natural long and short term phenomena. Other uses include different areas of the earth sciences such as natural resource management, land use planning and conservation.[42]\n\nBio-monitoring \nMain article: Biomonitoring\nThe use of living organisms as monitoring tools has many advantages. Organisms living in the environment under study are constantly exposed to the physical, biological and chemical influences of that environment. Organisms that have a tendency to accumulate chemical species can often accumulate significant quantities of material from very low concentrations in the environment. Mosses have been used by many investigators to monitor heavy metal concentrations because of their tendency to selectively adsorb heavy metals.[43][44]\nSimilarly, eels have been used to study halogenated organic chemicals, as these are adsorbed into the fatty deposits within the eel.[45]\n\nOther sampling methods \nEcological sampling requires careful planning to be representative and as noninvasive as possible. For grasslands and other low growing habitats the use of a quadrat \u2013 a 1-metre square frame \u2013 is often used with the numbers and types of organisms growing within each quadrat area counted[46]\nSediments and soils require specialist sampling tools to ensure that the material recovered is representative. Such samplers are frequently designed to recover a specified volume of material and may also be designed to recover the sediment or soil living biota as well[47] such as the Ekman grab sampler.\n\nData interpretations \nThe interpretation of environmental data produced from a well designed monitoring programme is a large and complex topic addressed by many publications. Regrettably it is sometimes the case that scientists approach the analysis of results with a pre-conceived outcome in mind and use or misuse statistics to demonstrate that their own particular point of view is correct.\nStatistics remains a tool that is equally easy to use or to misuse to demonstrate the lessons learnt from environmental monitoring.\n\nEnvironmental quality indices \nSince the start of science-based environmental monitoring, a number of quality indices have been devised to help classify and clarify the meaning of the considerable volumes of data involved. Stating that a river stretch is in \"Class B\" is likely to be much more informative than stating that this river stretch has a mean BOD of 4.2, a mean dissolved oxygen of 85%, etc. In the UK the Environment Agency formally employed a system called General Quality Assessment (GQA) which classified rivers into six quality letter bands from A to F based on chemical criteria[48] and on biological criteria.[49] The Environment Agency and its devolved partners in Wales (Countryside Council for Wales, CCW) and Scotland (Scottish Environmental Protection Agency, SEPA) now employ a system of biological, chemical and physical classification for rivers and lakes that corresponds with the EU Water Framework Directive. [50]\n\nSee also \nCarbon monitoring\nCarbon profiling\nCrowdmapping\nUnmanned aerial vehicle \u00a7 Applications: drones can be used for various types of environmental monitoring\nReferences \n\n\n^ Forbes, P.B.C. (2015). \"Chapter 1: Perspectives on the Monitoring of Air Pollutants\". In Barcelo, D. Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. 70. Elsevier. pp. 3\u20139. ISBN 9780444635532. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b Rada, E.C.; Ragazzi, M.; Brini, M.; et al. (2016). \"Chapter 1: Perspectives of Low-Cost Sensors Adoption for Air Quality Monitoring\". In Ragazzi, M. Air Quality: Monitoring, Measuring, and Modeling Environmental Hazards. CRC Press. ISBN 9781315341859. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ Williams, R.; Kilaru, V.; Snyder, E.; et al. (June 2014). \"Air Sensor Guidebook\" (PDF) . U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. p. 65. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"GO3 Project\". GO3 Foundation. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"Louisiana Bucket Brigade\". Louisiana Bucket Brigade. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"List of Designated Reference and Equivalent Methods\" (PDF) . 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(2015). \"Chapter 2: Passive Diffusion Sampling Devices for Monitoring Ambient Air Concentrations\". In Barcelo, D. Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. 70. Elsevier. pp. 13\u201352. ISBN 9780444635532. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ Garty, J (2001). \"Biomonitoring Atmospheric Heavy Metals with Lichens: Theory and Application\". Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences. 20 (4). \n\n^ a b Forbes, P.B.C.; van der Wat, L.; Kroukamp, E.M. (2015). \"Chapter 3: Biomonitors\". In Barcelo, D. Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. 70. Elsevier. pp. 53\u2013107. ISBN 9780444635532. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ Forbes, P.B.C.; Rohwer, E.R. (2015). \"Chapter 5: Denuders\". In Barcelo, D. Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. 70. Elsevier. pp. 155\u2013181. ISBN 9780444635532. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"Elemental, Particulate, and Reactive Gaseous Mercury Monitoring\". NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, Global Monitoring Division. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ Grandy, J.; Asl-Hariri, S.; Paliszyn, J. (2015). \"Chapter 7: Novel and Emerging Air-Sampling Devices\". In Barcelo, D. Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. 70. Elsevier. pp. 208\u2013237. ISBN 9780444635532. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d e f g Cachada, A.; Rocha-Santos, T.; Duarte, A.C. (2017). \"Chapter 1: Soil and Pollution: An Introduction to the Main Issues\". Soil Pollution: From Monitoring to Remediation. Academic Press. pp. 1\u201328. ISBN 9780128498729. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ Dubois, J.P.; Schulin, R. (1993). \"Sampling and Analytical Techniques as Limiting Factors in Soil Monitoring\". In Schulin, R.; Webster, R.; Desaules, A.; von Steiger, B. Soil Monitoring: Early Detection and Surveying of Soil Contamination and Degradation. Springer Basel. pp. 271\u20136. ISBN 9783034875424. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ Harter, T. (2008). \"Chapter 8: Water Sampling and Monitoring\". In Harter, T.; Rollins, L. Watersheds, Groundwater and Drinking Water: A Practical Guide. UCANR Publications. pp. 113\u201338. ISBN 9781879906815. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ Byrnes, M.E. (2008). Field Sampling Methods for Remedial Investigations. CRC Press. pp. 128\u2013148. ISBN 9781420059151. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ Mirsal, I. (2013). Soil Pollution: Origin, Monitoring & Remediation. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 172\u20134. ISBN 9783662054000. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ Kot-Wasik, A.; Namie\u015bnik, J. (2007). \"Some Advances in Environmental Analytics and Monitoring\". In Twardowska, I.; Allen, H.E.; H\u00e4ggblom, M.M. Soil and Water Pollution Monitoring, Protection and Remediation. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 161\u2013174. ISBN 9781402047282. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ Aelion, C.M. (2009). \"Soil Contamination Monitoring\". In Inyang, H.I.; Daniels, J.L. Environmental Monitoring. 2. EOLSS Publications. pp. 148\u201374. ISBN 9781905839766. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ Owens, P.N.; Collins, A.J. (2006). \"Chapter 28: Soil Erosion and Sediment Redistribution in River Catchments: Summary, Outlook and Future Requirements\". Soil Erosion and Sediment Redistribution in River Catchments: Measurement, Modelling And Management. CABI International. pp. 297\u2013318. ISBN 9780851990507. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ Pierce, F.J.; Lai, R. (1994). \"Chapter 10: Monitoring soil erosion's impact on crop productivity\". In Lai, R. Soil Erosion Research Methods. Soil and Water Conservation Society and St. Lucie Press. ISBN 9781351415965. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b c Shahid, S.A. (2013). \"Chapter 1: Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment, Modeling, Mapping, and Monitoring from Regional to Submicroscopic Scales\". In Shahid, S.A.; Abdelfattah, M.A.; Taha, F.K. Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment and Reclamation: Innovative Thinking and Use of Marginal Soil and Water Resources in Irrigated Agriculture. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 3\u201344. ISBN 9789400756847. Retrieved 30 May 2018 . \n\n^ United Nations Environment Programme. Mineral Resources Forum. \"General guideline for an environmental monitoring programme.\"[dead link ] \n\n^ Stribling J. B. & Davie S.R., \"Design of an environmental monitoring programme for the Lake Allatoona\/Upper Etowah river watershed.\" Proceedings of the 2005 Georgia Water Resources Conference, April 25\u201327, 2005. \n\n^ Hart, C.W.; Fuller, Samuel F.J. (1974). Pollution Ecology of Freshwater Invertebrates. New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-328450-3. \n\n^ Wrona, F. J.; Cash, K. J., 1996, \"The ecosystem approach to environmental assessment: moving from theory to practice.\" Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Health. Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISSN 0925-1014 \n\n^ International Atomic Energy Agency (2007). IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology Used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection (PDF) . Vienna: IAEA. ISBN 92-0-100707-8. \n\n^ International Atomic Energy Agency (2005). Environmental and Source Monitoring for Purposes of Radiation Protection, IAEA Safety Standards Series No. RS\u2013G-1.8 (PDF) . Vienna: IAEA. \n\n^ International Atomic Energy Agency (2010). Programmes and Systems for Source and Environmental Radiation Monitoring. Safety Reports Series No. 64. Vienna: IAEA. p. 234. ISBN 978-92-0-112409-8. \n\n^ \"A Guide to Environmental DNA (eDNA) by Biomeme\". Biomeme. \n\n^ Environment Agency (December 2017). \"MCERTS: Quality and performance standards for environmental data management software\". GOV.UK. p. 55. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ Environment Agency (9 February 2017). \"Monitoring emissions to air, land and water (MCERTS)\". GOV.UK. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"MCERTS Certified Products\". CSA Group. Retrieved 31 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d e f \"Guidance on Choosing a Sampling Design for Environmental Data Collection for Use in Developing a Quality Assurance Project Plan EPA QA\/G-5S\" (PDF) . United States Environmental Protection Agency. October 2002. Retrieved 21 April 2017 . This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. \n\n^ a b c Nollet, Leo M.L., ed. (2000). Handbook of Water Analysis. New York: Marcel Dekker. ISBN 0-8247-8433-2. \n\n^ \nShaw, Elizabeth M. (1984). \"Book reviews: 'Proceedings of the International Symposium on Hydrometeorology' edited by A.I. Johnson & R.A. Clark\" (PDF) . Hydrological Sciences Journal. 29 (4): 462\u2013463. ISSN 0262-6667. \n\n^ Short, Nicholas M., Sr. \"Remote Sensing Tutorial.\" Archived 2009-10-27 at the Wayback Machine U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Greenbelt, MD. 2009-09-23. \n\n^ Pott, U. & Turpin, D. H. (1998). \"Assessment of Atmospheric Heavy Metals by Moss Monitoring with Isothecium Stoloniferum Brid. in the Fraser Valley, B.C., Canada.\" Water, Air, & Soil Pollution. Vol. 101, Nos. 1\u20134, January 1998, ISSN 0049-6979. \n\n^ Bragazzaa, Marchesinia, Alberb, Bonettic, Lorenzonic, Achillid, Buffonid, De Marcoe, Franchif, Pisonf, Giaquintag, Palmierih Spezzano (2000). \"Monitoring of heavy metal deposition in Northern Italy by moss analysis.\" Environmental Pollution, Vol. 108, No. 2, pp 201\u2013208. \n\n^ C. Belpaire and G. Goemans, \"Eels: contaminant cocktails pinpointing environmental contamination.\" ICES J. Mar. Sci. 64: 1423\u20131436. \n\n^ Offwell Woodland & Wildlife Trust. Devon, UK. \"Ecological Sampling Methods.\" Accessed 2009-10-21. \n\n^ Csuros, Csaba; Csuros, Maria (2002). Environmental sampling and analysis for metals. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-56670-572-1. \n\n^ Environment Agency, UK. Chemistry classification method \n\n^ Environment Agency. General quality assessment of rivers \u2013 biology \n\n^ European Union Water Framework Directive, EU WFD \n\n\n\r\n\n\nvteAquatic ecosystemsAquatic ecosystems \u2013 general and freshwater componentsGeneral\nAcoustic ecology\nAdaptation\nAgent-based models\nAlgal bloom\nAnoxic waters\nAquatic animals (Insects\nMammals)\nAquatic plants\nAquatic science\nBenthos\nBiodiversity research\nBioluminescence\nBiomass\nBiomonitoring\nCascade effect\nColored dissolved organic matter\nCamouflage and mimicry\nDead zone\nEcohydrology\nEcosystems\nEutrophication\nFisheries science\nFood chain\nFood web\nGIS and aquatic science\nHydrobiology\nHypoxia\nIsotope analysis\nMicrobial ecology\nMicrobial food web\nMicrobial loop\nNekton\nNeuston\nParticle\nPelagic zone\nPhotic zone\nPhytoplankton\nPlankton\nPleuston\nPredation\nProductivity\nRamsar Convention\nRespiration\nSchooling\nSediment trap\nSiltation\nSpawning\nSubstrate\nThermal pollution\nToxicology\nTrophic level\nWater column\nZooplankton\nMore...\nFreshwater\nBiology\nBiomes\nEcosystems\nfreshwater\nlake\nriver\nFish\nHyporheic zone\nLimnology\nLake stratification\nMacrophyte\nPond\nFish pond\nRheotaxis\nStream bed\nStream pool\nTrophic state index\nUpland and lowland\nWater garden\nWetland\nbrackish marsh\nfreshwater marsh\nswamp\nbog\nfen\nEnvironmental quality\nMore...\nEcoregions\nFreshwater (List)\nMarine (List)\nThe Everglades\nMaharashtra\nThe North Pacific Subtropical Gyre\nThe San Francisco Estuary\nAquatic ecosystems \u2013 marine componentsMarine\nMarine biology\nMarine chemistry\nDeep scattering layer\nDiel vertical migration\nEcosystems\nlarge marine\nmarine)\nf-ratio\nIron fertilization\nMarine snow\nOcean nourishment\nOceanic physical-biological process\nOcean turbidity\nPhotophore\nThorson's rule\nUpwelling\nWhale fall\nMore...\nMarine\r\nlife\nBacteriophages\nCensus\nFish\ncoastal\ncoral reef\ndeep sea\ndemersal\npelagic\nDeep sea communities\nDeep sea creature\nDeep-water coral\nInvertebrates\nLarvae\nMammals\nMarine life\nMicroorganisms\nParadox of the plankton\nReptiles\nSeabirds\nSeashore wildlife\nVertebrates\nWild fisheries\nMarine\r\nhabitats\nBay mud\nCoastal biogeomorphology\nCold seeps\nCoral reefs\nDavidson Seamount\nEstuaries\nIntertidal ecology\nIntertidal wetlands\nKelp forests\nHydrothermal vents\nLagoons\nMangroves\nMarine biomes\nMarine habitats\nMudflats\nRocky shores\nSalt marshes\nSalt pannes and pools\nSeagrass meadows\nSponge grounds\nSponge reefs\nTide pools\nIssues\nCoral bleaching\nEcological values of mangroves\nFisheries and climate change\nHERMIONE\nMarine conservation\nMarine conservation activism\nMarine pollution\nMarine Protected Area\n\n Portal\n\nvtePollutionAir pollution\nAcid rain\nAir quality index\nAtmospheric dispersion modeling\nChlorofluorocarbon\nIndoor air quality\nGlobal dimming\nGlobal distillation\nGlobal warming\nOzone depletion\nAtmospheric particulate matter\nSmog\nWater pollution\nEnvironmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products\nEnvironmental impact of shipping\nEnvironmental monitoring\nEutrophication\nFreshwater environmental quality parameters\nGroundwater pollution\nHypoxia\nMarine debris\nMarine pollution\nNutrient pollution\nOcean acidification\nOil spill\nSeptic tank\nSurface runoff\nThermal pollution\nTurbidity\nUrban runoff\nWastewater\nWater quality\nWater stagnation\nWaterborne diseases\nSoil contamination\nBioremediation\nElectrical resistance heating\nHerbicide\nOpen defecation\nPesticide\nPhytoremediation\nSoil Guideline Values (SGVs)\nRadioactive contamination\nActinides in the environment\nBioremediation of radioactive waste\nEnvironmental radioactivity\nFission product\nNuclear fallout\nPlutonium in the environment\nRadiation poisoning\nRadium in the environment\nUranium in the environment\nOther types of pollution\nLand degradation\nLight pollution\nPollution from nanomaterials\nNoise pollution\nRadio spectrum pollution\nUrban heat island\nVisual pollution\nInter-government treaties\nBasel Convention\nCLRTAP\nKyoto Protocol\nMARPOL Convention\nMontreal Protocol\nOSPAR\nRotterdam Convention\nStockholm Convention\nMajor organizations\nBasel Action Network\nCentral Pollution Control Board (India)\nDEFRA\nEnvironment Agency (England)\nScottish Environment Protection Agency\nU.S. EPA\nEuropean Environment Agency\nGreenpeace\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_monitoring\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_monitoring<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Science termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation 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LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Environmental_monitoring skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Environmental monitoring<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Environmental monitoring<\/b> describes the processes and activities that need to take place to characterise and monitor the quality of the environment. Environmental monitoring is used in the preparation of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_impact_assessment\" title=\"Environmental impact assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22131ac74a6b3f2c36b036b90d29a84f\">environmental impact assessments<\/a>, as well as in many circumstances in which human activities carry a risk of harmful effects on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_environment\" title=\"Natural environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6df22bcb227fd5b784896598d50389d7\">natural environment<\/a>.\n<p>All monitoring strategies and programmes have reasons and justifications which are often designed to establish the current status of an environment or to establish trends in environmental parameters. In all cases the results of monitoring will be reviewed, analysed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">statistically<\/a> and published. The design of a monitoring programme must therefore have regard to the final use of the data before monitoring starts.\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Air_quality_monitoring\">Air quality monitoring<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Perugia,_2012_-_Air_quality_monitoring_station.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"347ad9dba107ea2e9e2aefe43b5e04dc\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9e\/Perugia%2C_2012_-_Air_quality_monitoring_station.jpg\/220px-Perugia%2C_2012_-_Air_quality_monitoring_station.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"330\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Perugia,_2012_-_Air_quality_monitoring_station.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"347ad9dba107ea2e9e2aefe43b5e04dc\"><\/a><\/div>Air quality monitoring station<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_quality_index\" title=\"Air quality index\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df76e0a73a43819f452de47299a9ab0a\">Air quality index<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Continuous_emissions_monitoring_system\" title=\"Continuous emissions monitoring system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b4d3c12ff01cfba5a1841f0f1883f11\">Continuous emissions monitoring system<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particulate_matter_sampler\" title=\"Particulate matter sampler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bacfe747d2304b88b56051e46d5c24a\">Particulate matter sampler<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portable_emissions_measurement_system\" title=\"Portable emissions measurement system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52eea6c49c8b2b2acfcb5255ac33f485\">Portable emissions measurement system<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Air_pollution\" title=\"Air pollution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff93abe12fa3d63865b44e344db1d1bb\">Air pollutants<\/a> are atmospheric substances\u2014both naturally occurring and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_impact_on_the_environment\" title=\"Human impact on the environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1cc67a4cf7f17c0a5c3ced4a2edb85f8\">anthropogenic<\/a>\u2014which may potentially have a negative impact on the environment and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organism\" title=\"Organism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cef8762a7bb2e7279ba72134c53b5c13\">organism<\/a> health. With the evolution of new chemicals and industrial processes has come the introduction or elevation of pollutants in the atmosphere, as well as environmental research and regulations, increasing the demand for air quality monitoring.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesPerspect15_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesPerspect15-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Air quality monitoring is challenging to enact as it requires the effective integration of multiple environmental data sources, which often originate from different environmental networks and institutions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RadaPerspect16_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RadaPerspect16-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> These challenges require specialized observation equipment and tools to establish air pollutant concentrations, including sensor networks, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geographic_information_system\" title=\"Geographic information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f7f83dfa8233daf8b51ca1a9a13ac28\">geographic information system<\/a> (GIS) models, and the Sensor Observation Service (SOS), a web service for querying real-time sensor data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RadaPerspect16_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RadaPerspect16-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling\" title=\"Atmospheric dispersion modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32d9f7bd6af757db9ce26bb1a4b0623f\">Air dispersion models<\/a> that combine topographic, emissions, and meteorological data to predict air pollutant concentrations are often helpful in interpreting air monitoring data. Additionally, consideration of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anemometer\" title=\"Anemometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d6a9c1597b6df28b1be98f1d022ac2d\">anemometer<\/a> data in the area between sources and the monitor often provides insights on the source of the air contaminants recorded by an air pollution monitor.\n<\/p><p>Air quality monitors are operated by citizens<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilliamsAir14_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilliamsAir14-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GO3Home_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GO3Home-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LBBHome_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LBBHome-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>, regulatory agencies<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPAList16_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPAList16-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IrelandEPANational17_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IrelandEPANational17-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>, and researchers<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> to investigate air quality and the effects of air pollution. Interpretation of ambient air monitoring data often involves a consideration of the spatial and temporal representativeness<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> of the data gathered, and the health effects associated with exposure to the monitored levels.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> If the interpretation reveals concentrations of multiple chemical compounds, a unique \"chemical fingerprint\" of a particular air pollution source may emerge from analysis of the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPAReceptor_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPAReceptor-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Air_sampling\">Air sampling<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Passive or \"diffusive\" air sampling depends on meteorological conditions such as wind to diffuse air pollutants to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sorbent\" title=\"Sorbent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c21aeb165a53383034db67d7ddb5a92\">sorbent<\/a> medium. Passive samplers have the advantage of typically being small, quiet, and easy to deploy, and they are particularly useful in air quality studies that determine key areas for future continuous monitoring.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PienaarPassive15_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PienaarPassive15-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Air pollution can also be assessed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biomonitoring\" title=\"Biomonitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99ec7ea21b74b4378fe945f94e813ded\">biomonitoring<\/a> with organisms that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioaccumulation\" title=\"Bioaccumulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb77fbd7b9523306b127361251c7b15d\">bioaccumulate<\/a> air pollutants, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lichen\" title=\"Lichen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8b766c43ba30a5fb68bcf48586ab0c6\">lichens<\/a>, mosses, fungi, and other biomass.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesBiomon15_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesBiomon15-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> One of the benefits of this type of sampling is how quantitative information can be obtained via measurements of accumulated compounds, representative of the environment from which they came. However, careful considerations must be made in choosing the particular organism, how it's dispersed, and relevance to the pollutant.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesBiomon15_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesBiomon15-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other sampling methods include the use of a <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesDenuders15_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesDenuders15-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NOAAMerc_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NOAAMerc-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>, needle trap devices, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microextraction_by_packed_sorbent\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Microextraction by packed sorbent\" data-key=\"a9e9d3afed1c5b8a1941ae0c43641f79\">microextraction<\/a> techniques.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GrandyNovel15_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GrandyNovel15-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soil_monitoring\">Soil monitoring<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Soil_samples_(15083707144).jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1728941f76de9b099dfb092d6266476\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/59\/Soil_samples_%2815083707144%29.jpg\/220px-Soil_samples_%2815083707144%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"293\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Soil_samples_(15083707144).jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"d1728941f76de9b099dfb092d6266476\"><\/a><\/div>Collecting a soil sample in Mexico for pathogen testing<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_soil_science\" title=\"Environmental soil science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54f1467244d2162ffd3e71dabed4e30d\">Environmental soil science<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Soil monitoring involves the collection and\/or analysis of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil\" title=\"Soil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07af34ab9a16e0916f7657b56bc1e474\">soil<\/a> and its associated <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_quality\" title=\"Soil quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e96b35dad6a2da45dc88edcda572757\">quality<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil#Composition_of_soil_particles\" title=\"Soil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e977d5c26aa4e3301a78121795989232\">constituents<\/a>, and physical status to determine or guarantee its fitness for use. Soil faces many threats, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_compaction_(agriculture)\" title=\"Soil compaction (agriculture)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69d33858c54fafee85cf8b1117cf82f6\">compaction<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_contamination\" title=\"Soil contamination\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ffa53bc2835f564b612afecd087c8d\">contamination<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_organic_matter\" title=\"Soil organic matter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"806d25e8a8ab4e6b9e2f1ec96bf0bee2\">organic material<\/a> loss, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_biodiversity\" title=\"Soil biodiversity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a5f0b8bf6918deafa4f53abea423fa8\">biodiversity<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biodiversity_loss\" title=\"Biodiversity loss\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7da8cdf24bb4ac06785eccf0b8ad8d0f\">loss<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Slope_stability\" title=\"Slope stability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2360144820198aff0c21d243f6436dc4\">slope stability<\/a> issues, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_erosion\" title=\"Soil erosion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f1bac63af24988c8d3434efa3db2d2e\">erosion<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_salinity\" title=\"Soil salinity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c4f2f5b29fbeabd8d136db52b1fe8e4\">salinization<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_acidification\" title=\"Soil acidification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07c6250fae4e62fb55921c425a9ffca1\">acidification<\/a>. Soil monitoring helps characterize these and other potential risks to the soil, surrounding environments, animal health, and human health.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Assessing these and other risks to soil can be challenging due to a variety of factors, including soil's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity\" title=\"Homogeneity and heterogeneity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45849e882314b485dd488f487ff2c92b\">heterogeneity<\/a> and complexity, scarcity of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Toxicity\" title=\"Toxicity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf1493c55260ac89cbc289c48f5d047b\">toxicity<\/a> data, lack of understanding of a contaminant's fate, and variability in levels of soil screening.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_18-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> This requires a risk assessment approach and analysis techniques that prioritize environmental protection, risk reduction, and, if necessary, remediation methods.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_18-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> Soil monitoring plays a significant role in that risk assessment, not only aiding in the identification of at-risk and affected areas but also in the establishment of base background values of soil.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_18-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Soil monitoring has historically focused on more classical conditions and contaminants, including toxic elements (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mercury_(element)\" title=\"Mercury (element)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5de447275d55881acc7a43b155a6d03\">mercury<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lead\" title=\"Lead\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16836599a94bcaa7594a6d4378aed7f9\">lead<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arsenic\" title=\"Arsenic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86d8ce09585fca3e5e709dcb9b89a13e\">arsenic<\/a>) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Persistent_organic_pollutant\" title=\"Persistent organic pollutant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"212403a5dc3a1fe0de0524231d5bad9e\">persistent organic pollutants<\/a> (POPs).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_18-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> Historically, testing for these and other aspects of soil, however, has had its own set of challenges, as sampling in most cases is of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Destructive_testing\" title=\"Destructive testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37bdbef328a7f338ccc808ac3c6691a1\">destructive<\/a> in nature, requiring multiple samples over time. Additionally, procedural and analytical errors may be introduced due to variability among references and methods, particularly over time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DuboisSampling93_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DuboisSampling93-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> However, as analytical techniques evolve and new knowledge about ecological processes and contaminant effects disseminate, the focus of monitoring will likely broaden over time and the quality of monitoring will continue to improve.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_18-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soil_sampling\">Soil sampling<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The two primary types of soil sampling are grab sampling and composite sampling. Grab sampling involves the collection of an individual sample at a specific time and place, while composite sampling involves the collection of a homogenized mixture of multiple individual samples at either a specific place over different times or multiple locations at a specific time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HarterWater08_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HarterWater08-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> Soil sampling may occur both at shallow ground levels or deep in the ground, with collection methods varying by level collected from. Scoops, augers, core barrel and solid-tube samplers, and other tools are used shallow, whereas split-tube, solid-tube, or hydraulic methods may be used in deep ground.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ByrnesField08_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ByrnesField08-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Monitoring_programs\">Monitoring programs<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:20180221-OSEC-LSC-0056_(39518126925).jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f396769bf0340ca3b41c77a469739e4\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9e\/20180221-OSEC-LSC-0056_%2839518126925%29.jpg\/220px-20180221-OSEC-LSC-0056_%2839518126925%29.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:20180221-OSEC-LSC-0056_(39518126925).jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"1f396769bf0340ca3b41c77a469739e4\"><\/a><\/div>A portable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/X-ray_fluorescence\" title=\"X-ray fluorescence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"856c8bdcb1034681dbf2ccd5e7f1676c\">X-ray fluorescence<\/a> (XRF) analyzer can be used in the field for testing soils for metal contamination<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soil_contamination_monitoring\">Soil contamination monitoring<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_contamination\" title=\"Soil contamination\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1ffa53bc2835f564b612afecd087c8d\">Soil contamination<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Soil contamination monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in contaminant deposition, movement, and effect. Human-based pressures such as tourism, industrial activity, urban sprawl, construction work, and inadequate agriculture\/forestry practices can contribute to and make worse soil contamination and lead to the soil becoming unfit for its intended use. Both inorganic and organic pollutants may make their way to the soil, having a wide variety of detrimental effects. Soil contamination monitoring is therefor important to identify risk areas, set baselines, and identify contaminated zones for remediation. Monitoring efforts may range from local farms to nationwide efforts, such as those made by China in the late 2000s<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CachadaSoil17_18-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CachadaSoil17-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>, providing details such as the nature of contaminants, their quantity, effects, concentration patterns, and remediation feasibility.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MirsalSoil13_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MirsalSoil13-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> Monitoring and analytical equipment will ideally will have high response times, high levels of resolution and automation, and a certain degree of self-sufficiency.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KotWasikSome07_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KotWasikSome07-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> Chemical techniques may be used to measure toxic elements and POPs using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chromatography\" title=\"Chromatography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9fd89dfd6ca6b31e62d96ab8362fb537\">chromatography<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spectrometer\" title=\"Spectrometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"407611832b25b9df32ec0a38d4bd7b62\">spectrometry<\/a>, geophysical techniques may assess physical properties of large terrains, and biological techniques may use specific organisms to gauge not only contaminant level but also byproducts of contaminant biodegradation. These techniques and others are increasingly becoming more efficient, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8210956018cb8099c02d4932922f49c\">laboratory<\/a> instrumentation is becoming more precise, resulting in more meaningful monitoring outcomes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AelionSoil09_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AelionSoil09-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soil_erosion_monitoring\">Soil erosion monitoring<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_erosion\" title=\"Soil erosion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f1bac63af24988c8d3434efa3db2d2e\">Soil erosion<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Soil erosion monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil and sediment movement. Monitoring programs have varied over the years, from long-term academic research on university plots to reconnaissance-based surveys of biogeoclimatic areas. In most methods, however, the general focus is on identifying and measuring all the dominant erosion processes in a given area.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OwensSoil06_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OwensSoil06-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, soil erosion monitoring may attempt to quantify the effects of erosion on crop productivity, though challenging \"because of the many complexities in the relationship between soils and plants and their management under a variable climate.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PierveMontitor94_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PierveMontitor94-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Soil_salinity_monitoring\">Soil salinity monitoring<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil_salinity\" title=\"Soil salinity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c4f2f5b29fbeabd8d136db52b1fe8e4\">Soil salinity<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Soil salinity monitoring helps researchers identify patterns and trends in soil salt content. Both the natural process of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Saltwater_intrusion\" title=\"Saltwater intrusion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0b0f7b87ff4c82954c4e7688bd12727\">seawater intrusion<\/a> and the human-induced processes of inappropriate soil and water management can lead to salinity problems in soil, with up to one billion hectares of land affected globally (as of 2013).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShahidDevelop13_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShahidDevelop13-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> Salinity monitoring at the local level may look closely at the root zone to gauge salinity impact and develop management options, where at the regional and national level salinity monitoring may help with identifying areas at-risk and aiding policymakers in tackling the issue before it spreads.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShahidDevelop13_27-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShahidDevelop13-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> The monitoring process itself may be performed using technologies such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_sensing\" title=\"Remote sensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0550a7cb05977f16dc64ec22dd5822f\">remote sensing<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geographic_information_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Geographic information systems\" data-key=\"4a32518293ae8dd9d76fafebdb41a97d\">geographic information systems<\/a> (GIS) to identify salinity via greenness, brightness, and whiteness at the surface level. Direct analysis of soil up close, including the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromagnetic_induction\" title=\"Electromagnetic induction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b70d71029ccb827d5775db103f9190e\">electromagnetic induction<\/a> techniques, may also be used to monitor soil salinity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShahidDevelop13_27-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShahidDevelop13-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Water_quality_monitoring\">Water quality monitoring<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Anglers_using_backpack_electroshocker_to_capture_fish.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"73f13ea7fafadc25658a668c4537d70a\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/45\/Anglers_using_backpack_electroshocker_to_capture_fish.jpg\/220px-Anglers_using_backpack_electroshocker_to_capture_fish.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Anglers_using_backpack_electroshocker_to_capture_fish.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"73f13ea7fafadc25658a668c4537d70a\"><\/a><\/div><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrofishing\" title=\"Electrofishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47fc2abf7a23f0b1fe16fc9814d14d0b\">Electrofishing<\/a> survey methods use a mild electric shock to temporarily stun fish for capture, identification and counting. The fish are then returned to the water unharmed.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Design_of_environmental_monitoring_programmes\">Design of environmental monitoring programmes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_quality\" title=\"Water quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"779fe26ba1dc26d6e5a4018e9fcb49b6\">Water quality<\/a> monitoring is of little use without a clear and unambiguous definition of the reasons for the monitoring and the objectives that it will satisfy. Almost all monitoring (except perhaps <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_sensing\" title=\"Remote sensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0550a7cb05977f16dc64ec22dd5822f\">remote sensing<\/a>) is in some part invasive of the environment under study and extensive and poorly planned monitoring carries a risk of damage to the environment. This may be a critical consideration in wilderness areas or when monitoring very rare organisms or those that are averse to human presence. Some monitoring techniques, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gillnet\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gillnet\" data-key=\"d31d3211a4b476beed24506d8f93e560\">gill netting<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fish\" title=\"Fish\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbe2db3ab3335fb18520a22926a44cb1\">fish<\/a> to estimate populations, can be very damaging, at least to the local population and can also degrade public trust in scientists carrying out the monitoring.\n<\/p><p>Almost all mainstream environmentalism monitoring projects form part of an overall monitoring strategy or research field, and these field and strategies are themselves derived from the high levels objectives or aspirations of an organisation. Unless individual monitoring projects fit into a wider strategic framework, the results are unlikely to be published and the environmental understanding produced by the monitoring will be lost.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Parameters\">Parameters<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><i>see also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters\" title=\"Freshwater environmental quality parameters\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41f2b35e91a480b0be749488a8f295f5\">Freshwater environmental quality parameters<\/a><\/i>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Chemical\">Chemical<\/span><\/h4>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EPA_GULF_BREEZE_LABORATORY,_CHEMISTRY_LAB._THE_CHEMIST_IS_TESTING_WATER_SAMPLES_FOR_PESTICIDES_-_NARA_-_546277.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"e16559b78d89202f06cc5a82ee95e755\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/38\/EPA_GULF_BREEZE_LABORATORY%2C_CHEMISTRY_LAB._THE_CHEMIST_IS_TESTING_WATER_SAMPLES_FOR_PESTICIDES_-_NARA_-_546277.jpg\/220px-EPA_GULF_BREEZE_LABORATORY%2C_CHEMISTRY_LAB._THE_CHEMIST_IS_TESTING_WATER_SAMPLES_FOR_PESTICIDES_-_NARA_-_546277.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"149\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EPA_GULF_BREEZE_LABORATORY,_CHEMISTRY_LAB._THE_CHEMIST_IS_TESTING_WATER_SAMPLES_FOR_PESTICIDES_-_NARA_-_546277.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"e16559b78d89202f06cc5a82ee95e755\"><\/a><\/div>Analyzing water samples for pesticides<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The range of chemical parameters that have the potential to affect any ecosystem is very large and in all monitoring programmes it is necessary to target a suite of parameters based on local knowledge and past practice for an initial review. The list can be expanded or reduced based on developing knowledge and the outcome of the initial surveys.\n<\/p><p>Freshwater environments have been extensively studied for many years and there is a robust understanding of the interactions between chemistry and the environment across much of the world. However, as new materials are developed and new pressures come to bear, revisions to monitoring programmes will be required. In the last 20 years <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acid_rain\" title=\"Acid rain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c421b66baa6187ee2320005fa8b6a1aa\">acid rain<\/a>, synthetic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hormone\" title=\"Hormone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"947295f56751f591b427713a8653daca\">hormone<\/a> analogues, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Haloalkane\" title=\"Haloalkane\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd84acb3cd806440389c9802e55b2fac\">halogenated hydrocarbons<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Greenhouse_gas\" title=\"Greenhouse gas\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4a62342a91d473c5cd5cd896864fd78d\">greenhouse gases<\/a> and many others have required changes to monitoring strategies.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Biological\">Biological<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In ecological monitoring, the monitoring strategy and effort is directed at the plants and animals in the environment under review and is specific to each individual study.\n<\/p><p>However, in more generalised environmental monitoring, many animals act as robust indicators of the quality of the environment that they are experiencing or have experienced in the recent past.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> One of the most familiar examples is the monitoring of numbers of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Salmonid\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Salmonid\" data-key=\"7ecf073f9ed5bf0a3b79fdf5209f7ddc\">Salmonid<\/a> fish such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brown_trout\" title=\"Brown trout\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35149329812aa900af3d9ac7e94148c7\">brown trout<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atlantic_salmon\" title=\"Atlantic salmon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"095a7189647975360ae1834358213ac2\">Atlantic salmon<\/a> in river systems and lakes to detect slow trends in adverse environmental effects. The steep decline in salmonid fish populations was one of the early indications of the problem that later became known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acid_rain\" title=\"Acid rain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c421b66baa6187ee2320005fa8b6a1aa\">acid rain<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In recent years much more attention has been given to a more holistic approach in which the ecosystem health is assessed and used as the monitoring tool itself.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> It is this approach that underpins the monitoring protocols of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_Framework_Directive\" title=\"Water Framework Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb52525b96fd843374c94bf2abb30e48\">Water Framework Directive<\/a> in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Radiological\">Radiological<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radiation_monitoring\" title=\"Radiation monitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bf5692970b4cbd30863a136a92cdbc7\">Radiation monitoring<\/a> involves the measurement of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radiation_dose\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Radiation dose\" data-key=\"930168d8a538d3626411eee4a2ffbe49\">radiation dose<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radionuclide\" title=\"Radionuclide\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4afb418f4bec54b659bd7a59d5df7637\">radionuclide<\/a> contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ionizing_radiation\" title=\"Ionizing radiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9c8a741f44f97c559457fd8f300751b\">ionizing radiation<\/a> or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> The \u2018measurement\u2019 of dose often means the measurement of a dose equivalent quantity as a proxy (i.e. substitute) for a dose quantity that cannot be measured directly. Also, sampling may be involved as a preliminary step to measurement of the content of radionuclides in environmental media. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of monitoring programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of facility are given in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IAEA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IAEA\" data-key=\"af46075c4ca712687dc2219089801ab4\">IAEA<\/a> Safety Guide RS\u2013G-1.8<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> and in IAEA Safety Report No. 64.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Radiation monitoring is often carried out using networks of fixed and deployable sensors such as the US <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_Protection_Agency\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Environmental Protection Agency\" data-key=\"423c0f946b69c91d37835659bd9297ee\">Environmental Protection Agency<\/a>'s <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/radnet\/\" target=\"_blank\">Radnet<\/a> and the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bousai.ne.jp\/eng\/\" target=\"_blank\">SPEEDI<\/a> network in Japan. Airborne surveys are also made by organizations like the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nuclear_Emergency_Support_Team\" title=\"Nuclear Emergency Support Team\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37c237be4bf4c600e5315c177f5068bb\">Nuclear Emergency Support Team<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Microbiological\">Microbiological<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bacteria\" title=\"Bacteria\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d4a41314128003854212d9240bb8d56\">Bacteria<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virus\" title=\"Virus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0c053b17e1b20b7f5dde643374d2314\">viruses<\/a> are the most commonly monitored groups of microbiological organisms and even these are only of great relevance where water in the aquatic environment is subsequently used as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Drinking_water\" title=\"Drinking water\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9671ba78bf65520df6e161ac53ca118\">drinking water<\/a> or where water contact recreation such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_swimming\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Human swimming\" data-key=\"dfa7f4eb74162d673413a3aafdc3a024\">swimming<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Canoe\" title=\"Canoe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a414b97482d0777c9e5d2557907a8de\">canoeing<\/a> is practised.\n<\/p><p>Although <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pathogen\" title=\"Pathogen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b7e07b1ddf243781aa837db2568a967\">pathogens<\/a> are the primary focus of attention, the principal monitoring effort is almost always directed at much more common indicator species such as <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Escherichia_coli\" title=\"Escherichia coli\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcf48f970130ee1ba90ab42148fd709b\">Escherichia coli<\/a><\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup>, supplemented by overall <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coliform_bacteria\" title=\"Coliform bacteria\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc7e5a3945ce8d8f1d72764a0e4da43d\">coliform bacteria<\/a> counts. The rationale behind this monitoring strategy is that most human pathogens originate from other humans via the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sewage\" title=\"Sewage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a2b6f66b753d63387d8dfc30977453f\">sewage<\/a> stream. Many <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sewage_treatment\" title=\"Sewage treatment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3355009fe7057bf6763427d82844af92\">sewage treatment<\/a> plants have no <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disinfection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Disinfection\" data-key=\"d33af2ee32816778cab3a83d6f3f7d97\">sterilisation<\/a> final stage and therefore discharge an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Effluent\" title=\"Effluent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aaf1d3504e4a8663af4eb72b0af84e22\">effluent<\/a> which, although having a clean appearance, still contains many millions of bacteria per litre, the majority of which are relatively harmless coliform bacteria. Counting the number of harmless (or less harmful) sewage bacteria allows a judgement to be made about the probability of significant numbers of pathogenic bacteria or viruses being present. Where <i>E. coli<\/i> or coliform levels exceed pre-set trigger values, more intensive monitoring including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bacteriological_water_analysis\" title=\"Bacteriological water analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3445e3d17f876818905dc7facd58449f\">specific monitoring<\/a> for pathogenic species is then initiated.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Populations\">Populations<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Monitoring strategies can produce misleading answers when relaying on counts of species or presence or absence of particular organisms if there is no regard to population size. Understanding the populations dynamics of an organism being monitored is critical.\n<\/p><p>As an example if presence or absence of a particular organism within a 10 km square is the measure adopted by a monitoring strategy, then a reduction of population from 10,000 per square to 10 per square will go unnoticed despite the very significant impact experienced by the organism.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Monitoring_programmes\">Monitoring programmes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>All scientifically reliable environmental monitoring is performed in line with a published programme. The programme may include the overall objectives of the organisation, references to the specific strategies that helps deliver the objective and details of specific projects or tasks within those strategies. However the key feature of any programme is the listing of what is being monitored and how that monitoring is to take place and the time-scale over which it should all happen. Typically, and often as an appendix, a monitoring programme will provide a table of locations, dates and sampling methods that are proposed and which, if undertaken in full, will deliver the published monitoring programme.\n<\/p><p>There are a number of commercial <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a> packages which can assist with the implementation of the programme, monitor its progress and flag up inconsistencies or omissions but none of these can provide the key building block which is the programme itself.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Environmental_monitoring_data_management_systems\">Environmental monitoring data management systems<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Given the multiple types and increasing volumes and importance of monitoring data, commercial <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a> Environmental Data Management Systems (EDMS) or E-MDMS are increasingly in common use by regulated industries. They provide a means of managing all monitoring data in a single central place. Quality validation, compliance checking, verifying all data has been received, and sending alerts are generally automated. Typical interrogation functionality enables comparison of data sets both temporarily and spatially. They will also generate regulatory and other reports.\n<\/p><p>One formal certification scheme exists specifically for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_data\" title=\"Environmental data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e45425714879e66e66837c4c78555d1\">environmental data<\/a> management software. This is provided by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environment_Agency\" title=\"Environment Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17f9fe7cf3c0213c6c0a3bfc9574a0d5\">Environment Agency<\/a> in the U.K. under its <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Monitoring_Certification_Scheme\" title=\"Monitoring Certification Scheme\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5598744ee70e43c3f96f2b4717dae18d\">Monitoring Certification Scheme<\/a> (MCERTS).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GOVUK_MCERTS17_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GOVUK_MCERTS17-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GOVUK_Monitor17_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GOVUK_Monitor17-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CSA_MCERTS_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CSA_MCERTS-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sampling_methods\">Sampling methods<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There are a wide range of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sample_(material)\" title=\"Sample (material)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4a44ab1352639dbac19591fca854a841\">sampling<\/a> methods which depend on the type of environment, the material being sampled and the subsequent analysis of the sample.\n<\/p><p>At its simplest a sample can be filling a clean bottle with river water and submitting it for conventional chemical analysis. At the more complex end, sample data may be produced by complex electronic sensing devices taking sub-samples over fixed or variable time periods.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Judgmental_sampling\">Judgmental sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In judgmental sampling, the selection of sampling units (i.e., the number and location and\/or timing of collecting samples) is based on knowledge of the feature or condition under investigation and on professional judgment. Judgmental sampling is distinguished from probability-based sampling in that inferences are based on professional judgment, not statistical scientific theory. Therefore, conclusions about the target population are limited and depend entirely on the validity and accuracy of professional judgment; probabilistic statements about parameters are not possible. As described in subsequent chapters, expert judgment may also be used in conjunction with other sampling designs to produce effective sampling for defensible decisions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Simple_random_sampling\">Simple random sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In simple random sampling, particular sampling units (for example, locations and\/or times) are selected using random numbers, and all possible selections of a given number of units are equally likely. For example, a simple random sample of a set of drums can be taken by numbering all the drums and randomly selecting numbers from that list or by sampling an area by using pairs of random coordinates. This method is easy to understand, and the equations for determining sample size are relatively straightforward. An example is shown in Figure 2-2. This figure illustrates a possible simple random sample for a square area of soil. Simple random sampling is most useful when the population of interest is relatively homogeneous; i.e., no major patterns of contamination or \u201chot spots\u201d are expected. The main advantages of this design are:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>It provides statistically unbiased estimates of the mean, proportions, and variability.<\/li>\n<li>It is easy to understand and easy to implement.<\/li>\n<li>Sample size calculations and data analysis are very straightforward.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>In some cases, implementation of a simple random sample can be more difficult than some other types of designs (for example, grid samples) because of the difficulty of precisely identifying random geographic locations. Additionally, simple random sampling can be more costly than other plans if difficulties in obtaining samples due to location causes an expenditure of extra effort.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_39-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Stratified_sampling\">Stratified sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stratified_sampling\" title=\"Stratified sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"194eaa8c20ec2be4294e93e1dcfbb85b\">stratified sampling<\/a>, the target population is separated into non-overlapping strata, or subpopulations that are known or thought to be more homogeneous (relative to the environmental medium or the contaminant), so that there tends to be less variation among sampling units in the same stratum than among sampling units in different strata. Strata may be chosen on the basis of spatial or temporal proximity of the units, or on the basis of preexisting information or professional judgment about the site or process. Advantages of this sampling design are that it has potential for achieving greater precision in estimates of the mean and variance, and that it allows computation of reliable estimates for population subgroups of special interest. Greater precision can be obtained if the measurement of interest is strongly correlated with the variable used to make the strata.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_39-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Systematic_and_grid_sampling\">Systematic and grid sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In systematic and grid sampling, samples are taken at regularly spaced intervals over space or time. An initial location or time is chosen at random, and then the remaining sampling locations are defined so that all locations are at regular intervals over an area (grid) or time (systematic). Examples Systematic Grid Sampling - Square Grid Systematic Grid Sampling - Triangular Grids of systematic grids include square, rectangular, triangular, or radial grids.\nCressie, 1993. In random systematic sampling, an initial sampling location (or time) is chosen at random and the remaining sampling sites are specified so that they are located according to a regular pattern. Random systematic sampling is used to search for hot spots and to infer means, percentiles, or other parameters and is also useful for estimating spatial patterns or trends over time. This design provides a practical and easy method for designating sample locations and ensures uniform coverage of a site, unit, or process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_39-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Ranked set sampling is an innovative design that can be highly useful and cost efficient in obtaining better estimates of mean concentration levels in soil and other environmental media by explicitly incorporating the professional judgment of a field investigator or a field screening measurement method to pick specific sampling locations in the field. Ranked set sampling uses a two-phase sampling design that identifies sets of field locations, utilizes inexpensive measurements to rank locations within each set, and then selects one location from each set for sampling. In ranked set sampling, m sets (each of size r) of field locations are identified using simple random sampling. The locations are ranked independently within each set using professional judgment or inexpensive, fast, or surrogate measurements. One sampling unit from each set is then selected (based on the observed ranks) for subsequent measurement using a more accurate and reliable (hence, more expensive) method for the contaminant of interest. Relative to simple random sampling, this design results in more representative samples and so leads to more precise estimates of the population parameters. Ranked set sampling is useful when the cost of locating and ranking locations in the field is low compared to laboratory measurements. It is also appropriate when an inexpensive auxiliary variable (based on expert knowledge or measurement) is available to rank population units with respect to the variable of interest. To use this design effectively, it is important that the ranking method and analytical method are strongly correlated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_39-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Adaptive_cluster_sampling\">Adaptive cluster sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In adaptive <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_sampling\" title=\"Cluster sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"072ea568b3acee0f9550801822a02d35\">cluster sampling<\/a>, samples are taken using simple random sampling, and additional samples are taken at locations where measurements exceed some threshold value. Several additional rounds of sampling and analysis may be needed. Adaptive cluster sampling tracks the selection probabilities for later phases of sampling so that an unbiased estimate of the population mean can be calculated despite oversampling of certain areas. An example application of adaptive cluster sampling is delineating the borders of a plume of contamination. Adaptive sampling is useful for estimating or searching for rare characteristics in a population and is appropriate for inexpensive, rapid measurements. It enables delineating the boundaries of hot spots, while also using all data collected with appropriate weighting to give unbiased estimates of the population mean.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPA_39-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPA-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nollet_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nollet-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Grab_samples\">Grab samples<\/span><\/h4>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Watersampling.JPG\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6297544a95101d9b6ec5e8777f9ab01\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/84\/Watersampling.JPG\/220px-Watersampling.JPG\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"146\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Watersampling.JPG\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"e6297544a95101d9b6ec5e8777f9ab01\"><\/a><\/div>Collecting a grab sample on a stream<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Grab samples are samples taken of a homogeneous material, usually <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water\" title=\"Water\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a2ad3a4493078adcc76891200568551\">water<\/a>, in a single vessel. Filling a clean <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bottle\" title=\"Bottle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4887dcf0ff89e282b21865a313e52078\">bottle<\/a> with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/River\" title=\"River\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d485576e742edf8a32c2c8610519dff5\">river<\/a> water is a very common example. Grab samples provide a good snap-shot view of the quality of the sampled environment at the point of sampling and at the time of sampling. Without additional monitoring, the results cannot be extrapolated to other times or to other parts of the river, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lake\" title=\"Lake\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ad443d334e37f612db8ccf88febc467d\">lake<\/a> or ground-water.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nollet_40-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nollet-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">:<span>3<\/span><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In order to enable grab samples or rivers to be treated as representative, repeat transverse and longitudinal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transect\" title=\"Transect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c9cfd5daecf78c857e0d9c2d04f175e\">transect<\/a> surveys taken at different times of day and times of year are required to establish that the grab-sample location is as representative as is reasonably possible. For large rivers such surveys should also have regard to the depth of the sample and how to best manage the sampling locations at times of flood and drought.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nollet_40-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nollet-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">:<span>8\u20139<\/span><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Rosette_sampler_EPA.gif\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"29d75d2489f4559ca6c8c667826b875f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/03\/Rosette_sampler_EPA.gif\/220px-Rosette_sampler_EPA.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"330\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Rosette_sampler_EPA.gif\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"29d75d2489f4559ca6c8c667826b875f\"><\/a><\/div>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rosette_sampler\" title=\"Rosette sampler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fa1cb854233a2ded8bcbbbbf5b44988\">rosette sampler<\/a> used for ocean monitoring<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>In lakes grab samples are relatively simple to take using depth samplers which can be lowered to a pre-determined depth and then closed trapping a fixed volume of water from the required depth. In all but the shallowest lakes, there are major changes in the chemical composition of lake water at different depths, especially during the summer months when many lakes stratify into a warm, well oxygenated upper layer (<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Epilimnion\" title=\"Epilimnion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b179a0cb7a57dc76b733f33c45076012\">epilimnion<\/a><\/i>) and a cool de-oxygenated lower layer <i>(<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hypolimnion\" title=\"Hypolimnion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3eb6e7fec16fe15209b4e92cb7df70d5\">hypolimnion<\/a><\/i>).\n<\/p><p>In the open seas marine environment grab samples can establish a wide range of base-line parameters such as salinity and a range of cation and anion concentrations. However, where changing conditions are an issue such as near river or sewage discharges, close to the effects of volcanism or close to areas of freshwater input from melting ice, a grab sample can only give a very partial answer when taken on its own.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Semi-continuous_monitoring_and_continuous\">Semi-continuous monitoring and continuous<\/span><\/h4>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:WQ_sampling_station_USGS_2004.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"131702a6795c38159f2648b4139badaa\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f5\/WQ_sampling_station_USGS_2004.jpg\/220px-WQ_sampling_station_USGS_2004.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:WQ_sampling_station_USGS_2004.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"131702a6795c38159f2648b4139badaa\"><\/a><\/div>An automated sampling station and data logger (to record temperature, specific conductance, and dissolved oxygen levels)<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>There is a wide range of specialized sampling equipment available that can be programmed to take samples at fixed or variable time intervals or in response to an external trigger. For example, a sampler can be programmed to start taking samples of a river at 8 minute intervals when the rainfall intensity rises above 1 mm \/ hour. The trigger in this case may be a remote rain gauge communicating with the sampler by using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cell_phone\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cell phone\" data-key=\"d6d23a471e755baed9d28001d9eaf653\">cell phone<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meteor_burst_communications\" title=\"Meteor burst communications\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63ce92d114282d2dd5948063489bf470\">meteor burst<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> technology. Samplers can also take individual discrete samples at each sampling occasion or bulk up samples into composite so that in the course of one day, such a sampler might produce 12 composite samples each composed of 6 sub-samples taken at 20 minute intervals.\n<\/p><p>Continuous or quasi-continuous monitoring involves having an automated analytical facility close to the environment being monitored so that results can, if required, be viewed in real time. Such systems are often established to protect important water supplies such as in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/River_Dee_regulation_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"River Dee regulation system\" data-key=\"290371876a9d1cf9f2a98253f6433e1d\">River Dee regulation system<\/a> but may also be part of an overall monitoring strategy on large strategic rivers where early warning of potential problems is essential. Such systems routinely provide data on parameters such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PH\" title=\"PH\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a76a6eb00bd0e1619bee97643933571\">pH<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dissolved_oxygen\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dissolved oxygen\" data-key=\"55204d6e27161618f2e52291edf94fc1\">dissolved oxygen<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conductivity_(electrolytic)\" title=\"Conductivity (electrolytic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"363998998cd4027ca60f926a7e7b3f00\">conductivity<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turbidity\" title=\"Turbidity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3d055ab047e4cc58980abb8c7df0bfb\">turbidity<\/a> and colour but it is also possible to operate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gas_liquid_chromatography\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gas liquid chromatography\" data-key=\"fcb8b76ff87bbffbf4d7e4c9e4f7dbe1\">gas liquid chromatography<\/a> with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_spectrometry\" title=\"Mass spectrometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9e8497cbfaef220fa14d9ab192c29a9\">mass spectrometry<\/a> technologies (GLC\/MS) to examine a wide range of potential <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organic_compound\" title=\"Organic compound\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc5fe96ca1b857a8ef7ca0550295a850\">organic<\/a> pollutants. In all examples of automated bank-side analysis there is a requirement for water to be pumped from the river into the monitoring station. Choosing a location for the pump inlet is equally as critical as deciding on the location for a river grab sample. The design of the pump and pipework also requires careful design to avoid artefacts being introduced through the action of pumping the water. Dissolved oxygen concentration is difficult to sustain through a pumped system and GLC\/MS facilities can detect micro-organic contaminants from the pipework and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gland_(engineering)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gland (engineering)\" data-key=\"a93e22ff5a89f63e447b5f5e2aeb9107\">glands<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Passive_sampling\">Passive sampling<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Passive_sampling\" title=\"Passive sampling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14c3b08d19cbb02bba1746ad61b06d26\">Passive sampling<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The use of passive samplers greatly reduces the cost and the need of infrastructure on the sampling location. Passive samplers are semi-disposable and can be produced at a relatively low cost, thus they can be employed in great numbers, allowing for a better cover and more data being collected. Due to being small the passive sampler can also be hidden, and thereby lower the risk of vandalism. Examples of passive sampling devices are the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diffusive_gradients_in_thin_films\" title=\"Diffusive gradients in thin films\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed08956f87e4f65cd604faa7013347b2\">diffusive gradients in thin films<\/a> (DGT) sampler, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemcatcher\" title=\"Chemcatcher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd8d6cb81ce97bd96153cf9bfaec08ad\">Chemcatcher<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polar_organic_chemical_integrative_sampler\" title=\"Polar organic chemical integrative sampler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a4a3be48d23f8f9b738b2e37d249ce0\">Polar organic chemical integrative sampler<\/a> (POCIS), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semipermeable_membrane_devices\" title=\"Semipermeable membrane devices\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45df5e10ab5ec66799bb3b1272a61ff7\">semipermeable membrane devices<\/a> (SPMDs), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stabilized_liquid_membrane_devices\" title=\"Stabilized liquid membrane devices\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8aaa2c80fe4c688d61d0e40149e99ac\">stabilized liquid membrane devices<\/a> (SLMDs), and an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sorbent_tube\" title=\"Sorbent tube\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b2ff65ce963c2c638223fe1fb9f2f028\">air sampling pump<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Remote_surveillance\">Remote surveillance<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Although on-site data collection using electronic measuring equipment is common-place, many monitoring programmes also use remote surveillance and remote access to data in real time. This requires the on-site monitoring equipment to be connected to a base station via either a telemetry network, land-line, cell phone network or other telemetry system such as Meteor burst. The advantage of remote surveillance is that many data feeds can come into a single base station for storing and analysis. It also enable trigger levels or alert levels to be set for individual monitoring sites and\/or parameters so that immediate action can be initiated if a trigger level is exceeded. The use of remote surveillance also allows for the installation of very discrete monitoring equipment which can often be buried, camouflaged or tethered at depth in a lake or river with only a short whip <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antenna_(radio)\" title=\"Antenna (radio)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89ed244f033a8b87fa76efcd8b9edfff\">aerial<\/a> protruding. Use of such equipment tends to reduce <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vandalism\" title=\"Vandalism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c08614c84c346d61e78184241c5685c\">vandalism<\/a> and theft when monitoring in locations easily accessible by the public.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Remote_sensing\">Remote sensing<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_sensing\" title=\"Remote sensing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0550a7cb05977f16dc64ec22dd5822f\">Remote sensing<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Environmental remote sensing uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aircraft\" title=\"Aircraft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fc19d38e5285f33624093a237e3a2d5\">aircraft<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Satellite\" title=\"Satellite\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c7daf92a6c446a989a06b6d0441e06f\">satellites<\/a> to monitor the environment using multi-channel sensors.\n<\/p><p>There are two kinds of remote sensing. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation measured by passive sensors and in environmental remote sensing, the sensors used are tuned to specific wavelengths from far <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrared\" title=\"Infrared\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b2c07d211563e8beacf68339b2123c4\">infrared<\/a> through visible light frequencies to the far <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ultraviolet\" title=\"Ultraviolet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c04581600fb0e327a6ea34d912bd0b22\">ultraviolet<\/a>. The volumes of data that can be collected are very large and require dedicated computational support . The output of data analysis from remote sensing are false colour images which differentiate small differences in the radiation characteristics of the environment being monitored. With a skilful operator choosing specific channels it is possible to amplify differences which are imperceptible to the human eye. In particular it is possible to discriminate subtle changes in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chlorophyll_a\" title=\"Chlorophyll a\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"982812fd60ec4d4d04256db6370e6983\">chlorophyll a<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chlorophyll_b\" title=\"Chlorophyll b\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97541899c39c2177b97b28892be60aeb\">chlorophyll b<\/a> concentrations in plants and show areas of an environment with slightly different nutrient regimes.\n<\/p><p>Active remote sensing emits energy and uses a passive sensor to detect and measure the radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LIDAR\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LIDAR\" data-key=\"5ea1471a02ea0833e7da3f4ab60df06e\">LIDAR<\/a> is often used to acquire information about the topography of an area, especially when the area is large and manual surveying would be prohibitively expensive or difficult.\n<\/p><p>Remote sensing makes it possible to collect data on dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoring <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deforestation\" title=\"Deforestation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a3d0d2d9f415d6371e9cfb5425ff2cb\">deforestation<\/a> in areas such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amazon_Basin\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Amazon Basin\" data-key=\"085c13f9ff72d77125273dbc1d433fb8\">Amazon Basin<\/a>, the effects of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Climate_change\" title=\"Climate change\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc6dc1603d12a16d564a3a5cd0add93a\">climate change<\/a> on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glacier\" title=\"Glacier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89c2c1f4841c0d3792c2e10fd1a7b174\">glaciers<\/a> and Arctic and Antarctic regions, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Depth_sounding\" title=\"Depth sounding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"910610864f65c0de25ff3aaf3eef4fa1\">depth sounding<\/a> of coastal and ocean depths.\n<\/p><p>Orbital platforms collect and transmit data from different parts of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromagnetic_spectrum\" title=\"Electromagnetic spectrum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d776d699a00c4ea1b23854ace0867792\">electromagnetic spectrum<\/a>, which in conjunction with larger scale aerial or ground-based sensing and analysis, provides information to monitor trends such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/El_Ni%C3%B1o\" title=\"El Ni\u00f1o\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc9177b517078e8acda2834d304b2939\">El Ni\u00f1o<\/a> and other natural long and short term phenomena. Other uses include different areas of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Earth_science\" title=\"Earth science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8aeec1561e4dfde36260e69852762637\">earth sciences<\/a> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_resource_management\" title=\"Natural resource management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8403d50aab23f8ff3896755db763f8c3\">natural resource management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Land_use_planning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Land use planning\" data-key=\"f34a4c61e0081896a01519053bab5f3e\">land use planning<\/a> and conservation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bio-monitoring\">Bio-monitoring<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biomonitoring\" title=\"Biomonitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99ec7ea21b74b4378fe945f94e813ded\">Biomonitoring<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The use of living organisms as monitoring tools has many advantages. Organisms living in the environment under study are constantly exposed to the physical, biological and chemical influences of that environment. Organisms that have a tendency to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioaccumulation\" title=\"Bioaccumulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb77fbd7b9523306b127361251c7b15d\">accumulate<\/a> chemical species can often accumulate significant quantities of material from very low concentrations in the environment. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moss\" title=\"Moss\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d040f4771b13d86ae6075bb927795d6c\">Mosses<\/a> have been used by many investigators to monitor <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heavy_metal_(chemistry)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Heavy metal (chemistry)\" data-key=\"a194a407385f73368e2f90fc04658202\">heavy metal<\/a> concentrations because of their tendency to selectively adsorb heavy metals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Similarly, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eel\" title=\"Eel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa6bfef0b85f65eda4beefaefc3701be\">eels<\/a> have been used to study <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Halogenation\" title=\"Halogenation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e875954205690626acd6faf36899a695\">halogenated<\/a> organic chemicals, as these are adsorbed into the fatty deposits within the eel.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_sampling_methods\">Other sampling methods<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Ecological sampling requires careful planning to be representative and as noninvasive as possible. For grasslands and other low growing habitats the use of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quadrat\" title=\"Quadrat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d258f1668f8fa7adeabb7150cd38ffe\">quadrat<\/a> \u2013 a 1-metre square frame \u2013 is often used with the numbers and types of organisms growing within each quadrat area counted<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Sediments and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soil\" title=\"Soil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07af34ab9a16e0916f7657b56bc1e474\">soils<\/a> require specialist sampling tools to ensure that the material recovered is representative. Such samplers are frequently designed to recover a specified volume of material and may also be designed to recover the sediment or soil living biota as well<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup> such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vagn_Walfrid_Ekman\" title=\"Vagn Walfrid Ekman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f56d3f0b5652645b906c886bfb825df\">Ekman<\/a> grab sampler.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_interpretations\">Data interpretations<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The interpretation of environmental data produced from a well designed monitoring programme is a large and complex topic addressed by many publications. Regrettably it is sometimes the case that scientists approach the analysis of results with a pre-conceived outcome in mind and use or misuse statistics to demonstrate that their own particular point of view is correct.\n<\/p><p>Statistics remains a tool that is equally easy to use or to misuse to demonstrate the lessons learnt from environmental monitoring.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Environmental_quality_indices\">Environmental quality indices<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Since the start of science-based environmental monitoring, a number of quality indices have been devised to help classify and clarify the meaning of the considerable volumes of data involved. Stating that a river stretch is in \"Class B\" is likely to be much more informative than stating that this river stretch has a mean BOD of 4.2, a mean dissolved oxygen of 85%, etc. In the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UK\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"UK\" data-key=\"3be4614aa8ee9ecb1c46bbb0c1feed82\">UK<\/a> the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environment_Agency\" title=\"Environment Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17f9fe7cf3c0213c6c0a3bfc9574a0d5\">Environment Agency<\/a> formally employed a system called General Quality Assessment (GQA) which classified rivers into six quality letter bands from A to F based on chemical criteria<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup> and on biological criteria.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup> The Environment Agency and its devolved partners in Wales (Countryside Council for Wales, CCW) and Scotland (Scottish Environmental Protection Agency, SEPA) now employ a system of biological, chemical and physical classification for rivers and lakes that corresponds with the EU Water Framework Directive. <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_monitoring\" title=\"Carbon monitoring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"840bdbdd618bb4171feec4b3ad1a9a0e\">Carbon monitoring<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carbon_profiling\" title=\"Carbon profiling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baffee4f977041e697be8119915909fb\">Carbon profiling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crowdmapping\" title=\"Crowdmapping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79adf9138cebc45e7db67122ca6d2b35\">Crowdmapping<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle#Applications\" title=\"Unmanned aerial vehicle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d251bc34ea87f2d48e41e0736b7f3b01\">Unmanned aerial vehicle \u00a7 Applications<\/a>: drones can be used for various types of environmental monitoring<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ForbesPerspect15-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ForbesPerspect15_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Forbes, P.B.C. (2015). \"Chapter 1: Perspectives on the Monitoring of Air Pollutants\". In Barcelo, D. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hESnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques<\/i><\/a>. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. <b>70<\/b>. Elsevier. pp. 3\u20139. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780444635532<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Perspectives+on+the+Monitoring+of+Air+Pollutants&rft.btitle=Monitoring+of+Air+Pollutants%3A+Sampling%2C+Sample+Preparation+and+Analytical+Techniques&rft.series=Comprehensive+Analytical+Chemistry&rft.pages=3-9&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780444635532&rft.au=Forbes%2C+P.B.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhESnBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RadaPerspect16-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-RadaPerspect16_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RadaPerspect16_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Rada, E.C.; Ragazzi, M.; Brini, M.; et al. (2016). \"Chapter 1: Perspectives of Low-Cost Sensors Adoption for Air Quality Monitoring\". In Ragazzi, M. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-nauDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT27\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Air Quality: Monitoring, Measuring, and Modeling Environmental Hazards<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781315341859<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Perspectives+of+Low-Cost+Sensors+Adoption+for+Air+Quality+Monitoring&rft.btitle=Air+Quality%3A+Monitoring%2C+Measuring%2C+and+Modeling+Environmental+Hazards&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781315341859&rft.au=Rada%2C+E.C.&rft.au=Ragazzi%2C+M.&rft.au=Brini%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-nauDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WilliamsAir14-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WilliamsAir14_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Williams, R.; Kilaru, V.; Snyder, E.; et al. (June 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cfpub.epa.gov\/si\/si_public_file_download.cfm?p_download_id=519616\" target=\"_blank\">\"Air Sensor Guidebook\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. p. 65<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Air+Sensor+Guidebook&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft.date=2014-06&rft.au=Williams%2C+R.&rft.au=Kilaru%2C+V.&rft.au=Snyder%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcfpub.epa.gov%2Fsi%2Fsi_public_file_download.cfm%3Fp_download_id%3D519616&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GO3Home-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GO3Home_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/go3project.com\/network2\/index.php\/pages\/home\" target=\"_blank\">\"GO<sub>3<\/sub> Project\"<\/a>. GO3 Foundation<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GO%3Csub%3E3%3C%2Fsub%3E+Project&rft.pub=GO3+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgo3project.com%2Fnetwork2%2Findex.php%2Fpages%2Fhome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LBBHome-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LBBHome_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labucketbrigade.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Louisiana Bucket Brigade\"<\/a>. Louisiana Bucket Brigade<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Louisiana+Bucket+Brigade&rft.pub=Louisiana+Bucket+Brigade&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.labucketbrigade.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EPAList16-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-EPAList16_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www3.epa.gov\/ttnamti1\/files\/ambient\/criteria\/AMTIC%20List%20Dec%202016-2.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"List of Designated Reference and Equivalent Methods\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. 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(2015). \"Chapter 3: Biomonitors\". In Barcelo, D. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=hESnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Monitoring of Air Pollutants: Sampling, Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques<\/i><\/a>. Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. <b>70<\/b>. Elsevier. pp. 53\u2013107. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780444635532<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=oHhGtPF4JzsC&pg=PA128\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Field Sampling Methods for Remedial Investigations<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp. 128\u2013148. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781420059151<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Field+Sampling+Methods+for+Remedial+Investigations&rft.pages=128-148&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781420059151&rft.au=Byrnes%2C+M.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoHhGtPF4JzsC%26pg%3DPA128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MirsalSoil13-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MirsalSoil13_22-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Mirsal, I. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=l9Z9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA172\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Soil Pollution: Origin, Monitoring & Remediation<\/i><\/a>. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 172\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783662054000<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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In Twardowska, I.; Allen, H.E.; H\u00e4ggblom, M.M. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=0v6Tu4kI7s8C&pg=PA161\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Soil and Water Pollution Monitoring, Protection and Remediation<\/i><\/a>. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 161\u2013174. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781402047282<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2006). \"Chapter 28: Soil Erosion and Sediment Redistribution in River Catchments: Summary, Outlook and Future Requirements\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=YLbSI4vw_oIC&pg=PA299\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Soil Erosion and Sediment Redistribution in River Catchments: Measurement, Modelling And Management<\/i><\/a>. CABI International. pp. 297\u2013318. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780851990507<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2013). \"Chapter 1: Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment, Modeling, Mapping, and Monitoring from Regional to Submicroscopic Scales\". In Shahid, S.A.; Abdelfattah, M.A.; Taha, F.K. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=VZlEAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Developments in Soil Salinity Assessment and Reclamation: Innovative Thinking and Use of Marginal Soil and Water Resources in Irrigated Agriculture<\/i><\/a>. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 3\u201344. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9789400756847<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Mineral Resources Forum. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mineralresourcesforum.org\/workshops\/Berlin\/docs\/append_9.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"General guideline for an environmental monitoring programme.\"<\/a><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" title=\"Wikipedia:Link rot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\" Dead link since October 2009\">dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/span><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Stribling J. 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J., 1996, \"The ecosystem approach to environmental assessment: moving from theory to practice.\" <i>Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Health.<\/i> Kluwer Academic Publishers, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0925-1014\" target=\"_blank\">0925-1014<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">International Atomic Energy Agency (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www-pub.iaea.org\/MTCD\/publications\/PDF\/Pub1290_web.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology Used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. 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Vienna: IAEA.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+and+Source+Monitoring+for+Purposes+of+Radiation+Protection%2C+IAEA+Safety+Standards+Series+No.+RS%E2%80%93G-1.8&rft.place=Vienna&rft.pub=IAEA&rft.date=2005&rft.au=International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pub.iaea.org%2FMTCD%2Fpublications%2FPDF%2FPub1216_web.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-34\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">International Atomic Energy Agency (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www-pub.iaea.org\/mtcd\/publications\/PubDetails.asp?pubId=8242\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Programmes and Systems for Source and Environmental Radiation Monitoring. Safety Reports Series No. 64<\/i><\/a>. Vienna: IAEA. p. 234. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-92-0-112409-8.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Programmes+and+Systems+for+Source+and+Environmental+Radiation+Monitoring.+Safety+Reports+Series+No.+64.&rft.place=Vienna&rft.pages=234&rft.pub=IAEA&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-92-0-112409-8&rft.au=International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pub.iaea.org%2Fmtcd%2Fpublications%2FPubDetails.asp%3FpubId%3D8242&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/biomeme.com\/environmental-dna\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Guide to Environmental DNA (eDNA) by Biomeme\"<\/a>. <i>Biomeme<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biomeme&rft.atitle=A+Guide+to+Environmental+DNA+%28eDNA%29+by+Biomeme&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiomeme.com%2Fenvironmental-dna%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GOVUK_MCERTS17-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GOVUK_MCERTS17_36-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Environment Agency (December 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/publications\/mcerts-performance-standards-and-test-procedures-for-environmental-data-management-software\" target=\"_blank\">\"MCERTS: Quality and performance standards for environmental data management software\"<\/a>. <i>GOV.UK<\/i>. p. 55<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GOV.UK&rft.atitle=MCERTS%3A+Quality+and+performance+standards+for+environmental+data+management+software&rft.pages=55&rft.date=2017-12&rft.au=Environment+Agency&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fpublications%2Fmcerts-performance-standards-and-test-procedures-for-environmental-data-management-software&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GOVUK_Monitor17-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GOVUK_Monitor17_37-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Environment Agency (9 February 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/collections\/monitoring-emissions-to-air-land-and-water-mcerts\" target=\"_blank\">\"Monitoring emissions to air, land and water (MCERTS)\"<\/a>. <i>GOV.UK<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GOV.UK&rft.atitle=Monitoring+emissions+to+air%2C+land+and+water+%28MCERTS%29&rft.date=2017-02-09&rft.au=Environment+Agency&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fcollections%2Fmonitoring-emissions-to-air-land-and-water-mcerts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CSA_MCERTS-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CSA_MCERTS_38-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.csagroupuk.org\/services\/mcerts\/mcerts-product-certification\/mcerts-certified-products\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"MCERTS Certified Products\"<\/a>. CSA Group<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MCERTS+Certified+Products&rft.pub=CSA+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csagroupuk.org%2Fservices%2Fmcerts%2Fmcerts-product-certification%2Fmcerts-certified-products%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EPA-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_39-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_39-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_39-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_39-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_39-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EPA_39-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.epa.gov\/nheerl\/arm\/web\/pdf\/epaqag5s.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Guidance on Choosing a Sampling Design for Environmental Data Collection for Use in Developing a Quality Assurance Project Plan EPA QA\/G-5S\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency\" title=\"United States Environmental Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3e4c58eca1cdd38b19280e2fe2ec728\">United States Environmental Protection Agency<\/a>. October 2002<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 April<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Guidance+on+Choosing+a+Sampling+Design+for+Environmental+Data+Collection+for+Use+in+Developing+a+Quality+Assurance+Project+Plan+EPA+QA%2FG-5S&rft.pub=United+States+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft.date=2002-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.epa.gov%2Fnheerl%2Farm%2Fweb%2Fpdf%2Fepaqag5s.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> <img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/6\/62\/PD-icon.svg\/15px-PD-icon.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"15\" height=\"15\" \/> <i>This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain\" title=\"Public domain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45d4efd06b4edbf07ca070319cad4b29\">public domain<\/a>.<\/i><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Nollet-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Nollet_40-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Nollet_40-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Nollet_40-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Nollet, Leo M.L., ed. (2000). <i>Handbook of Water Analysis<\/i>. New York: Marcel Dekker. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-8247-8433-2.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Water+Analysis&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Marcel+Dekker&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-8247-8433-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation journal\">Shaw, Elizabeth M. (1984). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iahs.info\/hsj\/290\/hysj_29_04_0462.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Book reviews: 'Proceedings of the International Symposium on Hydrometeorology' edited by A.I. Johnson & R.A. Clark\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Hydrological Sciences Journal<\/i>. <b>29<\/b> (4): 462\u2013463. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0262-6667\" target=\"_blank\">0262-6667<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hydrological+Sciences+Journal&rft.atitle=Book+reviews%3A+%27Proceedings+of+the+International+Symposium+on+Hydrometeorology%27+edited+by+A.I.+Johnson+%26+R.A.+Clark&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=462-463&rft.date=1984&rft.issn=0262-6667&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iahs.info%2Fhsj%2F290%2Fhysj_29_04_0462.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Short, Nicholas M., Sr. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/rst.gsfc.nasa.gov\" target=\"_blank\">\"Remote Sensing Tutorial.\"<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091027181013\/http:\/\/rst.gsfc.nasa.gov\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2009-10-27 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Greenbelt, MD. 2009-09-23.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Pott, U. & Turpin, D. H. (1998). \"Assessment of Atmospheric Heavy Metals by Moss Monitoring with Isothecium Stoloniferum Brid. in the Fraser Valley, B.C., Canada.\" <i>Water, Air, & Soil Pollution.<\/i> Vol. 101, Nos. 1\u20134, January 1998, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0049-6979\" target=\"_blank\">0049-6979<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-44\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bragazzaa, Marchesinia, Alberb, Bonettic, Lorenzonic, Achillid, Buffonid, De Marcoe, Franchif, Pisonf, Giaquintag, Palmierih Spezzano (2000). \"Monitoring of heavy metal deposition in Northern Italy by moss analysis.\" <i>Environmental Pollution,<\/i> Vol. 108, No. 2, pp 201\u2013208.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">C. Belpaire and G. Goemans, \"Eels: contaminant cocktails pinpointing environmental contamination.\" ICES J. Mar. Sci. 64: 1423\u20131436.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Offwell Woodland & Wildlife Trust. Devon, UK. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.countrysideinfo.co.uk\/howto.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ecological Sampling Methods.\"<\/a> Accessed 2009-10-21.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Csuros, Csaba; Csuros, Maria (2002). <i>Environmental sampling and analysis for metals<\/i>. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 219. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-56670-572-1.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+sampling+and+analysis+for+metals&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.pages=219&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-56670-572-1&rft.aulast=Csuros&rft.aufirst=Csaba&rft.au=Csuros%2C+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+monitoring\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Environment Agency, UK. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/apps.environment-agency.gov.uk\/wiyby\/37815.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Chemistry classification method<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-49\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Environment Agency. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/apps.environment-agency.gov.uk\/wiyby\/37817.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">General quality assessment of rivers \u2013 biology<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Water_Framework_Directive\" title=\"Water Framework Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb52525b96fd843374c94bf2abb30e48\">European Union Water Framework Directive, EU WFD<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1253\nCached time: 20190326131142\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.632 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.784 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 2957\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 138965\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 1516\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 2\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 136745\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\nLua time usage: 0.278\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 5.01 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 589.713 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>77.48% 456.932 1 Template:Reflist\n30.34% 178.913 23 Template:Cite_book\n10.27% 60.576 14 Template:Cite_web\n 8.15% 48.042 2 Template:ISSN\n 7.09% 41.803 1 Template:Dead_link\n 7.01% 41.343 1 Template:Aquatic_ecosystem_topics\n 6.04% 35.604 1 Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups\n 5.99% 35.312 1 Template:Fix\n 5.87% 34.608 2 Template:Cite_journal\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:22228846-1!canonical and timestamp 20190326131141 and revision id 889553084\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_monitoring\" data-key=\"a8a4b57b749e044e06fc362fba59f330\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203015\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.017 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.232 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 222.201 1 - wikipedia:Environmental_monitoring\n100.00% 222.201 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10929-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203015 and revision id 35094\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_monitoring\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Environmental_monitoring<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9e\/Perugia%2C_2012_-_Air_quality_monitoring_station.jpg\/440px-Perugia%2C_2012_-_Air_quality_monitoring_station.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/59\/Soil_samples_%2815083707144%29.jpg\/440px-Soil_samples_%2815083707144%29.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9e\/20180221-OSEC-LSC-0056_%2839518126925%29.jpg\/440px-20180221-OSEC-LSC-0056_%2839518126925%29.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/45\/Anglers_using_backpack_electroshocker_to_capture_fish.jpg\/440px-Anglers_using_backpack_electroshocker_to_capture_fish.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/38\/EPA_GULF_BREEZE_LABORATORY%2C_CHEMISTRY_LAB._THE_CHEMIST_IS_TESTING_WATER_SAMPLES_FOR_PESTICIDES_-_NARA_-_546277.jpg\/440px-EPA_GULF_BREEZE_LABORATORY%2C_CHEMISTRY_LAB._THE_CHEMIST_IS_TESTING_WATER_SAMPLES_FOR_PESTICIDES_-_NARA_-_546277.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/84\/Watersampling.JPG\/440px-Watersampling.JPG","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/03\/Rosette_sampler_EPA.gif","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f5\/WQ_sampling_station_USGS_2004.jpg\/440px-WQ_sampling_station_USGS_2004.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b2\/Estuary-mouth.jpg\/280px-Estuary-mouth.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/35\/Maldivesfish2.jpg\/280px-Maldivesfish2.jpg"],"4671d3cbb4201e1698d0fb44369dc1ea_timestamp":1554323415,"be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_type":"article","be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_title":"Data mining","be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mining","be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tData mining\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tMachine learning and\r\ndata mining\nProblems\nClassification\nClustering\nRegression\nAnomaly detection\nAutoML\nAssociation rules\nReinforcement learning\nStructured prediction\nFeature engineering\nFeature learning\nOnline learning\nSemi-supervised learning\nUnsupervised learning\nLearning to rank\nGrammar induction\n\n\nSupervised learning\r\n(classification • regression) \nDecision trees\nEnsembles\nBagging\nBoosting\nRandom forest\nk-NN\nLinear regression\nNaive Bayes\nArtificial neural networks\nLogistic regression\nPerceptron\nRelevance vector machine (RVM)\nSupport vector machine (SVM)\n\n\nClustering\nBIRCH\nCURE\nHierarchical\nk-means\nExpectation\u2013maximization (EM)\n\r\nDBSCAN\nOPTICS\nMean-shift\n\n\nDimensionality reduction\nFactor analysis\nCCA\nICA\nLDA\nNMF\nPCA\nt-SNE\n\n\nStructured prediction\nGraphical models\nBayes net\nConditional random field\nHidden Markov\n\n\nAnomaly detection\nk-NN\nLocal outlier factor\n\n\nArtificial neural networks\nAutoencoder\nDeep learning\nDeepDream\nMultilayer perceptron\nRNN\nLSTM\nGRU)\nRestricted Boltzmann machine\nSOM\nConvolutional neural network\nU-Net\n\n\nReinforcement learning\nQ-learning\nSARSA\nTemporal difference (TD)\n\n\nTheory\nBias-variance dilemma\nComputational learning theory\nEmpirical risk minimization\nOccam learning\nPAC learning\nStatistical learning\nVC theory\n\n\nMachine-learning venues\nNIPS\nICML\nML\nJMLR\nArXiv:cs.LG\n\n\nGlossary of artificial intelligence\nGlossary of artificial intelligence\n\n\nRelated articles\nList of datasets for machine-learning research\nOutline of machine learning\n\n\n Machine learning portalvte\nData mining is the process of discovering patterns in large data sets involving methods at the intersection of machine learning, statistics, and database systems.[1] Data mining is an interdisciplinary subfield of computer science and statistics with an overall goal to extract information (with intelligent methods) from a data set and transform the information into a comprehensible structure for further use.[1][2][3][4] Data mining is the analysis step of the \"knowledge discovery in databases\" process, or KDD.[5] Aside from the raw analysis step, it also involves database and data management aspects, data pre-processing, model and inference considerations, interestingness metrics, complexity considerations, post-processing of discovered structures, visualization, and online updating.[1] The difference between data analysis and data mining is that data analysis is used to test models and hypotheses on the dataset, e.g., analyzing the effectiveness of a marketing campaign, regardless of the amount of data; in contrast, data mining uses machine-learning and statistical models to uncover clandestine or hidden patterns in a large volume of data.[6]\nThe term \"data mining\" is in fact a misnomer, because the goal is the extraction of patterns and knowledge from large amounts of data, not the extraction (mining) of data itself.[7] It also is a buzzword[8] and is frequently applied to any form of large-scale data or information processing (collection, extraction, warehousing, analysis, and statistics) as well as any application of computer decision support system, including artificial intelligence (e.g., machine learning) and business intelligence. The book Data mining: Practical machine learning tools and techniques with Java[9] (which covers mostly machine learning material) was originally to be named just Practical machine learning, and the term data mining was only added for marketing reasons.[10] Often the more general terms (large scale) data analysis and analytics \u2013 or, when referring to actual methods, artificial intelligence and machine learning \u2013 are more appropriate.\nThe actual data mining task is the semi-automatic or automatic analysis of large quantities of data to extract previously unknown, interesting patterns such as groups of data records (cluster analysis), unusual records (anomaly detection), and dependencies (association rule mining, sequential pattern mining). This usually involves using database techniques such as spatial indices. These patterns can then be seen as a kind of summary of the input data, and may be used in further analysis or, for example, in machine learning and predictive analytics. For example, the data mining step might identify multiple groups in the data, which can then be used to obtain more accurate prediction results by a decision support system. Neither the data collection, data preparation, nor result interpretation and reporting is part of the data mining step, but do belong to the overall KDD process as additional steps.\nThe related terms data dredging, data fishing, and data snooping refer to the use of data mining methods to sample parts of a larger population data set that are (or may be) too small for reliable statistical inferences to be made about the validity of any patterns discovered. These methods can, however, be used in creating new hypotheses to test against the larger data populations.\n\nContents \n\n1 Etymology \n2 Background \n3 Process \n\n3.1 Pre-processing \n3.2 Data mining \n3.3 Results validation \n\n\n4 Research \n5 Standards \n6 Notable uses \n7 Privacy concerns and ethics \n\n7.1 Situation in Europe \n7.2 Situation in the United States \n\n\n8 Copyright law \n\n8.1 Situation in Europe \n8.2 Situation in the United States \n\n\n9 Software \n\n9.1 Free open-source data mining software and applications \n9.2 Proprietary data-mining software and applications \n9.3 Marketplace surveys \n\n\n10 See also \n11 References \n12 Further reading \n13 External links \n\n\nEtymology \nIn the 1960s, statisticians and economists used terms like data fishing or data dredging to refer to what they considered the bad practice of analyzing data without an a-priori hypothesis. The term \"data mining\" was used in a similarly critical way by economist Michael Lovell in an article published in the Review of Economic Studies 1983. Lovell indicates that the practice \"masquerades under a variety of aliases, ranging from \"experimentation\" (positive) to \"fishing\" or \"snooping\" (negative).[11]\nThe term data mining appeared around 1990 in the database community, generally with positive connotations. For a short time in 1980s, a phrase \"database mining\"\u2122, was used, but since it was trademarked by HNC, a San Diego-based company, to pitch their Database Mining Workstation;[12] researchers consequently turned to data mining. Other terms used include data archaeology, information harvesting, information discovery, knowledge extraction, etc. Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro coined the term \"knowledge discovery in databases\" for the first workshop on the same topic (KDD-1989) and this term became more popular in AI and machine learning community. However, the term data mining became more popular in the business and press communities.[13] Currently, the terms data mining and knowledge discovery are used interchangeably.\nIn the academic community, the major forums for research started in 1995 when the First International Conference on Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery (KDD-95) was started in Montreal under AAAI sponsorship. It was co-chaired by Usama Fayyad and Ramasamy Uthurusamy. A year later, in 1996, Usama Fayyad launched the journal by Kluwer called Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery as its founding editor-in-chief. Later he started the SIGKDD Newsletter SIGKDD Explorations.[14] The KDD International conference became the primary highest quality conference in data mining with an acceptance rate of research paper submissions below 18%. The journal Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery is the primary research journal of the field.\n\nBackground \nThe manual extraction of patterns from data has occurred for centuries. Early methods of identifying patterns in data include Bayes' theorem (1700s) and regression analysis (1800s). The proliferation, ubiquity and increasing power of computer technology has dramatically increased data collection, storage, and manipulation ability. As data sets have grown in size and complexity, direct \"hands-on\" data analysis has increasingly been augmented with indirect, automated data processing, aided by other discoveries in computer science, such as neural networks, cluster analysis, genetic algorithms (1950s), decision trees and decision rules (1960s), and support vector machines (1990s). Data mining is the process of applying these methods with the intention of uncovering hidden patterns[15] in large data sets. It bridges the gap from applied statistics and artificial intelligence (which usually provide the mathematical background) to database management by exploiting the way data is stored and indexed in databases to execute the actual learning and discovery algorithms more efficiently, allowing such methods to be applied to ever larger data sets.\n\nProcess \nThe knowledge discovery in databases (KDD) process is commonly defined with the stages:\n\nSelection\nPre-processing\nTransformation\nData mining\nInterpretation\/evaluation.[5]\nIt exists, however, in many variations on this theme, such as the Cross-industry standard process for data mining (CRISP-DM) which defines six phases:\n\nBusiness understanding\nData understanding\nData preparation\nModeling\nEvaluation\nDeployment\nor a simplified process such as (1) Pre-processing, (2) Data Mining, and (3) Results Validation.\nPolls conducted in 2002, 2004, 2007 and 2014 show that the CRISP-DM methodology is the leading methodology used by data miners.[16] The only other data mining standard named in these polls was SEMMA. However, 3\u20134 times as many people reported using CRISP-DM. Several teams of researchers have published reviews of data mining process models,[17][18] and Azevedo and Santos conducted a comparison of CRISP-DM and SEMMA in 2008.[19]\n\nPre-processing \nBefore data mining algorithms can be used, a target data set must be assembled. As data mining can only uncover patterns actually present in the data, the target data set must be large enough to contain these patterns while remaining concise enough to be mined within an acceptable time limit. A common source for data is a data mart or data warehouse. Pre-processing is essential to analyze the multivariate data sets before data mining. The target set is then cleaned. Data cleaning removes the observations containing noise and those with missing data.\n\nData mining \nData mining involves six common classes of tasks:[5]\n\nAnomaly detection (outlier\/change\/deviation detection) \u2013 The identification of unusual data records, that might be interesting or data errors that require further investigation.\nAssociation rule learning (dependency modelling) \u2013 Searches for relationships between variables. For example, a supermarket might gather data on customer purchasing habits. Using association rule learning, the supermarket can determine which products are frequently bought together and use this information for marketing purposes. This is sometimes referred to as market basket analysis.\nClustering \u2013 is the task of discovering groups and structures in the data that are in some way or another \"similar\", without using known structures in the data.\nClassification \u2013 is the task of generalizing known structure to apply to new data. For example, an e-mail program might attempt to classify an e-mail as \"legitimate\" or as \"spam\".\nRegression \u2013 attempts to find a function which models the data with the least error that is, for estimating the relationships among data or datasets.\nSummarization \u2013 providing a more compact representation of the data set, including visualization and report generation.\nResults validation \n An example of data produced by data dredging through a bot operated by statistician Tyler Vigen, apparently showing a close link between the best word winning a spelling bee competition and the number of people in the United States killed by venomous spiders. The similarity in trends is obviously a coincidence.\nData mining can unintentionally be misused, and can then produce results which appear to be significant; but which do not actually predict future behaviour and cannot be reproduced on a new sample of data and bear little use. Often this results from investigating too many hypotheses and not performing proper statistical hypothesis testing. A simple version of this problem in machine learning is known as overfitting, but the same problem can arise at different phases of the process and thus a train\/test split - when applicable at all - may not be sufficient to prevent this from happening.[20]\n\nThis section is missing information about non-classification tasks in data mining. It only covers machine learning. Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (September 2011 )\nThe final step of knowledge discovery from data is to verify that the patterns produced by the data mining algorithms occur in the wider data set. Not all patterns found by the data mining algorithms are necessarily valid. It is common for the data mining algorithms to find patterns in the training set which are not present in the general data set. This is called overfitting. To overcome this, the evaluation uses a test set of data on which the data mining algorithm was not trained. The learned patterns are applied to this test set, and the resulting output is compared to the desired output. For example, a data mining algorithm trying to distinguish \"spam\" from \"legitimate\" emails would be trained on a training set of sample e-mails. Once trained, the learned patterns would be applied to the test set of e-mails on which it had not been trained. The accuracy of the patterns can then be measured from how many e-mails they correctly classify. A number of statistical methods may be used to evaluate the algorithm, such as ROC curves.\nIf the learned patterns do not meet the desired standards, subsequently it is necessary to re-evaluate and change the pre-processing and data mining steps. If the learned patterns do meet the desired standards, then the final step is to interpret the learned patterns and turn them into knowledge.\n\nResearch \nThe premier professional body in the field is the Association for Computing Machinery's (ACM) Special Interest Group (SIG) on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (SIGKDD).[21][22] Since 1989, this ACM SIG has hosted an annual international conference and published its proceedings,[23] and since 1999 it has published a biannual academic journal titled \"SIGKDD Explorations\".[24]\nComputer science conferences on data mining include:\n\nCIKM Conference \u2013 ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management\nEuropean Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases\nKDD Conference \u2013 ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining\nData mining topics are also present on many data management\/database conferences such as the ICDE Conference, SIGMOD Conference and International Conference on Very Large Data Bases\n\nStandards \nThere have been some efforts to define standards for the data mining process, for example the 1999 European Cross Industry Standard Process for Data Mining (CRISP-DM 1.0) and the 2004 Java Data Mining standard (JDM 1.0). Development on successors to these processes (CRISP-DM 2.0 and JDM 2.0) was active in 2006, but has stalled since. JDM 2.0 was withdrawn without reaching a final draft.\nFor exchanging the extracted models \u2013 in particular for use in predictive analytics \u2013 the key standard is the Predictive Model Markup Language (PMML), which is an XML-based language developed by the Data Mining Group (DMG) and supported as exchange format by many data mining applications. As the name suggests, it only covers prediction models, a particular data mining task of high importance to business applications. However, extensions to cover (for example) subspace clustering have been proposed independently of the DMG.[25]\n\nNotable uses \nMain article: Examples of data mining\nSee also: Category:Applied data mining.\nData mining is used wherever there is digital data available today. Notable examples of data mining can be found throughout business, medicine, science, and surveillance.\n\nPrivacy concerns and ethics \nWhile the term \"data mining\" itself may have no ethical implications, it is often associated with the mining of information in relation to peoples' behavior (ethical and otherwise).[26]\nThe ways in which data mining can be used can in some cases and contexts raise questions regarding privacy, legality, and ethics.[27] In particular, data mining government or commercial data sets for national security or law enforcement purposes, such as in the Total Information Awareness Program or in ADVISE, has raised privacy concerns.[28][29]\nData mining requires data preparation which can uncover information or patterns which may compromise confidentiality and privacy obligations. A common way for this to occur is through data aggregation. Data aggregation involves combining data together (possibly from various sources) in a way that facilitates analysis (but that also might make identification of private, individual-level data deducible or otherwise apparent).[30] This is not data mining per se, but a result of the preparation of data before \u2013 and for the purposes of \u2013 the analysis. The threat to an individual's privacy comes into play when the data, once compiled, cause the data miner, or anyone who has access to the newly compiled data set, to be able to identify specific individuals, especially when the data were originally anonymous.[31][32][33]\nIt is recommended that an individual is made aware of the following before data are collected:[30]\n\nthe purpose of the data collection and any (known) data mining projects;\nhow the data will be used;\nwho will be able to mine the data and use the data and their derivatives;\nthe status of security surrounding access to the data;\nhow collected data can be updated.\nData may also be modified so as to become anonymous, so that individuals may not readily be identified.[30] However, even \"de-identified\"\/\"anonymized\" data sets can potentially contain enough information to allow identification of individuals, as occurred when journalists were able to find several individuals based on a set of search histories that were inadvertently released by AOL.[34]\nThe inadvertent revelation of personally identifiable information leading to the provider violates Fair Information Practices. This indiscretion can cause financial,\nemotional, or bodily harm to the indicated individual. In one instance of privacy violation, the patrons of Walgreens filed a lawsuit against the company in 2011 for selling\nprescription information to data mining companies who in turn provided the data\nto pharmaceutical companies.[35]\n\n<\/p>\nSituation in Europe \nEurope has rather strong privacy laws, and efforts are underway to further strengthen the rights of the consumers. However, the U.S.-E.U. Safe Harbor Principles currently effectively expose European users to privacy exploitation by U.S. companies. As a consequence of Edward Snowden's global surveillance disclosure, there has been increased discussion to revoke this agreement, as in particular the data will be fully exposed to the National Security Agency, and attempts to reach an agreement have failed.[citation needed ]\n\nSituation in the United States \nIn the United States, privacy concerns have been addressed by the US Congress via the passage of regulatory controls such as the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). The HIPAA requires individuals to give their \"informed consent\" regarding information they provide and its intended present and future uses. According to an article in Biotech Business Week, \"'[i]n practice, HIPAA may not offer any greater protection than the longstanding regulations in the research arena,' says the AAHC. More importantly, the rule's goal of protection through informed consent is approach a level of incomprehensibility to average individuals.\"[36] This underscores the necessity for data anonymity in data aggregation and mining practices.\nU.S. information privacy legislation such as HIPAA and the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) applies only to the specific areas that each such law addresses. Use of data mining by the majority of businesses in the U.S. is not controlled by any legislation.\n\nCopyright law \nSituation in Europe \nDue to a lack of flexibilities in European copyright and database law, the mining of in-copyright works such as web mining without the permission of the copyright owner is not legal. Where a database is pure data in Europe there is likely to be no copyright, but database rights may exist so data mining becomes subject to regulations by the Database Directive. On the recommendation of the Hargreaves review this led to the UK government to amend its copyright law in 2014[37] to allow content mining as a limitation and exception. Only the second country in the world to do so after Japan, which introduced an exception in 2009 for data mining. However, due to the restriction of the Copyright Directive, the UK exception only allows content mining for non-commercial purposes. UK copyright law also does not allow this provision to be overridden by contractual terms and conditions. The European Commission facilitated stakeholder discussion on text and data mining in 2013, under the title of Licences for Europe.[38] The focus on the solution to this legal issue being licences and not limitations and exceptions led to representatives of universities, researchers, libraries, civil society groups and open access publishers to leave the stakeholder dialogue in May 2013.[39]\n\nSituation in the United States \nBy contrast to Europe, the flexible nature of US copyright law, and in particular fair use means that content mining in America, as well as other fair use countries such as Israel, Taiwan and South Korea is viewed as being legal. As content mining is transformative, that is it does not supplant the original work, it is viewed as being lawful under fair use. For example, as part of the Google Book settlement the presiding judge on the case ruled that Google's digitisation project of in-copyright books was lawful, in part because of the transformative uses that the digitisation project displayed - one being text and data mining.[40]\n\nSoftware \nSee also: Category:Data mining and machine learning software.\nFree open-source data mining software and applications \nThe following applications are available under free\/open source licenses. Public access to application source code is also available.\n\nCarrot2: Text and search results clustering framework.\nChemicalize.org: A chemical structure miner and web search engine.\nELKI: A university research project with advanced cluster analysis and outlier detection methods written in the Java language.\nGATE: a natural language processing and language engineering tool.\nKNIME: The Konstanz Information Miner, a user friendly and comprehensive data analytics framework.\nMassive Online Analysis (MOA): a real-time big data stream mining with concept drift tool in the Java programming language.\nMEPX - cross platform tool for regression and classification problems based on a Genetic Programming variant.\nML-Flex: A software package that enables users to integrate with third-party machine-learning packages written in any programming language, execute classification analyses in parallel across multiple computing nodes, and produce HTML reports of classification results.\nmlpack: a collection of ready-to-use machine learning algorithms written in the C++ language.\nNLTK (Natural Language Toolkit): A suite of libraries and programs for symbolic and statistical natural language processing (NLP) for the Python language.\nOpenNN: Open neural networks library.\nOrange: A component-based data mining and machine learning software suite written in the Python language.\nR: A programming language and software environment for statistical computing, data mining, and graphics. It is part of the GNU Project.\nscikit-learn is an open source machine learning library for the Python programming language\nTorch: An open-source deep learning library for the Lua programming language and scientific computing framework with wide support for machine learning algorithms.\nUIMA: The UIMA (Unstructured Information Management Architecture) is a component framework for analyzing unstructured content such as text, audio and video \u2013 originally developed by IBM.\nWeka: A suite of machine learning software applications written in the Java programming language.\nProprietary data-mining software and applications \nThe following applications are available under proprietary licenses.\n\nAngoss KnowledgeSTUDIO: data mining tool\nClarabridge: text analytics product.\nKXEN Modeler: data mining tool provided by KXEN Inc..\nLIONsolver: an integrated software application for data mining, business intelligence, and modeling that implements the Learning and Intelligent OptimizatioN (LION) approach.\nMegaputer Intelligence: data and text mining software is called PolyAnalyst.\nMicrosoft Analysis Services: data mining software provided by Microsoft.\nNetOwl: suite of multilingual text and entity analytics products that enable data mining.\nOpenText Big Data Analytics: Visual Data Mining & Predictive Analysis by Open Text Corporation\nOracle Data Mining: data mining software by Oracle Corporation.\nPSeven: platform for automation of engineering simulation and analysis, multidisciplinary optimization and data mining provided by DATADVANCE.\nQlucore Omics Explorer: data mining software.\nRapidMiner: An environment for machine learning and data mining experiments.\nSAS Enterprise Miner: data mining software provided by the SAS Institute.\nSPSS Modeler: data mining software provided by IBM.\nSTATISTICA Data Miner: data mining software provided by StatSoft.\nTanagra: Visualisation-oriented data mining software, also for teaching.\nVertica: data mining software provided by Hewlett-Packard.\nMarketplace surveys \nSeveral researchers and organizations have conducted reviews of data mining tools and surveys of data miners. These identify some of the strengths and weaknesses of the software packages. They also provide an overview of the behaviors, preferences and views of data miners. Some of these reports include:\n\nHurwitz Victory Index: Report for Advanced Analytics as a market research assessment tool, it highlights both the diverse uses for advanced analytics technology and the vendors who make those applications possible.Recent-research\nRexer Analytics Data Miner Surveys (2007\u20132015)[41]\n2011 Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery[42]\nForrester Research 2010 Predictive Analytics and Data Mining Solutions report[43]\nGartner 2008 \"Magic Quadrant\" report[44]\nRobert A. Nisbet's 2006 Three Part Series of articles \"Data Mining Tools: Which One is Best For CRM?\"[45]\nHaughton et al.'s 2003 Review of Data Mining Software Packages in The American Statistician[46]\nGoebel & Gruenwald 1999 \"A Survey of Data Mining a Knowledge Discovery Software Tools\" in SIGKDD Explorations[47]\nSee also \n Data mining portal\nMethods\n\nAgent mining\nAnomaly\/outlier\/change detection\nAssociation rule learning\nBayesian networks\nClassification\nCluster analysis\nDecision trees\nEnsemble learning\nFactor analysis\nGenetic algorithms\nIntention mining\nLearning classifier system\nMultilinear subspace learning\nNeural networks\nRegression analysis\nSequence mining\nStructured data analysis\nSupport vector machines\nText mining\nTime series analysis\nApplication domains\n\nAnalytics\nBehavior informatics\nBig data\nBioinformatics\nBusiness intelligence\nData analysis\nData warehouse\nDecision support system\nDomain driven data mining\nDrug discovery\nExploratory data analysis\nPredictive analytics\nWeb mining\nApplication examples\nMain article: Examples of data mining\nSee also: Category:Applied data mining.\n\nAutomatic number plate recognition in the United Kingdom\nCustomer analytics\nEducational data mining\nNational Security Agency\nQuantitative structure\u2013activity relationship\nSurveillance \/ Mass surveillance (e.g., Stellar Wind)\nRelated topics\nData mining is about analyzing data; for information about extracting information out of data, see:\n\n\nData integration\nData transformation\nElectronic discovery\nInformation extraction\nInformation integration\nNamed-entity recognition\nProfiling (information science)\nPsychometrics\nSocial media mining\nSurveillance capitalism\nWeb scraping\nOther resources\nInternational Journal of Data Warehousing and Mining\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c \"Data Mining Curriculum\". ACM SIGKDD. 2006-04-30. Retrieved 2014-01-27 . \n\n^ Clifton, Christopher (2010). \"Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica: Definition of Data Mining\". Retrieved 2010-12-09 . \n\n^ Hastie, Trevor; Tibshirani, Robert; Friedman, Jerome (2009). \"The Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference, and Prediction\". Archived from the original on 2009-11-10. Retrieved 2012-08-07 . \n\n^ Han, Kamber, Pei, Jaiwei, Micheline, Jian (June 9, 2011). Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques (3rd ed.). Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-0-12-381479-1. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ a b c Fayyad, Usama; Piatetsky-Shapiro, Gregory; Smyth, Padhraic (1996). \"From Data Mining to Knowledge Discovery in Databases\" (PDF) . Retrieved 17 December 2008 . \n\n^ Olson, D. L. (2007). Data mining in business services. Service Business, 1(3), 181-193. doi:10.1007\/s11628-006-0014-7 \n\n^ Han, Jiawei; Kamber, Micheline (2001). Data mining: concepts and techniques. Morgan Kaufmann. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-55860-489-6. Thus, data mining should have been more appropriately named \"knowledge mining from data,\" which is unfortunately somewhat long \n\n^ OKAIRP 2005 Fall Conference, Arizona State University Archived 2014-02-01 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ Witten, Ian H.; Frank, Eibe; Hall, Mark A. (30 January 2011). Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques (3 ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-374856-0. \n\n^ Bouckaert, Remco R.; Frank, Eibe; Hall, Mark A.; Holmes, Geoffrey; Pfahringer, Bernhard; Reutemann, Peter; Witten, Ian H. (2010). \"WEKA Experiences with a Java open-source project\". Journal of Machine Learning Research. 11: 2533\u20132541. the original title, \"Practical machine learning\", was changed ... The term \"data mining\" was [added] primarily for marketing reasons. \n\n^ Lovell, Michael C. (1983). \"Data Mining\". The Review of Economics and Statistics. 65 (1): 1\u201312. doi:10.2307\/1924403. JSTOR 1924403. \n\n^ Mena, Jes\u00fas (2011). Machine Learning Forensics for Law Enforcement, Security, and Intelligence. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press (Taylor & Francis Group). ISBN 978-1-4398-6069-4. \n\n^ Piatetsky-Shapiro, Gregory; Parker, Gary (2011). \"Lesson: Data Mining, and Knowledge Discovery: An Introduction\". Introduction to Data Mining. KD Nuggets. Retrieved 30 August 2012 . \n\n^ Fayyad, Usama (15 June 1999). \"First Editorial by Editor-in-Chief\". SIGKDD Explorations. 13 (1): 102. doi:10.1145\/2207243.2207269. Retrieved 27 December 2010 . \n\n^ Kantardzic, Mehmed (2003). Data Mining: Concepts, Models, Methods, and Algorithms. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-22852-3. OCLC 50055336. \n\n^ Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro (2002) KDnuggets Methodology Poll, Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro (2004) KDnuggets Methodology Poll, Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro (2007) KDnuggets Methodology Poll, Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro (2014) KDnuggets Methodology Poll \n\n^ \u00d3scar Marb\u00e1n, Gonzalo Mariscal and Javier Segovia (2009); A Data Mining & Knowledge Discovery Process Model. In Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery in Real Life Applications, Book edited by: Julio Ponce and Adem Karahoca, ISBN 978-3-902613-53-0, pp. 438\u2013453, February 2009, I-Tech, Vienna, Austria. \n\n^ Lukasz Kurgan and Petr Musilek (2006); A survey of Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining process models. The Knowledge Engineering Review. Volume 21 Issue 1, March 2006, pp 1\u201324, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, USA doi:10.1017\/S0269888906000737 \n\n^ Azevedo, A. and Santos, M. F. KDD, SEMMA and CRISP-DM: a parallel overview Archived 2013-01-09 at the Wayback Machine. In Proceedings of the IADIS European Conference on Data Mining 2008, pp 182\u2013185. \n\n^ Hawkins, Douglas M (2004). \"The problem of overfitting\". Journal of Chemical Information and Computer Sciences. 44 (1): 1\u201312. doi:10.1021\/ci0342472. PMID 14741005. \n\n^ \"Microsoft Academic Search: Top conferences in data mining\". Microsoft Academic Search. \n\n^ \"Google Scholar: Top publications - Data Mining & Analysis\". Google Scholar. \n\n^ Proceedings Archived 2010-04-30 at the Wayback Machine, International Conferences on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, ACM, New York. \n\n^ SIGKDD Explorations, ACM, New York. \n\n^ G\u00fcnnemann, Stephan; Kremer, Hardy; Seidl, Thomas (2011). \"An extension of the PMML standard to subspace clustering models\". Proceedings of the 2011 workshop on Predictive markup language modeling - PMML '11. p. 48. doi:10.1145\/2023598.2023605. ISBN 978-1-4503-0837-3. \n\n^ Seltzer, William (2005). \"The Promise and Pitfalls of Data Mining: Ethical Issues\" (PDF) . ASA Section on Government Statistics. American Statistical Association. \n\n^ Pitts, Chip (15 March 2007). \"The End of Illegal Domestic Spying? Don't Count on It\". Washington Spectator. Archived from the original on 2007-10-29. \n\n^ Taipale, Kim A. (15 December 2003). \"Data Mining and Domestic Security: Connecting the Dots to Make Sense of Data\". Columbia Science and Technology Law Review. 5 (2). OCLC 45263753. SSRN 546782 . \n\n^ Resig, John. \"A Framework for Mining Instant Messaging Services\" (PDF) . Retrieved 16 March 2018 . \n\n^ a b c Think Before You Dig: Privacy Implications of Data Mining & Aggregation Archived 2008-12-17 at the Wayback Machine, NASCIO Research Brief, September 2004 \n\n^ Ohm, Paul. \"Don't Build a Database of Ruin\". Harvard Business Review. \n\n^ Darwin Bond-Graham, Iron Cagebook - The Logical End of Facebook's Patents, Counterpunch.org, 2013.12.03 \n\n^ Darwin Bond-Graham, Inside the Tech industry's Startup Conference, Counterpunch.org, 2013.09.11 \n\n^ AOL search data identified individuals, SecurityFocus, August 2006 \n\n^ Kshetri, Nir (2014). \"Big data\u05f3s impact on privacy, security and consumer welfare\" (PDF) . Telecommunications Policy. 38 (11): 1134\u20131145. doi:10.1016\/j.telpol.2014.10.002. \n\n^ Biotech Business Week Editors (June 30, 2008); BIOMEDICINE; HIPAA Privacy Rule Impedes Biomedical Research, Biotech Business Week, retrieved 17 November 2009 from LexisNexis Academic \n\n^ UK Researchers Given Data Mining Right Under New UK Copyright Laws. Archived June 9, 2014, at the Wayback Machine Out-Law.com. Retrieved 14 November 2014 \n\n^ \"Licences for Europe - Structured Stakeholder Dialogue 2013\". European Commission. Retrieved 14 November 2014 . \n\n^ \"Text and Data Mining:Its importance and the need for change in Europe\". Association of European Research Libraries. Retrieved 14 November 2014 . \n\n^ \"Judge grants summary judgment in favor of Google Books \u2014 a fair use victory\". Lexology.com. Antonelli Law Ltd. Retrieved 14 November 2014 . \n\n^ Karl Rexer, Heather Allen, & Paul Gearan (2011); Understanding Data Miners, Analytics Magazine, May\/June 2011 (INFORMS: Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences). \n\n^ Mikut, Ralf; Reischl, Markus (September\u2013October 2011). \"Data Mining Tools\". Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery. 1 (5): 431\u2013445. doi:10.1002\/widm.24. \n\n^ Kobielus, James; The Forrester Wave: Predictive Analytics and Data Mining Solutions, Q1 2010, Forrester Research, 1 July 2008 \n\n^ Herschel, Gareth; Magic Quadrant for Customer Data-Mining Applications, Gartner Inc., 1 July 2008 \n\n^ Nisbet, Robert A. (2006); Data Mining Tools: Which One is Best for CRM? Part 1, Information Management Special Reports, January 2006 \n\n^ Haughton, Dominique; Deichmann, Joel; Eshghi, Abdolreza; Sayek, Selin; Teebagy, Nicholas; and Topi, Heikki (2003); A Review of Software Packages for Data Mining, The American Statistician, Vol. 57, No. 4, pp. 290\u2013309 \n\n^ Goebel, Michael; Gruenwald, Le (June 1999). \"A Survey of Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery Software Tools\" (PDF) . SIGKDD Explorations. 1 (1): 20\u201333. \n\n\nFurther reading \n\nCabena, Peter; Hadjnian, Pablo; Stadler, Rolf; Verhees, Jaap; Zanasi, Alessandro (1997); Discovering Data Mining: From Concept to Implementation, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-743980-6\nM.S. Chen, J. Han, P.S. Yu (1996) \"Data mining: an overview from a database perspective\". Knowledge and data Engineering, IEEE Transactions on 8 (6), 866\u2013883\nFeldman, Ronen; Sanger, James (2007); The Text Mining Handbook, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-83657-9\nGuo, Yike; and Grossman, Robert (editors) (1999); High Performance Data Mining: Scaling Algorithms, Applications and Systems, Kluwer Academic Publishers\nHan, Jiawei, Micheline Kamber, and Jian Pei. Data mining: concepts and techniques. Morgan kaufmann, 2006.\nHastie, Trevor, Tibshirani, Robert and Friedman, Jerome (2001); The Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference, and Prediction, Springer, ISBN 0-387-95284-5\nLiu, Bing (2007, 2011); Web Data Mining: Exploring Hyperlinks, Contents and Usage Data, Springer, ISBN 3-540-37881-2\nMurphy, Chris (16 May 2011). \"Is Data Mining Free Speech?\". InformationWeek: 12. \nNisbet, Robert; Elder, John; Miner, Gary (2009); Handbook of Statistical Analysis & Data Mining Applications, Academic Press\/Elsevier, ISBN 978-0-12-374765-5\nPoncelet, Pascal; Masseglia, Florent; and Teisseire, Maguelonne (editors) (October 2007); \"Data Mining Patterns: New Methods and Applications\", Information Science Reference, ISBN 978-1-59904-162-9\nTan, Pang-Ning; Steinbach, Michael; and Kumar, Vipin (2005); Introduction to Data Mining, ISBN 0-321-32136-7\nTheodoridis, Sergios; and Koutroumbas, Konstantinos (2009); Pattern Recognition, 4th Edition, Academic Press, ISBN 978-1-59749-272-0\nWeiss, Sholom M.; and Indurkhya, Nitin (1998); Predictive Data Mining, Morgan Kaufmann\nWitten, Ian H.; Frank, Eibe; Hall, Mark A. (30 January 2011). Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques (3 ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-374856-0. (See also Free Weka software)\nYe, Nong (2003); The Handbook of Data Mining, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum\n\nExternal links \n\n\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Data mining.\nKnowledge Discovery Software at Curlie\nData Mining Tool Vendors at Curlie\nvteData\nAnalysis\nArchaeology\nCleansing\nCollection\nCompression\nCorruption\nCuration\nDegradation\nEditing\nFarming\nFormat management\nFusion\nIntegration\nIntegrity\nLibrary\nLoss\nManagement\nMigration\nMining\nPre-processing\nPreservation\nProtection (privacy)\nRecovery\nReduction\nRetention\nQuality\nScience\nScraping\nScrubbing\nSecurity\nStewardship\nStorage\nValidation\nWarehouse\nWrangling\/munging\n\nvteData warehousesCreating a data warehouseConcepts\nDatabase\nDimension\nDimensional modeling\nFact\nOLAP\nStar schema\nSnowflake schema\nReverse star schema\nAggregate\nVariants\nAnchor Modeling\nColumn-oriented DBMS\nData vault modeling\nHOLAP\nMOLAP\nROLAP\nOperational data store\nElements\nData 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\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 7 March 2019, at 17:00.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 51 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_mining skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data mining<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\">\n<p><b>Data mining<\/b> is the process of discovering patterns in large <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_set\" title=\"Data set\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f2b812adb2c51444a28891f374584d4\">data sets<\/a> involving methods at the intersection of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">machine learning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">statistics<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Database system\" data-key=\"63057083b6ce09afef9c50cc7e4db112\">database systems<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-acm_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-acm-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Data mining is an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interdisciplinary\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Interdisciplinary\" data-key=\"a15ddab4f7d1abf43b109840dd1e490d\">interdisciplinary<\/a> subfield of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">computer science<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">statistics<\/a> with an overall goal to extract information (with intelligent methods) from a data set and transform the information into a comprehensible structure for further use.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-acm_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-acm-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-brittanica_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-brittanica-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-elements_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-elements-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> Data mining is the analysis step of the \"knowledge discovery in databases\" process, or KDD.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fayyad_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fayyad-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Aside from the raw analysis step, it also involves database and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_management\" title=\"Data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c54f822d2961a56b862b2fe07cff86\">data management<\/a> aspects, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_pre-processing\" title=\"Data pre-processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f374c1ddf93d2d0f805f778d528ae2a\">data pre-processing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_model\" title=\"Statistical model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"471ef69d6cb5a7420b7742ce0844575d\">model<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_inference\" title=\"Statistical inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"531cc2121dc07b12e1541c66cca17129\">inference<\/a> considerations, interestingness metrics, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_complexity_theory\" title=\"Computational complexity theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ccde243d1e57cc1b4cef865a096a6be\">complexity<\/a> considerations, post-processing of discovered structures, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_visualization\" title=\"Data visualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5477909db13f678e8054bd9dae16a17\">visualization<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online_algorithm\" title=\"Online algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72cb9f874f5d7b332b81b975cbf66cb1\">online updating<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-acm_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-acm-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The difference between <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe81497dd8621498e1de0a68d203fd37\">data analysis<\/a> and data mining is that data analysis is used to test models and hypotheses on the dataset, e.g., analyzing the effectiveness of a marketing campaign, regardless of the amount of data; in contrast, data mining uses machine-learning and statistical models to uncover clandestine or hidden patterns in a large volume of data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The term \"data mining\" is in fact a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Misnomer\" title=\"Misnomer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f354c17f4a96c6cd189381641c784e9d\">misnomer<\/a>, because the goal is the extraction of patterns and knowledge from large amounts of data, not the extraction (<i>mining<\/i>) of data itself.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-han-kamber_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-han-kamber-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> It also is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Buzzword\" title=\"Buzzword\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"562d835e9f6d4500a9c293cfe1f7f5f9\">buzzword<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> and is frequently applied to any form of large-scale data or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_processing\" title=\"Information processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f9cfcbf61872281cf70396ed5f1427c\">information processing<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_collection\" title=\"Data collection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c480fa3155cedfb5132e5258cdc0aa80\">collection<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_extraction\" title=\"Information extraction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d8bd74625d817b2052a2a36d5529463\">extraction<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0ea3ce49e6688a8ec1616b9f0927fea\">warehousing<\/a>, analysis, and statistics) as well as any application of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_support_system\" title=\"Decision support system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"440a63a58b5307b2eb863ee65180b6e8\">computer decision support system<\/a>, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">artificial intelligence<\/a> (e.g., machine learning) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" title=\"Business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">business intelligence<\/a>. The book <i>Data mining: Practical machine learning tools and techniques with Java<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-witten_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-witten-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> (which covers mostly machine learning material) was originally to be named just <i>Practical machine learning<\/i>, and the term <i>data mining<\/i> was only added for marketing reasons.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> Often the more general terms (<i>large scale<\/i>) <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe81497dd8621498e1de0a68d203fd37\">data analysis<\/a><\/i> and <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytics\" title=\"Analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a9e129b74020e51d9761f09f2d4652\">analytics<\/a><\/i> \u2013 or, when referring to actual methods, <i>artificial intelligence<\/i> and <i>machine learning<\/i> \u2013 are more appropriate.\n<\/p><p>The actual data mining task is the semi-automatic or automatic analysis of large quantities of data to extract previously unknown, interesting patterns such as groups of data records (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">cluster analysis<\/a>), unusual records (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anomaly_detection\" title=\"Anomaly detection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bba5c970d8f41b6bd4492e1d32f9118\">anomaly detection<\/a>), and dependencies (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_rule_mining\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Association rule mining\" data-key=\"efa708883e9d12b7580e6f982450feee\">association rule mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sequential_pattern_mining\" title=\"Sequential pattern mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1755be3909a499005da3647a7da87cb9\">sequential pattern mining<\/a>). This usually involves using database techniques such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spatial_index\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Spatial index\" data-key=\"e4b6d031725038d6e9058fd460a05fc3\">spatial indices<\/a>. These patterns can then be seen as a kind of summary of the input data, and may be used in further analysis or, for example, in machine learning and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_analytics\" title=\"Predictive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34f7137f13e40b2fa7b28c33330ba3ab\">predictive analytics<\/a>. For example, the data mining step might identify multiple groups in the data, which can then be used to obtain more accurate prediction results by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_support_system\" title=\"Decision support system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"440a63a58b5307b2eb863ee65180b6e8\">decision support system<\/a>. Neither the data collection, data preparation, nor result interpretation and reporting is part of the data mining step, but do belong to the overall KDD process as additional steps.\n<\/p><p>The related terms <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_dredging\" title=\"Data dredging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bbb4d59c3e4ac876c876ee18d97bb02\">data dredging<\/a><\/i>, <i>data fishing<\/i>, and <i>data snooping<\/i> refer to the use of data mining methods to sample parts of a larger population data set that are (or may be) too small for reliable statistical inferences to be made about the validity of any patterns discovered. These methods can, however, be used in creating new hypotheses to test against the larger data populations.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Etymology\">Etymology<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In the 1960s, statisticians and economists used terms like <i>data fishing<\/i> or <i>data dredging<\/i> to refer to what they considered the bad practice of analyzing data without an a-priori hypothesis. The term \"data mining\" was used in a similarly critical way by economist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_Lovell\" title=\"Michael Lovell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b9ef8e04179e41fb55d5bbd45d8bb00\">Michael Lovell<\/a> in an article published in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Review_of_Economic_Studies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Review of Economic Studies\" data-key=\"e76bfc455c276988fa277baaac4bce7b\">Review of Economic Studies<\/a> 1983. Lovell indicates that the practice \"masquerades under a variety of aliases, ranging from \"experimentation\" (positive) to \"fishing\" or \"snooping\" (negative).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The term <i>data mining<\/i> appeared around 1990 in the database community, generally with positive connotations. For a short time in 1980s, a phrase \"database mining\"\u2122, was used, but since it was trademarked by HNC, a San Diego-based company, to pitch their Database Mining Workstation;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mena_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mena-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> researchers consequently turned to <i>data mining<\/i>. Other terms used include <i>data archaeology<\/i>, <i>information harvesting<\/i>, <i>information discovery<\/i>, <i>knowledge extraction<\/i>, etc. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gregory_I._Piatetsky-Shapiro\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gregory I. Piatetsky-Shapiro\" data-key=\"4a754d595747b322a20d673c86b39ed5\">Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro<\/a> coined the term \"knowledge discovery in databases\" for the first workshop on the same topic <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kdnuggets.com\/meetings\/kdd89\/\" target=\"_blank\">(KDD-1989)<\/a> and this term became more popular in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">AI<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">machine learning<\/a> community. However, the term data mining became more popular in the business and press communities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> Currently, the terms <i>data mining<\/i> and <i>knowledge discovery<\/i> are used interchangeably.\n<\/p><p>In the academic community, the major forums for research started in 1995 when the First International Conference on Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery () was started in Montreal under <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AAAI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AAAI\" data-key=\"9b2449f847bb33e7fbc46d0c2435e5ae\">AAAI<\/a> sponsorship. It was co-chaired by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Usama_Fayyad\" title=\"Usama Fayyad\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"237a9e9eb1552fdf3d9f14f0ccaea8ba\">Usama Fayyad<\/a> and Ramasamy Uthurusamy. A year later, in 1996, Usama Fayyad launched the journal by Kluwer called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Mining_and_Knowledge_Discovery\" title=\"Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51311894e50247579283ffcbe9bb7785\">Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery<\/a> as its founding editor-in-chief. Later he started the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SIGKDD\" title=\"SIGKDD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e88f1b178d71b2b6b3ad823b557b6738\">SIGKDD<\/a> Newsletter SIGKDD Explorations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SIGKDD-explorations_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SIGKDD-explorations-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> The KDD International conference became the primary highest quality conference in data mining with an acceptance rate of research paper submissions below 18%. The journal <i>Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery<\/i> is the primary research journal of the field.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The manual extraction of patterns from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a> has occurred for centuries. Early methods of identifying patterns in data include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayes%27_theorem\" title=\"Bayes' theorem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"476ebf2180a5f39e03ecac2ef3fdc03e\">Bayes' theorem<\/a> (1700s) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">regression analysis<\/a> (1800s). The proliferation, ubiquity and increasing power of computer technology has dramatically increased data collection, storage, and manipulation ability. As <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_set\" title=\"Data set\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f2b812adb2c51444a28891f374584d4\">data sets<\/a> have grown in size and complexity, direct \"hands-on\" data analysis has increasingly been augmented with indirect, automated data processing, aided by other discoveries in computer science, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neural networks\" data-key=\"9020876aa19c541d6113c18b09f7a5bb\">neural networks<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">cluster analysis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_algorithms\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Genetic algorithms\" data-key=\"fc5ef0931d55987c180aeb657a1640aa\">genetic algorithms<\/a> (1950s), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_tree_learning\" title=\"Decision tree learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4164d60d7492f2ce658e44b26d1d2702\">decision trees<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_rules\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision rules\" data-key=\"7907fe99da23b617316ee2f88167840c\">decision rules<\/a> (1960s), and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Support_vector_machines\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Support vector machines\" data-key=\"7d46d1a27940a8842a2e7b74baae7279\">support vector machines<\/a> (1990s). Data mining is the process of applying these methods with the intention of uncovering hidden patterns<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kantardzic_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kantardzic-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> in large data sets. It bridges the gap from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Applied_statistics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Applied statistics\" data-key=\"5239c40f3763e2dcfb0309d836a6fec1\">applied statistics<\/a> and artificial intelligence (which usually provide the mathematical background) to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Database management\" data-key=\"3f263546f40adf74657dfd3be4fac315\">database management<\/a> by exploiting the way data is stored and indexed in databases to execute the actual learning and discovery algorithms more efficiently, allowing such methods to be applied to ever larger data sets.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Process\">Process<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The <i>knowledge discovery in databases (KDD) process<\/i> is commonly defined with the stages:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Selection<\/li>\n<li>Pre-processing<\/li>\n<li>Transformation<\/li>\n<li><i>Data mining<\/i><\/li>\n<li>Interpretation\/evaluation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fayyad_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fayyad-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<p>It exists, however, in many variations on this theme, such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cross-industry_standard_process_for_data_mining\" title=\"Cross-industry standard process for data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e78640da9c7843e05c51a253f0a412e6\">Cross-industry standard process for data mining<\/a> (CRISP-DM) which defines six phases:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Business understanding<\/li>\n<li>Data understanding<\/li>\n<li>Data preparation<\/li>\n<li>Modeling<\/li>\n<li>Evaluation<\/li>\n<li>Deployment<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>or a simplified process such as (1) Pre-processing, (2) Data Mining, and (3) Results Validation.\n<\/p><p>Polls conducted in 2002, 2004, 2007 and 2014 show that the CRISP-DM methodology is the leading methodology used by data miners.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> The only other data mining standard named in these polls was <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SEMMA\" title=\"SEMMA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d002c550b51708bcaf489e4f80b9f8d\">SEMMA<\/a>. However, 3\u20134 times as many people reported using CRISP-DM. Several teams of researchers have published reviews of data mining process models,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Marban_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Marban-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-kurgan_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-kurgan-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> and Azevedo and Santos conducted a comparison of CRISP-DM and SEMMA in 2008.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AzevedoSantos_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AzevedoSantos-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Pre-processing\">Pre-processing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Before data mining algorithms can be used, a target data set must be assembled. As data mining can only uncover patterns actually present in the data, the target data set must be large enough to contain these patterns while remaining concise enough to be mined within an acceptable time limit. A common source for data is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mart\" title=\"Data mart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e44fab70f384c8b8ec7e9184af0c01a1\">data mart<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0ea3ce49e6688a8ec1616b9f0927fea\">data warehouse<\/a>. Pre-processing is essential to analyze the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multivariate_statistics\" title=\"Multivariate statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"034eee1c7d7f619e04d40d0b3d81a52d\">multivariate<\/a> data sets before data mining. The target set is then cleaned. Data cleaning removes the observations containing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_noise\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Statistical noise\" data-key=\"3e560e6df38d566d3145f598f7276cd6\">noise<\/a> and those with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Missing_data\" title=\"Missing data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81968c8f00ac28e80b45858cbb0eac53\">missing data<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_mining\">Data mining<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data mining involves six common classes of tasks:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fayyad_5-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fayyad-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anomaly_detection\" title=\"Anomaly detection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bba5c970d8f41b6bd4492e1d32f9118\">Anomaly detection<\/a> (outlier\/change\/deviation detection) \u2013 The identification of unusual data records, that might be interesting or data errors that require further investigation.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_rule_learning\" title=\"Association rule learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69b9d54917f42d0ac09a6ce55397d096\">Association rule learning<\/a> (dependency modelling) \u2013 Searches for relationships between variables. For example, a supermarket might gather data on customer purchasing habits. Using association rule learning, the supermarket can determine which products are frequently bought together and use this information for marketing purposes. This is sometimes referred to as market basket analysis.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">Clustering<\/a> \u2013 is the task of discovering groups and structures in the data that are in some way or another \"similar\", without using known structures in the data.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">Classification<\/a> \u2013 is the task of generalizing known structure to apply to new data. For example, an e-mail program might attempt to classify an e-mail as \"legitimate\" or as \"spam\".<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">Regression<\/a> \u2013 attempts to find a function which models the data with the least error that is, for estimating the relationships among data or datasets.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_summarization\" title=\"Automatic summarization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7672fefe2b60bc3551dc1744d6fe44e5\">Summarization<\/a> \u2013 providing a more compact representation of the data set, including visualization and report generation.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Results_validation\">Results validation<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Spurious_correlations_-_spelling_bee_spiders.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d29ee27d787e86b763a525c81bdfc0e\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/0c\/Spurious_correlations_-_spelling_bee_spiders.svg\/220px-Spurious_correlations_-_spelling_bee_spiders.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"87\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Spurious_correlations_-_spelling_bee_spiders.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"6d29ee27d787e86b763a525c81bdfc0e\"><\/a><\/div>An example of data produced by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_dredging\" title=\"Data dredging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bbb4d59c3e4ac876c876ee18d97bb02\">data dredging<\/a> through a bot operated by statistician Tyler Vigen, apparently showing a close link between the best word winning a spelling bee competition and the number of people in the United States killed by venomous spiders. The similarity in trends is obviously a coincidence.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Data mining can unintentionally be misused, and can then produce results which appear to be significant; but which do not actually predict future behaviour and cannot be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reproducibility\" title=\"Reproducibility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c559b05dff7a50c1a66ea0f71ea8052d\">reproduced<\/a> on a new sample of data and bear little use. Often this results from investigating too many hypotheses and not performing proper <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_hypothesis_testing\" title=\"Statistical hypothesis testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ec5d3afd79aa3395c3e8cbf984fb2e6\">statistical hypothesis testing<\/a>. A simple version of this problem in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">machine learning<\/a> is known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overfitting\" title=\"Overfitting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d1e3e9cfe8881363e47824ef11c4bc\">overfitting<\/a>, but the same problem can arise at different phases of the process and thus a train\/test split - when applicable at all - may not be sufficient to prevent this from happening.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hawkins_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hawkins-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<p>The final step of knowledge discovery from data is to verify that the patterns produced by the data mining algorithms occur in the wider data set. Not all patterns found by the data mining algorithms are necessarily valid. It is common for the data mining algorithms to find patterns in the training set which are not present in the general data set. This is called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overfitting\" title=\"Overfitting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d1e3e9cfe8881363e47824ef11c4bc\">overfitting<\/a>. To overcome this, the evaluation uses a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test_set\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Test set\" data-key=\"2460161930eafcaabbd99b80650cb9cb\">test set<\/a> of data on which the data mining algorithm was not trained. The learned patterns are applied to this test set, and the resulting output is compared to the desired output. For example, a data mining algorithm trying to distinguish \"spam\" from \"legitimate\" emails would be trained on a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Training_set\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Training set\" data-key=\"fbc68caea577efdc3d160d590cbde78b\">training set<\/a> of sample e-mails. Once trained, the learned patterns would be applied to the test set of e-mails on which it had <i>not<\/i> been trained. The accuracy of the patterns can then be measured from how many e-mails they correctly classify. A number of statistical methods may be used to evaluate the algorithm, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Receiver_operating_characteristic\" title=\"Receiver operating characteristic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8254d481444efffa04c623c06fe7070\">ROC curves<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>If the learned patterns do not meet the desired standards, subsequently it is necessary to re-evaluate and change the pre-processing and data mining steps. If the learned patterns do meet the desired standards, then the final step is to interpret the learned patterns and turn them into knowledge.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Research\">Research<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The premier professional body in the field is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_for_Computing_Machinery\" title=\"Association for Computing Machinery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d44eae5903ccb21b4fe3765a37220bb0\">Association for Computing Machinery<\/a>'s (ACM) Special Interest Group (SIG) on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SIGKDD\" title=\"SIGKDD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e88f1b178d71b2b6b3ad823b557b6738\">SIGKDD<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> Since 1989, this ACM SIG has hosted an annual international conference and published its proceedings,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> and since 1999 it has published a biannual <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Academic_journal\" title=\"Academic journal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"205a8e5ce038edf4d4c027c011c94c18\">academic journal<\/a> titled \"SIGKDD Explorations\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Computer science conferences on data mining include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CIKM_Conference\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CIKM Conference\" data-key=\"2a4e847eb4075612f859f4488eb3c2e1\">CIKM Conference<\/a> \u2013 ACM <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conference_on_Information_and_Knowledge_Management\" title=\"Conference on Information and Knowledge Management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"976345c472ad1ecb009afc22e5058725\">Conference on Information and Knowledge Management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Conference_on_Machine_Learning_and_Principles_and_Practice_of_Knowledge_Discovery_in_Databases\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases\" data-key=\"7ae5a17d5466e528d4f36680e1e646f7\">European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KDD_Conference\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"KDD Conference\" data-key=\"608ddc3efe0b2e81456fa01980e5fbe0\">KDD Conference<\/a> \u2013 ACM SIGKDD <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conference_on_Knowledge_Discovery_and_Data_Mining\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining\" data-key=\"0568f7de857cb8a157fdf4fb67796ef5\">Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Data mining topics are also present on many <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_computer_science_conferences#Data_Management\" title=\"List of computer science conferences\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ba39bb17d8b399447e13ed7aaf8ebf1\">data management\/database conferences<\/a> such as the ICDE Conference, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SIGMOD\" title=\"SIGMOD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e043a3d1c1e183c620b4fc98421eafe\">SIGMOD Conference<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Conference_on_Very_Large_Data_Bases\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"International Conference on Very Large Data Bases\" data-key=\"96c9bb041c4d92a8129844cf0082e3a4\">International Conference on Very Large Data Bases<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standards\">Standards<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>There have been some efforts to define standards for the data mining process, for example the 1999 European <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cross_Industry_Standard_Process_for_Data_Mining\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cross Industry Standard Process for Data Mining\" data-key=\"ef74f6c34fa19865c215a6c978164ca8\">Cross Industry Standard Process for Data Mining<\/a> (CRISP-DM 1.0) and the 2004 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_Data_Mining\" title=\"Java Data Mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a80b2a04c18bd7f6a18f198f7063929\">Java Data Mining<\/a> standard (JDM 1.0). Development on successors to these processes (CRISP-DM 2.0 and JDM 2.0) was active in 2006, but has stalled since. JDM 2.0 was withdrawn without reaching a final draft.\n<\/p><p>For exchanging the extracted models \u2013 in particular for use in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_analytics\" title=\"Predictive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34f7137f13e40b2fa7b28c33330ba3ab\">predictive analytics<\/a> \u2013 the key standard is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_Model_Markup_Language\" title=\"Predictive Model Markup Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa1032870c7a5078db3a13fe743d88db\">Predictive Model Markup Language<\/a> (PMML), which is an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a>-based language developed by the Data Mining Group (DMG) and supported as exchange format by many data mining applications. As the name suggests, it only covers prediction models, a particular data mining task of high importance to business applications. However, extensions to cover (for example) <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subspace_clustering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Subspace clustering\" data-key=\"aafcb9d7545afbfc97fa0e23d86ef120\">subspace clustering<\/a> have been proposed independently of the DMG.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notable_uses\">Notable uses<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Examples_of_data_mining\" title=\"Examples of data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"293c454e236ae18c0d3285d0d065c9a2\">Examples of data mining<\/a><\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Applied_data_mining\" title=\"Category:Applied data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4626cac2655611e02a18fab0cc1f60d\">Category:Applied data mining<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p>Data mining is used wherever there is digital data available today. Notable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Examples_of_data_mining\" title=\"Examples of data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"293c454e236ae18c0d3285d0d065c9a2\">examples of data mining<\/a> can be found throughout business, medicine, science, and surveillance.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Privacy_concerns_and_ethics\">Privacy concerns and ethics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>While the term \"data mining\" itself may have no ethical implications, it is often associated with the mining of information in relation to peoples' behavior (ethical and otherwise).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The ways in which data mining can be used can in some cases and contexts raise questions regarding privacy, legality, and ethics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> In particular, data mining government or commercial data sets for national security or law enforcement purposes, such as in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Total_Information_Awareness\" title=\"Total Information Awareness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa119ee102eb06a97c7bf6fd2472101b\">Total Information Awareness<\/a> Program or in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ADVISE\" title=\"ADVISE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b737ff247a475e040d61f1a34077c515\">ADVISE<\/a>, has raised privacy concerns.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Data mining requires data preparation which can uncover information or patterns which may compromise confidentiality and privacy obligations. A common way for this to occur is through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aggregate_function\" title=\"Aggregate function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35f5cb81b27157b57eadab66d3e0921f\">data aggregation<\/a>. Data aggregation involves combining data together (possibly from various sources) in a way that facilitates analysis (but that also might make identification of private, individual-level data deducible or otherwise apparent).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NASCIO_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NASCIO-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> This is not data mining <i>per se<\/i>, but a result of the preparation of data before \u2013 and for the purposes of \u2013 the analysis. The threat to an individual's privacy comes into play when the data, once compiled, cause the data miner, or anyone who has access to the newly compiled data set, to be able to identify specific individuals, especially when the data were originally anonymous.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>It is recommended that an individual is made aware of the following <b>before<\/b> data are collected:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NASCIO_30-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NASCIO-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>the purpose of the data collection and any (known) data mining projects;<\/li>\n<li>how the data will be used;<\/li>\n<li>who will be able to mine the data and use the data and their derivatives;<\/li>\n<li>the status of security surrounding access to the data;<\/li>\n<li>how collected data can be updated.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Data may also be modified so as to <i>become<\/i> anonymous, so that individuals may not readily be identified.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NASCIO_30-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NASCIO-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> However, even \"de-identified\"\/\"anonymized\" data sets can potentially contain enough information to allow identification of individuals, as occurred when journalists were able to find several individuals based on a set of search histories that were inadvertently released by AOL.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The inadvertent revelation of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personally_identifiable_information\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Personally identifiable information\" data-key=\"e4c271adb170f3060365fdae55299b88\">personally identifiable information<\/a> leading to the provider violates Fair Information Practices. This indiscretion can cause financial,\n<p>emotional, or bodily harm to the indicated individual. In one instance of privacy violation, the patrons of Walgreens filed a lawsuit against the company in 2011 for selling\nprescription information to data mining companies who in turn provided the data\nto pharmaceutical companies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Situation_in_Europe\">Situation in Europe<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Europe has rather strong privacy laws, and efforts are underway to further strengthen the rights of the consumers. However, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Safe_Harbor_Privacy_Principles\" title=\"International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc1405cdea3543a46f2e660c8ab7b72c\">U.S.-E.U. Safe Harbor Principles<\/a> currently effectively expose European users to privacy exploitation by U.S. companies. As a consequence of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_Snowden\" title=\"Edward Snowden\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e534e33ca161d9c70f94325947d8166\">Edward Snowden<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_surveillance_disclosure\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Global surveillance disclosure\" data-key=\"562903b7f62f13273fb34203b611b672\">global surveillance disclosure<\/a>, there has been increased discussion to revoke this agreement, as in particular the data will be fully exposed to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Security_Agency\" title=\"National Security Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2897c7c54e158a987495468907ded569\">National Security Agency<\/a>, and attempts to reach an agreement have failed.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2014)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Situation_in_the_United_States\">Situation in the United States<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the United States, privacy concerns have been addressed by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/US_Congress\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"US Congress\" data-key=\"be3f6bcb84b50671eb4adc2f0449e4f9\">US Congress<\/a> via the passage of regulatory controls such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"651fe0fa5498890d1a29b4c1e21db2db\">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act<\/a> (HIPAA). The HIPAA requires individuals to give their \"informed consent\" regarding information they provide and its intended present and future uses. According to an article in <i>Biotech Business Week<\/i>, \"'[i]n practice, HIPAA may not offer any greater protection than the longstanding regulations in the research arena,' says the AAHC. More importantly, the rule's goal of protection through informed consent is approach a level of incomprehensibility to average individuals.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> This underscores the necessity for data anonymity in data aggregation and mining practices.\n<\/p><p>U.S. information privacy legislation such as HIPAA and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Family_Educational_Rights_and_Privacy_Act\" title=\"Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca10926de917212e4d97b79d64a41232\">Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act<\/a> (FERPA) applies only to the specific areas that each such law addresses. Use of data mining by the majority of businesses in the U.S. is not controlled by any legislation.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Copyright_law\">Copyright law<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Situation_in_Europe_2\">Situation in Europe<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Due to a lack of flexibilities in European copyright and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_Directive\" title=\"Database Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2014b72d88ff782649d1dd53c201591\">database law<\/a>, the mining of in-copyright works such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_mining\" title=\"Web mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c373798f1c5a2af187f06a5aec6d602\">web mining<\/a> without the permission of the copyright owner is not legal. Where a database is pure data in Europe there is likely to be no copyright, but database rights may exist so data mining becomes subject to regulations by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_Directive\" title=\"Database Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2014b72d88ff782649d1dd53c201591\">Database Directive<\/a>. On the recommendation of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hargreaves_review\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hargreaves review\" data-key=\"56fcc03e2f667a97a7244725510adb24\">Hargreaves review<\/a> this led to the UK government to amend its copyright law in 2014<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> to allow content mining as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Limitations_and_exceptions_to_copyright\" title=\"Limitations and exceptions to copyright\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"627a317cec69b371af90095fa54cbd24\">limitation and exception<\/a>. Only the second country in the world to do so after Japan, which introduced an exception in 2009 for data mining. However, due to the restriction of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Copyright_Directive\" title=\"Copyright Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"188a86bd9ede74518d211860e4b52a91\">Copyright Directive<\/a>, the UK exception only allows content mining for non-commercial purposes. UK copyright law also does not allow this provision to be overridden by contractual terms and conditions. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Commission\" title=\"European Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81898eaa89710c9f6ca992957c6e3e7c\">European Commission<\/a> facilitated stakeholder discussion on text and data mining in 2013, under the title of Licences for Europe.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> The focus on the solution to this legal issue being licences and not limitations and exceptions led to representatives of universities, researchers, libraries, civil society groups and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_access\" title=\"Open access\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66dc6aa007b271bdcc889fc8924589a7\">open access<\/a> publishers to leave the stakeholder dialogue in May 2013.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Situation_in_the_United_States_2\">Situation in the United States<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>By contrast to Europe, the flexible nature of US copyright law, and in particular <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fair_use\" title=\"Fair use\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81755a5a6ab114aae0653c1067615aa0\">fair use<\/a> means that content mining in America, as well as other fair use countries such as Israel, Taiwan and South Korea is viewed as being legal. As content mining is transformative, that is it does not supplant the original work, it is viewed as being lawful under fair use. For example, as part of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Book_Search_Settlement_Agreement\" title=\"Google Book Search Settlement Agreement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f8315c43e5dd4144698efaa27a9d6f2\">Google Book settlement<\/a> the presiding judge on the case ruled that Google's digitisation project of in-copyright books was lawful, in part because of the transformative uses that the digitisation project displayed - one being text and data mining.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Software\">Software<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Data_mining_and_machine_learning_software\" title=\"Category:Data mining and machine learning software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f808af716152b9f8ce7f092cf114f233\">Category:Data mining and machine learning software<\/a>.<\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Free_open-source_data_mining_software_and_applications\">Free open-source data mining software and applications<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The following applications are available under free\/open source licenses. Public access to application source code is also available.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carrot2\" title=\"Carrot2\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c55ba3013eb6791dbd2e0e3e63730041\">Carrot2<\/a>: Text and search results clustering framework.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemicalize.org\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Chemicalize.org\" data-key=\"628642146e3be45b1541d1c02dd2dc35\">Chemicalize.org<\/a>: A chemical structure miner and web search engine.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ELKI\" title=\"ELKI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5875eb65694616d929e61a21990b3fc3\">ELKI<\/a>: A university research project with advanced <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">cluster analysis<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anomaly_detection\" title=\"Anomaly detection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bba5c970d8f41b6bd4492e1d32f9118\">outlier detection<\/a> methods written in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_(programming_language)\" title=\"Java (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"444fa6d23d72fee4750d4189e5a53f53\">Java<\/a> language.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Architecture_for_Text_Engineering\" title=\"General Architecture for Text Engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8369f8372c4bc20850ece8967a90f25\">GATE<\/a>: a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">natural language processing<\/a> and language engineering tool.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KNIME\" title=\"KNIME\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1aba78fe28e4faf376abd3a46d64179\">KNIME<\/a>: The Konstanz Information Miner, a user friendly and comprehensive data analytics framework.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MOA_(Massive_Online_Analysis)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MOA (Massive Online Analysis)\" data-key=\"e8f72cf61ea065798d43a05d1bbc3669\">Massive Online Analysis (MOA)<\/a>: a real-time big data stream mining with concept drift tool in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_(programming_language)\" title=\"Java (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"444fa6d23d72fee4750d4189e5a53f53\">Java<\/a> programming language.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multi_expression_programming\" title=\"Multi expression programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86b2c33d3dd5a3f21238d7119d106e2c\">MEPX<\/a> - cross platform tool for regression and classification problems based on a Genetic Programming variant.<\/li>\n<li>ML-Flex: A software package that enables users to integrate with third-party machine-learning packages written in any programming language, execute classification analyses in parallel across multiple computing nodes, and produce HTML reports of classification results.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mlpack\" title=\"Mlpack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebe20838eecdf93f4c56e474913a90b1\">mlpack<\/a>: a collection of ready-to-use machine learning algorithms written in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/C%2B%2B\" title=\"C++\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"591b3d79c619a003deca49c147974b2d\">C++<\/a> language.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NLTK\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NLTK\" data-key=\"c15c17da883592a91c79b4335f020b2f\">NLTK<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_Language_Toolkit\" title=\"Natural Language Toolkit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c86936290a2d2190af9fde03a79bb0cd\">Natural Language Toolkit<\/a>): A suite of libraries and programs for symbolic and statistical natural language processing (NLP) for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Python_(programming_language)\" title=\"Python (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f46180939245bdafa4d5be32df12a34\">Python<\/a> language.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenNN\" title=\"OpenNN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ac25cc1e0b57f7e0d9d8252afbebca3\">OpenNN<\/a>: Open <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neural networks\" data-key=\"9020876aa19c541d6113c18b09f7a5bb\">neural networks<\/a> library.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Orange_(software)\" title=\"Orange (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e31be634139ed2f50c915e71a4bc5a31\">Orange<\/a>: A component-based data mining and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">machine learning<\/a> software suite written in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Python_(programming_language)\" title=\"Python (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f46180939245bdafa4d5be32df12a34\">Python<\/a> language.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/R_(programming_language)\" title=\"R (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a8b10cb90b0f5b4c7dd2d246fda099e\">R<\/a>: A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Programming_language\" title=\"Programming language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c33f61aa9cacdeed3a83742756b0942d\">programming language<\/a> and software environment for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">statistical<\/a> computing, data mining, and graphics. It is part of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GNU_Project\" title=\"GNU Project\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e1a71f48ddfe0fa0ae9f51a928c0a3e\">GNU Project<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scikit-learn\" title=\"Scikit-learn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e9baac6399c5b2a01d32ed79685060f\">scikit-learn<\/a> is an open source machine learning library for the Python programming language<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Torch_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Torch (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7eb292e8efff1ebd45a059a1157f3d44\">Torch<\/a>: An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_source_model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Open source model\" data-key=\"84f1d2ffaa2ad679f0c37f7ed0473c1b\">open-source<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">deep learning<\/a> library for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lua_(programming_language)\" title=\"Lua (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9a0954a915c487972f220764a49e537\">Lua<\/a> programming language and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_computing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Scientific computing\" data-key=\"2e29f0b607c5b16aac1d5f260961eef5\">scientific computing<\/a> framework with wide support for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">machine learning<\/a> algorithms.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UIMA\" title=\"UIMA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"481d3146206820fa671d954061e33198\">UIMA<\/a>: The UIMA (Unstructured Information Management Architecture) is a component framework for analyzing unstructured content such as text, audio and video \u2013 originally developed by IBM.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weka_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Weka (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb84ec309cc29afa9b4e20566cd336d1\">Weka<\/a>: A suite of machine learning software applications written in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_(programming_language)\" title=\"Java (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"444fa6d23d72fee4750d4189e5a53f53\">Java<\/a> programming language.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Proprietary_data-mining_software_and_applications\">Proprietary data-mining software and applications<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The following applications are available under proprietary licenses.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Angoss\" title=\"Angoss\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24b48d3f50870d6544ab5e6cca88af89\">Angoss<\/a> KnowledgeSTUDIO: data mining tool<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clarabridge\" title=\"Clarabridge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79067915267163feac0ac0da759599a9\">Clarabridge<\/a>: text analytics product.<\/li>\n<li>KXEN Modeler: data mining tool provided by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KXEN_Inc.\" title=\"KXEN Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f827f83eadeedb2d4bfe348d59a7cce\">KXEN Inc.<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LIONsolver\" title=\"LIONsolver\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b93506bbeca29c2d008a9b7ee8e5f2c\">LIONsolver<\/a>: an integrated software application for data mining, business intelligence, and modeling that implements the Learning and Intelligent OptimizatioN (LION) approach.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Megaputer_Intelligence\" title=\"Megaputer Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13833c04ea8bafd58b296f5d547aa23f\">Megaputer Intelligence<\/a>: data and text mining software is called PolyAnalyst.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Analysis_Services\" title=\"Microsoft Analysis Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ac7ab894a6747d954af53f5c948dec3\">Microsoft Analysis Services<\/a>: data mining software provided by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NetOwl\" title=\"NetOwl\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"12fd04f452dabacb41316f292c62f68c\">NetOwl<\/a>: suite of multilingual text and entity analytics products that enable data mining.<\/li>\n<li>OpenText Big Data Analytics: Visual Data Mining & Predictive Analysis by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_Text_Corporation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Open Text Corporation\" data-key=\"0e165758b7af9378421657d6f3a08d7d\">Open Text Corporation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_Data_Mining\" title=\"Oracle Data Mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ad2ca524e5b2c2bd9a70d7a2038658d\">Oracle Data Mining<\/a>: data mining software by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_Corporation\" title=\"Oracle Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9d9b95cef4bc5e02dc8a6d510f8fca6\">Oracle Corporation<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PSeven\" title=\"PSeven\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d20b1c0cad911fc556a69f079120564\">PSeven<\/a>: platform for automation of engineering simulation and analysis, multidisciplinary optimization and data mining provided by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DATADVANCE\" title=\"DATADVANCE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"035b3faefea82582f949fbf388d571e7\">DATADVANCE<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qlucore\" title=\"Qlucore\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa42e0ea499a11cf7384251bbf629d01\">Qlucore<\/a> Omics Explorer: data mining software.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RapidMiner\" title=\"RapidMiner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae57d48c59aeab8e6d6bde3706fa3947\">RapidMiner<\/a>: An environment for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">machine learning<\/a> and data mining experiments.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SAS_(software)#Components\" title=\"SAS (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f23d80ccc4a187d33e5527a73d97a9a\">SAS Enterprise Miner<\/a>: data mining software provided by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SAS_Institute\" title=\"SAS Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b65fd52d4cfa209097a84d4efcea269\">SAS Institute<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SPSS_Modeler\" title=\"SPSS Modeler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f79b15a79e91e6f6c6f1927fb4ad123\">SPSS Modeler<\/a>: data mining software provided by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/STATISTICA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"STATISTICA\" data-key=\"a47380324938227ba8de983f2781538f\">STATISTICA<\/a> Data Miner: data mining software provided by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/StatSoft\" title=\"StatSoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42f9d0a078d8bb1356845de792ad23a1\">StatSoft<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tanagra_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Tanagra (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"063b677c49aa3d0854d8af30cfe3dd64\">Tanagra<\/a>: Visualisation-oriented data mining software, also for teaching.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vertica\" title=\"Vertica\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e06b8495af3955aeabe9e78dd365ccf\">Vertica<\/a>: data mining software provided by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hewlett-Packard\" title=\"Hewlett-Packard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3071e67fd131546e44720a6d8dc9510b\">Hewlett-Packard<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Marketplace_surveys\">Marketplace surveys<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Several researchers and organizations have conducted reviews of data mining tools and surveys of data miners. These identify some of the strengths and weaknesses of the software packages. They also provide an overview of the behaviors, preferences and views of data miners. Some of these reports include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Hurwitz Victory Index: Report for Advanced Analytics as a market research assessment tool, it highlights both the diverse uses for advanced analytics technology and the vendors who make those applications possible.<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/hurwitz.com\/recent-research\/item\/advanced-analytics-the-hurwitz-victory-index\" target=\"_blank\">Recent-research<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rexer%27s_Annual_Data_Miner_Survey\" title=\"Rexer's Annual Data Miner Survey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bca4ba5a40946f9c3aef9de6e305188f\">Rexer Analytics Data Miner Surveys<\/a> (2007\u20132015)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-rexer_informs_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-rexer_informs-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>2011 Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forrester_Research\" title=\"Forrester Research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8157b65f1a139b7c858cb546c588ef45\">Forrester Research<\/a> 2010 Predictive Analytics and Data Mining Solutions report<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gartner\" title=\"Gartner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f7668963d7e19c93d13754e7e1b8a52\">Gartner<\/a> 2008 \"Magic Quadrant\" report<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Robert A. Nisbet's 2006 Three Part Series of articles \"Data Mining Tools: Which One is Best For CRM?\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Haughton et al.'s 2003 Review of Data Mining Software Packages in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_American_Statistician\" title=\"The American Statistician\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"539544fad253b3cbf2b5e693243dad82\">The American Statistician<\/a><\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Goebel & Gruenwald 1999 \"A Survey of Data Mining a Knowledge Discovery Software Tools\" in SIGKDD Explorations<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Portal-puzzle.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ae58b9ed4b43cf9a6c984c512084a55\"><img alt=\"Portal-puzzle.svg\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/f\/fd\/Portal-puzzle.svg\/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"14\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Data_mining\" title=\"Portal:Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f54e3a64ded0cecabddbe3ab6715134\">Data mining portal<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Methods<\/dt><\/dl>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 22em; -webkit-column-width: 22em; column-width: 22em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agent_mining\" title=\"Agent mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08ed0f7a70a1cd8b523bc8fcc59a1fa2\">Agent mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anomaly_detection\" title=\"Anomaly detection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bba5c970d8f41b6bd4492e1d32f9118\">Anomaly\/outlier\/change detection<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_rule_learning\" title=\"Association rule learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69b9d54917f42d0ac09a6ce55397d096\">Association rule learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian networks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">Classification<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_analysis\" title=\"Cluster analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e234109dffe357b6cea27dc291f680fa\">Cluster analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_tree\" title=\"Decision tree\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e8d0b5084951f9afa32e59b5a237e30\">Decision trees<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ensemble_learning\" title=\"Ensemble learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"524404854c31f52f1cd58cbcef1d138c\">Ensemble learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Factor_analysis\" title=\"Factor analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d66e2d82807d9f3a5a7996838965383\">Factor analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_algorithms\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Genetic algorithms\" data-key=\"fc5ef0931d55987c180aeb657a1640aa\">Genetic algorithms<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intention_mining\" title=\"Intention mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30f66f921bad3e09913e9f54970b65c9\">Intention mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Learning_classifier_system\" title=\"Learning classifier system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"698aaad8ca3fae74ea1c18a98e11314d\">Learning classifier system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multilinear_subspace_learning\" title=\"Multilinear subspace learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8f8d1fbfb2b57f6f056c13d55f2a12d\">Multilinear subspace learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">Neural networks<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">Regression analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sequence_mining\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sequence mining\" data-key=\"1a30e9cfab48374ced380b93858f24ef\">Sequence mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Structured_data_analysis_(statistics)\" title=\"Structured data analysis (statistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"421629772b3efe3d12fc56a91cd62c22\">Structured data analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Support_vector_machines\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Support vector machines\" data-key=\"7d46d1a27940a8842a2e7b74baae7279\">Support vector machines<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Text_mining\" title=\"Text mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"399bb009dd237bfe29b2ab9413a97271\">Text mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_series\" title=\"Time series\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22f08af55c3f78b806aba1078bca7b65\">Time series analysis<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<dl><dt>Application domains<\/dt><\/dl>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 22em; -webkit-column-width: 22em; column-width: 22em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytics\" title=\"Analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a9e129b74020e51d9761f09f2d4652\">Analytics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Behavior_informatics\" title=\"Behavior informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9b4e000066c9660ae8019394fe42662\">Behavior informatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_Data\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Big Data\" data-key=\"90828494693d39dff35579b42feff965\">Big data<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics\" title=\"Bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01737c6289ef7671d2c932a51babe26b\">Bioinformatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" title=\"Business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">Business intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe81497dd8621498e1de0a68d203fd37\">Data analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0ea3ce49e6688a8ec1616b9f0927fea\">Data warehouse<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_support_system\" title=\"Decision support system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"440a63a58b5307b2eb863ee65180b6e8\">Decision support system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Domain_driven_data_mining\" title=\"Domain driven data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c60da07bdfc6e6c9ea32a51f19d8d19c\">Domain driven data mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Drug_discovery\" title=\"Drug discovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2e71891396886ee9af5c55fbfa6685e\">Drug discovery<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploratory_data_analysis\" title=\"Exploratory data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c528c5090304a5d47c36b6c6451163\">Exploratory data analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predictive_analytics\" title=\"Predictive analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34f7137f13e40b2fa7b28c33330ba3ab\">Predictive analytics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_mining\" title=\"Web mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c373798f1c5a2af187f06a5aec6d602\">Web mining<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<dl><dt>Application examples<\/dt><\/dl>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Examples_of_data_mining\" title=\"Examples of data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"293c454e236ae18c0d3285d0d065c9a2\">Examples of data mining<\/a><\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Applied_data_mining\" title=\"Category:Applied data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4626cac2655611e02a18fab0cc1f60d\">Category:Applied data mining<\/a>.<\/div>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 22em; -webkit-column-width: 22em; column-width: 22em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_number_plate_recognition_in_the_United_Kingdom#Data_mining\" title=\"Automatic number plate recognition in the United Kingdom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f669c8e414483facc63bb76d7c3c5ee\">Automatic number plate recognition in the United Kingdom<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_analytics#Data_mining\" title=\"Customer analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9778e88d40fb346cc0dc7e91fa12665f\">Customer analytics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Educational_data_mining\" title=\"Educational data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ef37914b803d9e8b017cd753aef088a\">Educational data mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Security_Agency#Transaction_data_mining\" title=\"National Security Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0347b6cdb0f918ec7b9ed74c10aa2f3\">National Security Agency<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantitative_structure%E2%80%93activity_relationship#Data_mining_approach\" title=\"Quantitative structure\u2013activity relationship\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"817f189bd071959ff3ff7f99a7ac609e\">Quantitative structure\u2013activity relationship<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surveillance#Data_mining_and_profiling\" title=\"Surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa3269df2c3bfdd321d1975db6c0f084\">Surveillance<\/a> \/ <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_surveillance#Data_mining\" title=\"Mass surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e16af0226c38c0b1dd94765bef118f9\">Mass surveillance<\/a> (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stellar_Wind_(code_name)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Stellar Wind (code name)\" data-key=\"aa78f490993a90e734dd4ee487f2af2f\">Stellar Wind<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<dl><dt>Related topics<\/dt><\/dl>\n<p>Data mining is about <i>analyzing<\/i> data; for information about extracting information out of data, see:\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 22em; -webkit-column-width: 22em; column-width: 22em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration\" title=\"Data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ef20102ff5fd42522c9e879f31e999e\">Data integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_transformation\" title=\"Data transformation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e65ce825992dab727e2d7e2b22a754b\">Data transformation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_discovery\" title=\"Electronic discovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"941a35e9aad4a891b5fbe4cfecc213bd\">Electronic discovery<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_extraction\" title=\"Information extraction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d8bd74625d817b2052a2a36d5529463\">Information extraction<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_integration\" title=\"Information integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93bb093f8251b15859bb841daf3a8278\">Information integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Named-entity_recognition\" title=\"Named-entity recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"752c71c841e45561a06df6dc46998a4f\">Named-entity recognition<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Profiling_(information_science)\" title=\"Profiling (information science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f827ac8d25596848a82ebf6a1bd1626\">Profiling (information science)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychometrics\" title=\"Psychometrics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d42cd2bc0de0ea75dcbabf3ca70bb96\">Psychometrics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_media_mining\" title=\"Social media mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c93d528d73905e2e5a51a8517ff42f8\">Social media mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surveillance_capitalism\" title=\"Surveillance capitalism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44ebedd8cd56040cd4490e434df93e3f\">Surveillance capitalism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_scraping\" title=\"Web scraping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13cfc98ddfe0fd340fbccd298ada8c17\">Web scraping<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<dl><dt>Other resources<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Journal_of_Data_Warehousing_and_Mining\" title=\"International Journal of Data Warehousing and Mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16ec4e7819b9ef26be8c96b240c68a26\">International Journal of Data Warehousing and Mining<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-acm-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-acm_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-acm_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-acm_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kdd.org\/curriculum\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Mining Curriculum\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_for_Computing_Machinery\" title=\"Association for Computing Machinery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d44eae5903ccb21b4fe3765a37220bb0\">ACM<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SIGKDD\" title=\"SIGKDD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e88f1b178d71b2b6b3ad823b557b6738\">SIGKDD<\/a>. 2006-04-30<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-01-27<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data+Mining+Curriculum&rft.pub=ACM+SIGKDD&rft.date=2006-04-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kdd.org%2Fcurriculum%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-brittanica-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-brittanica_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Clifton, Christopher (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.britannica.com\/EBchecked\/topic\/1056150\/data-mining\" target=\"_blank\">\"Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica: Definition of Data Mining\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2010-12-09<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%3A+Definition+of+Data+Mining&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Clifton&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F1056150%2Fdata-mining&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-elements-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-elements_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trevor_Hastie\" title=\"Trevor Hastie\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91f46d294bbb721bc3e895facdc46e27\">Hastie, Trevor<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert_Tibshirani\" title=\"Robert Tibshirani\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97b4a3b2851f5269177b933f4fd7b428\">Tibshirani, Robert<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerome_H._Friedman\" title=\"Jerome H. Friedman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b49981e69e36d417e6a0c3a3424ebc05\">Friedman, Jerome<\/a> (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091110212529\/http:\/\/www-stat.stanford.edu\/~tibs\/ElemStatLearn\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference, and Prediction\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www-stat.stanford.edu\/~tibs\/ElemStatLearn\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2009-11-10<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2012-08-07<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Elements+of+Statistical+Learning%3A+Data+Mining%2C+Inference%2C+and+Prediction&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Hastie&rft.aufirst=Trevor&rft.au=Tibshirani%2C+Robert&rft.au=Friedman%2C+Jerome&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-stat.stanford.edu%2F~tibs%2FElemStatLearn%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Han, Kamber, Pei, Jaiwei, Micheline, Jian (June 9, 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/proquest.safaribooksonline.com.proxy.library.carleton.ca\/book\/databases\/data-warehouses\/9780123814791\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques<\/i><\/a> (3rd ed.). Morgan Kaufmann. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-12-381479-1.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+Mining%3A+Concepts+and+Techniques&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&rft.date=2011-06-09&rft.isbn=978-0-12-381479-1&rft.aulast=Han%2C+Kamber%2C+Pei&rft.aufirst=Jaiwei%2C+Micheline%2C+Jian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fproquest.safaribooksonline.com.proxy.library.carleton.ca%2Fbook%2Fdatabases%2Fdata-warehouses%2F9780123814791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Fayyad-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Fayyad_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Fayyad_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Fayyad_5-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Usama_Fayyad\" title=\"Usama Fayyad\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"237a9e9eb1552fdf3d9f14f0ccaea8ba\">Fayyad, Usama<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gregory_Piatetsky-Shapiro\" title=\"Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70c328f420a98aba6373d35311d499d5\">Piatetsky-Shapiro, Gregory<\/a>; Smyth, Padhraic (1996). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kdnuggets.com\/gpspubs\/aimag-kdd-overview-1996-Fayyad.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"From Data Mining to Knowledge Discovery in Databases\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 December<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=From+Data+Mining+to+Knowledge+Discovery+in+Databases&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Fayyad&rft.aufirst=Usama&rft.au=Piatetsky-Shapiro%2C+Gregory&rft.au=Smyth%2C+Padhraic&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kdnuggets.com%2Fgpspubs%2Faimag-kdd-overview-1996-Fayyad.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Olson, D. L. (2007). Data mining in business services. <i>Service Business<\/i>, <i>1<\/i>(3), 181-193. doi:10.1007\/s11628-006-0014-7<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-han-kamber-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-han-kamber_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jiawei_Han\" title=\"Jiawei Han\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e6cfe8246b583d4a0c2bf11bc994dd8\">Han, Jiawei<\/a>; Kamber, Micheline (2001). <i>Data mining: concepts and techniques<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morgan_Kaufmann\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Morgan Kaufmann\" data-key=\"f6ed10c841a7854bc270ee3c90212fe4\">Morgan Kaufmann<\/a>. p. 5. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-55860-489-6. <q>Thus, data mining should have been more appropriately named \"knowledge mining from data,\" which is unfortunately somewhat long<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+mining%3A+concepts+and+techniques&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-55860-489-6&rft.aulast=Han&rft.aufirst=Jiawei&rft.au=Kamber%2C+Micheline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.okairp.org\/documents\/2005%20Fall\/F05_ROMEDataQualityETC.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">OKAIRP 2005 Fall Conference, Arizona State University<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140201170452\/http:\/\/www.okairp.org\/documents\/2005%20Fall\/F05_ROMEDataQualityETC.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2014-02-01 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-witten-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-witten_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ian_H._Witten\" title=\"Ian H. Witten\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c8fbe37988b7d189420bdd2498e8c83\">Witten, Ian H.<\/a>; Frank, Eibe; Hall, Mark A. (30 January 2011). <i>Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques<\/i> (3 ed.). Elsevier. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-12-374856-0.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+Mining%3A+Practical+Machine+Learning+Tools+and+Techniques&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2011-01-30&rft.isbn=978-0-12-374856-0&rft.aulast=Witten&rft.aufirst=Ian+H.&rft.au=Frank%2C+Eibe&rft.au=Hall%2C+Mark+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Bouckaert, Remco R.; Frank, Eibe; Hall, Mark A.; Holmes, Geoffrey; Pfahringer, Bernhard; Reutemann, Peter; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ian_H._Witten\" title=\"Ian H. Witten\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c8fbe37988b7d189420bdd2498e8c83\">Witten, Ian H.<\/a> (2010). \"WEKA Experiences with a Java open-source project\". <i>Journal of Machine Learning Research<\/i>. <b>11<\/b>: 2533\u20132541. <q>the original title, \"Practical machine learning\", was changed ... The term \"data mining\" was [added] primarily for marketing reasons.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Machine+Learning+Research&rft.atitle=WEKA+Experiences+with+a+Java+open-source+project&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=2533-2541&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Bouckaert%2C+Remco+R.&rft.au=Frank%2C+Eibe&rft.au=Hall%2C+Mark+A.&rft.au=Holmes%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Pfahringer%2C+Bernhard&rft.au=Reutemann%2C+Peter&rft.au=Witten%2C+Ian+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Lovell, Michael C. (1983). \"Data Mining\". <i>The Review of Economics and Statistics<\/i>. <b>65<\/b> (1): 1\u201312. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307%2F1924403\" target=\"_blank\">10.2307\/1924403<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR\" title=\"JSTOR\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5a2011b7c1e7325af22d9508b7ded7b\">JSTOR<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/1924403\" target=\"_blank\">1924403<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Economics+and+Statistics&rft.atitle=Data+Mining&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-12&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1924403&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1924403&rft.aulast=Lovell&rft.aufirst=Michael+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mena-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Mena_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Mena, Jes\u00fas (2011). <i>Machine Learning Forensics for Law Enforcement, Security, and Intelligence<\/i>. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press (Taylor & Francis Group). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-4398-6069-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Machine+Learning+Forensics+for+Law+Enforcement%2C+Security%2C+and+Intelligence&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.pub=CRC+Press+%28Taylor+%26+Francis+Group%29&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4398-6069-4&rft.aulast=Mena&rft.aufirst=Jes%C3%BAs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gregory_Piatetsky-Shapiro\" title=\"Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70c328f420a98aba6373d35311d499d5\">Piatetsky-Shapiro, Gregory<\/a>; Parker, Gary (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kdnuggets.com\/data_mining_course\/x1-intro-to-data-mining-notes.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Lesson: Data Mining, and Knowledge Discovery: An Introduction\"<\/a>. <i>Introduction to Data Mining<\/i>. KD Nuggets<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 August<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Introduction+to+Data+Mining&rft.atitle=Lesson%3A+Data+Mining%2C+and+Knowledge+Discovery%3A+An+Introduction&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Piatetsky-Shapiro&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft.au=Parker%2C+Gary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kdnuggets.com%2Fdata_mining_course%2Fx1-intro-to-data-mining-notes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SIGKDD-explorations-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SIGKDD-explorations_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-SIGKDD-explorations\" class=\"citation journal\">Fayyad, Usama (15 June 1999). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kdd.org\/explorations\/view\/june-1999-volume-1-issue-1\" target=\"_blank\">\"First Editorial by Editor-in-Chief\"<\/a>. <i>SIGKDD Explorations<\/i>. <b>13<\/b> (1): 102. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F2207243.2207269\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/2207243.2207269<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 December<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SIGKDD+Explorations&rft.atitle=First+Editorial+by+Editor-in-Chief&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=102&rft.date=1999-06-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2207243.2207269&rft.aulast=Fayyad&rft.aufirst=Usama&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kdd.org%2Fexplorations%2Fview%2Fjune-1999-volume-1-issue-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Kantardzic-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Kantardzic_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Kantardzic, Mehmed (2003). <i>Data Mining: Concepts, Models, Methods, and Algorithms<\/i>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-471-22852-3. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC\" title=\"OCLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e119fc7e1d352d47ef5b80f32a4b20c3\">OCLC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/50055336\" target=\"_blank\">50055336<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+Mining%3A+Concepts%2C+Models%2C+Methods%2C+and+Algorithms&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50055336&rft.isbn=978-0-471-22852-3&rft.aulast=Kantardzic&rft.aufirst=Mehmed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gregory_Piatetsky-Shapiro\" title=\"Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70c328f420a98aba6373d35311d499d5\">Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro<\/a> (2002) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kdnuggets.com\/polls\/2002\/methodology.htm\" target=\"_blank\"><i>KDnuggets Methodology Poll<\/i><\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gregory_Piatetsky-Shapiro\" title=\"Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70c328f420a98aba6373d35311d499d5\">Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro<\/a> (2004) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kdnuggets.com\/polls\/2004\/data_mining_methodology.htm\" target=\"_blank\"><i>KDnuggets Methodology Poll<\/i><\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gregory_Piatetsky-Shapiro\" title=\"Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70c328f420a98aba6373d35311d499d5\">Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro<\/a> (2007) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kdnuggets.com\/polls\/2007\/data_mining_methodology.htm\" target=\"_blank\"><i>KDnuggets Methodology Poll<\/i><\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gregory_Piatetsky-Shapiro\" title=\"Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"70c328f420a98aba6373d35311d499d5\">Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro<\/a> (2014) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kdnuggets.com\/polls\/2014\/analytics-data-mining-data-science-methodology.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>KDnuggets Methodology Poll<\/i><\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Marban-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Marban_17-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\u00d3scar Marb\u00e1n, Gonzalo Mariscal and Javier Segovia (2009); <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/cdn.intechopen.com\/pdfs\/5937\/InTech-A_data_mining_amp_knowledge_discovery_process_model.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>A Data Mining & Knowledge Discovery Process Model<\/i><\/a>. In Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery in Real Life Applications, Book edited by: Julio Ponce and Adem Karahoca, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-3-902613-53-0, pp. 438\u2013453, February 2009, I-Tech, Vienna, Austria.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-kurgan-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-kurgan_18-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Lukasz Kurgan and Petr Musilek (2006); <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.cambridge.org\/action\/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=451120\" target=\"_blank\"><i>A survey of Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining process models<\/i><\/a>. The Knowledge Engineering Review. Volume 21 Issue 1, March 2006, pp 1\u201324, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, USA <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017%2FS0269888906000737\" target=\"_blank\">10.1017\/S0269888906000737<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AzevedoSantos-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AzevedoSantos_19-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Azevedo, A. and Santos, M. F. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iadis.net\/dl\/final_uploads\/200812P033.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">KDD, SEMMA and CRISP-DM: a parallel overview<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130109114939\/http:\/\/www.iadis.net\/dl\/final_uploads\/200812P033.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2013-01-09 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>. 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<i>BIOMEDICINE; HIPAA Privacy Rule Impedes Biomedical Research<\/i>, Biotech Business Week, retrieved 17 November 2009 from LexisNexis Academic<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.out-law.com\/en\/articles\/2014\/june\/researchers-given-data-mining-right-under-new-uk-copyright-laws\/\" target=\"_blank\">UK Researchers Given Data Mining Right Under New UK Copyright Laws.<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140609020315\/http:\/\/www.out-law.com\/en\/articles\/2014\/june\/researchers-given-data-mining-right-under-new-uk-copyright-laws\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> June 9, 2014, at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> <i>Out-Law.com.<\/i> Retrieved 14 November 2014<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/licences-for-europe-dialogue\/en\/content\/about-site\" target=\"_blank\">\"Licences for Europe - Structured Stakeholder Dialogue 2013\"<\/a>. <i>European Commission<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Association+of+European+Research+Libraries&rft.atitle=Text+and+Data+Mining%3AIts+importance+and+the+need+for+change+in+Europe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibereurope.eu%2Fnews%2Ftext-and-data-mining-its-importance-and-the-need-for-change-in-europe%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lexology.com\/library\/detail.aspx?g=a18c5b92-5a20-4d1d-a098-a3095046a88e\" target=\"_blank\">\"Judge grants summary judgment in favor of Google Books \u2014 a fair use victory\"<\/a>. <i>Lexology.com<\/i>. Antonelli Law Ltd<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lexology.com&rft.atitle=Judge+grants+summary+judgment+in+favor+of+Google+Books+%E2%80%94+a+fair+use+victory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lexology.com%2Flibrary%2Fdetail.aspx%3Fg%3Da18c5b92-5a20-4d1d-a098-a3095046a88e&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-rexer_informs-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-rexer_informs_41-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Karl Rexer, Heather Allen, & Paul Gearan (2011); <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.analytics-magazine.org\/may-june-2011\/320-understanding-data-miners\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Understanding Data Miners<\/i><\/a>, Analytics Magazine, May\/June 2011 (INFORMS: Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences).<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Mikut, Ralf; Reischl, Markus (September\u2013October 2011). \"Data Mining Tools\". <i>Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery<\/i>. <b>1<\/b> (5): 431\u2013445. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002%2Fwidm.24\" target=\"_blank\">10.1002\/widm.24<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wiley+Interdisciplinary+Reviews%3A+Data+Mining+and+Knowledge+Discovery&rft.atitle=Data+Mining+Tools&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=431-445&rft.date=2011-09%2F2011-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fwidm.24&rft.au=Mikut%2C+Ralf&rft.au=Reischl%2C+Markus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Kobielus, James; <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.forrester.com\/rb\/Research\/wave%26trade%3B_predictive_analytics_and_data_mining_solutions%2C\/q\/id\/56077\/t\/2\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Forrester Wave: Predictive Analytics and Data Mining Solutions, Q1 2010<\/i><\/a>, Forrester Research, 1 July 2008<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-44\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Herschel, Gareth; <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/mediaproducts.gartner.com\/reprints\/sas\/vol5\/article3\/article3.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Magic Quadrant for Customer Data-Mining Applications<\/i><\/a>, Gartner Inc., 1 July 2008<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Nisbet, Robert A. (2006); <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.information-management.com\/specialreports\/20060124\/1046025-1.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Data Mining Tools: Which One is Best for CRM? Part 1<\/i><\/a>, Information Management Special Reports, January 2006<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Haughton, Dominique; Deichmann, Joel; Eshghi, Abdolreza; Sayek, Selin; Teebagy, Nicholas; and Topi, Heikki (2003); <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/pss\/30037299\" target=\"_blank\"><i>A Review of Software Packages for Data Mining<\/i><\/a>, The American Statistician, Vol. 57, No. 4, pp. 290\u2013309<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Goebel, Michael; Gruenwald, Le (June 1999). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kdd.org\/exploration_files\/survey.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Survey of Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery Software Tools\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>SIGKDD Explorations<\/i>. <b>1<\/b> (1): 20\u201333.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SIGKDD+Explorations&rft.atitle=A+Survey+of+Data+Mining+and+Knowledge+Discovery+Software+Tools&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=20-33&rft.date=1999-06&rft.aulast=Goebel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Gruenwald%2C+Le&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kdd.org%2Fexploration_files%2Fsurvey.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li>Cabena, Peter; Hadjnian, Pablo; Stadler, Rolf; Verhees, Jaap; Zanasi, Alessandro (1997); <i>Discovering Data Mining: From Concept to Implementation<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prentice_Hall\" title=\"Prentice Hall\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c343600b0fb1a6c46cb4a25ec0583aa\">Prentice Hall<\/a>, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-13-743980-6<\/li>\n<li>M.S. Chen, J. Han, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philip_S._Yu\" title=\"Philip S. Yu\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c58c3ac0cbbfddcd7a1c3251e1d4ddba\">P.S. Yu<\/a> (1996) \"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/cs.nju.edu.cn\/zhouzh\/zhouzh.files\/course\/dm\/reading\/reading01\/chen_tkde96.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Data mining: an overview from a database perspective<\/a>\". <i>Knowledge and data Engineering, IEEE Transactions<\/i> on 8 (6), 866\u2013883<\/li>\n<li>Feldman, Ronen; Sanger, James (2007); <i>The Text Mining Handbook<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cambridge_University_Press\" title=\"Cambridge University Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2f08c47b8f3710987767a19a2aab5e5\">Cambridge University Press<\/a>, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-521-83657-9<\/li>\n<li>Guo, Yike; and Grossman, Robert (editors) (1999); <i>High Performance Data Mining: Scaling Algorithms, Applications and Systems<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kluwer_Academic_Publishers\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Kluwer Academic Publishers\" data-key=\"19320b4908cfc3182a2392e0a55e06fe\">Kluwer Academic Publishers<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jiawei_Han\" title=\"Jiawei Han\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e6cfe8246b583d4a0c2bf11bc994dd8\">Han, Jiawei<\/a>, Micheline Kamber, and Jian Pei. <i>Data mining: concepts and techniques<\/i>. Morgan kaufmann, 2006.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trevor_Hastie\" title=\"Trevor Hastie\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91f46d294bbb721bc3e895facdc46e27\">Hastie, Trevor<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert_Tibshirani\" title=\"Robert Tibshirani\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97b4a3b2851f5269177b933f4fd7b428\">Tibshirani, Robert<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerome_H._Friedman\" title=\"Jerome H. Friedman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b49981e69e36d417e6a0c3a3424ebc05\">Friedman, Jerome<\/a> (2001); <i>The Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference, and Prediction<\/i>, Springer, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-387-95284-5<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bing_Liu_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"Bing Liu (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfe26e8ef010b64c7de4992363bac93c\">Liu, Bing<\/a> (2007, 2011); <i>Web Data Mining: Exploring Hyperlinks, Contents and Usage Data<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Springer_Verlag\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Springer Verlag\" data-key=\"1a84cf3cac42917437b330b9f5007fc5\">Springer<\/a>, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 3-540-37881-2<\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation journal\">Murphy, Chris (16 May 2011). \"Is Data Mining Free Speech?\". <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/InformationWeek\" title=\"InformationWeek\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af72b985095e740521a764c339028443\">InformationWeek<\/a><\/i>: 12.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=InformationWeek&rft.atitle=Is+Data+Mining+Free+Speech%3F&rft.pages=12&rft.date=2011-05-16&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li>Nisbet, Robert; Elder, John; Miner, Gary (2009); <i>Handbook of Statistical Analysis & Data Mining Applications<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Academic_Press\" title=\"Academic Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"06dc65cfd769fae7909111b095b245de\">Academic Press<\/a>\/Elsevier, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-12-374765-5<\/li>\n<li>Poncelet, Pascal; Masseglia, Florent; and Teisseire, Maguelonne (editors) (October 2007); \"Data Mining Patterns: New Methods and Applications\", <i>Information Science Reference<\/i>, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-59904-162-9<\/li>\n<li>Tan, Pang-Ning; Steinbach, Michael; and Kumar, Vipin (2005); <i>Introduction to Data Mining<\/i>, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-321-32136-7<\/li>\n<li>Theodoridis, Sergios; and Koutroumbas, Konstantinos (2009); <i>Pattern Recognition<\/i>, 4th Edition, Academic Press, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-59749-272-0<\/li>\n<li>Weiss, Sholom M.; and Indurkhya, Nitin (1998); <i>Predictive Data Mining<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morgan_Kaufmann\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Morgan Kaufmann\" data-key=\"f6ed10c841a7854bc270ee3c90212fe4\">Morgan Kaufmann<\/a><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ian_H._Witten\" title=\"Ian H. Witten\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c8fbe37988b7d189420bdd2498e8c83\">Witten, Ian H.<\/a>; Frank, Eibe; Hall, Mark A. (30 January 2011). <i>Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques<\/i> (3 ed.). Elsevier. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-12-374856-0.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+Mining%3A+Practical+Machine+Learning+Tools+and+Techniques&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2011-01-30&rft.isbn=978-0-12-374856-0&rft.au=Witten%2C+Ian+H.&rft.au=Frank%2C+Eibe&rft.au=Hall%2C+Mark+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mining\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> (See also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weka_(machine_learning)\" title=\"Weka (machine learning)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb84ec309cc29afa9b4e20566cd336d1\">Free Weka software<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>Ye, Nong (2003); <i>The Handbook of Data Mining<\/i>, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/curlie.org\/Reference\/Knowledge_Management\/Knowledge_Discovery\/Software\" target=\"_blank\">Knowledge Discovery Software<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curlie\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Curlie\" data-key=\"f2bf78e9dbc70f166d4b3bd9f21cf9f3\">Curlie<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/curlie.org\/Computers\/Software\/Databases\/Data_Mining\/Tool_Vendors\" target=\"_blank\">Data Mining Tool Vendors<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curlie\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Curlie\" data-key=\"f2bf78e9dbc70f166d4b3bd9f21cf9f3\">Curlie<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1271\nCached time: 20190331103101\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.956 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.178 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4981\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 181626\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 14268\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 10\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 117421\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 5\/400\nLua time usage: 0.445\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 7.63 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 918.807 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>47.34% 434.944 1 Template:Reflist\n13.75% 126.328 12 Template:Cite_web\n13.48% 123.825 11 Template:Cite_journal\n10.47% 96.217 9 Template:ISBN\n 8.34% 76.664 1 Template:Machine_learning_bar\n 8.00% 73.469 7 Template:Cite_book\n 7.86% 72.178 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists\n 5.28% 48.506 1 Template:Commons_category\n 4.87% 44.765 1 Template:Missing_information\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:42253-1!canonical and timestamp 20190331103100 and revision id 889689315\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203014\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.019 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.180 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 169.285 1 - wikipedia:Data_mining\n100.00% 169.285 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10943-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203014 and revision id 35150\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mining\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mining<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fe\/Kernel_Machine.svg\/440px-Kernel_Machine.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/f\/fd\/Portal-puzzle.svg\/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/0c\/Spurious_correlations_-_spelling_bee_spiders.svg\/440px-Spurious_correlations_-_spelling_bee_spiders.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/6\/6c\/Wiki_letter_w.svg\/88px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png"],"be09d3680fe1608addedf6f62692ee47_timestamp":1554323414,"fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_type":"article","fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_title":"Data integration","fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration","fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tData integration\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tData integration involves combining data residing in different sources and providing users with a unified view of them.[1] This process becomes significant in a variety of situations, which include both commercial (such as when two similar companies need to merge their databases) and scientific (combining research results from different bioinformatics repositories, for example) domains. Data integration appears with increasing frequency as the volume (that is, big data[2]) and the need to share existing data explodes.[3] It has become the focus of extensive theoretical work, and numerous open problems remain unsolved. Data integration encourages collaboration between internal as well as external users\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Example \n3 Theory \n\n3.1 Definitions \n3.2 Query processing \n\n\n4 In the life sciences \n5 See also \n6 References \n\n\nHistory \n Figure 1: Simple schematic for a data warehouse. The Extract, transform, load (ETL) process extracts information from the source databases, transforms it and then loads it into the data warehouse.\n Figure 2: Simple schematic for a data-integration solution. A system designer constructs a mediated schema against which users can run queries. The virtual database interfaces with the source databases via wrapper code if required.\nIssues with combining heterogeneous data sources, often referred to as information silos, under a single query interface have existed for some time. In the early 1980s, computer scientists began designing systems for interoperability of heterogeneous databases.[4] The first data integration system driven by structured metadata was designed at the University of Minnesota in 1991, for the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS). IPUMS used a data warehousing approach, which extracts, transforms, and loads data from heterogeneous sources into a single view schema so data from different sources become compatible.[5] By making thousands of population databases interoperable, IPUMS demonstrated the feasibility of large-scale data integration. The data warehouse approach offers a tightly coupled architecture because the data are already physically reconciled in a single queryable repository, so it usually takes little time to resolve queries.[6]\nThe data warehouse approach is less feasible for data sets that are frequently updated, requiring the extract, transform, load (ETL) process to be continuously re-executed for synchronization. Difficulties also arise in constructing data warehouses when one has only a query interface to summary data sources and no access to the full data. This problem frequently emerges when integrating several commercial query services like travel or classified advertisement web applications.\nAs of 2009[update] the trend in data integration favored loosening the coupling between data[citation needed ] and providing a unified query-interface to access real time data over a mediated schema (see Figure 2), which allows information to be retrieved directly from original databases. This is consistent with the SOA approach popular in that era. This approach relies on mappings between the mediated schema and the schema of original sources, and transforming a query into specialized queries to match the schema of the original databases. Such mappings can be specified in two ways: as a mapping from entities in the mediated schema to entities in the original sources (the \"Global As View\" (GAV) approach), or as a mapping from entities in the original sources to the mediated schema (the \"Local As View\" (LAV) approach). The latter approach requires more sophisticated inferences to resolve a query on the mediated schema, but makes it easier to add new data sources to a (stable) mediated schema.\nAs of 2010[update] some of the work in data integration research concerns the semantic integration problem. This problem addresses not the structuring of the architecture of the integration, but how to resolve semantic conflicts between heterogeneous data sources. For example, if two companies merge their databases, certain concepts and definitions in their respective schemas like \"earnings\" inevitably have different meanings. In one database it may mean profits in dollars (a floating-point number), while in the other it might represent the number of sales (an integer). A common strategy for the resolution of such problems involves the use of ontologies which explicitly define schema terms and thus help to resolve semantic conflicts. This approach represents ontology-based data integration. On the other hand, the problem of combining research results from different bioinformatics repositories requires bench-marking of the similarities, computed from different data sources, on a single criterion such as positive predictive value. This enables the data sources to be directly comparable and can be integrated even when the natures of experiments are distinct.[7]\nAs of 2011[update] it was determined that current data modeling methods were imparting data isolation into every data architecture in the form of islands of disparate data and information silos. This data isolation is an unintended artifact of the data modeling methodology that results in the development of disparate data models. Disparate data models, when instantiated as databases, form disparate databases. Enhanced data model methodologies have been developed to eliminate the data isolation artifact and to promote the development of integrated data models.[8] One enhanced data modeling method recasts data models by augmenting them with structural metadata in the form of standardized data entities. As a result of recasting multiple data models, the set of recast data models will now share one or more commonality relationships that relate the structural metadata now common to these data models. Commonality relationships are a peer-to-peer type of entity relationships that relate the standardized data entities of multiple data models. Multiple data models that contain the same standard data entity may participate in the same commonality relationship. When integrated data models are instantiated as databases and are properly populated from a common set of master data, then these databases are integrated.\nSince 2011, data hub approaches have been of greater interest than fully structured (typically relational) Enterprise Data Warehouses. Since 2013, data lake approaches have risen to the level of Data Hubs. (See all three search terms popularity on Google Trends.[9]) These approaches combine unstructured or varied data into one location, but do not necessarily require an (often complex) master relational schema to structure and define all data in the Hub.\n\nExample \nConsider a web application where a user can query a variety of information about cities (such as crime statistics, weather, hotels, demographics, etc.). Traditionally, the information must be stored in a single database with a single schema. But any single enterprise would find information of this breadth somewhat difficult and expensive to collect. Even if the resources exist to gather the data, it would likely duplicate data in existing crime databases, weather websites, and census data.\nA data-integration solution may address this problem by considering these external resources as materialized views over a virtual mediated schema, resulting in \"virtual data integration\". This means application-developers construct a virtual schema\u2014the mediated schema\u2014to best model the kinds of answers their users want. Next, they design \"wrappers\" or adapters for each data source, such as the crime database and weather website. These adapters simply transform the local query results (those returned by the respective websites or databases) into an easily processed form for the data integration solution (see figure 2). When an application-user queries the mediated schema, the data-integration solution transforms this query into appropriate queries over the respective data sources. Finally, the virtual database combines the results of these queries into the answer to the user's query.\nThis solution offers the convenience of adding new sources by simply constructing an adapter or an application software blade for them. It contrasts with ETL systems or with a single database solution, which require manual integration of entire new data set into the system. The virtual ETL solutions leverage virtual mediated schema to implement data harmonization; whereby the data are copied from the designated \"master\" source to the defined targets, field by field. Advanced data virtualization is also built on the concept of object-oriented modeling in order to construct virtual mediated schema or virtual metadata repository, using hub and spoke architecture.\nEach data source is disparate and as such is not designed to support reliable joins between data sources. Therefore, data virtualization as well as data federation depends upon accidental data commonality to support combining data and information from disparate data sets. Because of this lack of data value commonality across data sources, the return set may be inaccurate, incomplete, and impossible to validate.\nOne solution is to recast disparate databases to integrate these databases without the need for ETL. The recast databases support commonality constraints where referential integrity may be enforced between databases. The recast databases provide designed data access paths with data value commonality across databases.\n\nTheory \nThe theory of data integration[1] forms a subset of database theory and formalizes the underlying concepts of the problem in first-order logic. Applying the theories gives indications as to the feasibility and difficulty of data integration. While its definitions may appear abstract, they have sufficient generality to accommodate all manner of integration systems,[10] including those that include nested relational \/ XML databases[11] and those that treat databases as programs.[12] Connections to particular databases systems such as Oracle or DB2 are provided by implementation-level technologies such as JDBC and are not studied at the theoretical level.\n\nDefinitions \nData integration systems are formally defined as a triple \n \n \n \n \n ⟨\n \n G\n ,\n S\n ,\n M\n \n ⟩\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left\\langle G,S,M\\right\\rangle }\n \n where \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n is the global (or mediated) schema, \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n is the heterogeneous set of source schemas, and \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M}\n \n is the mapping that maps queries between the source and the global schemas. Both \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n and \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n are expressed in languages over alphabets composed of symbols for each of their respective relations. The mapping \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M}\n \n consists of assertions between queries over \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n and queries over \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n . When users pose queries over the data integration system, they pose queries over \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n and the mapping then asserts connections between the elements in the global schema and the source schemas.\nA database over a schema is defined as a set of sets, one for each relation (in a relational database). The database corresponding to the source schema \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n\n would comprise the set of sets of tuples for each of the heterogeneous data sources and is called the source database. Note that this single source database may actually represent a collection of disconnected databases. The database corresponding to the virtual mediated schema \n<\/p>\n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n\n is called the global database. The global database must satisfy the mapping \n<\/p>\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M}\n \n\n with respect to the source database. The legality of this mapping depends on the nature of the correspondence between \n<\/p>\n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n\n and \n<\/p>\n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n\n . Two popular ways to model this correspondence exist: Global as View or GAV and Local as View or LAV.\n\n<\/p>\n Figure 3: Illustration of tuple space of the GAV and LAV mappings.[13] In GAV, the system is constrained to the set of tuples mapped by the mediators while the set of tuples expressible over the sources may be much larger and richer. In LAV, the system is constrained to the set of tuples in the sources while the set of tuples expressible over the global schema can be much larger. Therefore, LAV systems must often deal with incomplete answers.\nGAV systems model the global database as a set of views over \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n . In this case \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M}\n \n associates to each element of \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n a query over \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n . Query processing becomes a straightforward operation due to the well-defined associations between \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n and \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n . The burden of complexity falls on implementing mediator code instructing the data integration system exactly how to retrieve elements from the source databases. If any new sources join the system, considerable effort may be necessary to update the mediator, thus the GAV approach appears preferable when the sources seem unlikely to change.\nIn a GAV approach to the example data integration system above, the system designer would first develop mediators for each of the city information sources and then design the global schema around these mediators. For example, consider if one of the sources served a weather website. The designer would likely then add a corresponding element for weather to the global schema. Then the bulk of effort concentrates on writing the proper mediator code that will transform predicates on weather into a query over the weather website. This effort can become complex if some other source also relates to weather, because the designer may need to write code to properly combine the results from the two sources.\nOn the other hand, in LAV, the source database is modeled as a set of views over \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n\n . In this case \n<\/p>\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M}\n \n\n associates to each element of \n<\/p>\n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n\n a query over \n<\/p>\n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n\n . Here the exact associations between \n<\/p>\n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n\n and \n<\/p>\n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n\n are no longer well-defined. As is illustrated in the next section, the burden of determining how to retrieve elements from the sources is placed on the query processor. The benefit of an LAV modeling is that new sources can be added with far less work than in a GAV system, thus the LAV approach should be favored in cases where the mediated schema is less stable or likely to change.[1]\n\n<\/p>In an LAV approach to the example data integration system above, the system designer designs the global schema first and then simply inputs the schemas of the respective city information sources. Consider again if one of the sources serves a weather website. The designer would add corresponding elements for weather to the global schema only if none existed already. Then programmers write an adapter or wrapper for the website and add a schema description of the website's results to the source schemas. The complexity of adding the new source moves from the designer to the query processor.\n\nQuery processing \nThe theory of query processing in data integration systems is commonly expressed using conjunctive queries and Datalog, a purely declarative logic programming language.[14] One can loosely think of a conjunctive query as a logical function applied to the relations of a database such as \"\n \n \n \n f\n (\n A\n ,\n B\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(A,B)}\n \n where \n \n \n \n A\n <\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A<B}\n \n \". If a tuple or set of tuples is substituted into the rule and satisfies it (makes it true), then we consider that tuple as part of the set of answers in the query. While formal languages like Datalog express these queries concisely and without ambiguity, common SQL queries count as conjunctive queries as well.\nIn terms of data integration, \"query containment\" represents an important property of conjunctive queries. A query \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n\n contains another query \n<\/p>\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n\n (denoted \n<\/p>\n \n \n \n A\n ⊃\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\supset B}\n \n\n ) if the results of applying \n<\/p>\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n\n are a subset of the results of applying \n<\/p>\n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n\n for any database. The two queries are said to be equivalent if the resulting sets are equal for any database. This is important because in both GAV and LAV systems, a user poses conjunctive queries over a virtual schema represented by a set of views, or \"materialized\" conjunctive queries. Integration seeks to rewrite the queries represented by the views to make their results equivalent or maximally contained by our user's query. This corresponds to the problem of answering queries using views (AQUV).[15]\n\n<\/p>In GAV systems, a system designer writes mediator code to define the query-rewriting. Each element in the user's query corresponds to a substitution rule just as each element in the global schema corresponds to a query over the source. Query processing simply expands the subgoals of the user's query according to the rule specified in the mediator and thus the resulting query is likely to be equivalent. While the designer does the majority of the work beforehand, some GAV systems such as Tsimmis involve simplifying the mediator description process.\nIn LAV systems, queries undergo a more radical process of rewriting because no mediator exists to align the user's query with a simple expansion strategy. The integration system must execute a search over the space of possible queries in order to find the best rewrite. The resulting rewrite may not be an equivalent query but maximally contained, and the resulting tuples may be incomplete. As of 2011[update] the GQR algorithm[16] is the leading query rewriting algorithm for LAV data integration systems.\nIn general, the complexity of query rewriting is NP-complete.[15] If the space of rewrites is relatively small, this does not pose a problem \u2014 even for integration systems with hundreds of sources.\n\nIn the life sciences \nLarge-scale questions in science, such as global warming, invasive species spread, and resource depletion, are increasingly requiring the collection of disparate data sets for meta-analysis. This type of data integration is especially challenging for ecological and environmental data because metadata standards are not agreed upon and there are many different data types produced in these fields. National Science Foundation initiatives such as Datanet are intended to make data integration easier for scientists by providing cyberinfrastructure and setting standards. The five funded Datanet initiatives are DataONE,[17] led by William Michener at the University of New Mexico; The Data Conservancy,[18] led by Sayeed Choudhury of Johns Hopkins University; SEAD: Sustainable Environment through Actionable Data,[19] led by Margaret Hedstrom of the University of Michigan; the DataNet Federation Consortium,[20] led by Reagan Moore of the University of North Carolina; and Terra Populus,[21] led by Steven Ruggles of the University of Minnesota. The Research Data Alliance,[22] has more recently explored creating global data integration frameworks. The OpenPHACTS project, funded through the European Union Innovative Medicines Initiative, built a drug discovery platform by linking datasets from providers such as European Bioinformatics Institute, Royal Society of Chemistry, UniProt, WikiPathways and DrugBank.\n\nSee also \n\nBusiness semantics management\nCore data integration\nCustomer data integration\nData blending\nData curation\nData fusion\nData mapping\nData wrangling\nDatabase model\nDataspaces\nEdge data integration\nEnterprise application integration\nEnterprise architecture framework\nEnterprise information integration (EII)\nEnterprise integration\nGeodi: Geoscientific Data Integration\nInformation integration\nInformation server\nInformation silo\nIntegration Competency Center\nIntegration Consortium\nJXTA\nMaster data management\nObject-relational mapping\nOpen Text\nSchema matching\nThree schema approach\nUDEF\nWeb data integration\nWeb service\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c \nMaurizio Lenzerini (2002). \"Data Integration: A Theoretical Perspective\" (PDF) . PODS 2002. pp. 233\u2013246. \n\n^ Big Data Integration \n\n^ Frederick Lane (2006). \"IDC: World Created 161 Billion Gigs of Data in 2006\". \n\n^ John Miles Smith; et al. (1982). \"Multibase: integrating heterogeneous distributed database systems\". AFIPS '81 Proceedings of the May 4\u20137, 1981, National Computer Conference. pp. 487\u2013499. \n\n^ Steven Ruggles, J. David Hacker, and Matthew Sobek (1995). \"Order out of Chaos: The Integrated Public Use Microdata Series\". Historical Methods. 28. pp. 33\u201339. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Jennifer Widom (1995). \"Research problems in data warehousing\". CIKM '95 Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management. pp. 25\u201330. \n\n^ Shubhra S. Ray; et al. (2009). \"Combining Multi-Source Information through Functional Annotation based Weighting: Gene Function Prediction in Yeast\" (PDF) . IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. 56 (2): 229\u2013236. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.150.7928 . doi:10.1109\/TBME.2008.2005955. PMID 19272921. \n\n^ Michael Mireku Kwakye (2011). \"A Practical Approach To Merging Multidimensional Data Models\". hdl:10393\/20457. \n\n^ \"Hub Lake and Warehouse search trends\". \n\n^ Alagi\u0107, Suad; Bernstein, Philip A. (2002). Database Programming Languages. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 2397. pp. 228\u2013246. doi:10.1007\/3-540-46093-4_14. ISBN 978-3-540-44080-2. \n\n^ \"Nested Mappings: Schema Mapping Reloaded\" (PDF) . \n\n^ \"The Common Framework Initiative for algebraic specification and development of software\" (PDF) . \n\n^ Christoph Koch (2001). \"Data Integration against Multiple Evolving Autonomous Schemata\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-26. \n\n^ Jeffrey D. Ullman (1997). \"Information Integration Using Logical Views\". ICDT 1997. pp. 19\u201340. \n\n^ a b Alon Y. Halevy (2001). \"Answering queries using views: A survey\" (PDF) . The VLDB Journal. pp. 270\u2013294. \n\n^ George Konstantinidis; et al. (2011). \"Scalable Query Rewriting: A Graph-based Approach\" (PDF) . in Proceedings of the ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data, SIGMOD'11, June 12-16, 2011, Athens, Greece. \n\n^ William Michener; et al. \"DataONE: Observation Network for Earth\". www.dataone.org. Retrieved 2013-01-19 . \n\n^ Sayeed Choudhury; et al. \"Data Conservancy\". dataconservancy.org. Retrieved 2013-01-19 . \n\n^ Margaret Hedstrom; et al. \"SEAD Sustainable Environment - Actionable Data\". sead-data.net. Retrieved 2013-01-19 . \n\n^ Reagan Moore; et al. \"DataNet Federation Consortium\". datafed.org. Retrieved 2013-01-19 . \n\n^ Steven Ruggles; et al. \"Terra Populus: Integrated Data on Population and the Environment\". terrapop.org. Retrieved 2013-01-19 . \n\n^ Bill Nichols. \"Research Data Alliance\". rd-alliance.org. Retrieved 2014-10-01 . \n\n\nvteData\nAnalysis\nArchaeology\nCleansing\nCollection\nCompression\nCorruption\nCuration\nDegradation\nEditing\nFarming\nFormat management\nFusion\nIntegration\nIntegrity\nLibrary\nLoss\nManagement\nMigration\nMining\nPre-processing\nPreservation\nProtection (privacy)\nRecovery\nReduction\nRetention\nQuality\nScience\nScraping\nScrubbing\nSecurity\nStewardship\nStorage\nValidation\nWarehouse\nWrangling\/munging\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Big dataInformaticsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 26 January 2018, at 01:23.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 367 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_integration skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data integration<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Data integration<\/b> involves combining <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a> residing in different sources and providing users with a unified view of them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-refone_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-refone-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> This process becomes significant in a variety of situations, which include both commercial (such as when two similar companies need to merge their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">databases<\/a>) and scientific (combining research results from different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioinformatics\" title=\"Bioinformatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01737c6289ef7671d2c932a51babe26b\">bioinformatics<\/a> repositories, for example) domains. Data integration appears with increasing frequency as the volume (that is, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_data\" title=\"Big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e130d519686c4edbc43ee36a686a3d0a\">big data<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>) and the need to share existing data <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_explosion\" title=\"Information explosion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fca537b970e3bd28955343ad4bf04757\">explodes<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DataExplode_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DataExplode-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> It has become the focus of extensive theoretical work, and numerous open problems remain unsolved. Data integration encourages collaboration between internal as well as external users\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Datawarehouse.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"a643a1fbdd50ad537e778a2b2e955a68\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/d\/db\/Datawarehouse.png\/220px-Datawarehouse.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"148\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Datawarehouse.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"a643a1fbdd50ad537e778a2b2e955a68\"><\/a><\/div>Figure 1: Simple schematic for a data warehouse. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extract,_transform,_load\" title=\"Extract, transform, load\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1dd08fd33b5feacc8f3e7d140a4ab5d7\">Extract, transform, load<\/a> (ETL) process extracts information from the source databases, transforms it and then loads it into the data warehouse.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Dataintegration.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c68fd156c8cbb5fed4328749f3f3dc8\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/0\/0c\/Dataintegration.png\/220px-Dataintegration.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Dataintegration.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"8c68fd156c8cbb5fed4328749f3f3dc8\"><\/a><\/div>Figure 2: Simple schematic for a data-integration solution. A system designer constructs a mediated schema against which users can run queries. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_database\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Virtual database\" data-key=\"f46c5d669c5e1ad13547717c0dafa416\">virtual database<\/a> interfaces with the source databases via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wrapper_pattern\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wrapper pattern\" data-key=\"0844573a2664ef76a6642de3bacb92dd\">wrapper<\/a> code if required.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Issues with combining <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heterogeneous\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Heterogeneous\" data-key=\"e11554f93c2abf1f867617f182099202\">heterogeneous<\/a> data sources, often referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_silo\" title=\"Information silo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"609ecf7e2ecfe71d62bd20d2769cac59\">information silos<\/a>, under a single query interface have existed for some time. In the early 1980s, computer scientists began designing systems for interoperability of heterogeneous databases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> The first data integration system driven by structured metadata was designed at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Minnesota\" title=\"University of Minnesota\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3c307f12975c233dfe8a59fd71dd800\">University of Minnesota<\/a> in 1991, for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPUMS\" title=\"IPUMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25e501124ede1ecdfce42973fc4d3b01\">Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS)<\/a>. IPUMS used a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_warehousing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data warehousing\" data-key=\"30b351f647ba2b3e6e0c2988ad7f232b\">data warehousing<\/a> approach, which <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extract,_transform,_load\" title=\"Extract, transform, load\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1dd08fd33b5feacc8f3e7d140a4ab5d7\">extracts, transforms, and loads<\/a> data from heterogeneous sources into a single view <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_schema\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Logical schema\" data-key=\"137a50f00857bb25ac7ee0534dd2acc5\">schema<\/a> so data from different sources become compatible.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> By making thousands of population databases interoperable, IPUMS demonstrated the feasibility of large-scale data integration. The data warehouse approach offers a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coupling_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Coupling (computer science)\" data-key=\"71786ee754adaf12e617b8c8d877eac0\">tightly coupled<\/a> architecture because the data are already physically reconciled in a single queryable repository, so it usually takes little time to resolve queries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0ea3ce49e6688a8ec1616b9f0927fea\">data warehouse<\/a> approach is less feasible for data sets that are frequently updated, requiring the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extract,_transform,_load\" title=\"Extract, transform, load\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1dd08fd33b5feacc8f3e7d140a4ab5d7\">extract, transform, load<\/a> (ETL) process to be continuously re-executed for synchronization. Difficulties also arise in constructing data warehouses when one has only a query interface to summary data sources and no access to the full data. This problem frequently emerges when integrating several commercial query services like travel or classified advertisement web applications.\n<\/p><p>As of 2009<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup> the trend in data integration favored loosening the coupling between data<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2009)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> and providing a unified query-interface to access real time data over a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mediation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data mediation\" data-key=\"ed9f292e13274b7d16edad1064d1638f\">mediated<\/a> schema (see Figure 2), which allows information to be retrieved directly from original databases. This is consistent with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Service-oriented_architecture\" title=\"Service-oriented architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baeda155bcadf284dc1b57450100a5e3\">SOA<\/a> approach popular in that era. This approach relies on mappings between the mediated schema and the schema of original sources, and transforming a query into specialized queries to match the schema of the original databases. Such mappings can be specified in two ways: as a mapping from entities in the mediated schema to entities in the original sources (the \"\" (GAV) approach), or as a mapping from entities in the original sources to the mediated schema (the \"\" (LAV) approach). The latter approach requires more sophisticated inferences to resolve a query on the mediated schema, but makes it easier to add new data sources to a (stable) mediated schema.\n<\/p><p>As of 2010<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup> some of the work in data integration research concerns the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_integration\" title=\"Semantic integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e525b7470d26add2f9e08a80475592d9\">semantic integration<\/a> problem. This problem addresses not the structuring of the architecture of the integration, but how to resolve <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Semantic\" data-key=\"07038de9466753565ab38e42947d4f2f\">semantic<\/a> conflicts between heterogeneous data sources. For example, if two companies merge their databases, certain concepts and definitions in their respective schemas like \"earnings\" inevitably have different meanings. In one database it may mean profits in dollars (a floating-point number), while in the other it might represent the number of sales (an integer). A common strategy for the resolution of such problems involves the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ontology (computer science)\" data-key=\"2cf14c9076764ffc3f7426754d3c4730\">ontologies<\/a> which explicitly define schema terms and thus help to resolve semantic conflicts. This approach represents <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology-based_data_integration\" title=\"Ontology-based data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09ff230504daad1dacad7c3860e84947\">ontology-based data integration<\/a>. On the other hand, the problem of combining research results from different bioinformatics repositories requires bench-marking of the similarities, computed from different data sources, on a single criterion such as positive predictive value. This enables the data sources to be directly comparable and can be integrated even when the natures of experiments are distinct.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As of 2011<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup> it was determined that current <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_modeling\" title=\"Data modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eeb367af0f28dde6b5d2b55e69b02ddb\">data modeling<\/a> methods were imparting data isolation into every <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_architecture\" title=\"Data architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbae87cd3312629585d7375444f6a478\">data architecture<\/a> in the form of islands of disparate data and information silos. This data isolation is an unintended artifact of the data modeling methodology that results in the development of disparate data models. Disparate data models, when instantiated as databases, form disparate databases. Enhanced data model methodologies have been developed to eliminate the data isolation artifact and to promote the development of integrated data models.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> One enhanced data modeling method recasts data models by augmenting them with structural <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">metadata<\/a> in the form of standardized data entities. As a result of recasting multiple data models, the set of recast data models will now share one or more commonality relationships that relate the structural metadata now common to these data models. Commonality relationships are a peer-to-peer type of entity relationships that relate the standardized data entities of multiple data models. Multiple data models that contain the same standard data entity may participate in the same commonality relationship. When integrated data models are instantiated as databases and are properly populated from a common set of master data, then these databases are integrated.\n<\/p><p>Since 2011, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_hub\" title=\"Data hub\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d57d77643118cb99ba2bd4eaae551c51\">data hub<\/a> approaches have been of greater interest than fully structured (typically relational) Enterprise Data Warehouses. Since 2013, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_lake\" title=\"Data lake\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6fb55931f2077eab7225839af68e0e0\">data lake<\/a> approaches have risen to the level of Data Hubs. (See all three search terms popularity on Google Trends.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>) These approaches combine unstructured or varied data into one location, but do not necessarily require an (often complex) master relational schema to structure and define all data in the Hub.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Example\">Example<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Consider a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_application\" title=\"Web application\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b0c037b91fdf27407b8d9f6abc6430b\">web application<\/a> where a user can query a variety of information about cities (such as crime statistics, weather, hotels, demographics, etc.). Traditionally, the information must be stored in a single database with a single schema. But any single enterprise would find information of this breadth somewhat difficult and expensive to collect. Even if the resources exist to gather the data, it would likely duplicate data in existing crime databases, weather websites, and census data.\n<\/p><p>A data-integration solution may address this problem by considering these external resources as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Materialized_view\" title=\"Materialized view\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"415e63e43e50222022d24b47792e7741\">materialized views<\/a> over a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_database\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Virtual database\" data-key=\"f46c5d669c5e1ad13547717c0dafa416\">virtual mediated schema<\/a>, resulting in \"virtual data integration\". This means application-developers construct a virtual schema\u2014the <i>mediated schema<\/i>\u2014to best model the kinds of answers their users want. Next, they design \"wrappers\" or adapters for each data source, such as the crime database and weather website. These adapters simply transform the local query results (those returned by the respective websites or databases) into an easily processed form for the data integration solution (see figure 2). When an application-user queries the mediated schema, the data-integration solution transforms this query into appropriate queries over the respective data sources. Finally, the virtual database combines the results of these queries into the answer to the user's query.\n<\/p><p>This solution offers the convenience of adding new sources by simply constructing an adapter or an application software blade for them. It contrasts with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extract,_transform,_load\" title=\"Extract, transform, load\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1dd08fd33b5feacc8f3e7d140a4ab5d7\">ETL<\/a> systems or with a single database solution, which require manual integration of entire new data set into the system. The virtual ETL solutions leverage <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_database\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Virtual database\" data-key=\"f46c5d669c5e1ad13547717c0dafa416\">virtual mediated schema<\/a> to implement data harmonization; whereby the data are copied from the designated \"master\" source to the defined targets, field by field. Advanced <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_virtualization\" title=\"Data virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b1db2c4812e3fe3eaa9cf97ae016468\">data virtualization<\/a> is also built on the concept of object-oriented modeling in order to construct virtual mediated schema or virtual metadata repository, using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hub_and_spoke\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hub and spoke\" data-key=\"22a91879922dabec43078a2409152ae9\">hub and spoke<\/a> architecture.\n<\/p><p>Each data source is disparate and as such is not designed to support reliable joins between data sources. Therefore, data virtualization as well as data federation depends upon accidental data commonality to support combining data and information from disparate data sets. Because of this lack of data value commonality across data sources, the return set may be inaccurate, incomplete, and impossible to validate.\n<\/p><p>One solution is to recast disparate databases to integrate these databases without the need for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extract,_transform,_load\" title=\"Extract, transform, load\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1dd08fd33b5feacc8f3e7d140a4ab5d7\">ETL<\/a>. The recast databases support commonality constraints where referential integrity may be enforced between databases. The recast databases provide designed data access paths with data value commonality across databases.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Theory\">Theory<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The theory of data integration<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-refone_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-refone-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> forms a subset of database theory and formalizes the underlying concepts of the problem in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First-order_logic\" title=\"First-order logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0440e828c0aa870ff198a30aba920282\">first-order logic<\/a>. Applying the theories gives indications as to the feasibility and difficulty of data integration. While its definitions may appear abstract, they have sufficient generality to accommodate all manner of integration systems,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> including those that include nested relational \/ XML databases<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> and those that treat databases as programs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Connections to particular databases systems such as Oracle or DB2 are provided by implementation-level technologies such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JDBC\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JDBC\" data-key=\"6e82fa8ca5eccab74b65438504682dad\">JDBC<\/a> and are not studied at the theoretical level.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Definitions\">Definitions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data integration systems are formally defined as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Triple_(mathematics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Triple (mathematics)\" data-key=\"d6daba7e426ecce7ee224b11a684bb74\">triple<\/a> <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/7788300afd54ade3062e3518ec69ac307b1038d7\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.645ex; height:2.843ex;\" alt=\"\\left\\langle G,S,M\\right\\rangle \"\/><\/span> where <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f5f3c8921a3b352de45446a6789b104458c9f90b\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.827ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"G\"\/><\/span> is the global (or mediated) schema, <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"S\"\/><\/span> is the heterogeneous set of source schemas, and <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"M\"\/><\/span> is the mapping that maps queries between the source and the global schemas. Both <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f5f3c8921a3b352de45446a6789b104458c9f90b\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.827ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"G\"\/><\/span> and <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"S\"\/><\/span> are expressed in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Formal_language\" title=\"Formal language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fa77d79b84bfea7a70899c29e5453e6\">languages<\/a> over <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alphabet_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Alphabet (computer science)\" data-key=\"a2bce3054a65d1d29b5edb04613be94a\">alphabets<\/a> composed of symbols for each of their respective <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relational_database\" title=\"Relational database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86b6b5174c671988f4e5dba65702a9c0\">relations<\/a>. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_predicate\" title=\"Functional predicate\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ee6b3ae7fee79e8ece854461e968752\">mapping<\/a> <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"M\"\/><\/span> consists of assertions between queries over <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f5f3c8921a3b352de45446a6789b104458c9f90b\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.827ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"G\"\/><\/span> and queries over <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"S\"\/><\/span>. When users pose queries over the data integration system, they pose queries over <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f5f3c8921a3b352de45446a6789b104458c9f90b\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.827ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"G\"\/><\/span> and the mapping then asserts connections between the elements in the global schema and the source schemas.\n<\/p><p>A database over a schema is defined as a set of sets, one for each relation (in a relational database). The database corresponding to the source schema <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"S\"\/><\/span> would comprise the set of sets of tuples for each of the heterogeneous data sources and is called the <i>source database<\/i>. Note that this single source database may actually represent a collection of disconnected databases. The database corresponding to the virtual mediated schema <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f5f3c8921a3b352de45446a6789b104458c9f90b\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.827ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"G\"\/><\/span> is called the <i>global database<\/i>. The global database must satisfy the mapping <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"M\"\/><\/span> with respect to the source database. The legality of this mapping depends on the nature of the correspondence between <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f5f3c8921a3b352de45446a6789b104458c9f90b\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.827ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"G\"\/><\/span> and <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"S\"\/><\/span>. Two popular ways to model this correspondence exist: <i>Global as View<\/i> or GAV and <i>Local as View<\/i> or LAV.\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:GAVLAV.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"6611598f32e93a42aa2306c6c27e1733\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9e\/GAVLAV.png\/220px-GAVLAV.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"108\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:GAVLAV.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"6611598f32e93a42aa2306c6c27e1733\"><\/a><\/div>Figure 3: Illustration of tuple space of the GAV and LAV mappings.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-refseven_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-refseven-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> In GAV, the system is constrained to the set of tuples mapped by the mediators while the set of tuples expressible over the sources may be much larger and richer. In LAV, the system is constrained to the set of tuples in the sources while the set of tuples expressible over the global schema can be much larger. Therefore, LAV systems must often deal with incomplete answers.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>GAV systems model the global database as a set of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/View_(database)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"View (database)\" data-key=\"00240b004a2d2d9ac99334383da6a111\">views<\/a> over <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"S\"\/><\/span>. In this case <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"M\"\/><\/span> associates to each element of <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f5f3c8921a3b352de45446a6789b104458c9f90b\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.827ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"G\"\/><\/span> a query over <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"S\"\/><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Query_optimizer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Query optimizer\" data-key=\"30789715c658165292bf57135aeefd44\">Query processing<\/a> becomes a straightforward operation due to the well-defined associations between <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f5f3c8921a3b352de45446a6789b104458c9f90b\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.827ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"G\"\/><\/span> and <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"S\"\/><\/span>. The burden of complexity falls on implementing mediator code instructing the data integration system exactly how to retrieve elements from the source databases. If any new sources join the system, considerable effort may be necessary to update the mediator, thus the GAV approach appears preferable when the sources seem unlikely to change.\n<\/p><p>In a GAV approach to the example data integration system above, the system designer would first develop mediators for each of the city information sources and then design the global schema around these mediators. For example, consider if one of the sources served a weather website. The designer would likely then add a corresponding element for weather to the global schema. Then the bulk of effort concentrates on writing the proper mediator code that will transform predicates on weather into a query over the weather website. This effort can become complex if some other source also relates to weather, because the designer may need to write code to properly combine the results from the two sources.\n<\/p><p>On the other hand, in LAV, the source database is modeled as a set of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/View_(database)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"View (database)\" data-key=\"00240b004a2d2d9ac99334383da6a111\">views<\/a> over <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f5f3c8921a3b352de45446a6789b104458c9f90b\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.827ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"G\"\/><\/span>. In this case <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f82cade9898ced02fdd08712e5f0c0151758a0dd\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.442ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"M\"\/><\/span> associates to each element of <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"S\"\/><\/span> a query over <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f5f3c8921a3b352de45446a6789b104458c9f90b\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.827ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"G\"\/><\/span>. Here the exact associations between <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/f5f3c8921a3b352de45446a6789b104458c9f90b\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.827ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"G\"\/><\/span> and <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"S\"\/><\/span> are no longer well-defined. As is illustrated in the next section, the burden of determining how to retrieve elements from the sources is placed on the query processor. The benefit of an LAV modeling is that new sources can be added with far less work than in a GAV system, thus the LAV approach should be favored in cases where the mediated schema is less stable or likely to change.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-refone_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-refone-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/p><p>In an LAV approach to the example data integration system above, the system designer designs the global schema first and then simply inputs the schemas of the respective city information sources. Consider again if one of the sources serves a weather website. The designer would add corresponding elements for weather to the global schema only if none existed already. Then programmers write an adapter or wrapper for the website and add a schema description of the website's results to the source schemas. The complexity of adding the new source moves from the designer to the query processor.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Query_processing\">Query processing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The theory of query processing in data integration systems is commonly expressed using conjunctive <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_query_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Database query language\" data-key=\"58a4b911da32e942185f24b4fb445e97\">queries<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Datalog\" title=\"Datalog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e937ee1bd808536e138aa2ddcb471511\">Datalog<\/a>, a purely declarative <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_programming\" title=\"Logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6c0943d2bbff45f5ba0d111f9a594b7\">logic programming<\/a> language.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-reffive_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-reffive-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> One can loosely think of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conjunctive_query\" title=\"Conjunctive query\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6519886f0f6de571ee7570ed8ce755ec\">conjunctive query<\/a> as a logical function applied to the relations of a database such as \"<span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/3f823b6f920a2513302ee807420d86eeeb142719\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.629ex; height:2.843ex;\" alt=\"f(A,B)\"\/><\/span> where <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/8f7bff3eeb3cd93f23984f67cb4a10787de83596\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.606ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"A<B\"\/><\/span>\". If a tuple or set of tuples is substituted into the rule and satisfies it (makes it true), then we consider that tuple as part of the set of answers in the query. While formal languages like Datalog express these queries concisely and without ambiguity, common <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SQL\" title=\"SQL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f35b2b4bc8a913c4c71802a7c2f39b88\">SQL<\/a> queries count as conjunctive queries as well.\n<\/p><p>In terms of data integration, \"query containment\" represents an important property of conjunctive queries. A query <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"A\"\/><\/span> contains another query <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"B\"\/><\/span> (denoted <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/ee952838d8b3e67045072a8f2b71e7fc0467dea6\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.606ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"A\\supset B\"\/><\/span>) if the results of applying <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"B\"\/><\/span> are a subset of the results of applying <span class=\"mwe-math-element\"><span class=\"mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y\" style=\"display: none;\"><\/span><img src=\"https:\/\/wikimedia.org\/api\/rest_v1\/media\/math\/render\/svg\/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3\" class=\"mwe-math-fallback-image-inline\" aria-hidden=\"true\" style=\"vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;\" alt=\"A\"\/><\/span> for any database. The two queries are said to be equivalent if the resulting sets are equal for any database. This is important because in both GAV and LAV systems, a user poses conjunctive queries over a <i>virtual<\/i> schema represented by a set of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/View_(database)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"View (database)\" data-key=\"00240b004a2d2d9ac99334383da6a111\">views<\/a>, or \"materialized\" conjunctive queries. Integration seeks to rewrite the queries represented by the views to make their results equivalent or maximally contained by our user's query. This corresponds to the problem of answering queries using views ().<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-refsix_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-refsix-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/p><p>In GAV systems, a system designer writes mediator code to define the query-rewriting. Each element in the user's query corresponds to a substitution rule just as each element in the global schema corresponds to a query over the source. Query processing simply expands the subgoals of the user's query according to the rule specified in the mediator and thus the resulting query is likely to be equivalent. While the designer does the majority of the work beforehand, some GAV systems such as <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www-db.stanford.edu\/tsimmis\/\" target=\"_blank\">Tsimmis<\/a> involve simplifying the mediator description process.\n<\/p><p>In LAV systems, queries undergo a more radical process of rewriting because no mediator exists to align the user's query with a simple expansion strategy. The integration system must execute a search over the space of possible queries in order to find the best rewrite. The resulting rewrite may not be an equivalent query but maximally contained, and the resulting tuples may be incomplete. As of 2011<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup> the GQR algorithm<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-refgqr_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-refgqr-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> is the leading query rewriting algorithm for LAV data integration systems.\n<\/p><p>In general, the complexity of query rewriting is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NP-complete\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NP-complete\" data-key=\"34dedd533bf686ab674743390fbd1568\">NP-complete<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-refsix_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-refsix-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> If the space of rewrites is relatively small, this does not pose a problem \u2014 even for integration systems with hundreds of sources.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_the_life_sciences\">In the life sciences<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Large-scale questions in science, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_warming\" title=\"Global warming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df8e35e524b0b6e0fb7eb07b9ddd6950\">global warming<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Invasive_species\" title=\"Invasive species\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db52c6ad2e1c2be3297ee2b6ed736d33\">invasive species<\/a> spread, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource_depletion\" title=\"Resource depletion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c79dc5f3bc6b38cb4b95ff657f3406cc\">resource depletion<\/a>, are increasingly requiring the collection of disparate data sets for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meta-analysis\" title=\"Meta-analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d2a35b9793f786fae0bd54185c69d39\">meta-analysis<\/a>. This type of data integration is especially challenging for ecological and environmental data because <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_standards\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Metadata standards\" data-key=\"e5c0aeaab6e5bb13a707297a255738ee\">metadata standards<\/a> are not agreed upon and there are many different data types produced in these fields. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Science_Foundation\" title=\"National Science Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b983b6300da8173be7a1ef05e52e9568\">National Science Foundation<\/a> initiatives such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Datanet\" title=\"Datanet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3efdef161ce35567ad8efbdba9186180\">Datanet<\/a> are intended to make data integration easier for scientists by providing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyberinfrastructure\" title=\"Cyberinfrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1037cfd31affa82a96c8abc19f00bac9\">cyberinfrastructure<\/a> and setting standards. The five funded <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Datanet\" title=\"Datanet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3efdef161ce35567ad8efbdba9186180\">Datanet<\/a> initiatives are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DataONE\" title=\"DataONE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c120436503fc6b486657feca51fa48ec\">DataONE<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> led by William Michener at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_New_Mexico\" title=\"University of New Mexico\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"896db1b064ffd002e8f5b4cd65819f5a\">University of New Mexico<\/a>; The Data Conservancy,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> led by Sayeed Choudhury of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Johns_Hopkins_University\" title=\"Johns Hopkins University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148e638d7528a895535efa7d396d1646\">Johns Hopkins University<\/a>; SEAD: Sustainable Environment through Actionable Data,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> led by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Margaret_Hedstrom\" title=\"Margaret Hedstrom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4048ede1b33d2a26584275d1a719831d\">Margaret Hedstrom<\/a> of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Michigan\" title=\"University of Michigan\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f685152fc336f9e516283e482063ad6\">University of Michigan<\/a>; the DataNet Federation Consortium,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> led by Reagan Moore of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_North_Carolina\" title=\"University of North Carolina\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b4714054f1837bbbc302776df7691b6\">University of North Carolina<\/a>; and <i>Terra Populus<\/i>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> led by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steven_Ruggles\" title=\"Steven Ruggles\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23660385e074316def96dcba77ad637a\">Steven Ruggles<\/a> of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Minnesota\" title=\"University of Minnesota\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3c307f12975c233dfe8a59fd71dd800\">University of Minnesota<\/a>. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Research_Data_Alliance\" title=\"Research Data Alliance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa69ab729948fe60219110571acee8db\">Research Data Alliance<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> has more recently explored creating global data integration frameworks. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenPHACTS\" title=\"OpenPHACTS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1654e86ca0aeafd8cf2e73f176c3c9d\">OpenPHACTS<\/a> project, funded through the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Innovative_Medicines_Initiative\" title=\"Innovative Medicines Initiative\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7251d71edc0e7d7926888a8c9321acb7\">Innovative Medicines Initiative<\/a>, built a drug discovery platform by linking datasets from providers such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Bioinformatics_Institute\" title=\"European Bioinformatics Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0891c38045857a63269438983ed240f\">European Bioinformatics Institute<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Royal_Society_of_Chemistry\" title=\"Royal Society of Chemistry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eae3e29b602a8f102a33dafb63afde9f\">Royal Society of Chemistry<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UniProt\" title=\"UniProt\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"232f450be94a5f08e9d08829b9e58163\">UniProt<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WikiPathways\" title=\"WikiPathways\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c5579d2e65ac37f92fb03473be1809f\">WikiPathways<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DrugBank\" title=\"DrugBank\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee36cd5b7e28669695adcdae62fff7e4\">DrugBank<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_semantics_management\" title=\"Business semantics management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1664e4f006a0c8865b35a93796a32fed\">Business semantics management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Core_data_integration\" title=\"Core data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e486c38eb1103188abdbb37d96e3167f\">Core data integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_data_integration\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Customer data integration\" data-key=\"6a92778888154516732209a8b97857d3\">Customer data integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_blending\" title=\"Data blending\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0fb2b07018b912465de583c7d9ebf8d4\">Data blending<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_curation\" title=\"Data curation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0115b409eaea80124e6e409e96b8eed\">Data curation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_fusion\" title=\"Data fusion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c00b6004de5a66da14bb610614d65b26\">Data fusion<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mapping\" title=\"Data mapping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e27b9e9ae631a9edb1f50c395508f5f\">Data mapping<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_wrangling\" title=\"Data wrangling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1348b63ace5604aa881bbf97efbbf7a\">Data wrangling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_model\" title=\"Database model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ae740b9293ee436976528081c6822a1\">Database model<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dataspaces\" title=\"Dataspaces\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01e3ff2ca052310b80e995f2cc315695\">Dataspaces<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edge_data_integration\" title=\"Edge data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"449e1443ca3b01121865b97b11b3fb55\">Edge data integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_application_integration\" title=\"Enterprise application integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d697403942408f923065543d60e5bda1\">Enterprise application integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_architecture_framework\" title=\"Enterprise architecture framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79a260515c77fc59a9ea5385dabd5ad9\">Enterprise architecture framework<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_information_integration\" title=\"Enterprise information integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"136ab5b62d6aa7f1361e7fa3e9e36543\">Enterprise information integration<\/a> (EII)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_integration\" title=\"Enterprise integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5a10db068f8252e9d53ce29324a9458\">Enterprise integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geodi\" title=\"Geodi\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"11a3d54a24c71e3ad0fcb130de6296de\">Geodi<\/a>: Geoscientific Data Integration<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_integration\" title=\"Information integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93bb093f8251b15859bb841daf3a8278\">Information integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_server\" title=\"Information server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"096d05874c8b6427b45e5854fcec3839\">Information server<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_silo\" title=\"Information silo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"609ecf7e2ecfe71d62bd20d2769cac59\">Information silo<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integration_Competency_Center\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Integration Competency Center\" data-key=\"f7d6c4775d921062c413a0c1fbb8594a\">Integration Competency Center<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integration_Consortium\" title=\"Integration Consortium\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"28450e70d7806ca2f5b58c0b2fac3f53\">Integration Consortium<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JXTA\" title=\"JXTA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"660a68c128d6701874586656e3ccd960\">JXTA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Master_data_management\" title=\"Master data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbc1f348e81fafbc88842099f72d742c\">Master data management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object-relational_mapping\" title=\"Object-relational mapping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc883250ed0184f1168edaefd1ae8ccd\">Object-relational mapping<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_Text\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Open Text\" data-key=\"e42674cb66c2c1bcfb6aecdcf002ab5a\">Open Text<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Schema_matching\" title=\"Schema matching\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6182e135eed0dd12021acf436b00a174\">Schema matching<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Three_schema_approach\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Three schema approach\" data-key=\"50c0cbf31d176c53651c7f0738ba5e07\">Three schema approach<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UDEF\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"UDEF\" data-key=\"1a54fa9e676e4f0dcaa80745fba600d0\">UDEF<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_data_integration\" title=\"Web data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d10536a2729e132ce958136709cd2c21\">Web data integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_service\" title=\"Web service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e72dffc79d570a758fb072280ae0ca6e\">Web service<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-refone-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-refone_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-refone_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-refone_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation conference\">Maurizio Lenzerini (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dis.uniroma1.it\/~lenzerin\/homepagine\/talks\/TutorialPODS02.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Integration: A Theoretical Perspective\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>PODS 2002<\/i>. pp. 233\u2013246.<\/cite><span 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text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.toptechnews.com\/story.xhtml?story_id=01300000E3D0&full_skip=1\" target=\"_blank\">\"IDC: World Created 161 Billion Gigs of Data in 2006\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=IDC%3A+World+Created+161+Billion+Gigs+of+Data+in+2006&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Frederick+Lane&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.toptechnews.com%2Fstory.xhtml%3Fstory_id%3D01300000E3D0%26full_skip%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">John Miles Smith; et al. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-01-19<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DataONE%3A+Observation+Network+for+Earth&rft.pub=www.dataone.org&rft.au=William+Michener&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dataone.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Sayeed Choudhury; et al. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dataconservancy.org\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Conservancy\"<\/a>. dataconservancy.org<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-01-19<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data+Conservancy&rft.pub=dataconservancy.org&rft.au=Sayeed+Choudhury&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdataconservancy.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Margaret_Hedstrom\" title=\"Margaret Hedstrom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4048ede1b33d2a26584275d1a719831d\">Margaret Hedstrom<\/a>; et al. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sead-data.net\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"SEAD Sustainable Environment - Actionable Data\"<\/a>. sead-data.net<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-01-19<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SEAD+Sustainable+Environment+-+Actionable+Data&rft.pub=sead-data.net&rft.au=Margaret+Hedstrom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsead-data.net%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">; et al. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/datafed.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"DataNet Federation Consortium\"<\/a>. datafed.org<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-01-19<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DataNet+Federation+Consortium&rft.pub=datafed.org&rft.au=Reagan+Moore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdatafed.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steven_Ruggles\" title=\"Steven Ruggles\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23660385e074316def96dcba77ad637a\">Steven Ruggles<\/a>; et al. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.terrapop.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Terra Populus: Integrated Data on Population and the Environment\"<\/a>. terrapop.org<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-01-19<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Terra+Populus%3A+Integrated+Data+on+Population+and+the+Environment&rft.pub=terrapop.org&rft.au=Steven+Ruggles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.terrapop.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bill_Nichols\" title=\"Bill Nichols\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b2fc1a5a3f49ec3074761ce6bdc7cf0\">Bill Nichols<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/rd-alliance.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Research Data Alliance\"<\/a>. rd-alliance.org<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-10-01<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Research+Data+Alliance&rft.pub=rd-alliance.org&rft.au=Bill+Nichols&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frd-alliance.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1249\nCached time: 20190330074637\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.448 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.579 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1824\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 45479\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 2074\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 7\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 63119\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 3\/400\nLua time usage: 0.222\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4.86 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 402.548 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>67.27% 270.811 1 Template:Reflist\n26.83% 108.000 4 Template:Cite_conference\n12.79% 51.479 1 Template:Citation_needed\n11.40% 45.884 1 Template:Fix\n10.73% 43.211 5 Template:Cite_news\n 9.53% 38.364 2 Template:Cite_journal\n 9.46% 38.094 9 Template:Cite_web\n 9.01% 36.263 4 Template:As_of\n 7.65% 30.783 4 Template:DMCA\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:4780372-1!canonical!math=5 and timestamp 20190330074637 and revision id 887950568\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration\" data-key=\"2ef20102ff5fd42522c9e879f31e999e\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203014\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.177 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.297 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 288.280 1 - wikipedia:Data_integration\n100.00% 288.280 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10405-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203013 and revision id 32416\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integration<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/d\/db\/Datawarehouse.png\/440px-Datawarehouse.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/0\/0c\/Dataintegration.png\/440px-Dataintegration.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9e\/GAVLAV.png\/440px-GAVLAV.png"],"fd01c635859e1d5b9583e43e31ef6718_timestamp":1554323413,"e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_type":"article","e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_title":"Barcode","e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode","e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tBarcode\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tA barcode is an optical machine-readable representation of data relating to the object to which it is attached. Originally barcodes systematically represented data by varying the widths and spacings of parallel one-dimensional lines. Later they evolved into rectangles, dots, hexagons, and other geometric patterns in two dimensions.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Testing terminology\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 6 August 2014, at 19:44.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 2,057 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Barcode skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Barcode<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><p>A <b>barcode<\/b> is an optical machine-readable representation of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"797dfe9a44de64088e88f5e01753f124\">data<\/a> relating to the object to which it is attached. Originally barcodes systematically represented data by varying the widths and spacings of parallel one-dimensional lines. Later they evolved into rectangles, dots, hexagons, and other geometric patterns in two dimensions.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203013\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.004 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.007 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 24\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 0.000 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:76-0!*!0!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203013 and revision id 15295\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_images":[],"e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355_timestamp":1554323413,"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_type":"article","0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_title":"Artificial intelligence","0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence","0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tArtificial intelligence\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\"AI\" redirects here. For other uses, see AI (disambiguation) and Artificial intelligence (disambiguation).\n\n\nIntelligence demonstrated by machines\nArtificial intelligence\nMajor goals\nKnowledge reasoning\nPlanning\nMachine learning\nNatural language processing\nComputer vision\nRobotics\nArtificial general intelligence\n\nApproaches\nSymbolic\nDeep learning\nBayesian networks\nEvolutionary algorithms\n\nPhilosophy\nEthics\nExistential risk\nTuring test\nChinese room\nFriendly AI\n\nHistory\nTimeline\nProgress\nAI winter\n\nTechnology\nApplications\nProjects\nProgramming languages\n\nGlossary\nGlossary\nvte\nIn computer science, artificial intelligence (AI), sometimes called machine intelligence, is intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by humans and other animals. Computer science defines AI research as the study of \"intelligent agents\": any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of successfully achieving its goals.[1] More specifically, Kaplan and Haenlein define AI as \u201ca system\u2019s ability to correctly interpret external data, to learn from such data, and to use those learnings to achieve specific goals and tasks through flexible adaptation\u201d.[2] Colloquially, the term \"artificial intelligence\" is used to describe machines that mimic \"cognitive\" functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as \"learning\" and \"problem solving\".[3]\nAs machines become increasingly capable, tasks considered to require \"intelligence\" are often removed from the definition of AI, a phenomenon known as the AI effect. A quip in Tesler's Theorem says \"AI is whatever hasn't been done yet.\"[4] For instance, optical character recognition is frequently excluded from things considered to be AI, having become a routine technology.[5] Modern machine capabilities generally classified as AI include successfully understanding human speech,[6] competing at the highest level in strategic game systems (such as chess and Go),[7] autonomously operating cars, and intelligent routing in content delivery networks and military simulations.\nBorrowing from the management literature, Kaplan and Haenlein classify artificial intelligence into three different types of AI systems: analytical, human-inspired, and humanized artificial intelligence.[2] Analytical AI has only characteristics consistent with cognitive intelligence; generating a cognitive representation of the world and using learning based on past experience to inform future decisions. Human-inspired AI has elements from cognitive and emotional intelligence; understanding human emotions, in addition to cognitive elements, and considering them in their decision making. Humanized AI shows characteristics of all types of competencies (i.e., cognitive, emotional, and social intelligence), is able to be self-conscious and is self-aware in interactions with others.\nArtificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956, and in the years since has experienced several waves of optimism,[8][9] followed by disappointment and the loss of funding (known as an \"AI winter\"),[10][11] followed by new approaches, success and renewed funding.[9][12] For most of its history, AI research has been divided into subfields that often fail to communicate with each other.[13] These sub-fields are based on technical considerations, such as particular goals (e.g. \"robotics\" or \"machine learning\"),[14] the use of particular tools (\"logic\" or artificial neural networks), or deep philosophical differences.[15][16][17] Subfields have also been based on social factors (particular institutions or the work of particular researchers).[13]\nThe traditional problems (or goals) of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects.[14] General intelligence is among the field's long-term goals.[18] Approaches include statistical methods, computational intelligence, and traditional symbolic AI. Many tools are used in AI, including versions of search and mathematical optimization, artificial neural networks, and methods based on statistics, probability and economics. The AI field draws upon computer science, information engineering, mathematics, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, and many other fields.\nThe field was founded on the claim that human intelligence \"can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it\".[19] This raises philosophical arguments about the nature of the mind and the ethics of creating artificial beings endowed with human-like intelligence which are issues that have been explored by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity.[20] Some people also consider AI to be a danger to humanity if it progresses unabated.[21] Others believe that AI, unlike previous technological revolutions, will create a risk of mass unemployment.[22]\nIn the twenty-first century, AI techniques have experienced a resurgence following concurrent advances in computer power, large amounts of data, and theoretical understanding; and AI techniques have become an essential part of the technology industry, helping to solve many challenging problems in computer science, software engineering and operations research.[23][12]\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Basics \n3 Problems \n\n3.1 Reasoning, problem solving \n3.2 Knowledge representation \n3.3 Planning \n3.4 Learning \n3.5 Natural language processing \n3.6 Perception \n3.7 Motion and manipulation \n3.8 Social intelligence \n3.9 General intelligence \n\n\n4 Approaches \n\n4.1 Cybernetics and brain simulation \n4.2 Symbolic \n\n4.2.1 Cognitive simulation \n4.2.2 Logic-based \n4.2.3 Anti-logic or scruffy \n4.2.4 Knowledge-based \n\n\n4.3 Sub-symbolic \n\n4.3.1 Embodied intelligence \n4.3.2 Computational intelligence and soft computing \n\n\n4.4 Statistical learning \n4.5 Integrating the approaches \n\n\n5 Tools \n\n5.1 Search and optimization \n5.2 Logic \n5.3 Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning \n5.4 Classifiers and statistical learning methods \n5.5 Artificial neural networks \n\n5.5.1 Deep feedforward neural networks \n5.5.2 Deep recurrent neural networks \n\n\n5.6 Evaluating progress \n\n\n6 Applications \n\n6.1 Healthcare \n6.2 Automotive \n6.3 Finance and economics \n6.4 Government \n6.5 Video games \n6.6 Military \n6.7 Audit \n6.8 Advertising \n6.9 Art \n\n\n7 Philosophy and ethics \n\n7.1 The limits of artificial general intelligence \n7.2 Potential harm \n\n7.2.1 Existential risk \n7.2.2 Devaluation of humanity \n7.2.3 Social justice \n7.2.4 Decrease in demand for human labor \n7.2.5 Autonomous weapons \n\n\n7.3 Ethical machines \n\n7.3.1 Artificial moral agents \n7.3.2 Machine ethics \n7.3.3 Malevolent and friendly AI \n\n\n7.4 Machine consciousness, sentience and mind \n\n7.4.1 Consciousness \n7.4.2 Computationalism and functionalism \n7.4.3 Strong AI hypothesis \n7.4.4 Robot rights \n\n\n7.5 Superintelligence \n\n7.5.1 Technological singularity \n7.5.2 Transhumanism \n\n\n\n\n8 In fiction \n9 See also \n10 Explanatory notes \n11 References \n\n11.1 AI textbooks \n11.2 History of AI \n11.3 Other sources \n\n\n12 Further reading \n13 External links \n\n\n\nHistory [ edit] \nMain articles: History of artificial intelligence and Timeline of artificial intelligence\n Talos, an ancient mythical automaton with artificial intelligence\nThought-capable artificial beings appeared as storytelling devices in antiquity,[24] and have been common in fiction, as in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein or Karel \u010capek's R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots).[25] These characters and their fates raised many of the same issues now discussed in the ethics of artificial intelligence.[20]\nThe study of mechanical or \"formal\" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity. The study of mathematical logic led directly to Alan Turing's theory of computation, which suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as \"0\" and \"1\", could simulate any conceivable act of mathematical deduction. This insight, that digital computers can simulate any process of formal reasoning, is known as the Church\u2013Turing thesis.[26] Along with concurrent discoveries in neurobiology, information theory and cybernetics, this led researchers to consider the possibility of building an electronic brain. Turing proposed that \"if a human could not distinguish between responses from a machine and a human, the machine could be considered \"intelligent\".[27] The first work that is now generally recognized as AI was McCullouch and Pitts' 1943 formal design for Turing-complete \"artificial neurons\".[28]\nThe field of AI research was born at a workshop at Dartmouth College in 1956.[29] Attendees Allen Newell (CMU), Herbert Simon (CMU), John McCarthy (MIT), Marvin Minsky (MIT) and Arthur Samuel (IBM) became the founders and leaders of AI research.[30] They and their students produced programs that the press described as \"astonishing\":[31] computers were learning checkers strategies (c. 1954)[32] (and by 1959 were reportedly playing better than the average human),[33] solving word problems in algebra, proving logical theorems (Logic Theorist, first run c. 1956) and speaking English.[34] By the middle of the 1960s, research in the U.S. was heavily funded by the Department of Defense[35] and laboratories had been established around the world.[36] AI's founders were optimistic about the future: Herbert Simon predicted, \"machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do\". Marvin Minsky agreed, writing, \"within a generation ... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be solved\".[8]\nThey failed to recognize the difficulty of some of the remaining tasks. Progress slowed and in 1974, in response to the criticism of Sir James Lighthill[37] and ongoing pressure from the US Congress to fund more productive projects, both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in AI. The next few years would later be called an \"AI winter\",[10] a period when obtaining funding for AI projects was difficult.\nIn the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems,[38] a form of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of human experts. By 1985, the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars. At the same time, Japan's fifth generation computer project inspired the U.S and British governments to restore funding for academic research.[9] However, beginning with the collapse of the Lisp Machine market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, longer-lasting hiatus began.[11]\nIn the late 1990s and early 21st century, AI began to be used for logistics, data mining, medical diagnosis and other areas.[23] The success was due to increasing computational power (see Moore's law), greater emphasis on solving specific problems, new ties between AI and other fields (such as statistics, economics and mathematics), and a commitment by researchers to mathematical methods and scientific standards.[39] Deep Blue became the first computer chess-playing system to beat a reigning world chess champion, Garry Kasparov, on 11 May 1997.[40]\nIn 2011, a Jeopardy! quiz show exhibition match, IBM's question answering system, Watson, defeated the two greatest Jeopardy! champions, Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings, by a significant margin.[41] Faster computers, algorithmic improvements, and access to large amounts of data enabled advances in machine learning and perception; data-hungry deep learning methods started to dominate accuracy benchmarks around 2012.[42] The Kinect, which provides a 3D body\u2013motion interface for the Xbox 360 and the Xbox One, uses algorithms that emerged from lengthy AI research[43] as do intelligent personal assistants in smartphones.[44] In March 2016, AlphaGo won 4 out of 5 games of Go in a match with Go champion Lee Sedol, becoming the first computer Go-playing system to beat a professional Go player without handicaps.[7][45] In the 2017 Future of Go Summit, AlphaGo won a three-game match with Ke Jie,[46] who at the time continuously held the world No. 1 ranking for two years.[47][48] This marked the completion of a significant milestone in the development of Artificial Intelligence as Go is an extremely complex game, more so than Chess.\nAccording to Bloomberg's Jack Clark, 2015 was a landmark year for artificial intelligence, with the number of software projects that use AI within Google increased from a \"sporadic usage\" in 2012 to more than 2,700 projects. Clark also presents factual data indicating that error rates in image processing tasks have fallen significantly since 2011.[49] He attributes this to an increase in affordable neural networks, due to a rise in cloud computing infrastructure and to an increase in research tools and datasets.[12] Other cited examples include Microsoft's development of a Skype system that can automatically translate from one language to another and Facebook's system that can describe images to blind people.[49] In a 2017 survey, one in five companies reported they had \"incorporated AI in some offerings or processes\".[50][51] Around 2016, China greatly accelerated its government funding; given its large supply of data and its rapidly increasing research output, some observers believe it may be on track to becoming an \"AI superpower\".[52][53]\n\nBasics [ edit] \nA typical AI analyses its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of success.[1] An AI's intended utility function (or goal) can be simple (\"1 if the AI wins a game of Go, 0 otherwise\") or complex (\"Do mathematically similar actions to the ones succeeded in the past\"). Goals can be explicitly defined, or induced. If the AI is programmed for \"reinforcement learning\", goals can be implicitly induced by rewarding some types of behavior or punishing others.[a] Alternatively, an evolutionary system can induce goals by using a \"fitness function\" to mutate and preferentially replicate high-scoring AI systems, similarly to how animals evolved to innately desire certain goals such as finding food.[54] Some AI systems, such as nearest-neighbor, instead of reason by analogy, these systems are not generally given goals, except to the degree that goals are implicit in their training data.[55] Such systems can still be benchmarked if the non-goal system is framed as a system whose \"goal\" is to successfully accomplish its narrow classification task.[56]\nAI often revolves around the use of algorithms. An algorithm is a set of unambiguous instructions that a mechanical computer can execute.[b] A complex algorithm is often built on top of other, simpler, algorithms. A simple example of an algorithm is the following (optimal for first player) recipe for play at tic-tac-toe:[57]\n\nIf someone has a \"threat\" (that is, two in a row), take the remaining square. Otherwise,\nif a move \"forks\" to create two threats at once, play that move. Otherwise,\ntake the center square if it is free. Otherwise,\nif your opponent has played in a corner, take the opposite corner. Otherwise,\ntake an empty corner if one exists. Otherwise,\ntake any empty square.\nMany AI algorithms are capable of learning from data; they can enhance themselves by learning new heuristics (strategies, or \"rules of thumb\", that have worked well in the past), or can themselves write other algorithms. Some of the \"learners\" described below, including Bayesian networks, decision trees, and nearest-neighbor, could theoretically, (given infinite data, time, and memory) learn to approximate any function, including which combination of mathematical functions would best describe the world. These learners could therefore, derive all possible knowledge, by considering every possible hypothesis and matching them against the data. In practice, it is almost never possible to consider every possibility, because of the phenomenon of \"combinatorial explosion\", where the amount of time needed to solve a problem grows exponentially. Much of AI research involves figuring out how to identify and avoid considering broad range of possibilities that are unlikely to be beneficial.[58][59] For example, when viewing a map and looking for the shortest driving route from Denver to New York in the East, one can in most cases skip looking at any path through San Francisco or other areas far to the West; thus, an AI wielding an pathfinding algorithm like A* can avoid the combinatorial explosion that would ensue if every possible route had to be ponderously considered in turn.[60]\nThe earliest (and easiest to understand) approach to AI was symbolism (such as formal logic): \"If an otherwise healthy adult has a fever, then they may have influenza\". A second, more general, approach is Bayesian inference: \"If the current patient has a fever, adjust the probability they have influenza in such-and-such way\". The third major approach, extremely popular in routine business AI applications, are analogizers such as SVM and nearest-neighbor: \"After examining the records of known past patients whose temperature, symptoms, age, and other factors mostly match the current patient, X% of those patients turned out to have influenza\". A fourth approach is harder to intuitively understand, but is inspired by how the brain's machinery works: the artificial neural network approach uses artificial \"neurons\" that can learn by comparing itself to the desired output and altering the strengths of the connections between its internal neurons to \"reinforce\" connections that seemed to be useful. These four main approaches can overlap with each other and with evolutionary systems; for example, neural nets can learn to make inferences, to generalize, and to make analogies. Some systems implicitly or explicitly use multiple of these approaches, alongside many other AI and non-AI algorithms;[61] the best approach is often different depending on the problem.[62][63]\n\n The blue line could be an example of overfitting a linear function due to random noise.\nLearning algorithms work on the basis that strategies, algorithms, and inferences that worked well in the past are likely to continue working well in the future. These inferences can be obvious, such as \"since the sun rose every morning for the last 10,000 days, it will probably rise tomorrow morning as well\". They can be nuanced, such as \"X% of families have geographically separate species with color variants, so there is an Y% chance that undiscovered black swans exist\". Learners also work on the basis of \"Occam's razor\": The simplest theory that explains the data is the likeliest. Therefore, to be successful, a learner must be designed such that it prefers simpler theories to complex theories, except in cases where the complex theory is proven substantially better. Settling on a bad, overly complex theory gerrymandered to fit all the past training data is known as overfitting. Many systems attempt to reduce overfitting by rewarding a theory in accordance with how well it fits the data, but penalizing the theory in accordance with how complex the theory is.[64] Besides classic overfitting, learners can also disappoint by \"learning the wrong lesson\". A toy example is that an image classifier trained only on pictures of brown horses and black cats might conclude that all brown patches are likely to be horses.[65] A real-world example is that, unlike humans, current image classifiers don't determine the spatial relationship between components of the picture; instead, they learn abstract patterns of pixels that humans are oblivious to, but that linearly correlate with images of certain types of real objects. Faintly superimposing such a pattern on a legitimate image results in an \"adversarial\" image that the system misclassifies.[c][66][67][68]\n\n A self-driving car system may use a neural network to determine which parts of the picture seem to match previous training images of pedestrians, and then model those areas as slow-moving but somewhat unpredictable rectangular prisms that must be avoided.[69][70]\nCompared with humans, existing AI lacks several features of human \"commonsense reasoning\"; most notably, humans have powerful mechanisms for reasoning about \"na\u00efve physics\" such as space, time, and physical interactions. This enables even young children to easily make inferences like \"If I roll this pen off a table, it will fall on the floor\". Humans also have a powerful mechanism of \"folk psychology\" that helps them to interpret natural-language sentences such as \"The city councilmen refused the demonstrators a permit because they advocated violence\". (A generic AI has difficulty inferring whether the councilmen or the demonstrators are the ones alleged to be advocating violence.)[71][72][73] This lack of \"common knowledge\" means that AI often makes different mistakes than humans make, in ways that can seem incomprehensible. For example, existing self-driving cars cannot reason about the location nor the intentions of pedestrians in the exact way that humans do, and instead must use non-human modes of reasoning to avoid accidents.[74][75][76]\n\nProblems [ edit] \nThe overall research goal of artificial intelligence is to create technology that allows computers and machines to function in an intelligent manner. The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken down into sub-problems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention.[14]\n\n Reasoning, problem solving [ edit] \nEarly researchers developed algorithms that imitated step-by-step reasoning that humans use when they solve puzzles or make logical deductions.[77] By the late 1980s and 1990s, AI research had developed methods for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from probability and economics.[78]\nThese algorithms proved to be insufficient for solving large reasoning problems, because they experienced a \"combinatorial explosion\": they became exponentially slower as the problems grew larger.[58] In fact, even humans rarely use the step-by-step deduction that early AI research was able to model. They solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgements.[79]\n\nKnowledge representation [ edit] \n An ontology represents knowledge as a set of concepts within a domain and the relationships between those concepts.\nMain articles: Knowledge representation and Commonsense knowledge\nKnowledge representation[80] and knowledge engineering[81] are central to classical AI research. Some \"expert systems\" attempt to gather together explicit knowledge possessed by experts in some narrow domain. In addition, some projects attempt to gather the \"commonsense knowledge\" known to the average person into a database containing extensive knowledge about the world. Among the things a comprehensive commonsense knowledge base would contain are: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects;[82] situations, events, states and time;[83] causes and effects;[84] knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know);[85] and many other, less well researched domains. A representation of \"what exists\" is an ontology: the set of objects, relations, concepts, and properties formally described so that software agents can interpret them. The semantics of these are captured as description logic concepts, roles, and individuals, and typically implemented as classes, properties, and individuals in the Web Ontology Language.[86] The most general ontologies are called upper ontologies, which attempt to provide a foundation for all other knowledge[87] by acting as mediators between domain ontologies that cover specific knowledge about a particular knowledge domain (field of interest or area of concern). Such formal knowledge representations can be used in content-based indexing and retrieval,[88] scene interpretation,[89] clinical decision support,[90] knowledge discovery (mining \"interesting\" and actionable inferences from large databases),[91] and other areas.[92]\nAmong the most difficult problems in knowledge representation are:\n\nDefault reasoning and the qualification problem\nMany of the things people know take the form of \"working assumptions\". For example, if a bird comes up in conversation, people typically picture an animal that is fist-sized, sings, and flies. None of these things are true about all birds. John McCarthy identified this problem in 1969[93] as the qualification problem: for any commonsense rule that AI researchers care to represent, there tend to be a huge number of exceptions. Almost nothing is simply true or false in the way that abstract logic requires. AI research has explored a number of solutions to this problem.[94]\nThe breadth of commonsense knowledge\nThe number of atomic facts that the average person knows is very large. Research projects that attempt to build a complete knowledge base of commonsense knowledge (e.g., Cyc) require enormous amounts of laborious ontological engineering\u2014they must be built, by hand, one complicated concept at a time.[95]\nThe subsymbolic form of some commonsense knowledge\nMuch of what people know is not represented as \"facts\" or \"statements\" that they could express verbally. For example, a chess master will avoid a particular chess position because it \"feels too exposed\"[96] or an art critic can take one look at a statue and realize that it is a fake.[97] These are non-conscious and sub-symbolic intuitions or tendencies in the human brain.[98] Knowledge like this informs, supports and provides a context for symbolic, conscious knowledge. As with the related problem of sub-symbolic reasoning, it is hoped that situated AI, computational intelligence, or statistical AI will provide ways to represent this kind of knowledge.[98]\nPlanning [ edit] \n A hierarchical control system is a form of control system in which a set of devices and governing software is arranged in a hierarchy.\nMain article: Automated planning and scheduling\nIntelligent agents must be able to set goals and achieve them.[99] They need a way to visualize the future\u2014a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it\u2014and be able to make choices that maximize the utility (or \"value\") of available choices.[100]\nIn classical planning problems, the agent can assume that it is the only system acting in the world, allowing the agent to be certain of the consequences of its actions.[101] However, if the agent is not the only actor, then it requires that the agent can reason under uncertainty. This calls for an agent that can not only assess its environment and make predictions, but also evaluate its predictions and adapt based on its assessment.[102]\nMulti-agent planning uses the cooperation and competition of many agents to achieve a given goal. Emergent behavior such as this is used by evolutionary algorithms and swarm intelligence.[103]\n\nLearning [ edit] \nMain article: Machine learning\nMachine learning, a fundamental concept of AI research since the field's inception,[104] is the study of computer algorithms that improve automatically through experience.[105][106]\nUnsupervised learning is the ability to find patterns in a stream of input, without requiring a human to label the inputs first.[107] Supervised learning includes both classification and numerical regression, which requires a human to label the input data first. Classification is used to determine what category something belongs in, after seeing a number of examples of things from several categories. Regression is the attempt to produce a function that describes the relationship between inputs and outputs and predicts how the outputs should change as the inputs change.[106] Both classifiers and regression learners can be viewed as \"function approximators\" trying to learn an unknown (possibly implicit) function; for example, a spam classifier can be viewed as learning a function that maps from the text of an email to one of two categories, \"spam\" or \"not spam\". Computational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity, by sample complexity (how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization.[108] In reinforcement learning[109] the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. The agent uses this sequence of rewards and punishments to form a strategy for operating in its problem space.\n\nNatural language processing [ edit] \n A parse tree represents the syntactic structure of a sentence according to some formal grammar.\nMain article: Natural language processing\nNatural language processing[110] (NLP) gives machines the ability to read and understand human language. A sufficiently powerful natural language processing system would enable natural-language user interfaces and the acquisition of knowledge directly from human-written sources, such as newswire texts. Some straightforward applications of natural language processing include information retrieval, text mining, question answering[111] and machine translation.[112] Many current approaches use word co-occurrence frequencies to construct syntactic representations of text. \"Keyword spotting\" strategies for search are popular and scalable but dumb; a search query for \"dog\" might only match documents with the literal word \"dog\" and miss a document with the word \"poodle\". \"Lexical affinity\" strategies use the occurrence of words such as \"accident\" to assess the sentiment of a document. Modern statistical NLP approaches can combine all these strategies as well as others, and often achieve acceptable accuracy at the page or paragraph level, but continue to lack the semantic understanding required to classify isolated sentences well. Besides the usual difficulties with encoding semantic commonsense knowledge, existing semantic NLP sometimes scales too poorly to be viable in business applications. Beyond semantic NLP, the ultimate goal of \"narrative\" NLP is to embody a full understanding of commonsense reasoning.[113]\n\nPerception [ edit] \nMain articles: Machine perception, Computer vision, and Speech recognition\n Feature detection (pictured: edge detection) helps AI compose informative abstract structures out of raw data.\nMachine perception[114] is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras (visible spectrum or infrared), microphones, wireless signals, and active lidar, sonar, radar, and tactile sensors) to deduce aspects of the world. Applications include speech recognition,[115] facial recognition, and object recognition.[116] Computer vision is the ability to analyze visual input. Such input is usually ambiguous; a giant, fifty-meter-tall pedestrian far away may produce exactly the same pixels as a nearby normal-sized pedestrian, requiring the AI to judge the relative likelihood and reasonableness of different interpretations, for example by using its \"object model\" to assess that fifty-meter pedestrians do not exist.[117]\n\nMotion and manipulation [ edit] \nMain article: Robotics\nAI is heavily used in robotics.[118] Advanced robotic arms and other industrial robots, widely used in modern factories, can learn from experience how to move efficiently despite the presence of friction and gear slippage.[119] A modern mobile robot, when given a small, static, and visible environment, can easily determine its location and map its environment; however, dynamic environments, such as (in endoscopy) the interior of a patient's breathing body, pose a greater challenge. Motion planning is the process of breaking down a movement task into \"primitives\" such as individual joint movements. Such movement often involves compliant motion, a process where movement requires maintaining physical contact with an object.[120][121][122] Moravec's paradox generalizes that low-level sensorimotor skills that humans take for granted are, counterintuitively, difficult to program into a robot; the paradox is named after Hans Moravec, who stated in 1988 that \"it is comparatively easy to make computers exhibit adult level performance on intelligence tests or playing checkers, and difficult or impossible to give them the skills of a one-year-old when it comes to perception and mobility\".[123][124] This is attributed to the fact that, unlike checkers, physical dexterity has been a direct target of natural selection for millions of years.[125]\n\nSocial intelligence [ edit] \nMain article: Affective computing\n Kismet, a robot with rudimentary social skills[126]\nMoravec's paradox can be extended to many forms of social intelligence.[127][128] Distributed multi-agent coordination of autonomous vehicles remains a difficult problem.[129] Affective computing is an interdisciplinary umbrella that comprises systems which recognize, interpret, process, or simulate human affects.[130][131][132] Moderate successes related to affective computing include textual sentiment analysis and, more recently, multimodal affect analysis (see multimodal sentiment analysis), wherein AI classifies the affects displayed by a videotaped subject.[133]\nIn the long run, social skills and an understanding of human emotion and game theory would be valuable to a social agent. Being able to predict the actions of others by understanding their motives and emotional states would allow an agent to make better decisions. Some computer systems mimic human emotion and expressions to appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate human\u2013computer interaction.[134] Similarly, some virtual assistants are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; this tends to give na\u00efve users an unrealistic conception of how intelligent existing computer agents actually are.[135]\n\nGeneral intelligence [ edit] \nMain articles: Artificial general intelligence and AI-complete\nHistorically, projects such as the Cyc knowledge base (1984\u2013) and the massive Japanese Fifth Generation Computer Systems initiative (1982\u20131992) attempted to cover the breadth of human cognition. These early projects failed to escape the limitations of non-quantitative symbolic logic models and, in retrospect, greatly underestimated the difficulty of cross-domain AI. Nowadays, the vast majority of current AI researchers work instead on tractable \"narrow AI\" applications (such as medical diagnosis or automobile navigation).[136] Many researchers predict that such \"narrow AI\" work in different individual domains will eventually be incorporated into a machine with artificial general intelligence (AGI), combining most of the narrow skills mentioned in this article and at some point even exceeding human ability in most or all these areas.[18][137] Many advances have general, cross-domain significance. One high-profile example is that DeepMind in the 2010s developed a \"generalized artificial intelligence\" that could learn many diverse Atari games on its own, and later developed a variant of the system which succeeds at sequential learning.[138][139][140] Besides transfer learning,[141] hypothetical AGI breakthroughs could include the development of reflective architectures that can engage in decision-theoretic metareasoning, and figuring out how to \"slurp up\" a comprehensive knowledge base from the entire unstructured Web.[6] Some argue that some kind of (currently-undiscovered) conceptually straightforward, but mathematically difficult, \"Master Algorithm\" could lead to AGI.[142] Finally, a few \"emergent\" approaches look to simulating human intelligence extremely closely, and believe that anthropomorphic features like an artificial brain or simulated child development may someday reach a critical point where general intelligence emerges.[143][144]\nMany of the problems in this article may also require general intelligence, if machines are to solve the problems as well as people do. For example, even specific straightforward tasks, like machine translation, require that a machine read and write in both languages (NLP), follow the author's argument (reason), know what is being talked about (knowledge), and faithfully reproduce the author's original intent (social intelligence). A problem like machine translation is considered \"AI-complete\", because all of these problems need to be solved simultaneously in order to reach human-level machine performance.\n\nApproaches [ edit] \nThere is no established unifying theory or paradigm that guides AI research. Researchers disagree about many issues.[145] A few of the most long standing questions that have remained unanswered are these: should artificial intelligence simulate natural intelligence by studying psychology or neurobiology? Or is human biology as irrelevant to AI research as bird biology is to aeronautical engineering?[15]\nCan intelligent behavior be described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic or optimization)? Or does it necessarily require solving a large number of completely unrelated problems?[16]\n\nCybernetics and brain simulation [ edit] \nMain articles: Cybernetics and Computational neuroscience\nIn the 1940s and 1950s, a number of researchers explored the connection between neurobiology, information theory, and cybernetics. Some of them built machines that used electronic networks to exhibit rudimentary intelligence, such as W. Grey Walter's turtles and the Johns Hopkins Beast. Many of these researchers gathered for meetings of the Teleological Society at Princeton University and the Ratio Club in England.[146] By 1960, this approach was largely abandoned, although elements of it would be revived in the 1980s.\n\nSymbolic [ edit] \nMain article: Symbolic AI\nWhen access to digital computers became possible in the middle 1950s, AI research began to explore the possibility that human intelligence could be reduced to symbol manipulation. The research was centered in three institutions: Carnegie Mellon University, Stanford and MIT, and as described below, each one developed its own style of research. John Haugeland named these symbolic approaches to AI \"good old fashioned AI\" or \"GOFAI\".[147] During the 1960s, symbolic approaches had achieved great success at simulating high-level thinking in small demonstration programs. Approaches based on cybernetics or artificial neural networks were abandoned or pushed into the background.[148]\nResearchers in the 1960s and the 1970s were convinced that symbolic approaches would eventually succeed in creating a machine with artificial general intelligence and considered this the goal of their field.\n\nCognitive simulation [ edit] \nEconomist Herbert Simon and Allen Newell studied human problem-solving skills and attempted to formalize them, and their work laid the foundations of the field of artificial intelligence, as well as cognitive science, operations research and management science. Their research team used the results of psychological experiments to develop programs that simulated the techniques that people used to solve problems. This tradition, centered at Carnegie Mellon University would eventually culminate in the development of the Soar architecture in the middle 1980s.[149][150]\n\nLogic-based [ edit] \nUnlike Simon and Newell, John McCarthy felt that machines did not need to simulate human thought, but should instead try to find the essence of abstract reasoning and problem-solving, regardless whether people used the same algorithms.[15] His laboratory at Stanford (SAIL) focused on using formal logic to solve a wide variety of problems, including knowledge representation, planning and learning.[151] Logic was also the focus of the work at the University of Edinburgh and elsewhere in Europe which led to the development of the programming language Prolog and the science of logic programming.[152]\n\nAnti-logic or scruffy [ edit] \nResearchers at MIT (such as Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert)[153] found that solving difficult problems in vision and natural language processing required ad-hoc solutions\u2014they argued that there was no simple and general principle (like logic) that would capture all the aspects of intelligent behavior. Roger Schank described their \"anti-logic\" approaches as \"scruffy\" (as opposed to the \"neat\" paradigms at CMU and Stanford).[16] Commonsense knowledge bases (such as Doug Lenat's Cyc) are an example of \"scruffy\" AI, since they must be built by hand, one complicated concept at a time.[154]\n\nKnowledge-based [ edit] \nWhen computers with large memories became available around 1970, researchers from all three traditions began to build knowledge into AI applications.[155] This \"knowledge revolution\" led to the development and deployment of expert systems (introduced by Edward Feigenbaum), the first truly successful form of AI software.[38] A key component of the system architecture for all expert systems is the knowledge base, which stores facts and rules that illustrate AI.[156] The knowledge revolution was also driven by the realization that enormous amounts of knowledge would be required by many simple AI applications.\n\nSub-symbolic [ edit] \nBy the 1980s, progress in symbolic AI seemed to stall and many believed that symbolic systems would never be able to imitate all the processes of human cognition, especially perception, robotics, learning and pattern recognition. A number of researchers began to look into \"sub-symbolic\" approaches to specific AI problems.[17] Sub-symbolic methods manage to approach intelligence without specific representations of knowledge.\n\nEmbodied intelligence [ edit] \nThis includes embodied, situated, behavior-based, and nouvelle AI. Researchers from the related field of robotics, such as Rodney Brooks, rejected symbolic AI and focused on the basic engineering problems that would allow robots to move and survive.[157] Their work revived the non-symbolic viewpoint of the early cybernetics researchers of the 1950s and reintroduced the use of control theory in AI. This coincided with the development of the embodied mind thesis in the related field of cognitive science: the idea that aspects of the body (such as movement, perception and visualization) are required for higher intelligence.\nWithin developmental robotics, developmental learning approaches are elaborated upon to allow robots to accumulate repertoires of novel skills through autonomous self-exploration, social interaction with human teachers, and the use of guidance mechanisms (active learning, maturation, motor synergies, etc.).[158][159][160][161]\n\nComputational intelligence and soft computing [ edit] \nInterest in neural networks and \"connectionism\" was revived by David Rumelhart and others in the middle of the 1980s.[162] Artificial neural networks are an example of soft computing\u2014they are solutions to problems which cannot be solved with complete logical certainty, and where an approximate solution is often sufficient. Other soft computing approaches to AI include fuzzy systems, Grey system theory, evolutionary computation and many statistical tools. The application of soft computing to AI is studied collectively by the emerging discipline of computational intelligence.[163]\n\nStatistical learning [ edit] \nMuch of traditional GOFAI got bogged down on ad hoc patches to symbolic computation that worked on their own toy models but failed to generalize to real-world results. However, around the 1990s, AI researchers adopted sophisticated mathematical tools, such as hidden Markov models (HMM), information theory, and normative Bayesian decision theory to compare or to unify competing architectures. The shared mathematical language permitted a high level of collaboration with more established fields (like mathematics, economics or operations research).[d] Compared with GOFAI, new \"statistical learning\" techniques such as HMM and neural networks were gaining higher levels of accuracy in many practical domains such as data mining, without necessarily acquiring semantic understanding of the datasets. The increased successes with real-world data led to increasing emphasis on comparing different approaches against shared test data to see which approach performed best in a broader context than that provided by idiosyncratic toy models; AI research was becoming more scientific. Nowadays results of experiments are often rigorously measurable, and are sometimes (with difficulty) reproducible.[39][164] Different statistical learning techniques have different limitations; for example, basic HMM cannot model the infinite possible combinations of natural language.[165] Critics note that the shift from GOFAI to statistical learning is often also a shift away from Explainable AI. In AGI research, some scholars caution against over-reliance on statistical learning, and argue that continuing research into GOFAI will still be necessary to attain general intelligence.[166][167]\n\nIntegrating the approaches [ edit] \nIntelligent agent paradigm\nAn intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success. The simplest intelligent agents are programs that solve specific problems. More complicated agents include human beings and organizations of human beings (such as firms). The paradigm allows researchers to directly compare or even combine different approaches to isolated problems, by asking which agent is best at maximizing a given \"goal function\". An agent that solves a specific problem can use any approach that works\u2014some agents are symbolic and logical, some are sub-symbolic artificial neural networks and others may use new approaches. The paradigm also gives researchers a common language to communicate with other fields\u2014such as decision theory and economics\u2014that also use concepts of abstract agents. Building a complete agent requires researchers to address realistic problems of integration; for example, because sensory systems give uncertain information about the environment, planning systems must be able to function in the presence of uncertainty. The intelligent agent paradigm became widely accepted during the 1990s.[168]\nAgent architectures and cognitive architectures\nResearchers have designed systems to build intelligent systems out of interacting intelligent agents in a multi-agent system.[169] A hierarchical control system provides a bridge between sub-symbolic AI at its lowest, reactive levels and traditional symbolic AI at its highest levels, where relaxed time constraints permit planning and world modelling.[170] Some cognitive architectures are custom-built to solve a narrow problem; others, such as Soar, are designed to mimic human cognition and to provide insight into general intelligence. Modern extensions of Soar are hybrid intelligent systems that include both symbolic and sub-symbolic components.[171][172]\nTools [ edit] \nAI has developed a large number of tools to solve the most difficult problems in computer science. A few of the most general of these methods are discussed below.\n\nSearch and optimization [ edit] \nMain articles: Search algorithm, Mathematical optimization, and Evolutionary computation\nMany problems in AI can be solved in theory by intelligently searching through many possible solutions:[173] Reasoning can be reduced to performing a search. For example, logical proof can be viewed as searching for a path that leads from premises to conclusions, where each step is the application of an inference rule.[174] Planning algorithms search through trees of goals and subgoals, attempting to find a path to a target goal, a process called means-ends analysis.[175] Robotics algorithms for moving limbs and grasping objects use local searches in configuration space.[119] Many learning algorithms use search algorithms based on optimization.\nSimple exhaustive searches[176] are rarely sufficient for most real-world problems: the search space (the number of places to search) quickly grows to astronomical numbers. The result is a search that is too slow or never completes. The solution, for many problems, is to use \"heuristics\" or \"rules of thumb\" that prioritize choices in favor of those that are more likely to reach a goal and to do so in a shorter number of steps. In some search methodologies heuristics can also serve to entirely eliminate some choices that are unlikely to lead to a goal (called \"pruning the search tree\"). Heuristics supply the program with a \"best guess\" for the path on which the solution lies.[177] Heuristics limit the search for solutions into a smaller sample size.[120]\nA very different kind of search came to prominence in the 1990s, based on the mathematical theory of optimization. For many problems, it is possible to begin the search with some form of a guess and then refine the guess incrementally until no more refinements can be made. These algorithms can be visualized as blind hill climbing: we begin the search at a random point on the landscape, and then, by jumps or steps, we keep moving our guess uphill, until we reach the top. Other optimization algorithms are simulated annealing, beam search and random optimization.[178]\n\n A particle swarm seeking the global minimum\nEvolutionary computation uses a form of optimization search. For example, they may begin with a population of organisms (the guesses) and then allow them to mutate and recombine, selecting only the fittest to survive each generation (refining the guesses). Classic evolutionary algorithms include genetic algorithms, gene expression programming, and genetic programming.[179] Alternatively, distributed search processes can coordinate via swarm intelligence algorithms. Two popular swarm algorithms used in search are particle swarm optimization (inspired by bird flocking) and ant colony optimization (inspired by ant trails).[180][181]\n\nLogic [ edit] \nMain articles: Logic programming and Automated reasoning\nLogic[182] is used for knowledge representation and problem solving, but it can be applied to other problems as well. For example, the satplan algorithm uses logic for planning[183] and inductive logic programming is a method for learning.[184]\nSeveral different forms of logic are used in AI research. Propositional logic[185] involves truth functions such as \"or\" and \"not\". First-order logic[186] adds quantifiers and predicates, and can express facts about objects, their properties, and their relations with each other. Fuzzy set theory assigns a \"degree of truth\" (between 0 and 1) to vague statements such as \"Alice is old\" (or rich, or tall, or hungry) that are too linguistically imprecise to be completely true or false. Fuzzy logic is successfully used in control systems to allow experts to contribute vague rules such as \"if you are close to the destination station and moving fast, increase the train's brake pressure\"; these vague rules can then be numerically refined within the system. Fuzzy logic fails to scale well in knowledge bases; many AI researchers question the validity of chaining fuzzy-logic inferences.[e][188][189]\nDefault logics, non-monotonic logics and circumscription[94] are forms of logic designed to help with default reasoning and the qualification problem. Several extensions of logic have been designed to handle specific domains of knowledge, such as: description logics;[82] situation calculus, event calculus and fluent calculus (for representing events and time);[83] causal calculus;[84] belief calculus;[190] and modal logics.[85]\nOverall, qualitiative symbolic logic is brittle and scales poorly in the presence of noise or other uncertainty. Exceptions to rules are numerous, and it is difficult for logical systems to function in the presence of contradictory rules.[191][192]\n\nProbabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning [ edit] \nMain articles: Bayesian network, Hidden Markov model, Kalman filter, Particle filter, Decision theory, and Utility theory\n Expectation-maximization clustering of Old Faithful eruption data starts from a random guess but then successfully converges on an accurate clustering of the two physically distinct modes of eruption.\nMany problems in AI (in reasoning, planning, learning, perception, and robotics) require the agent to operate with incomplete or uncertain information. AI researchers have devised a number of powerful tools to solve these problems using methods from probability theory and economics.[193]\nBayesian networks[194] are a very general tool that can be used for a large number of problems: reasoning (using the Bayesian inference algorithm),[195] learning (using the expectation-maximization algorithm),[f][197] planning (using decision networks)[198] and perception (using dynamic Bayesian networks).[199] Probabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering, prediction, smoothing and finding explanations for streams of data, helping perception systems to analyze processes that occur over time (e.g., hidden Markov models or Kalman filters).[199] Compared with symbolic logic, formal Bayesian inference is computationally expensive. For inference to be tractable, most observations must be conditionally independent of one another. Complicated graphs with diamonds or other \"loops\" (undirected cycles) can require a sophisticated method such as Markov Chain Monte Carlo, which spreads an ensemble of random walkers throughout the Bayesian network and attempts to converge to an assessment of the conditional probabilities. Bayesian networks are used on Xbox Live to rate and match players; wins and losses are \"evidence\" of how good a player is. AdSense uses a Bayesian network with over 300 million edges to learn which ads to serve.[191]\nA key concept from the science of economics is \"utility\": a measure of how valuable something is to an intelligent agent. Precise mathematical tools have been developed that analyze how an agent can make choices and plan, using decision theory, decision analysis,[200] and information value theory.[100] These tools include models such as Markov decision processes,[201] dynamic decision networks,[199] game theory and mechanism design.[202]\n\nClassifiers and statistical learning methods [ edit] \nMain articles: Classifier (mathematics), Statistical classification, and Machine learning\nThe simplest AI applications can be divided into two types: classifiers (\"if shiny then diamond\") and controllers (\"if shiny then pick up\"). Controllers do, however, also classify conditions before inferring actions, and therefore classification forms a central part of many AI systems. Classifiers are functions that use pattern matching to determine a closest match. They can be tuned according to examples, making them very attractive for use in AI. These examples are known as observations or patterns. In supervised learning, each pattern belongs to a certain predefined class. A class can be seen as a decision that has to be made. All the observations combined with their class labels are known as a data set. When a new observation is received, that observation is classified based on previous experience.[203]\nA classifier can be trained in various ways; there are many statistical and machine learning approaches. The decision tree[204] is perhaps the most widely used machine learning algorithm.[205] Other widely used classifiers are the neural network,[206]\nk-nearest neighbor algorithm,[g][208]\nkernel methods such as the support vector machine (SVM),[h][210]\nGaussian mixture model,[211] and the extremely popular naive Bayes classifier.[i][213] Classifier performance depends greatly on the characteristics of the data to be classified, such as the dataset size, distribution of samples across classes, the dimensionality, and the level of noise. Model-based classifiers perform well if the assumed model is an extremely good fit for the actual data. Otherwise, if no matching model is available, and if accuracy (rather than speed or scalability) is the sole concern, conventional wisdom is that discriminative classifiers (especially SVM) tend to be more accurate than model-based classifiers such as \"naive Bayes\" on most practical data sets.[214][215]\n\n<\/p>\nArtificial neural networks [ edit] \nMain articles: Artificial neural network and Connectionism\n A neural network is an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in the human brain.\nNeural networks, or neural nets, were inspired by the architecture of neurons in the human brain. A simple \"neuron\" N accepts input from multiple other neurons, each of which, when activated (or \"fired\"), cast a weighted \"vote\" for or against whether neuron N should itself activate. Learning requires an algorithm to adjust these weights based on the training data; one simple algorithm (dubbed \"fire together, wire together\") is to increase the weight between two connected neurons when the activation of one triggers the successful activation of another. The net forms \"concepts\" that are distributed among a subnetwork of shared[j] neurons that tend to fire together; a concept meaning \"leg\" might be coupled with a subnetwork meaning \"foot\" that includes the sound for \"foot\". Neurons have a continuous spectrum of activation; in addition, neurons can process inputs in a nonlinear way rather than weighing straightforward votes. Modern neural nets can learn both continuous functions and, surprisingly, digital logical operations. Neural networks' early successes included predicting the stock market and (in 1995) a mostly self-driving car.[k][216] In the 2010s, advances in neural networks using deep learning thrust AI into widespread public consciousness and contributed to an enormous upshift in corporate AI spending; for example, AI-related M&A in 2017 was over 25 times as large as in 2015.[217][218]\nThe study of non-learning artificial neural networks[206] began in the decade before the field of AI research was founded, in the work of Walter Pitts and Warren McCullouch. Frank Rosenblatt invented the perceptron, a learning network with a single layer, similar to the old concept of linear regression. Early pioneers also include Alexey Grigorevich Ivakhnenko, Teuvo Kohonen, Stephen Grossberg, Kunihiko Fukushima, Christoph von der Malsburg, David Willshaw, Shun-Ichi Amari, Bernard Widrow, John Hopfield, Eduardo R. Caianiello, and others.\nThe main categories of networks are acyclic or feedforward neural networks (where the signal passes in only one direction) and recurrent neural networks (which allow feedback and short-term memories of previous input events). Among the most popular feedforward networks are perceptrons, multi-layer perceptrons and radial basis networks.[219] Neural networks can be applied to the problem of intelligent control (for robotics) or learning, using such techniques as Hebbian learning (\"fire together, wire together\"), GMDH or competitive learning.[220]\nToday, neural networks are often trained by the backpropagation algorithm, which had been around since 1970 as the reverse mode of automatic differentiation published by Seppo Linnainmaa,[221][222] and was introduced to neural networks by Paul Werbos.[223][224][225]\nHierarchical temporal memory is an approach that models some of the structural and algorithmic properties of the neocortex.[226]\nTo summarize, most neural networks use some form of gradient descent on a hand-created neural topology. However, some research groups, such as Uber, argue that simple neuroevolution to mutate new neural network topologies and weights may be competitive with sophisticated gradient descent approaches. One advantage of neuroevolution is that it may be less prone to get caught in \"dead ends\".[227]\n\nDeep feedforward neural networks [ edit] \nMain article: Deep learning\nDeep learning is any artificial neural network that can learn a long chain of causal links. For example, a feedforward network with six hidden layers can learn a seven-link causal chain (six hidden layers + output layer) and has a \"credit assignment path\" (CAP) depth of seven. Many deep learning systems need to be able to learn chains ten or more causal links in length.[228] Deep learning has transformed many important subfields of artificial intelligence, including computer vision, speech recognition, natural language processing and others.[229][230][228]\nAccording to one overview,[231] the expression \"Deep Learning\" was introduced to the Machine Learning community by Rina Dechter in 1986[232] and gained traction after\nIgor Aizenberg and colleagues introduced it to Artificial Neural Networks in 2000.[233] The first functional Deep Learning networks were published by Alexey Grigorevich Ivakhnenko and V. G. Lapa in 1965.[234][page needed ] These networks are trained one layer at a time. Ivakhnenko's 1971 paper[235] describes the learning of a deep feedforward multilayer perceptron with eight layers, already much deeper than many later networks. In 2006, a publication by Geoffrey Hinton and Ruslan Salakhutdinov introduced another way of pre-training many-layered feedforward neural networks (FNNs) one layer at a time, treating each layer in turn as an unsupervised restricted Boltzmann machine, then using supervised backpropagation for fine-tuning.[236] Similar to shallow artificial neural networks, deep neural networks can model complex non-linear relationships. Over the last few years, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer hardware have led to more efficient methods for training deep neural networks that contain many layers of non-linear hidden units and a very large output layer.[237]\n\n<\/p>Deep learning often uses convolutional neural networks (CNNs), whose origins can be traced back to the Neocognitron introduced by Kunihiko Fukushima in 1980.[238] In 1989, Yann LeCun and colleagues applied backpropagation to such an architecture. In the early 2000s, in an industrial application CNNs already processed an estimated 10% to 20% of all the checks written in the US.[239]\nSince 2011, fast implementations of CNNs on GPUs have\nwon many visual pattern recognition competitions.[228]\n\n<\/p>CNNs with 12 convolutional layers were used in conjunction with reinforcement learning by Deepmind's \"AlphaGo Lee\", the program that beat a top Go champion in 2016.[240]\n\nDeep recurrent neural networks [ edit] \nMain article: Recurrent neural networks\nEarly on, deep learning was also applied to sequence learning with recurrent neural networks (RNNs)[241] which are in theory Turing complete[242] and can run arbitrary programs to process arbitrary sequences of inputs. The depth of an RNN is unlimited and depends on the length of its input sequence; thus, an RNN is an example of deep learning.[228] RNNs can be trained by gradient descent[243][244][245] but suffer from the vanishing gradient problem.[229][246] In 1992, it was shown that unsupervised pre-training of a stack of recurrent neural networks can speed up subsequent supervised learning of deep sequential problems.[247]\nNumerous researchers now use variants of a deep learning recurrent NN called the long short-term memory (LSTM) network published by Hochreiter & Schmidhuber in 1997.[248] LSTM is often trained by Connectionist Temporal Classification (CTC).[249] At Google, Microsoft and Baidu this approach has revolutionised speech recognition.[250][251][252] For example, in 2015, Google's speech recognition experienced a dramatic performance jump of 49% through CTC-trained LSTM, which is now available through Google Voice to billions of smartphone users.[253] Google also used LSTM to improve machine translation,[254] Language Modeling[255] and Multilingual Language Processing.[256] LSTM combined with CNNs also improved automatic image captioning[257] and a plethora of other applications.\n\nEvaluating progress [ edit] \nFurther information: Progress in artificial intelligence and Competitions and prizes in artificial intelligence\nAI, like electricity or the steam engine, is a general purpose technology. There is no consensus on how to characterize which tasks AI tends to excel at.[258] While projects such as AlphaZero have succeeded in generating their own knowledge from scratch, many other machine learning projects require large training datasets.[259][260] Researcher Andrew Ng has suggested, as a \"highly imperfect rule of thumb\", that \"almost anything a typical human can do with less than one second of mental thought, we can probably now or in the near future automate using AI.\"[261] Moravec's paradox suggests that AI lags humans at many tasks that the human brain has specifically evolved to perform well.[125]\nGames provide a well-publicized benchmark for assessing rates of progress. AlphaGo around 2016 brought the era of classical board-game benchmarks to a close. Games of imperfect knowledge provide new challenges to AI in the area of game theory.[262][263] E-sports such as StarCraft continue to provide additional public benchmarks.[264][265] There are many competitions and prizes, such as the Imagenet Challenge, to promote research in artificial intelligence. The most common areas of competition include general machine intelligence, conversational behavior, data-mining, robotic cars, and robot soccer as well as conventional games.[266]\nThe \"imitation game\" (an interpretation of the 1950 Turing test that assesses whether a computer can imitate a human) is nowadays considered too exploitable to be a meaningful benchmark.[267] A derivative of the Turing test is the Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart (CAPTCHA). As the name implies, this helps to determine that a user is an actual person and not a computer posing as a human. In contrast to the standard Turing test, CAPTCHA is administered by a machine and targeted to a human as opposed to being administered by a human and targeted to a machine. A computer asks a user to complete a simple test then generates a grade for that test. Computers are unable to solve the problem, so correct solutions are deemed to be the result of a person taking the test. A common type of CAPTCHA is the test that requires the typing of distorted letters, numbers or symbols that appear in an image undecipherable by a computer.[268]\nProposed \"universal intelligence\" tests aim to compare how well machines, humans, and even non-human animals perform on problem sets that are generic as possible. At an extreme, the test suite can contain every possible problem, weighted by Kolmogorov complexity; unfortunately, these problem sets tend to be dominated by impoverished pattern-matching exercises where a tuned AI can easily exceed human performance levels.[269][270]\n\nApplications [ edit] \n An automated online assistant providing customer service on a web page \u2013 one of many very primitive applications of artificial intelligence\nMain article: Applications of artificial intelligence\nAI is relevant to any intellectual task.[271] Modern artificial intelligence techniques are pervasive and are too numerous to list here. Frequently, when a technique reaches mainstream use, it is no longer considered artificial intelligence; this phenomenon is described as the AI effect.[272]\nHigh-profile examples of AI include autonomous vehicles (such as drones and self-driving cars), medical diagnosis, creating art (such as poetry), proving mathematical theorems, playing games (such as Chess or Go), search engines (such as Google search), online assistants (such as Siri), image recognition in photographs, spam filtering, predicting flight delays,[273] prediction of judicial decisions[274] and targeting online advertisements.[271][275][276]\nWith social media sites overtaking TV as a source for news for young people and news organisations increasingly reliant on social media platforms for generating distribution,[277] major publishers now use artificial intelligence (AI) technology to post stories more effectively and generate higher volumes of traffic.[278]\n\nHealthcare [ edit] \nMain article: Artificial intelligence in healthcare\n A patient-side surgical arm of Da Vinci Surgical SystemAI is being applied to the high cost problem of dosage issues\u2014where findings suggested that AI could save $16 billion. In 2016, a ground breaking study in California found that a mathematical formula developed with the help of AI correctly determined the accurate dose of immunosuppressant drugs to give to organ patients.[279] X-ray of a hand, with automatic calculation of bone age by computer software\nArtificial intelligence is breaking into the healthcare industry by assisting doctors. According to Bloomberg Technology, Microsoft has developed AI to help doctors find the right treatments for cancer.[280] There is a great amount of research and drugs developed relating to cancer. In detail, there are more than 800 medicines and vaccines to treat cancer. This negatively affects the doctors, because there are too many options to choose from, making it more difficult to choose the right drugs for the patients. Microsoft is working on a project to develop a machine called \"Hanover\". Its goal is to memorize all the papers necessary to cancer and help predict which combinations of drugs will be most effective for each patient. One project that is being worked on at the moment is fighting myeloid leukemia, a fatal cancer where the treatment has not improved in decades. Another study was reported to have found that artificial intelligence was as good as trained doctors in identifying skin cancers.[281] Another study is using artificial intelligence to try and monitor multiple high-risk patients, and this is done by asking each patient numerous questions based on data acquired from live doctor to patient interactions.[282] One study was done with transfer learning, the machine performed a diagnosis similarly to a well-trained ophthalmologist, and could generate a decision within 30 seconds on whether or not the patient should be referred for treatment, with more than 95% percent accuracy.[283]\nAccording to CNN, a recent study by surgeons at the Children's National Medical Center in Washington successfully demonstrated surgery with an autonomous robot. The team supervised the robot while it performed soft-tissue surgery, stitching together a pig's bowel during open surgery, and doing so better than a human surgeon, the team claimed.[284] IBM has created its own artificial intelligence computer, the IBM Watson, which has beaten human intelligence (at some levels). Watson not only won at the game show Jeopardy! against former champions,[285] but was declared a hero after successfully diagnosing a woman who was suffering from leukemia.[286]\n\nAutomotive [ edit] \nMain article: driverless cars\nAdvancements in AI have contributed to the growth of the automotive industry through the creation and evolution of self-driving vehicles. As of 2016[update], there are over 30 companies utilizing AI into the creation of driverless cars. A few companies involved with AI include Tesla, Google, and Apple.[287]\nMany components contribute to the functioning of self-driving cars. These vehicles incorporate systems such as braking, lane changing, collision prevention, navigation and mapping. Together, these systems, as well as high performance computers, are integrated into one complex vehicle.[288]\nRecent developments in autonomous automobiles have made the innovation of self-driving trucks possible, though they are still in the testing phase. The UK government has passed legislation to begin testing of self-driving truck platoons in 2018.[289] Self-driving truck platoons are a fleet of self-driving trucks following the lead of one non-self-driving truck, so the truck platoons aren't entirely autonomous yet. Meanwhile, the Daimler, a German automobile corporation, is testing the Freightliner Inspiration which is a semi-autonomous truck that will only be used on the highway.[290]\nOne main factor that influences the ability for a driver-less automobile to function is mapping. In general, the vehicle would be pre-programmed with a map of the area being driven. This map would include data on the approximations of street light and curb heights in order for the vehicle to be aware of its surroundings. However, Google has been working on an algorithm with the purpose of eliminating the need for pre-programmed maps and instead, creating a device that would be able to adjust to a variety of new surroundings.[291] Some self-driving cars are not equipped with steering wheels or brake pedals, so there has also been research focused on creating an algorithm that is capable of maintaining a safe environment for the passengers in the vehicle through awareness of speed and driving conditions.[292]\nAnother factor that is influencing the ability for a driver-less automobile is the safety of the passenger. To make a driver-less automobile, engineers must program it to handle high-risk situations. These situations could include a head-on collision with pedestrians. The car's main goal should be to make a decision that would avoid hitting the pedestrians and saving the passengers in the car. But there is a possibility the car would need to make a decision that would put someone in danger. In other words, the car would need to decide to save the pedestrians or the passengers.[293] The programming of the car in these situations is crucial to a successful driver-less automobile.\n\nFinance and economics [ edit] \nFinancial institutions have long used artificial neural network systems to detect charges or claims outside of the norm, flagging these for human investigation. The use of AI in banking can be traced back to 1987 when Security Pacific National Bank in US set-up a Fraud Prevention Task force to counter the unauthorised use of debit cards. Programs like Kasisto and Moneystream are using AI in financial services.\nBanks use artificial intelligence systems today to organize operations, maintain book-keeping, invest in stocks, and manage properties. AI can react to changes overnight or when business is not taking place.[294] In August 2001, robots beat humans in a simulated financial trading competition.[295] AI has also reduced fraud and financial crimes by monitoring behavioral patterns of users for any abnormal changes or anomalies.[296]\nThe use of AI machines in the market in applications such as online trading and decision making has changed major economic theories.[297] For example, AI based buying and selling platforms have changed the law of supply and demand in that it is now possible to easily estimate individualized demand and supply curves and thus individualized pricing. Furthermore, AI machines reduce information asymmetry in the market and thus making markets more efficient while reducing the volume of trades. Furthermore, AI in the markets limits the consequences of behavior in the markets again making markets more efficient. Other theories where AI has had impact include in rational choice, rational expectations, game theory, Lewis turning point, portfolio optimization and counterfactual thinking.\n\nGovernment [ edit] \nMain article: Artificial intelligence in government\nVideo games [ edit] \nMain article: Artificial intelligence (video games)\nIn video games, artificial intelligence is routinely used to generate dynamic purposeful behavior in non-player characters (NPCs). In addition, well-understood AI techniques are routinely used for pathfinding. Some researchers consider NPC AI in games to be a \"solved problem\" for most production tasks. Games with more atypical AI include the AI director of Left 4 Dead (2008) and the neuroevolutionary training of platoons in Supreme Commander 2 (2010).[298][299]\n\nMilitary [ edit] \nFurther information: Artificial intelligence arms race, Lethal autonomous weapon, and Unmanned combat aerial vehicle\nWorldwide annual military spending on robotics rose from US$5.1 billion in 2010 to US$7.5 billion in 2015.[300][301] Military drones capable of autonomous action are widely considered a useful asset.[302] Many artificial intelligence researchers seek to distance themselves from military applications of AI.[303]\n\nAudit [ edit] \nFor financial statements audit, AI makes continuous audit possible. AI tools could analyze many sets of different information immediately. The potential benefit would be the overall audit risk will be reduced, the level of assurance will be increased and the time duration of audit will be reduced.[304]\n\nAdvertising [ edit] \nIt is possible to use AI to predict or generalize the behavior of customers from their digital footprints in order to target them with personalized promotions or build customer personas automatically.[305] A documented case reports that online gambling companies were using AI to improve customer targeting.[306]\nMoreover, the application of Personality computing AI models can help reducing the cost of advertising campaigns by adding psychological targeting to more traditional sociodemographic or behavioral targeting.[307]\n\nArt [ edit] \nArtificial Intelligence has inspired numerous creative applications including its usage to produce visual art. The exhibition \"Thinking Machines: Art and Design in the Computer Age, 1959\u20131989\" at MoMA[308] provides a good overview of the historical applications of AI for art, architecture, and design. Recent exhibitions showcasing the usage of AI to produce art include the Google-sponsored benefit and auction at the Gray Area Foundation in San Francisco, where artists experimented with the deepdream algorithm[309] and the exhibition \"Unhuman: Art in the Age of AI,\" which took place in Los Angeles and Frankfurt in the fall of 2017.[310][311] In the spring of 2018, the Association of Computing Machinery dedicated a special magazine issue to the subject of computers and art highlighting the role of machine learning in the arts.[312]\n\nPhilosophy and ethics [ edit] \nMain articles: Philosophy of artificial intelligence and Ethics of artificial intelligence\nThere are three philosophical questions related to AI:\n\nIs artificial general intelligence possible? Can a machine solve any problem that a human being can solve using intelligence? Or are there hard limits to what a machine can accomplish?\nAre intelligent machines dangerous? How can we ensure that machines behave ethically and that they are used ethically?\nCan a machine have a mind, consciousness and mental states in exactly the same sense that human beings do? Can a machine be sentient, and thus deserve certain rights? Can a machine intentionally cause harm?\nThe limits of artificial general intelligence [ edit] \nMain articles: Philosophy of AI, Turing test, Physical symbol systems hypothesis, Dreyfus' critique of AI, The Emperor's New Mind, and AI effect\nCan a machine be intelligent? Can it \"think\"?\n\nAlan Turing's \"polite convention\"\nWe need not decide if a machine can \"think\"; we need only decide if a machine can act as intelligently as a human being. This approach to the philosophical problems associated with artificial intelligence forms the basis of the Turing test.[313]\nThe Dartmouth proposal\n\"Every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it.\" This conjecture was printed in the proposal for the Dartmouth Conference of 1956, and represents the position of most working AI researchers.[314]\nNewell and Simon's physical symbol system hypothesis\n\"A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent action.\" Newell and Simon argue that intelligence consists of formal operations on symbols.[315] Hubert Dreyfus argued that, on the contrary, human expertise depends on unconscious instinct rather than conscious symbol manipulation and on having a \"feel\" for the situation rather than explicit symbolic knowledge. (See Dreyfus' critique of AI.)[316][317]\nG\u00f6delian arguments\nG\u00f6del himself,[318] John Lucas (in 1961) and Roger Penrose (in a more detailed argument from 1989 onwards) made highly technical arguments that human mathematicians can consistently see the truth of their own \"G\u00f6del statements\" and therefore have computational abilities beyond that of mechanical Turing machines.[319] However, the modern consensus in the scientific and mathematical community is that these \"G\u00f6delian arguments\" fail.[320][321][322]\nThe artificial brain argument\nThe brain can be simulated by machines and because brains are intelligent, simulated brains must also be intelligent; thus machines can be intelligent. Hans Moravec, Ray Kurzweil and others have argued that it is technologically feasible to copy the brain directly into hardware and software and that such a simulation will be essentially identical to the original.[143]\nThe AI effect\nMachines are already intelligent, but observers have failed to recognize it. When Deep Blue beat Garry Kasparov in chess, the machine was acting intelligently. However, onlookers commonly discount the behavior of an artificial intelligence program by arguing that it is not \"real\" intelligence after all; thus \"real\" intelligence is whatever intelligent behavior people can do that machines still cannot. This is known as the AI Effect: \"AI is whatever hasn't been done yet.\"\nPotential harm [ edit] \nWidespread use of artificial intelligence could have unintended consequences that are dangerous or undesirable. Scientists from the Future of Life Institute, among others, described some short-term research goals to see how AI influences the economy, the laws and ethics that are involved with AI and how to minimize AI security risks. In the long-term, the scientists have proposed to continue optimizing function while minimizing possible security risks that come along with new technologies.[323]\n\nExistential risk [ edit] \nMain article: Existential risk from artificial general intelligence\nPhysicist Stephen Hawking, Microsoft founder Bill Gates, and SpaceX founder Elon Musk have expressed concerns about the possibility that AI could evolve to the point that humans could not control it, with Hawking theorizing that this could \"spell the end of the human race\".\n[324]\n[325]\n[326]\n\nThe development of full artificial intelligence could spell the end of the human race. Once humans develop artificial intelligence, it will take off on its own and redesign itself at an ever-increasing rate. Humans, who are limited by slow biological evolution, couldn't compete and would be superseded.\u2014 Stephen Hawking[327]\n\nIn his book Superintelligence, Nick Bostrom provides an argument that artificial intelligence will pose a threat to humankind. He argues that sufficiently intelligent AI, if it chooses actions based on achieving some goal, will exhibit convergent behavior such as acquiring resources or protecting itself from being shut down. If this AI's goals do not reflect humanity's\u2014one example is an AI told to compute as many digits of pi as possible\u2014it might harm humanity in order to acquire more resources or prevent itself from being shut down, ultimately to better achieve its goal.\nConcern over risk from artificial intelligence has led to some high-profile donations and investments. A group of prominent tech titans including Peter Thiel, Amazon Web Services and Musk have committed $1billion to OpenAI, a nonprofit company aimed at championing responsible AI development.[328] The opinion of experts within the field of artificial intelligence is mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superhumanly-capable AI.[329] In January 2015, Elon Musk donated ten million dollars to the Future of Life Institute to fund research on understanding AI decision making. The goal of the institute is to \"grow wisdom with which we manage\" the growing power of technology. Musk also funds companies developing artificial intelligence such as Google DeepMind and Vicarious to \"just keep an eye on what's going on with artificial intelligence.[330] I think there is potentially a dangerous outcome there.\"[331][332]\nFor this danger to be realized, the hypothetical AI would have to overpower or out-think all of humanity, which a minority of experts argue is a possibility far enough in the future to not be worth researching.[333][334] Other counterarguments revolve around humans being either intrinsically or convergently valuable from the perspective of an artificial intelligence.[335]\n\nDevaluation of humanity [ edit] \nMain article: Computer Power and Human Reason\nJoseph Weizenbaum wrote that AI applications cannot, by definition, successfully simulate genuine human empathy and that the use of AI technology in fields such as customer service or psychotherapy[336] was deeply misguided. Weizenbaum was also bothered that AI researchers (and some philosophers) were willing to view the human mind as nothing more than a computer program (a position is now known as computationalism). To Weizenbaum these points suggest that AI research devalues human life.[337]\n\nSocial justice [ edit] \nOne concern is that AI programs may be programmed to be biased against certain groups, such as women and minorities, because most of the developers are wealthy Caucasian men.[338] Support for artificial intelligence is higher among men (with 47% approving) than women (35% approving).\n\nDecrease in demand for human labor [ edit] \nFurther information: Technological unemployment \u00a7 21st century\nThe relationship between automation and employment is complicated. While automation eliminates old jobs, it also creates new jobs through micro-economic and macro-economic effects.[339] Unlike previous waves of automation, many middle-class jobs may be eliminated by artificial intelligence; The Economist states that \"the worry that AI could do to white-collar jobs what steam power did to blue-collar ones during the Industrial Revolution\" is \"worth taking seriously\".[340] Subjective estimates of the risk vary widely; for example, Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey estimate 47% of U.S. jobs are at \"high risk\" of potential automation, while an OECD report classifies only 9% of U.S. jobs as \"high risk\".[341][342][343] Jobs at extreme risk range from paralegals to fast food cooks, while job demand is likely to increase for care-related professions ranging from personal healthcare to the clergy.[344] Author Martin Ford and others go further and argue that a large number of jobs are routine, repetitive and (to an AI) predictable; Ford warns that these jobs may be automated in the next couple of decades, and that many of the new jobs may not be \"accessible to people with average capability\", even with retraining. Economists point out that in the past technology has tended to increase rather than reduce total employment, but acknowledge that \"we're in uncharted territory\" with AI.[22]\n\nAutonomous weapons [ edit] \nSee also: Lethal autonomous weapon\nCurrently, 50+ countries are researching battlefield robots, including the United States, China, Russia, and the United Kingdom. Many people concerned about risk from superintelligent AI also want to limit the use of artificial soldiers and drones.[345]\n\nEthical machines [ edit] \nMachines with intelligence have the potential to use their intelligence to prevent harm and minimize the risks; they may have the ability to use ethical reasoning to better choose their actions in the world. Research in this area includes machine ethics, artificial moral agents, and friendly AI.\n\nArtificial moral agents [ edit] \nWendell Wallach introduced the concept of artificial moral agents (AMA) in his book Moral Machines[346] For Wallach, AMAs have become a part of the research landscape of artificial intelligence as guided by its two central questions which he identifies as \"Does Humanity Want Computers Making Moral Decisions\"[347] and \"Can (Ro)bots Really Be Moral\".[348] For Wallach the question is not centered on the issue of whether machines can demonstrate the equivalent of moral behavior in contrast to the constraints which society may place on the development of AMAs.[349]\n\nMachine ethics [ edit] \nMain article: Machine ethics\nThe field of machine ethics is concerned with giving machines ethical principles, or a procedure for discovering a way to resolve the ethical dilemmas they might encounter, enabling them to function in an ethically responsible manner through their own ethical decision making.[350] The field was delineated in the AAAI Fall 2005 Symposium on Machine Ethics: \"Past research concerning the relationship between technology and ethics has largely focused on responsible and irresponsible use of technology by human beings, with a few people being interested in how human beings ought to treat machines. In all cases, only human beings have engaged in ethical reasoning. The time has come for adding an ethical dimension to at least some machines. Recognition of the ethical ramifications of behavior involving machines, as well as recent and potential developments in machine autonomy, necessitate this. In contrast to computer hacking, software property issues, privacy issues and other topics normally ascribed to computer ethics, machine ethics is concerned with the behavior of machines towards human users and other machines. Research in machine ethics is key to alleviating concerns with autonomous systems\u2014it could be argued that the notion of autonomous machines without such a dimension is at the root of all fear concerning machine intelligence. Further, investigation of machine ethics could enable the discovery of problems with current ethical theories, advancing our thinking about Ethics.\"[351] Machine ethics is sometimes referred to as machine morality, computational ethics or computational morality. A variety of perspectives of this nascent field can be found in the collected edition \"Machine Ethics\"[350] that stems from the AAAI Fall 2005 Symposium on Machine Ethics.[351]\n\nMalevolent and friendly AI [ edit] \nMain article: Friendly AI\nPolitical scientist Charles T. Rubin believes that AI can be neither designed nor guaranteed to be benevolent.[352] He argues that \"any sufficiently advanced benevolence may be indistinguishable from malevolence.\" Humans should not assume machines or robots would treat us favorably because there is no a priori reason to believe that they would be sympathetic to our system of morality, which has evolved along with our particular biology (which AIs would not share). Hyper-intelligent software may not necessarily decide to support the continued existence of humanity and would be extremely difficult to stop. This topic has also recently begun to be discussed in academic publications as a real source of risks to civilization, humans, and planet Earth.\nOne proposal to deal with this is to ensure that the first generally intelligent AI is 'Friendly AI', and will then be able to control subsequently developed AIs. Some question whether this kind of check could really remain in place.\nLeading AI researcher Rodney Brooks writes, \"I think it is a mistake to be worrying about us developing malevolent AI anytime in the next few hundred years. I think the worry stems from a fundamental error in not distinguishing the difference between the very real recent advances in a particular aspect of AI, and the enormity and complexity of building sentient volitional intelligence.\"[353]\n\n Machine consciousness, sentience and mind [ edit] \nMain article: Artificial consciousness\nIf an AI system replicates all key aspects of human intelligence, will that system also be sentient\u2014will it have a mind which has conscious experiences? This question is closely related to the philosophical problem as to the nature of human consciousness, generally referred to as the hard problem of consciousness.\n\nConsciousness [ edit] \nMain articles: Hard problem of consciousness and Theory of mind\nDavid Chalmers identified two problems in understanding the mind, which he named the \"hard\" and \"easy\" problems of consciousness.[354] The easy problem is understanding how the brain processes signals, makes plans and controls behavior. The hard problem is explaining how this feels or why it should feel like anything at all. Human information processing is easy to explain, however human subjective experience is difficult to explain.\nFor example, consider what happens when a person is shown a color swatch and identifies it, saying \"it's red\". The easy problem only requires understanding the machinery in the brain that makes it possible for a person to know that the color swatch is red. The hard problem is that people also know something else\u2014they also know what red looks like. (Consider that a person born blind can know that something is red without knowing what red looks like.)[l] Everyone knows subjective experience exists, because they do it every day (e.g., all sighted people know what red looks like). The hard problem is explaining how the brain creates it, why it exists, and how it is different than knowledge and other aspects of the brain.\n\nComputationalism and functionalism [ edit] \nMain articles: Computationalism and Functionalism (philosophy of mind)\nComputationalism is the position in the philosophy of mind that the human mind or the human brain (or both) is an information processing system and that thinking is a form of computing.[355] Computationalism argues that the relationship between mind and body is similar or identical to the relationship between software and hardware and thus may be a solution to the mind-body problem. This philosophical position was inspired by the work of AI researchers and cognitive scientists in the 1960s and was originally proposed by philosophers Jerry Fodor and Hilary Putnam.\n\nStrong AI hypothesis [ edit] \nMain article: Chinese room\nThe philosophical position that John Searle has named \"strong AI\" states: \"The appropriately programmed computer with the right inputs and outputs would thereby have a mind in exactly the same sense human beings have minds.\"[356] Searle counters this assertion with his Chinese room argument, which asks us to look inside the computer and try to find where the \"mind\" might be.[357]\n\nRobot rights [ edit] \nMain article: Robot rights\nIf a machine can be created that has intelligence, could it also feel? If it can feel, does it have the same rights as a human? This issue, now known as \"robot rights\", is currently being considered by, for example, California's Institute for the Future, although many critics believe that the discussion is premature.[358] Some critics of transhumanism argue that any hypothetical robot rights would lie on a spectrum with animal rights and human rights.[359] The subject is profoundly discussed in the 2010 documentary film Plug & Pray.[360]\n\nSuperintelligence [ edit] \nMain article: Superintelligence\nAre there limits to how intelligent machines\u2014or human-machine hybrids\u2014can be? A superintelligence, hyperintelligence, or superhuman intelligence is a hypothetical agent that would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human mind. Superintelligence may also refer to the form or degree of intelligence possessed by such an agent.[137]\n\nTechnological singularity [ edit] \nMain articles: Technological singularity and Moore's law\nIf research into Strong AI produced sufficiently intelligent software, it might be able to reprogram and improve itself. The improved software would be even better at improving itself, leading to recursive self-improvement.[361] The new intelligence could thus increase exponentially and dramatically surpass humans. Science fiction writer Vernor Vinge named this scenario \"singularity\".[362] Technological singularity is when accelerating progress in technologies will cause a runaway effect wherein artificial intelligence will exceed human intellectual capacity and control, thus radically changing or even ending civilization. Because the capabilities of such an intelligence may be impossible to comprehend, the technological singularity is an occurrence beyond which events are unpredictable or even unfathomable.[362][137]\nRay Kurzweil has used Moore's law (which describes the relentless exponential improvement in digital technology) to calculate that desktop computers will have the same processing power as human brains by the year 2029, and predicts that the singularity will occur in 2045.[362]\n\nTranshumanism [ edit] \nMain article: Transhumanism\nRobot designer Hans Moravec, cyberneticist Kevin Warwick and inventor Ray Kurzweil have predicted that humans and machines will merge in the future into cyborgs that are more capable and powerful than either.[363] This idea, called transhumanism, which has roots in Aldous Huxley and Robert Ettinger.\nEdward Fredkin argues that \"artificial intelligence is the next stage in evolution\", an idea first proposed by Samuel Butler's \"Darwin among the Machines\" (1863), and expanded upon by George Dyson in his book of the same name in 1998.[364]\n\nIn fiction [ edit] \nMain article: Artificial intelligence in fiction\n The word \"robot\" itself was coined by Karel \u010capek in his 1921 play R.U.R., the title standing for \"Rossum's Universal Robots\"\nThought-capable artificial beings appeared as storytelling devices since antiquity,[24]\nand have been a persistent theme in science fiction.\nA common trope in these works began with Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, where a human creation becomes a threat to its masters. This includes such works as Arthur C. Clarke's and Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey (both 1968), with HAL 9000, the murderous computer in charge of the Discovery One spaceship, as well as The Terminator (1984) and The Matrix (1999). In contrast, the rare loyal robots such as Gort from The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) and Bishop from Aliens (1986) are less prominent in popular culture.[365]\nIsaac Asimov introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in many books and stories, most notably the \"Multivac\" series about a super-intelligent computer of the same name. Asimov's laws are often brought up during layman discussions of machine ethics;[366] while almost all artificial intelligence researchers are familiar with Asimov's laws through popular culture, they generally consider the laws useless for many reasons, one of which is their ambiguity.[367]\nTranshumanism (the merging of humans and machines) is explored in the manga Ghost in the Shell and the science-fiction series Dune. In the 1980s, artist Hajime Sorayama's Sexy Robots series were painted and published in Japan depicting the actual organic human form with lifelike muscular metallic skins and later \"the Gynoids\" book followed that was used by or influenced movie makers including George Lucas and other creatives. Sorayama never considered these organic robots to be real part of nature but always unnatural product of the human mind, a fantasy existing in the mind even when realized in actual form.\nSeveral works use AI to force us to confront the fundamental of question of what makes us human, showing us artificial beings that have the ability to feel, and thus to suffer. This appears in Karel \u010capek's \"R.U.R.\", the films \"A.I. Artificial Intelligence\" and \"Ex Machina\", as well as the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, by Philip K. Dick. Dick considers the idea that our understanding of human subjectivity is altered by technology created with artificial intelligence.[368]\n\nSee also [ edit] \n\n Artificial intelligence portal\nAbductive reasoning\nA.I. Rising\nBehavior selection algorithm\nBusiness process automation\nCase-based reasoning\nCommonsense reasoning\nEmergent algorithm\nEvolutionary computation\nGlossary of artificial intelligence\nMachine learning\nMathematical optimization\nMulti-agent system\nRobotic process automation\nSoft computing\nWeak AI\nPersonality computing\n\nExplanatory notes [ edit] \n\n\n^ The act of doling out rewards can itself be formalized or automated into a \"reward function\". \n\n^ Terminology varies; see algorithm characterizations. \n\n^ Adversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems, or from non-pattern perturbations. Some systems are so brittle that changing a single adversarial pixel predictably induces misclassification. \n\n^ While such a \"victory of the neats\" may be a consequence of the field becoming more mature, AIMA states that in practice both neat and scruffy approaches continue to be necessary in AI research. \n\n^ \"There exist many different types of uncertainty, vagueness, and ignorance... [We] independently confirm the inadequacy of systems for reasoning about uncertainty that propagates numerical factors according to only to which connectives appear in assertions.\"[187] \n\n^ Expectation-maximization, one of the most popular algorithms in machine learning, allows clustering in the presence of unknown latent variables[196] \n\n^ The most widely used analogical AI until the mid-1990s[207] \n\n^ SVM displaced k-nearest neighbor in the 1990s[209] \n\n^ Naive Bayes is reportedly the \"most widely used learner\" at Google, due in part to its scalability.[212] \n\n^ Each individual neuron is likely to participate in more than one concept. \n\n^ Steering for the 1995 \"No Hands Across America\" required \"only a few human assists\". \n\n^ This is based on Mary's Room, a thought experiment first proposed by Frank Jackson in 1982 \n\n\nReferences [ edit] \n\n\n^ a b \nDefinition of AI as the study of intelligent agents:\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, p. 1, which provides the version that is used in this article. Note that they use the term \"computational intelligence\" as a synonym for artificial intelligence.\nRussell & Norvig (2003) (who prefer the term \"rational agent\") and write \"The whole-agent view is now widely accepted in the field\" (Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 55).\nNilsson 1998\nLegg & Hutter 2007.\n \n^ a b Kaplan Andreas; Michael Haenlein (2018) Siri, Siri in my Hand, who's the Fairest in the Land? On the Interpretations, Illustrations and Implications of Artificial Intelligence, Business Horizons, 62(1) \n\n^ Russell & Norvig 2009, p. 2. \n\n^ Maloof, Mark. \"Artificial Intelligence: An Introduction, p. 37\" (PDF) . georgetown.edu. \n\n^ Schank, Roger C. (1991). \"Where's the AI\". AI magazine. Vol. 12 no. 4. p. 38. \n\n^ a b Russell & Norvig 2009. \n\n^ a b \"AlphaGo \u2013 Google DeepMind\". Archived from the original on 10 March 2016. \n\n^ a b \nOptimism of early AI:\nHerbert Simon quote: Simon 1965, p. 96 quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 109.\nMarvin Minsky quote: Minsky 1967, p. 2 quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 109.\n \n^ a b c \nBoom of the 1980s: rise of expert systems, Fifth Generation Project, Alvey, MCC, SCI:\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 426\u2013441\nCrevier 1993, pp. 161\u2013162,197\u2013203, 211, 240\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 24\nNRC 1999, pp. 210\u2013211\n \n^ a b \nFirst AI Winter, Mansfield Amendment, Lighthill report\nCrevier 1993, pp. 115\u2013117\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 22\nNRC 1999, pp. 212\u2013213\nHowe 1994\n \n^ a b \nSecond AI winter:\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 430\u2013435\nCrevier 1993, pp. 209\u2013210\nNRC 1999, pp. 214\u2013216\n \n^ a b c \nAI becomes hugely successful in the early 21st century\nClark 2015\n \n^ a b \nPamela McCorduck (2004, pp. 424) writes of \"the rough shattering of AI in subfields\u2014vision, natural language, decision theory, genetic algorithms, robotics ... and these with own sub-subfield\u2014that would hardly have anything to say to each other.\" \n\n^ a b c \nThis list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including:\nRussell & Norvig 2003\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998\nNilsson 1998\n \n^ a b c \nBiological intelligence vs. intelligence in general:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 2\u20133, who make the analogy with aeronautical engineering.\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 100\u2013101, who writes that there are \"two major branches of artificial intelligence: one aimed at producing intelligent behavior regardless of how it was accomplished, and the other aimed at modeling intelligent processes found in nature, particularly human ones.\"\nKolata 1982, a paper in Science, which describes McCarthy's indifference to biological models. Kolata quotes McCarthy as writing: \"This is AI, so we don't care if it's psychologically real\"\"Science\". August 1982. . McCarthy recently reiterated his position at the AI@50 conference where he said \"Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence\" (Maker 2006).\n \n^ a b c \nNeats vs. scruffies:\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 421\u2013424, 486\u2013489\nCrevier 1993, pp. 168\nNilsson 1983, pp. 10\u201311\n \n^ a b \nSymbolic vs. sub-symbolic AI:\nNilsson (1998, p. 7), who uses the term \"sub-symbolic\".\n \n^ a b \nGeneral intelligence (strong AI) is discussed in popular introductions to AI:\nKurzweil 1999 and Kurzweil 2005\n \n^ See the Dartmouth proposal, under Philosophy, below. \n\n^ a b \nThis is a central idea of Pamela McCorduck's Machines Who Think. She writes: \"I like to think of artificial intelligence as the scientific apotheosis of a venerable cultural tradition.\" (McCorduck 2004, p. 34) \"Artificial intelligence in one form or another is an idea that has pervaded Western intellectual history, a dream in urgent need of being realized.\" (McCorduck 2004, p. xviii) \"Our history is full of attempts\u2014nutty, eerie, comical, earnest, legendary and real\u2014to make artificial intelligences, to reproduce what is the essential us\u2014bypassing the ordinary means. Back and forth between myth and reality, our imaginations supplying what our workshops couldn't, we have engaged for a long time in this odd form of self-reproduction.\" (McCorduck 2004, p. 3) She traces the desire back to its Hellenistic roots and calls it the urge to \"forge the Gods.\" (McCorduck 2004, pp. 340\u2013400) \n\n^ \"Stephen Hawking believes AI could be mankind's last accomplishment\". BetaNews. 21 October 2016. Archived from the original on 28 August 2017. \n\n^ a b Ford, Martin; Colvin, Geoff (6 September 2015). \"Will robots create more jobs than they destroy?\". The Guardian. Retrieved 13 January 2018 . \n\n^ a b \nAI applications widely used behind the scenes:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 28\nKurzweil 2005, p. 265\nNRC 1999, pp. 216\u2013222\n \n^ a b \nAI in myth:\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 4\u20135\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 939\n \n^ \nAI in early science fiction.\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 17\u201325\n \n^ \nFormal reasoning:\nBerlinski, David (2000). The Advent of the Algorithm. Harcourt Books. ISBN 978-0-15-601391-8. OCLC 46890682. \n \n^ \"Artificial Intelligence.\" Encyclopedia of Emerging Industries, edited by Lynn M. Pearce, 6th ed., Gale, 2011, pp. 73\u201380. Gale Virtual Reference Library, http:\/\/go.galegroup.com\/ps\/anonymous?id=GALE%7CCX1930200017. Accessed 31 Mar. 2018. \n\n^ Russell & Norvig 2009, p. 16. \n\n^ \nDartmouth conference:\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 111\u2013136\nCrevier 1993, pp. 47\u201349, who writes \"the conference is generally recognized as the official birthdate of the new science.\"\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 17, who call the conference \"the birth of artificial intelligence.\"\nNRC 1999, pp. 200\u2013201\n \n^ \nHegemony of the Dartmouth conference attendees:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 17, who write \"for the next 20 years the field would be dominated by these people and their students.\"\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 129\u2013130\n \n^ Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 18. \n\n^ Schaeffer J. (2009) Didn't Samuel Solve That Game?. In: One Jump Ahead. Springer, Boston, MA \n\n^ Samuel, A. L. (July 1959). \"Some Studies in Machine Learning Using the Game of Checkers\". IBM Journal of Research and Development. 3 (3): 210\u2013229. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.368.2254 . doi:10.1147\/rd.33.0210. \n\n^ \n\"Golden years\" of AI (successful symbolic reasoning programs 1956\u20131973):\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 243\u2013252\nCrevier 1993, pp. 52\u2013107\nMoravec 1988, p. 9\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 18\u201321\nThe programs described are Arthur Samuel's checkers program for the IBM 701, Daniel Bobrow's STUDENT, Newell and Simon's Logic Theorist and Terry Winograd's SHRDLU. \n<\/p>\n\n^ \nDARPA pours money into undirected pure research into AI during the 1960s:\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 131\nCrevier 1993, pp. 51, 64\u201365\nNRC 1999, pp. 204\u2013205\n \n^ \nAI in England:\nHowe 1994\n \n^ Lighthill 1973. \n\n^ a b \nExpert systems:\nACM 1998, I.2.1\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 22\u201324\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 227\u2013331\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 17.4\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 327\u2013335, 434\u2013435\nCrevier 1993, pp. 145\u201362, 197\u2013203\n \n^ a b \nFormal methods are now preferred (\"Victory of the neats\"):\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 25\u201326\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 486\u2013487\n \n^ McCorduck 2004, pp. 480\u2013483. \n\n^ Markoff 2011. \n\n^ \"Ask the AI experts: What's driving today's progress in AI?\". McKinsey & Company. Retrieved 13 April 2018 . \n\n^ Administrator. \"Kinect's AI breakthrough explained\". i-programmer.info. Archived from the original on 1 February 2016. \n\n^ Rowinski, Dan (15 January 2013). \"Virtual Personal Assistants & The Future Of Your Smartphone [Infographic]\". ReadWrite. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. \n\n^ \"Artificial intelligence: Google's AlphaGo beats Go master Lee Se-dol\". BBC News. 12 March 2016. Archived from the original on 26 August 2016. Retrieved 1 October 2016 . \n\n^ \"After Win in China, AlphaGo's Designers Explore New AI\". Wired. 27 May 2017. Archived from the original on 2 June 2017. \n\n^ \"World's Go Player Ratings\". May 2017. Archived from the original on 1 April 2017. \n\n^ \"\u67ef\u6d01\u8fce19\u5c81\u751f\u65e5 \u96c4\u8e1e\u4eba\u7c7b\u4e16\u754c\u6392\u540d\u7b2c\u4e00\u5df2\u4e24\u5e74\" (in Chinese). May 2017. Archived from the original on 11 August 2017. \n\n^ a b Clark, Jack (8 December 2015). \"Why 2015 Was a Breakthrough Year in Artificial Intelligence\". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 23 November 2016. Retrieved 23 November 2016 . After a half-decade of quiet breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, 2015 has been a landmark year. Computers are smarter and learning faster than ever. \n\n^ \"Reshaping Business With Artificial Intelligence\". MIT Sloan Management Review. Retrieved 2 May 2018 . \n\n^ Lorica, Ben (18 December 2017). \"The state of AI adoption\". O'Reilly Media. Retrieved 2 May 2018 . \n\n^ Allen, Gregory (February 6, 2019). \"Understanding China's AI Strategy\". Center for a New American Security. \n\n^ \"Review | How two AI superpowers \u2013 the U.S. and China \u2013 battle for supremacy in the field\". Washington Post. 2 November 2018. Retrieved 4 November 2018 . \n\n^ Domingos 2015, Chapter 5. \n\n^ Domingos 2015, Chapter 7. \n\n^ Lindenbaum, M., Markovitch, S., & Rusakov, D. (2004). Selective sampling for nearest neighbor classifiers. Machine learning, 54(2), 125\u2013152. \n\n^ Domingos 2015, Chapter 1. \n\n^ a b \nIntractability and efficiency and the combinatorial explosion:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 9, 21\u201322\n \n^ Domingos 2015, Chapter 2, Chapter 3. \n\n^ Hart, P. E.; Nilsson, N. J.; Raphael, B. (1972). \"Correction to \"A Formal Basis for the Heuristic Determination of Minimum Cost Paths\" \". SIGART Newsletter (37): 28\u201329. doi:10.1145\/1056777.1056779. \n\n^ \"Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence\". \n\n^ Domingos 2015, Chapter 2, Chapter 4, Chapter 6. \n\n^ \"Can neural network computers learn from experience, and if so, could they ever become what we would call 'smart'?\". Scientific American. 2018. Retrieved 24 March 2018 . \n\n^ Domingos 2015, Chapter 6, Chapter 7. \n\n^ Domingos 2015, p. 286. \n\n^ \"Single pixel change fools AI programs\". BBC News. 3 November 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2018 . \n\n^ \"AI Has a Hallucination Problem That's Proving Tough to Fix\". WIRED. 2018. Retrieved 12 March 2018 . \n\n^ Goodfellow, Ian J., Jonathon Shlens, and Christian Szegedy. \"Explaining and harnessing adversarial examples.\" arXiv preprint arXiv:1412.6572 (2014). \n\n^ Matti, D.; Ekenel, H. K.; Thiran, J. P. (2017). Combining LiDAR space clustering and convolutional neural networks for pedestrian detection. 2017 14th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Video and Signal Based Surveillance (AVSS). pp. 1\u20136. doi:10.1109\/AVSS.2017.8078512. ISBN 978-1-5386-2939-0. \n\n^ Ferguson, Sarah; Luders, Brandon; Grande, Robert C.; How, Jonathan P. (2015). Real-Time Predictive Modeling and Robust Avoidance of Pedestrians with Uncertain, Changing Intentions. Algorithmic Foundations of Robotics XI. Springer Tracts in Advanced Robotics. 107. Springer, Cham. pp. 161\u2013177. arXiv:1405.5581 . doi:10.1007\/978-3-319-16595-0_10. ISBN 978-3-319-16594-3. \n\n^ \"Cultivating Common Sense | DiscoverMagazine.com\". Discover Magazine. 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2018 . \n\n^ Davis, Ernest; Marcus, Gary (24 August 2015). \"Commonsense reasoning and commonsense knowledge in artificial intelligence\". Communications of the ACM. 58 (9): 92\u2013103. doi:10.1145\/2701413. \n\n^ Winograd, Terry (January 1972). \"Understanding natural language\". Cognitive Psychology. 3 (1): 1\u2013191. doi:10.1016\/0010-0285(72)90002-3. \n\n^ \"Don't worry: Autonomous cars aren't coming tomorrow (or next year)\". Autoweek. 2016. Retrieved 24 March 2018 . \n\n^ Knight, Will (2017). \"Boston may be famous for bad drivers, but it's the testing ground for a smarter self-driving car\". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 27 March 2018 . \n\n^ Prakken, Henry (31 August 2017). \"On the problem of making autonomous vehicles conform to traffic law\". Artificial Intelligence and Law. 25 (3): 341\u2013363. doi:10.1007\/s10506-017-9210-0. \n\n^ \nProblem solving, puzzle solving, game playing and deduction:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, chpt. 3\u20139,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, chpt. 2,3,7,9,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, chpt. 3,4,6,8,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 7\u201312\n \n^ \nUncertain reasoning:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 452\u2013644,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 345\u2013395,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 333\u2013381,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 19\n \n^ \nPsychological evidence of sub-symbolic reasoning:\nWason & Shapiro (1966) showed that people do poorly on completely abstract problems, but if the problem is restated to allow the use of intuitive social intelligence, performance dramatically improves. (See Wason selection task)\nKahneman, Slovic & Tversky (1982) have shown that people are terrible at elementary problems that involve uncertain reasoning. (See list of cognitive biases for several examples).\nLakoff & N\u00fa\u00f1ez (2000) have controversially argued that even our skills at mathematics depend on knowledge and skills that come from \"the body\", i.e. sensorimotor and perceptual skills. (See Where Mathematics Comes From)\n \n^ \nKnowledge representation:\nACM 1998, I.2.4,\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 320\u2013363,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 23\u201346, 69\u201381, 169\u2013196, 235\u2013277, 281\u2013298, 319\u2013345,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 227\u2013243,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 18\n \n^ \nKnowledge engineering:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 260\u2013266,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 199\u2013233,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. \u224817.1\u201317.4\n \n^ a b \nRepresenting categories and relations: Semantic networks, description logics, inheritance (including frames and scripts):\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 349\u2013354,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 174\u2013177,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 248\u2013258,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 18.3\n \n^ a b \nRepresenting events and time:Situation calculus, event calculus, fluent calculus (including solving the frame problem):\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 328\u2013341,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 281\u2013298,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 18.2\n \n^ a b \nCausal calculus:\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 335\u2013337\n \n^ a b \nRepresenting knowledge about knowledge: Belief calculus, modal logics:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 341\u2013344,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 275\u2013277\n \n^ Sikos, Leslie F. (June 2017). Description Logics in Multimedia Reasoning. Cham: Springer. doi:10.1007\/978-3-319-54066-5. ISBN 978-3-319-54066-5. Archived from the original on 29 August 2017. \n\n^ \nOntology:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 320\u2013328\n \n^ Smoliar, Stephen W.; Zhang, HongJiang (1994). \"Content based video indexing and retrieval\". IEEE Multimedia. 1.2: 62\u201372. \n\n^ Neumann, Bernd; M\u00f6ller, Ralf (January 2008). \"On scene interpretation with description logics\". Image and Vision Computing. 26 (1): 82\u2013101. doi:10.1016\/j.imavis.2007.08.013. \n\n^ Kuperman, G. J.; Reichley, R. M.; Bailey, T. C. (1 July 2006). \"Using Commercial Knowledge Bases for Clinical Decision Support: Opportunities, Hurdles, and Recommendations\". Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association. 13 (4): 369\u2013371. doi:10.1197\/jamia.M2055. PMC 1513681 . PMID 16622160. \n\n^ MCGARRY, KEN (1 December 2005). \"A survey of interestingness measures for knowledge discovery\". The Knowledge Engineering Review. 20 (1): 39. doi:10.1017\/S0269888905000408. \n\n^ Bertini, M; Del Bimbo, A; Torniai, C (2006). \"Automatic annotation and semantic retrieval of video sequences using multimedia ontologies\". MM '06 Proceedings of the 14th ACM international conference on Multimedia. 14th ACM international conference on Multimedia. Santa Barbara: ACM. pp. 679\u2013682. \n\n^ \nQualification problem:\nMcCarthy & Hayes 1969\nRussell & Norvig 2003[page needed ]\nWhile McCarthy was primarily concerned with issues in the logical representation of actions, Russell & Norvig 2003 apply the term to the more general issue of default reasoning in the vast network of assumptions underlying all our commonsense knowledge. \n<\/p>\n\n^ a b \nDefault reasoning and default logic, non-monotonic logics, circumscription, closed world assumption, abduction (Poole et al. places abduction under \"default reasoning\". Luger et al. places this under \"uncertain reasoning\"):\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 354\u2013360,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 248\u2013256, 323\u2013335,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 335\u2013363,\nNilsson 1998, ~18.3.3\n \n^ \nBreadth of commonsense knowledge:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 21,\nCrevier 1993, pp. 113\u2013114,\nMoravec 1988, p. 13,\nLenat & Guha 1989 (Introduction)\n \n^ Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986. \n\n^ Gladwell 2005. \n\n^ a b \nExpert knowledge as embodied intuition:\nDreyfus & Dreyfus 1986 (Hubert Dreyfus is a philosopher and critic of AI who was among the first to argue that most useful human knowledge was encoded sub-symbolically. See Dreyfus' critique of AI)\nGladwell 2005 (Gladwell's Blink is a popular introduction to sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge.)\nHawkins & Blakeslee 2005 (Hawkins argues that sub-symbolic knowledge should be the primary focus of AI research.)\n \n^ \nPlanning:\nACM 1998, ~I.2.8,\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 375\u2013459,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 281\u2013316,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 314\u2013329,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 10.1\u20132, 22\n \n^ a b \nInformation value theory:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 600\u2013604\n \n^ \nClassical planning:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 375\u2013430,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 281\u2013315,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 314\u2013329,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 10.1\u20132, 22\n \n^ \nPlanning and acting in non-deterministic domains: conditional planning, execution monitoring, replanning and continuous planning:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 430\u2013449\n \n^ \nMulti-agent planning and emergent behavior:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 449\u2013455\n \n^ Alan Turing discussed the centrality of learning as early as 1950, in his classic paper \"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\".(Turing 1950) In 1956, at the original Dartmouth AI summer conference, Ray Solomonoff wrote a report on unsupervised probabilistic machine learning: \"An Inductive Inference Machine\".(Solomonoff 1956) \n\n^ This is a form of Tom Mitchell's widely quoted definition of machine learning: \"A computer program is set to learn from an experience E with respect to some task T and some performance measure P if its performance on T as measured by P improves with experience E.\" \n\n^ a b \nLearning:\nACM 1998, I.2.6,\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 649\u2013788,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 397\u2013438,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 385\u2013542,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 3.3, 10.3, 17.5, 20\n \n^ \"What is Unsupervised Learning?\". deepai.org. \n\n^ Jordan, M. I.; Mitchell, T. M. (16 July 2015). \"Machine learning: Trends, perspectives, and prospects\". Science. 349 (6245): 255\u2013260. Bibcode:2015Sci...349..255J. doi:10.1126\/science.aaa8415. PMID 26185243. \n\n^ \nReinforcement learning:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 763\u2013788\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 442\u2013449\n \n^ \nNatural language processing:\nACM 1998, I.2.7\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 790\u2013831\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 91\u2013104\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 591\u2013632\n \n^ \"Versatile question answering systems: seeing in synthesis\" Archived 1 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Mittal et al., IJIIDS, 5(2), 119\u2013142, 2011 \n\n^ \nApplications of natural language processing, including information retrieval (i.e. text mining) and machine translation:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 840\u2013857,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 623\u2013630\n \n^ Cambria, Erik; White, Bebo (May 2014). \"Jumping NLP Curves: A Review of Natural Language Processing Research [Review Article]\". IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine. 9 (2): 48\u201357. doi:10.1109\/MCI.2014.2307227. \n\n^ \nMachine perception:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 537\u2013581, 863\u2013898\nNilsson 1998, ~chpt. 6\n \n^ \nSpeech recognition:\nACM 1998, ~I.2.7\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 568\u2013578\n \n^ \nObject recognition:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 885\u2013892\n \n^ \nComputer vision:\nACM 1998, I.2.10\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 863\u2013898\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 6\n \n^ \nRobotics:\nACM 1998, I.2.9,\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 901\u2013942,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 443\u2013460\n \n^ a b \nMoving and configuration space:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 916\u2013932\n \n^ a b Tecuci 2012. \n\n^ \nRobotic mapping (localization, etc):\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 908\u2013915\n \n^ Cadena, Cesar; Carlone, Luca; Carrillo, Henry; Latif, Yasir; Scaramuzza, Davide; Neira, Jose; Reid, Ian; Leonard, John J. (December 2016). \"Past, Present, and Future of Simultaneous Localization and Mapping: Toward the Robust-Perception Age\". IEEE Transactions on Robotics. 32 (6): 1309\u20131332. doi:10.1109\/TRO.2016.2624754. \n\n^ Moravec, Hans (1988). Mind Children. Harvard University Press. p. 15. \n\n^ Chan, Szu Ping (15 November 2015). \"This is what will happen when robots take over the world\". Retrieved 23 April 2018 . \n\n^ a b \"IKEA furniture and the limits of AI\". The Economist. 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2018 . \n\n^ Kismet. \n\n^ Thompson, Derek (2018). \"What Jobs Will the Robots Take?\". The Atlantic. Retrieved 24 April 2018 . \n\n^ Scassellati, Brian (2002). \"Theory of mind for a humanoid robot\". Autonomous Robots. 12 (1): 13\u201324. doi:10.1023\/A:1013298507114. \n\n^ Cao, Yongcan; Yu, Wenwu; Ren, Wei; Chen, Guanrong (February 2013). \"An Overview of Recent Progress in the Study of Distributed Multi-Agent Coordination\". IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics. 9 (1): 427\u2013438. arXiv:1207.3231 . doi:10.1109\/TII.2012.2219061. \n\n^ Thro 1993. \n\n^ Edelson 1991. \n\n^ Tao & Tan 2005. \n\n^ Poria, Soujanya; Cambria, Erik; Bajpai, Rajiv; Hussain, Amir (September 2017). \"A review of affective computing: From unimodal analysis to multimodal fusion\". Information Fusion. 37: 98\u2013125. doi:10.1016\/j.inffus.2017.02.003. \n\n^ \nEmotion and affective computing:\nMinsky 2006\n \n^ Waddell, Kaveh (2018). \"Chatbots Have Entered the Uncanny Valley\". The Atlantic. Retrieved 24 April 2018 . \n\n^ Pennachin, C.; Goertzel, B. (2007). Contemporary Approaches to Artificial General Intelligence. Artificial General Intelligence. Cognitive Technologies. Cognitive Technologies. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. doi:10.1007\/978-3-540-68677-4_1. ISBN 978-3-540-23733-4. \n\n^ a b c Roberts, Jacob (2016). \"Thinking Machines: The Search for Artificial Intelligence\". Distillations. Vol. 2 no. 2. pp. 14\u201323. Retrieved 20 March 2018 . \n\n^ \"The superhero of artificial intelligence: can this genius keep it in check?\". the Guardian. 16 February 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2018 . \n\n^ Mnih, Volodymyr; Kavukcuoglu, Koray; Silver, David; Rusu, Andrei A.; Veness, Joel; Bellemare, Marc G.; Graves, Alex; Riedmiller, Martin; Fidjeland, Andreas K.; Ostrovski, Georg; Petersen, Stig; Beattie, Charles; Sadik, Amir; Antonoglou, Ioannis; King, Helen; Kumaran, Dharshan; Wierstra, Daan; Legg, Shane; Hassabis, Demis (26 February 2015). \"Human-level control through deep reinforcement learning\". Nature. 518 (7540): 529\u2013533. Bibcode:2015Natur.518..529M. doi:10.1038\/nature14236. PMID 25719670. \n\n^ Sample, Ian (14 March 2017). \"Google's DeepMind makes AI program that can learn like a human\". the Guardian. Retrieved 26 April 2018 . \n\n^ \"From not working to neural networking\". The Economist. 2016. Retrieved 26 April 2018 . \n\n^ Domingos 2015. \n\n^ a b \nArtificial brain arguments: AI requires a simulation of the operation of the human brain\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 957\nCrevier 1993, pp. 271 and 279\nA few of the people who make some form of the argument:\n\nMoravec 1988\nKurzweil 2005, p. 262\nHawkins & Blakeslee 2005\nThe most extreme form of this argument (the brain replacement scenario) was put forward by Clark Glymour in the mid-1970s and was touched on by Zenon Pylyshyn and John Searle in 1980. \n<\/p>\n\n^ Goertzel, Ben; Lian, Ruiting; Arel, Itamar; de Garis, Hugo; Chen, Shuo (December 2010). \"A world survey of artificial brain projects, Part II: Biologically inspired cognitive architectures\". Neurocomputing. 74 (1\u20133): 30\u201349. doi:10.1016\/j.neucom.2010.08.012. \n\n^ Nils Nilsson writes: \"Simply put, there is wide disagreement in the field about what AI is all about\" (Nilsson 1983, p. 10). \n\n^ \nAI's immediate precursors:\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 51\u2013107\nCrevier 1993, pp. 27\u201332\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 15, 940\nMoravec 1988, p. 3\n \n^ \nHaugeland 1985, pp. 112\u2013117 \n\n^ The most dramatic case of sub-symbolic AI being pushed into the background was the devastating critique of perceptrons by Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert in 1969. See History of AI, AI winter, or Frank Rosenblatt. \n\n^ \nCognitive simulation, Newell and Simon, AI at CMU (then called Carnegie Tech):\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 139\u2013179, 245\u2013250, 322\u2013323 (EPAM)\nCrevier 1993, pp. 145\u2013149\n \n^ \nSoar (history):\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 450\u2013451\nCrevier 1993, pp. 258\u2013263\n \n^ \nMcCarthy and AI research at SAIL and SRI International:\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 251\u2013259\nCrevier 1993\n \n^ \nAI research at Edinburgh and in France, birth of Prolog:\nCrevier 1993, pp. 193\u2013196\nHowe 1994\n \n^ \nAI at MIT under Marvin Minsky in the 1960s :\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 259\u2013305\nCrevier 1993, pp. 83\u2013102, 163\u2013176\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 19\n \n^ \nCyc:\nMcCorduck 2004, p. 489, who calls it \"a determinedly scruffy enterprise\"\nCrevier 1993, pp. 239\u2013243\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 363\u2212365\nLenat & Guha 1989\n \n^ \nKnowledge revolution:\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 266\u2013276, 298\u2013300, 314, 421\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 22\u201323\n \n^ Frederick, Hayes-Roth; William, Murray; Leonard, Adelman. \"Expert systems\". doi:10.1036\/1097-8542.248550. \n\n^ \nEmbodied approaches to AI:\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 454\u2013462\nBrooks 1990\nMoravec 1988\n \n^ Weng et al. 2001. \n\n^ Lungarella et al. 2003. \n\n^ Asada et al. 2009. \n\n^ Oudeyer 2010. \n\n^ \nRevival of connectionism:\nCrevier 1993, pp. 214\u2013215\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 25\n \n^ \nComputational intelligence\nIEEE Computational Intelligence Society Archived 9 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine\n \n^ Hutson, Matthew (16 February 2018). \"Artificial intelligence faces reproducibility crisis\". Science. pp. 725\u2013726. Bibcode:2018Sci...359..725H. doi:10.1126\/science.359.6377.725. Retrieved 28 April 2018 . \n\n^ Norvig 2012. \n\n^ Langley 2011. \n\n^ Katz 2012. \n\n^ \nThe intelligent agent paradigm:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 27, 32\u201358, 968\u2013972\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 7\u201321\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 235\u2013240\nHutter 2005, pp. 125\u2013126\nThe definition used in this article, in terms of goals, actions, perception and environment, is due to Russell & Norvig (2003). Other definitions also include knowledge and learning as additional criteria. \n<\/p>\n\n^ \nAgent architectures, hybrid intelligent systems:\nRussell & Norvig (2003, pp. 27, 932, 970\u2013972)\nNilsson (1998, chpt. 25)\n \n^ \nHierarchical control system:\nAlbus 2002\n \n^ Laird, John (2008). \"Extending the Soar cognitive architecture\". Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications. 171: 224. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.77.2473 . \n\n^ Lieto, Antonio; Bhatt, Mehul; Oltramari, Alessandro; Vernon, David (May 2018). \"The role of cognitive architectures in general artificial intelligence\". Cognitive Systems Research. 48: 1\u20133. doi:10.1016\/j.cogsys.2017.08.003. \n\n^ \nSearch algorithms:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 59\u2013189\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 113\u2013163\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 79\u2013164, 193\u2013219\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 7\u201312\n \n^ \nForward chaining, backward chaining, Horn clauses, and logical deduction as search:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 217\u2013225, 280\u2013294\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. ~46\u201352\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 62\u201373\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 4.2, 7.2\n \n^ \nState space search and planning:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 382\u2013387\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 298\u2013305\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 10.1\u20132\n \n^ \nUninformed searches (breadth first search, depth first search and general state space search):\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 59\u201393\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 113\u2013132\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 79\u2013121\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 8\n \n^ \nHeuristic or informed searches (e.g., greedy best first and A*):\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 94\u2013109,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. pp. 132\u2013147,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 133\u2013150,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 9,\nPoole & Mackworth 2017, Section 3.6\n \n^ \nOptimization searches:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 110\u2013116,120\u2013129\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 56\u2013163\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 127\u2013133\n \n^ \nGenetic programming and genetic algorithms:\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 509\u2013530,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 4.2,\nHolland 1975,\nKoza 1992,\nPoli, Langdon & McPhee 2008.\n \n^ \nArtificial life and society based learning:\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 530\u2013541\n \n^ Daniel Merkle; Martin Middendorf (2013). \"Swarm Intelligence\". In Burke, Edmund K.; Kendall, Graham. Search Methodologies: Introductory Tutorials in Optimization and Decision Support Techniques. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4614-6940-7. \n\n^ \nLogic:\nACM 1998, ~I.2.3,\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 194\u2013310,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 35\u201377,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 13\u201316\n \n^ \nSatplan:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 402\u2013407,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 300\u2013301,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 21\n \n^ \nExplanation based learning, relevance based learning, inductive logic programming, case based reasoning:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 678\u2013710,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 414\u2013416,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. ~422\u2013442,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 10.3, 17.5\n \n^ \nPropositional logic:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 204\u2013233,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 45\u201350\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 13\n \n^ \nFirst-order logic and features such as equality:\nACM 1998, ~I.2.4,\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 240\u2013310,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 268\u2013275,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 50\u201362,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 15\n \n^ Elkin, Charles (1994). \"The paradoxical success of fuzzy logic\". IEEE Expert. 9 (4): 3\u201349. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.100.8402 . doi:10.1109\/64.336150. \n\n^ \nFuzzy logic:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 526\u2013527\n \n^ \"What is 'fuzzy logic'? Are there computers that are inherently fuzzy and do not apply the usual binary logic?\". Scientific American. Retrieved 5 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"The Belief Calculus and Uncertain Reasoning\", Yen-Teh Hsia \n\n^ a b Domingos 2015, chapter 6. \n\n^ Demey, Lorenz; Kooi, Barteld; Sack, Joshua (2013-03-07). \"Logic and Probability\". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 5 May 2018 . \n\n^ \nStochastic methods for uncertain reasoning:\nACM 1998, ~I.2.3,\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 462\u2013644,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 345\u2013395,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 165\u2013191, 333\u2013381,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 19\n \n^ \nBayesian networks:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 492\u2013523,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 361\u2013381,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. ~182\u2013190, \u2248363\u2013379,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 19.3\u20134\n \n^ \nBayesian inference algorithm:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 504\u2013519,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 361\u2013381,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. ~363\u2013379,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 19.4 & 7\n \n^ Domingos 2015, p. 210. \n\n^ \nBayesian learning and the expectation-maximization algorithm:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 712\u2013724,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 424\u2013433,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 20\n \n^ \nBayesian decision theory and Bayesian decision networks:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 597\u2013600\n \n^ a b c \nStochastic temporal models:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 537\u2013581\nDynamic Bayesian networks:\n\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 551\u2013557\nHidden Markov model:\n\n(Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 549\u2013551)\nKalman filters:\n\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 551\u2013557\n \n^ \ndecision theory and decision analysis:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 584\u2013597,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 381\u2013394\n \n^ \nMarkov decision processes and dynamic decision networks:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 613\u2013631\n \n^ \nGame theory and mechanism design:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 631\u2013643\n \n^ \nStatistical learning methods and classifiers:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 712\u2013754,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 453\u2013541\n \n^ \nDecision tree:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 653\u2013664,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 403\u2013408,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 408\u2013417\n \n^ Domingos 2015, p. 88. \n\n^ a b \nNeural networks and connectionism:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 736\u2013748,\nPoole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998, pp. 408\u2013414,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 453\u2013505,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 3\n \n^ Domingos 2015, p. 187. \n\n^ \nK-nearest neighbor algorithm:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 733\u2013736\n \n^ Domingos 2015, p. 188. \n\n^ \nkernel methods such as the support vector machine:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 749\u2013752\n \n^ \nGaussian mixture model:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 725\u2013727\n \n^ Domingos 2015, p. 152. \n\n^ \nNaive Bayes classifier:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 718\n \n^ \nClassifier performance:\nvan der Walt & Bernard 2006\n \n^ Russell & Norvig 2009, 18.12: Learning from Examples: Summary. \n\n^ Domingos 2015, Chapter 4. \n\n^ \"Why Deep Learning Is Suddenly Changing Your Life\". Fortune. 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2018 . \n\n^ \"Google leads in the race to dominate artificial intelligence\". The Economist. 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2018 . \n\n^ \nFeedforward neural networks, perceptrons and radial basis networks:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 739\u2013748, 758\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 458\u2013467\n \n^ \nCompetitive learning, Hebbian coincidence learning, Hopfield networks and attractor networks:\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 474\u2013505\n \n^ Seppo Linnainmaa (1970). The representation of the cumulative rounding error of an algorithm as a Taylor expansion of the local rounding errors. Master's Thesis (in Finnish), Univ. Helsinki, 6\u20137. \n\n^ Griewank, Andreas (2012). Who Invented the Reverse Mode of Differentiation?. Optimization Stories, Documenta Matematica, Extra Volume ISMP (2012), 389\u2013400. \n\n^ Paul Werbos, \"Beyond Regression: New Tools for Prediction and Analysis in the Behavioral Sciences\", PhD thesis, Harvard University, 1974. \n\n^ Paul Werbos (1982). Applications of advances in nonlinear sensitivity analysis. In System modeling and optimization (pp. 762\u2013770). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Online Archived 14 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ \nBackpropagation:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 744\u2013748,\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 467\u2013474,\nNilsson 1998, chpt. 3.3\n \n^ \nHierarchical temporal memory:\nHawkins & Blakeslee 2005\n \n^ \"Artificial intelligence can 'evolve' to solve problems\". Science | AAAS. 10 January 2018. Retrieved 7 February 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d Schmidhuber, J. (2015). \"Deep Learning in Neural Networks: An Overview\". Neural Networks. 61: 85\u2013117. arXiv:1404.7828 . doi:10.1016\/j.neunet.2014.09.003. PMID 25462637. \n\n^ a b Ian Goodfellow, Yoshua Bengio, and Aaron Courville (2016). Deep Learning. MIT Press. Online Archived 16 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ Hinton, G.; Deng, L.; Yu, D.; Dahl, G.; Mohamed, A.; Jaitly, N.; Senior, A.; Vanhoucke, V.; Nguyen, P.; Sainath, T.; Kingsbury, B. (2012). \"Deep Neural Networks for Acoustic Modeling in Speech Recognition \u2013 The shared views of four research groups\". IEEE Signal Processing Magazine. 29 (6): 82\u201397. doi:10.1109\/msp.2012.2205597. \n\n^ Schmidhuber, J\u00fcrgen (2015). \"Deep Learning\". Scholarpedia. 10 (11): 32832. Bibcode:2015SchpJ..1032832S. doi:10.4249\/scholarpedia.32832. \n\n^ Rina Dechter (1986). Learning while searching in constraint-satisfaction problems. University of California, Computer Science Department, Cognitive Systems Laboratory.Online Archived 19 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ Igor Aizenberg, Naum N. Aizenberg, Joos P.L. Vandewalle (2000). Multi-Valued and Universal Binary Neurons: Theory, Learning and Applications. Springer Science & Business Media. \n\n^ Ivakhnenko, Alexey (1965). Cybernetic Predicting Devices. Kiev: Naukova Dumka. \n\n^ Ivakhnenko, Alexey (1971). \"Polynomial theory of complex systems\". IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics (4): 364\u2013378. \n\n^ Hinton 2007. \n\n^ Research, AI (23 October 2015). \"Deep Neural Networks for Acoustic Modeling in Speech Recognition\". airesearch.com. Retrieved 23 October 2015 . \n\n^ Fukushima, K. (1980). \"Neocognitron: A self-organizing neural network model for a mechanism of pattern recognition unaffected by shift in position\". Biological Cybernetics. 36 (4): 193\u2013202. doi:10.1007\/bf00344251. PMID 7370364. \n\n^ Yann LeCun (2016). Slides on Deep Learning Online Archived 23 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ Silver, David; Schrittwieser, Julian; Simonyan, Karen; Antonoglou, Ioannis; Huang, Aja; Guez, Arthur; Hubert, Thomas; Baker, Lucas; Lai, Matthew; Bolton, Adrian; Chen, Yutian; Lillicrap, Timothy; Fan, Hui; Sifre, Laurent; Driessche, George van den; Graepel, Thore; Hassabis, Demis (19 October 2017). \"Mastering the game of Go without human knowledge\". Nature. 550 (7676): 354\u2013359. Bibcode:2017Natur.550..354S. doi:10.1038\/nature24270. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 29052630. AlphaGo Lee... 12 convolutional layers \n\n^ \nRecurrent neural networks, Hopfield nets:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 758\nLuger & Stubblefield 2004, pp. 474\u2013505\n \n^ Hy\u00f6tyniemi, Heikki (1996). \"Turing machines are recurrent neural networks\". Proceedings of STeP '96\/Publications of the Finnish Artificial Intelligence Society: 13\u201324. \n\n^ P. J. Werbos. Generalization of backpropagation with application to a recurrent gas market model\" Neural Networks 1, 1988. \n\n^ A. J. Robinson and F. Fallside. The utility driven dynamic error propagation network. Technical Report CUED\/F-INFENG\/TR.1, Cambridge University Engineering Department, 1987. \n\n^ R. J. Williams and D. Zipser. Gradient-based learning algorithms for recurrent networks and their computational complexity. In Back-propagation: Theory, Architectures and Applications. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1994. \n\n^ Sepp Hochreiter (1991), Untersuchungen zu dynamischen neuronalen Netzen Archived 6 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Diploma thesis. Institut f. Informatik, Technische Univ. Munich. Advisor: J. Schmidhuber. \n\n^ Schmidhuber, J. (1992). \"Learning complex, extended sequences using the principle of history compression\". Neural Computation. 4 (2): 234\u2013242. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.49.3934 . doi:10.1162\/neco.1992.4.2.234. \n\n^ Hochreiter, Sepp; and Schmidhuber, J\u00fcrgen; Long Short-Term Memory, Neural Computation, 9(8):1735\u20131780, 1997 \n\n^ Alex Graves, Santiago Fernandez, Faustino Gomez, and J\u00fcrgen Schmidhuber (2006). Connectionist temporal classification: Labelling unsegmented sequence data with recurrent neural nets. Proceedings of ICML'06, pp. 369\u2013376. \n\n^ Hannun, Awni; Case, Carl; Casper, Jared; Catanzaro, Bryan; Diamos, Greg; Elsen, Erich; Prenger, Ryan; Satheesh, Sanjeev; Sengupta, Shubho; Coates, Adam; Ng, Andrew Y. (2014). \"Deep Speech: Scaling up end-to-end speech recognition\". arXiv:1412.5567 [cs.CL]. \n\n^ Hasim Sak and Andrew Senior and Francoise Beaufays (2014). Long Short-Term Memory recurrent neural network architectures for large scale acoustic modeling. Proceedings of Interspeech 2014. \n\n^ Li, Xiangang; Wu, Xihong (2015). \"Constructing Long Short-Term Memory based Deep Recurrent Neural Networks for Large Vocabulary Speech Recognition\". arXiv:1410.4281 [cs.CL]. \n\n^ Ha\u015fim Sak, Andrew Senior, Kanishka Rao, Fran\u00e7oise Beaufays and Johan Schalkwyk (September 2015): Google voice search: faster and more accurate. Archived 9 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ Sutskever, Ilya; Vinyals, Oriol; Le, Quoc V. (2014). \"Sequence to Sequence Learning with Neural Networks\". arXiv:1409.3215 [cs.CL]. \n\n^ Jozefowicz, Rafal; Vinyals, Oriol; Schuster, Mike; Shazeer, Noam; Wu, Yonghui (2016). \"Exploring the Limits of Language Modeling\". arXiv:1602.02410 [cs.CL]. \n\n^ Gillick, Dan; Brunk, Cliff; Vinyals, Oriol; Subramanya, Amarnag (2015). \"Multilingual Language Processing From Bytes\". arXiv:1512.00103 [cs.CL]. \n\n^ Vinyals, Oriol; Toshev, Alexander; Bengio, Samy; Erhan, Dumitru (2015). \"Show and Tell: A Neural Image Caption Generator\". arXiv:1411.4555 [cs.CV]. \n\n^ Brynjolfsson, Erik; Mitchell, Tom (22 December 2017). \"What can machine learning do? Workforce implications\". Science. pp. 1530\u20131534. Bibcode:2017Sci...358.1530B. doi:10.1126\/science.aap8062. Retrieved 7 May 2018 . \n\n^ Sample, Ian (18 October 2017). \"' It's able to create knowledge itself': Google unveils AI that learns on its own\". the Guardian. Retrieved 7 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"The AI revolution in science\". Science | AAAS. 5 July 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"Will your job still exist in 10 years when the robots arrive?\". South China Morning Post. 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2018 . \n\n^ Borowiec, Tracey Lien, Steven (2016). \"AlphaGo beats human Go champ in milestone for artificial intelligence\". latimes.com. Retrieved 7 May 2018 . \n\n^ Brown, Noam; Sandholm, Tuomas (26 January 2018). \"Superhuman AI for heads-up no-limit poker: Libratus beats top professionals\". Science. pp. 418\u2013424. doi:10.1126\/science.aao1733. Retrieved 7 May 2018 . \n\n^ Ontanon, Santiago; Synnaeve, Gabriel; Uriarte, Alberto; Richoux, Florian; Churchill, David; Preuss, Mike (December 2013). \"A Survey of Real-Time Strategy Game AI Research and Competition in StarCraft\". IEEE Transactions on Computational Intelligence and AI in Games. 5 (4): 293\u2013311. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.406.2524 . doi:10.1109\/TCIAIG.2013.2286295. \n\n^ \"Facebook Quietly Enters StarCraft War for AI Bots, and Loses\". WIRED. 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"ILSVRC2017\". image-net.org. Retrieved 2018-11-06 . \n\n^ Schoenick, Carissa; Clark, Peter; Tafjord, Oyvind; Turney, Peter; Etzioni, Oren (23 August 2017). \"Moving beyond the Turing Test with the Allen AI Science Challenge\". Communications of the ACM. 60 (9): 60\u201364. arXiv:1604.04315 . doi:10.1145\/3122814. \n\n^ O'Brien & Marakas 2011. \n\n^ \nMathematical definitions of intelligence:\nHernandez-Orallo 2000\nDowe & Hajek 1997\nHernandez-Orallo & Dowe 2010\n \n^ Hern\u00e1ndez-Orallo, Jos\u00e9; Dowe, David L.; Hern\u00e1ndez-Lloreda, M.Victoria (March 2014). \"Universal psychometrics: Measuring cognitive abilities in the machine kingdom\". Cognitive Systems Research. 27: 50\u201374. doi:10.1016\/j.cogsys.2013.06.001. \n\n^ a b Russell & Norvig 2009, p. 1. \n\n^ CNN 2006. \n\n^ Using AI to predict flight delays, Ishti.org. \n\n^ N. Aletras; D. Tsarapatsanis; D. Preotiuc-Pietro; V. Lampos (2016). \"Predicting judicial decisions of the European Court of Human Rights: a Natural Language Processing perspective\". PeerJ Computer Science. 2: e93. doi:10.7717\/peerj-cs.93. \n\n^ \"The Economist Explains: Why firms are piling into artificial intelligence\". The Economist. 31 March 2016. Archived from the original on 8 May 2016. Retrieved 19 May 2016 . \n\n^ Lohr, Steve (28 February 2016). \"The Promise of Artificial Intelligence Unfolds in Small Steps\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 February 2016. Retrieved 29 February 2016 . \n\n^ Wakefield, Jane (15 June 2016). \"Social media 'outstrips TV' as news source for young people\". BBC News. Archived from the original on 24 June 2016. \n\n^ Smith, Mark (22 July 2016). \"So you think you chose to read this article?\". BBC News. Archived from the original on 25 July 2016. \n\n^ \"10 Promising AI Applications in Health Care\". Harvard Business Review. 2018-05-10. Retrieved 2018-08-28 . \n\n^ Dina Bass (20 September 2016). \"Microsoft Develops AI to Help Cancer Doctors Find the Right Treatments\". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 11 May 2017. \n\n^ Gallagher, James (26 January 2017). \"Artificial intelligence 'as good as cancer doctors' \". BBC News. Archived from the original on 26 January 2017. Retrieved 26 January 2017 . \n\n^ Langen, Pauline A.; Katz, Jeffrey S.; Dempsey, Gayle, eds. (18 October 1994), Remote monitoring of high-risk patients using artificial intelligence (US5357427 A), archived from the original on 28 February 2017, retrieved 27 February 2017 \n\n^ Kermany, D; Goldbaum, M; Zhang, Kang. \"Identifying Medical Diagnoses and Treatable Diseases by Image-Based Deep Learning\" (PDF) . www.cell.com. Retrieved 2018-12-18 . \n\n^ Senthilingam, Meera (12 May 2016). \"Are Autonomous Robots Your next Surgeons?\". CNN. Cable News Network. Archived from the original on 3 December 2016. 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Archived from the original on 28 October 2017. Retrieved 20 September 2017 . \n\n^ McFarland, Matt. \"Google's artificial intelligence breakthrough may have a huge impact on self-driving cars and much more\". The Washington Post 25 February 2015. Infotrac Newsstand. 24 October 2016 \n\n^ \"Programming safety into self-driving cars\". National Science Foundation. N.p., 2 February 2015. 24 October 2016. \n\n^ ArXiv, E. T. (26 October 2015). Why Self-Driving Cars Must Be Programmed to Kill. Retrieved 17 November 2017, from https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/542626\/why-self-driving-cars-must-be-programmed-to-kill\/ \n\n^ O'Neill, Eleanor (31 July 2016). \"Accounting, automation and AI\". www.icas.com. Archived from the original on 18 November 2016. Retrieved 18 November 2016 . \n\n^ Robots Beat Humans in Trading Battle. Archived 9 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine BBC.com (8 August 2001) \n\n^ \"CTO Corner: Artificial Intelligence Use in Financial Services \u2013 Financial Services Roundtable\". Financial Services Roundtable. 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 18 November 2016. Retrieved 18 November 2016 . \n\n^ Marwala, Tshilidzi; Hurwitz, Evan (2017). Artificial Intelligence and Economic Theory: Skynet in the Market. London: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-66104-9. \n\n^ \"Why AI researchers like video games\". The Economist. Archived from the original on 5 October 2017. \n\n^ Yannakakis, G. N. (2012, May). Game AI revisited. In Proceedings of the 9th conference on Computing Frontiers (pp. 285\u2013292). ACM. \n\n^ \"Getting to grips with military robotics\". The Economist. 25 January 2018. Retrieved 7 February 2018 . \n\n^ \"Autonomous Systems: Infographic\". www.siemens.com. Retrieved 7 February 2018 . \n\n^ Allen, Gregory (February 6, 2019). \"Understanding China's AI Strategy\". https:\/\/www.cnas.org\/publications\/reports\/understanding-chinas-ai-strategy. Center for a New American Security. Archived from the original on March 17, 2019. Retrieved March 17, 2019 . External link in |website= (help) \n\n^ Metz, Cade (15 March 2018). \"Pentagon Wants Silicon Valley's Help on A.I.\" The New York Times. Retrieved 19 March 2018 . \n\n^ Chang, Hsihui; Kao, Yi-Ching; Mashruwala, Raj; Sorensen, Susan M. (10 April 2017). \"Technical Inefficiency, Allocative Inefficiency, and Audit Pricing\". Journal of Accounting, Auditing & Finance. 33 (4): 580\u2013600. doi:10.1177\/0148558X17696760. \n\n^ Matz, S. C., et al. \"Psychological targeting as an effective approach to digital mass persuasion.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2017): 201710966. \n\n^ Busby, Mattha (30 April 2018). \"Revealed: how bookies use AI to keep gamblers hooked\". the Guardian. \n\n^ Celli, Fabio, Pietro Zani Massani, and Bruno Lepri. \"Profilio: Psychometric Profiling to Boost Social Media Advertising.\" Proceedings of the 2017 ACM on Multimedia Conference. ACM, 2017 [1] \n\n^ https:\/\/www.moma.org\/calendar\/exhibitions\/3863 Retrieved July 29, 2018 \n\n^ https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/innovations\/wp\/2016\/03\/10\/googles-psychedelic-paint-brush-raises-the-oldest-question-in-art\/ Retrieved July 29 \n\n^ \"Unhuman: Art in the Age of AI \u2013 State Festival\". Statefestival.org. Retrieved 2018-09-13 . \n\n^ https:\/\/www.artsy.net\/article\/artsy-editorial-hard-painting-made-computer-human. Retrieved July 29 \n\n^ https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?id=3204480.3186697 Retrieved July 29 \n\n^ \nThe Turing test:\r\n\nTuring's original publication:\nTuring 1950\nHistorical influence and philosophical implications:\n\nHaugeland 1985, pp. 6\u20139\nCrevier 1993, p. 24\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 70\u201371\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 2\u20133 and 948\n \n^ \nDartmouth proposal:\nMcCarthy et al. 1955 (the original proposal)\nCrevier 1993, p. 49 (historical significance)\n \n^ \nThe physical symbol systems hypothesis:\nNewell & Simon 1976, p. 116\nMcCorduck 2004, p. 153\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 18\n \n^ \nDreyfus criticized the necessary condition of the physical symbol system hypothesis, which he called the \"psychological assumption\": \"The mind can be viewed as a device operating on bits of information according to formal rules.\" (Dreyfus 1992, p. 156) \n\n^ \nDreyfus' critique of artificial intelligence:\nDreyfus 1972, Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986\nCrevier 1993, pp. 120\u2013132\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 211\u2013239\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 950\u2013952,\n \n^ \nG\u00f6del 1951: in this lecture, Kurt G\u00f6del uses the incompleteness theorem to arrive at the following disjunction: (a) the human mind is not a consistent finite machine, or (b) there exist Diophantine equations for which it cannot decide whether solutions exist. G\u00f6del finds (b) implausible, and thus seems to have believed the human mind was not equivalent to a finite machine, i.e., its power exceeded that of any finite machine. He recognized that this was only a conjecture, since one could never disprove (b). Yet he considered the disjunctive conclusion to be a \"certain fact\". \n\n^ \nThe Mathematical Objection:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 949\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 448\u2013449\nMaking the Mathematical Objection:\n\nLucas 1961\nPenrose 1989\nRefuting Mathematical Objection:\n\nTuring 1950 under \"(2) The Mathematical Objection\"\nHofstadter 1979\nBackground:\n\nG\u00f6del 1931, Church 1936, Kleene 1935, Turing 1937\n \n^ Graham Oppy (20 January 2015). \"G\u00f6del's Incompleteness Theorems\". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 27 April 2016 . These G\u00f6delian anti-mechanist arguments are, however, problematic, and there is wide consensus that they fail. \n\n^ Stuart J. Russell; Peter Norvig (2010). \"26.1.2: Philosophical Foundations\/Weak AI: Can Machines Act Intelligently?\/The mathematical objection\". Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-604259-4. even if we grant that computers have limitations on what they can prove, there is no evidence that humans are immune from those limitations. \n\n^ Mark Colyvan. An introduction to the philosophy of mathematics. Cambridge University Press, 2012. From 2.2.2, 'Philosophical significance of G\u00f6del's incompleteness results': \"The accepted wisdom (with which I concur) is that the Lucas-Penrose arguments fail.\" \n\n^ Russel, Stuart., Daniel Dewey, and Max Tegmark. Research Priorities for Robust and Beneficial Artificial Intelligence. AI Magazine 36:4 (2015). 8 December 2016. \n\n^ Rawlinson, Kevin (29 January 2015). \"Microsoft's Bill Gates insists AI is a threat\". BBC News. Archived from the original on 29 January 2015. 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AI Matters. 1 (1): 9\u201311. doi:10.1145\/2639475.2639478. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 January 2016. \n\n^ \"The mysterious artificial intelligence company Elon Musk invested in is developing game-changing smart computers\". Tech Insider. Archived from the original on 30 October 2015. Retrieved 30 October 2015 . \n\n^ Clark, Jack. \"Musk-Backed Group Probes Risks Behind Artificial Intelligence\". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 30 October 2015. Retrieved 30 October 2015 . \n\n^ \"Elon Musk Is Donating $10M Of His Own Money To Artificial Intelligence Research\". Fast Company. 15 January 2015. Archived from the original on 30 October 2015. Retrieved 30 October 2015 . \n\n^ \"Is artificial intelligence really an existential threat to humanity?\". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 9 August 2015. Archived from the original on 30 October 2015. Retrieved 30 October 2015 . \n\n^ \"The case against killer robots, from a guy actually working on artificial intelligence\". Fusion.net. Archived from the original on 4 February 2016. Retrieved 31 January 2016 . \n\n^ \"Will artificial intelligence destroy humanity? Here are 5 reasons not to worry\". Vox. 22 August 2014. Archived from the original on 30 October 2015. Retrieved 30 October 2015 . \n\n^ In the early 1970s, Kenneth Colby presented a version of Weizenbaum's ELIZA known as DOCTOR which he promoted as a serious therapeutic tool. (Crevier 1993, pp. 132\u2013144) \n\n^ \nJoseph Weizenbaum's critique of AI:\nWeizenbaum 1976\nCrevier 1993, pp. 132\u2013144\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 356\u2013373\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 961\nWeizenbaum (the AI researcher who developed the first chatterbot program, ELIZA) argued in 1976 that the misuse of artificial intelligence has the potential to devalue human life. \n<\/p>\n\n^ https:\/\/www.channelnewsasia.com\/news\/commentary\/artificial-intelligence-big-data-bias-hiring-loans-key-challenge-11097374 \n\n^ E McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy' (2018) SSRN, part 2(3) \n\n^ \"Automation and anxiety\". The Economist. 9 May 2015. Retrieved 13 January 2018 . \n\n^ Lohr, Steve (2017). \"Robots Will Take Jobs, but Not as Fast as Some Fear, New Report Says\". The New York Times. 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Moral Machines, Oxford University Press. \n\n^ Wallach, pp 37\u201354. \n\n^ Wallach, pp 55\u201373. \n\n^ Wallach, Introduction chapter. \n\n^ a b Michael Anderson and Susan Leigh Anderson (2011), Machine Ethics, Cambridge University Press. \n\n^ a b \"Machine Ethics\". aaai.org. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. \n\n^ Rubin, Charles (Spring 2003). \"Artificial Intelligence and Human Nature |'The New Atlantis\". 1: 88\u2013100. Archived from the original on 11 June 2012. \n\n^ Brooks, Rodney (10 November 2014). \"artificial intelligence is a tool, not a threat\". Archived from the original on 12 November 2014. \n\n^ Chalmers, David (1995). \"Facing up to the problem of consciousness\". Journal of Consciousness Studies. 2 (3): 200\u2013219. See also this link \n\n^ Horst, Steven, (2005) \"The Computational Theory of Mind\" in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy \n\n^ \nThis version is from Searle (1999), and is also quoted in Dennett 1991, p. 435. Searle's original formulation was \"The appropriately programmed computer really is a mind, in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states.\" (Searle 1980, p. 1). Strong AI is defined similarly by Russell & Norvig (2003, p. 947): \"The assertion that machines could possibly act intelligently (or, perhaps better, act as if they were intelligent) is called the 'weak AI' hypothesis by philosophers, and the assertion that machines that do so are actually thinking (as opposed to simulating thinking) is called the 'strong AI' hypothesis.\" \n\n^ \nSearle's Chinese room argument:\nSearle 1980. Searle's original presentation of the thought experiment.\nSearle 1999.\nDiscussion:\n\nRussell & Norvig 2003, pp. 958\u2013960\nMcCorduck 2004, pp. 443\u2013445\nCrevier 1993, pp. 269\u2013271\n \n^ \nRobot rights:\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 964\nBBC News 2006\nPrematurity of:\n\nHenderson 2007\nIn fiction:\n\nMcCorduck (2004, pp. 190\u201325) discusses Frankenstein and identifies the key ethical issues as scientific hubris and the suffering of the monster, i.e. robot rights.\n \n^ Evans, Woody (2015). \"Posthuman Rights: Dimensions of Transhuman Worlds\". Teknokultura. 12 (2). doi:10.5209\/rev_TK.2015.v12.n2.49072. \n\n^ maschafilm. \"Content: Plug & Pray Film \u2013 Artificial Intelligence \u2013 Robots -\". plugandpray-film.de. Archived from the original on 12 February 2016. \n\n^ \nOmohundro, Steve (2008). The Nature of Self-Improving Artificial Intelligence. presented and distributed at the 2007 Singularity Summit, San Francisco, CA. \n\n^ a b c \nTechnological singularity:\nVinge 1993\nKurzweil 2005\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 963\n \n^ \nTranshumanism:\nMoravec 1988\nKurzweil 2005\nRussell & Norvig 2003, p. 963\n \n^ \nAI as evolution:\nEdward Fredkin is quoted in McCorduck (2004, p. 401).\nButler 1863\nDyson 1998\n \n^ Buttazzo, G. (July 2001). \"Artificial consciousness: Utopia or real possibility?\". Computer (IEEE). 34 (7): 24\u201330. doi:10.1109\/2.933500. \n\n^ Anderson, Susan Leigh. \"Asimov's \"three laws of robotics\" and machine metaethics.\" AI & Society 22.4 (2008): 477\u2013493. \n\n^ McCauley, Lee (2007). \"AI armageddon and the three laws of robotics\". Ethics and Information Technology. 9 (2): 153\u2013164. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.85.8904 . doi:10.1007\/s10676-007-9138-2. \n\n^ Galvan, Jill (1 January 1997). \"Entering the Posthuman Collective in Philip K. Dick's \"Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?\" \". Science Fiction Studies. 24 (3): 413\u2013429. JSTOR 4240644. \n\n\nAI textbooks [ edit] \n\nHutter, Marcus (2005). Universal Artificial Intelligence. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-22139-5. \nJackson, Philip (1985). Introduction to Artificial Intelligence (2nd ed.). Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-24864-6. \nLuger, George; Stubblefield, William (2004). Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving (5th ed.). Benjamin\/Cummings. ISBN 978-0-8053-4780-7. \nNeapolitan, Richard; Jiang, Xia (2018). Artificial Intelligence: With an Introduction to Machine Learning. Chapman & Hall\/CRC. ISBN 978-1-138-50238-3. \nNilsson, Nils (1998). Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis. Morgan Kaufmann. 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New York: Harper & Row. \nSkillings, Jonathan (3 July 2006). \"Getting Machines to Think Like Us\". cnet. Retrieved 3 February 2011 . \nSolomonoff, Ray (1956). An Inductive Inference Machine (PDF) . Dartmouth Summer Research Conference on Artificial Intelligence – via std.com, pdf scanned copy of the original. Later published as\r\nSolomonoff, Ray (1957). \"An Inductive Inference Machine\". IRE Convention Record. Section on Information Theory, part 2. pp. 56\u201362. \nTao, Jianhua; Tan, Tieniu (2005). Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction. Affective Computing: A Review. LNCS 3784. Springer. pp. 981\u2013995. doi:10.1007\/11573548. \nTecuci, Gheorghe (March\u2013April 2012). \"Artificial Intelligence\". Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Computational Statistics. 4 (2): 168\u2013180. doi:10.1002\/wics.200. \nThro, Ellen (1993). Robotics: The Marriage of Computers and Machines. New York: Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-2628-9. \nTuring, Alan (October 1950), \"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\", Mind, LIX (236): 433\u2013460, doi:10.1093\/mind\/LIX.236.433, ISSN 0026-4423 .\nvan der Walt, Christiaan; Bernard, Etienne (2006). \"Data characteristics that determine classifier performance\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 5 August 2009 . \nVinge, Vernor (1993). \"The Coming Technological Singularity: How to Survive in the Post-Human Era\". Vision 21: Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in the Era of Cyberspace: 11. Bibcode:1993vise.nasa...11V. \nWason, P. C.; Shapiro, D. (1966). \"Reasoning\". In Foss, B. M. New horizons in psychology. Harmondsworth: Penguin. \nWeizenbaum, Joseph (1976). Computer Power and Human Reason. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman & Company. ISBN 978-0-7167-0464-5. \nWeng, J.; McClelland; Pentland, A.; Sporns, O.; Stockman, I.; Sur, M.; Thelen, E. (2001). \"Autonomous mental development by robots and animals\" (PDF) . Science. 291 (5504): 599\u2013600. doi:10.1126\/science.291.5504.599. PMID 11229402 – via msu.edu. \n\"Applications of AI\". www-formal.stanford.edu. Retrieved 25 September 2016 . \n\nFurther reading [ edit] \n\nDH Author, \u2018Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation\u2019 (2015) 29(3) Journal of Economic Perspectives 3.\nBoden, Margaret, Mind As Machine, Oxford University Press, 2006\nDomingos, Pedro, \"Our Digital Doubles: AI will serve our species, not control it\", Scientific American, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp. 88\u201393.\nGopnik, Alison, \"Making AI More Human: Artificial intelligence has staged a revival by starting to incorporate what we know about how children learn\", Scientific American, vol. 316, no. 6 (June 2017), pp. 60\u201365.\nJohnston, John (2008) The Allure of Machinic Life: Cybernetics, Artificial Life, and the New AI, MIT Press\nMarcus, Gary, \"Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind\", Scientific American, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp. 58\u201363.\nE McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy' (2018) SSRN, part 2(3).\nMyers, Courtney Boyd ed. (2009). \"The AI Report\". Forbes June 2009\nRaphael, Bertram (1976). The Thinking Computer. W.H.Freeman and Company. ISBN 978-0-7167-0723-3. \nSerenko, Alexander (2010). \"The development of an AI journal ranking based on the revealed preference approach\" (PDF) . Journal of Informetrics. 4 (4): 447\u2013459. doi:10.1016\/j.joi.2010.04.001. \nSerenko, Alexander; Michael Dohan (2011). \"Comparing the expert survey and citation impact journal ranking methods: Example from the field of Artificial Intelligence\" (PDF) . Journal of Informetrics. 5 (4): 629\u2013649. doi:10.1016\/j.joi.2011.06.002. \nSun, R. & Bookman, L. (eds.), Computational Architectures: Integrating Neural and Symbolic Processes. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Needham, MA. 1994.\nTom Simonite (29 December 2014). \"2014 in Computing: Breakthroughs in Artificial Intelligence\". MIT Technology Review. \nStone, James V. Artificial Intelligence Engines: A Tutorial Introduction to the Mathematics of Deep Learning[2], Sebtel Press, March 2019.\n\nExternal links [ edit] \n\n Artificial Intelligenceat Wikipedia's sister projects \n \n \n Definitions from Wiktionary \n Media from Wikimedia Commons \n News from Wikinews \n Quotations from Wikiquote \n Texts from Wikisource \n Textbooks from Wikibooks \n Resources from Wikiversity \n \n \n\nWhat Is AI? \u2013 An introduction to artificial intelligence by John McCarthy\u2014a co-founder of the field, and the person who coined the term.\nThe Handbook of Artificial Intelligence Volume \u2160 by Avron Barr and Edward A. Feigenbaum (Stanford University)\n\"Artificial Intelligence\". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. \nThomason, Richmond. \"Logic and Artificial Intelligence\". In Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. \nAI at Curlie\nAITopics \u2013 A large directory of links and other resources maintained by the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence, the leading organization of academic AI researchers.\nList of AI Conferences \u2013 A list of 225 AI conferences taking place all over the world.\nArtificial Intelligence, BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Agar, Alison Adam & Igor Aleksander (In Our Time, Dec. 8, 2005)\n\nLinks to related articles\nvteJohn McCarthy\nArtificial intelligence\nCircumscription\nDartmouth workshop\nFrame problem\nGarbage collection\nLisp\nMcCarthy Formalism\nMcCarthy 91 function\nSituation calculus\nSpace fountain\n\nvtePhilosophy of mindTheories\nBehaviorism (Radical)\nBiological naturalism\nCognitive psychology\nMind\u2013body dualism\nEliminative materialism\nEmergent materialism\nEmergentism\nEpiphenomenalism\nFunctionalism\nIdealism\nInteractionism\nMaterialism\nMonism\nNa\u00efve realism\nNeurophenomenology\nNeutral monism\nOccasionalism\nPsychoanalysis\nParallelism\nPhenomenalism\nPhenomenology\nPhysicalism\nidentity theory\nProperty dualism\nRepresentational\nSolipsism\nSubstance dualism\nConcepts\nAbstract object\nArtificial intelligence\nChinese room\nCognition\nCognitive closure\nConcept\nConcept and object\nConsciousness\nHard problem of consciousness\nHypostatic abstraction\nIdea\nIdentity\nIngenuity\nIntelligence\nIntentionality\nIntrospection\nIntuition\nLanguage of thought\nMaterialism\nMental event\nMental image\nMental process\nMental property\nMental representation\nMind\nMind\u2013body problem\nNon-physical entity\nNew mysterianism\nPain\nPrivileged access\nProblem of other minds\nPropositional attitude\nQualia\nTabula rasa\nUnderstanding\nZombie\nmore...\nRelated topics\nMetaphysics\nPhilosophy of artificial intelligence \/ information \/ perception \/ self\n\nPortal\nCategory\nPhilosophers category\nProject\nTask Force\n\nvtePhilosophy of scienceConcepts\nAnalysis\nAnalytic\u2013synthetic distinction\nA priori and a posteriori\nCausality\nCommensurability\nConsilience\nConstruct\nCreative synthesis\nDemarcation problem\nEmpirical evidence\nExplanatory power\nFact\nFalsifiability\nFeminist method\nFunctional contextualism\nIgnoramus et ignorabimus\nInductive reasoning\nIntertheoretic reduction\nInquiry\nNature\nObjectivity\nObservation\nParadigm\nProblem of induction\nScientific law\nScientific method\nScientific revolution\nScientific theory\nTestability\nTheory choice\nTheory-ladenness\nUnderdetermination\nUnity of science\nMetatheory\r\nof science\nCoherentism\nConfirmation holism\nConstructive empiricism\nConstructive realism\nConstructivist epistemology\nContextualism\nConventionalism\nDeductive-nomological model\nHypothetico-deductive model\nInductionism\nEpistemological anarchism\nEvolutionism\nFallibilism\nFoundationalism\nInstrumentalism\nPragmatism\nModel-dependent realism\nNaturalism\nPhysicalism\nPositivism \/ Reductionism \/ Determinism\nRationalism \/ Empiricism\nReceived view \/ Semantic view of theories\nScientific realism \/ Anti-realism\nScientific essentialism\nScientific formalism\nScientific skepticism\nScientism\nStructuralism\nUniformitarianism\nVitalism\nPhilosophy of\nPhysics\nthermal and statistical\nMotion\nChemistry\nBiology\nEnvironment\nGeography\nSocial science\nTechnology\nEngineering\nArtificial intelligence\nComputer science\nInformation\nMind\nPsychiatry\nPsychology\nPerception\nSpace and time\nRelated topics\nAlchemy\nCriticism of science\nEpistemology\nFaith and rationality\nHistory and philosophy of science\nHistory of science\nHistory of evolutionary thought\nLogic\nMetaphysics\nPseudoscience\nRelationship between religion and science\nRhetoric of science\nSociology of scientific knowledge\nSociology of scientific ignorance\nPhilosophers of science by eraAncient\nPlato\nAristotle\nStoicism\nEpicureans\nMedieval\nAverroes\nAvicenna\nRoger Bacon\nWilliam of Ockham\nHugh of Saint Victor\nDominicus Gundissalinus\nRobert Kilwardby\nEarly modern\nFrancis Bacon\nThomas Hobbes\nRen\u00e9 Descartes\nGalileo Galilei\nPierre Gassendi\nIsaac Newton\nDavid Hume\nLate modern\nImmanuel Kant\nFriedrich Schelling\nWilliam Whewell\nAuguste Comte\nJohn Stuart Mill\nHerbert Spencer\nWilhelm Wundt\nCharles Sanders Peirce\nWilhelm Windelband\nHenri Poincar\u00e9\nPierre Duhem\nRudolf Steiner\nKarl Pearson\nContemporary\nAlfred North Whitehead\nBertrand Russell\nAlbert Einstein\nOtto Neurath\nC. D. Broad\nMichael Polanyi\nHans Reichenbach\nRudolf Carnap\nKarl Popper\nCarl Gustav Hempel\nW. V. O. Quine\nThomas Kuhn\nImre Lakatos\nPaul Feyerabend\nJ\u00fcrgen Habermas\nIan Hacking\nBas van Fraassen\nLarry Laudan\nDaniel Dennett\n\nPortal\nCategory\n\nvteEvolutionary computationMain Topics\nConvergence (evolutionary computing)\nEvolutionary algorithm\nEvolutionary data mining\nEvolutionary multimodal optimization\nHuman-based evolutionary computation\nInteractive evolutionary computation\nAlgorithms\nCellular evolutionary algorithm\nCovariance Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy (CMA-ES)\nDifferential evolution\nEvolutionary programming\nGenetic algorithm\nGenetic programming\nGene expression programming\nEvolution strategy\nNatural evolution strategy\nNeuroevolution\nLearning classifier system\nRelated techniques\nSwarm intelligence\nAnt colony optimization\nBees algorithm\nCuckoo search\nParticle swarm optimization\nBacterial Colony Optimization\nMetaheuristic methods\nGrey Wolf Optimizer\nFirefly algorithm\nHarmony search\nGaussian adaptation\nMemetic algorithm\nRelated topics\nArtificial development\nArtificial intelligence\nArtificial life\nDigital organism\nEvolutionary robotics\nFitness function\nFitness landscape\nFitness approximation\nGenetic operators\nInteractive evolutionary computation\nNo free lunch in search and optimization\nMachine learning\nMating pool\nProgram synthesis\nJournals\nEvolutionary Computation (journal)\n\nvteComputable knowledgeTopics and\r\nconcepts\nAlphabet of human thought\nAuthority control\nAutomated reasoning\nCommonsense knowledge\nCommonsense reasoning\nComputability\nFormal system\nInference engine\nKnowledge base\nKnowledge-based systems\nKnowledge engineering\nKnowledge extraction\nKnowledge representation\nKnowledge retrieval\nLibrary classification\nLogic programming\nOntology\nPersonal knowledge base\nQuestion answering\nSemantic reasoner\nProposals and\r\nimplementations\nZairja\nArs Magna  (1300)\nAn Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language  (1688)\nCalculus ratiocinator and characteristica universalis  (1700)\nDewey Decimal Classification  (1876)\nBegriffsschrift  (1879)\nMundaneum  (1910)\nLogical atomism  (1918)\nTractatus Logico-Philosophicus  (1921)\nHilbert's program  (1920s)\nIncompleteness theorem  (1931)\nWorld Brain  (1938)\nMemex  (1945)\nGeneral Problem Solver  (1959)\nProlog  (1972)\nCyc  (1984)\nSemantic Web  (2001)\nEvi  (2007)\nWolfram Alpha  (2009)\nWatson  (2011)\nSiri  (2011)\nKnowledge Graph  (2012)\nWikidata  (2012)\nCortana  (2014)\nViv  (2016)\nIn fiction\nThe Engine (Gulliver's Travels, 1726)\nJoe (\"A Logic Named Joe\", 1946)\nThe Librarian (Snow Crash, 1992)\nDr. Know (A.I. Artificial Intelligence, 2001)\nWaterhouse (The Baroque Cycle, 2003)\nSee also: Logic machines in fiction and List of fictional computers\n\n\nvteComputer scienceNote: This template roughly follows the 2012 ACM Computing Classification System.Hardware\nPrinted circuit board\nPeripheral\nIntegrated circuit\nVery Large Scale Integration\nSystems on Chip (SoCs)\nEnergy consumption (Green computing)\nElectronic design automation\nHardware acceleration\nComputer systems\r\norganization\nComputer architecture\nEmbedded system\nReal-time computing\nDependability\nNetworks\nNetwork architecture\nNetwork protocol\nNetwork components\nNetwork scheduler\nNetwork performance evaluation\nNetwork service\nSoftware organization\nInterpreter\nMiddleware\nVirtual machine\nOperating system\nSoftware quality\nSoftware notations\r\nand tools\nProgramming paradigm\nProgramming language\nCompiler\nDomain-specific language\nModeling language\nSoftware framework\nIntegrated development environment\nSoftware configuration management\nSoftware library\nSoftware repository\nSoftware development\nSoftware development process\nRequirements analysis\nSoftware design\nSoftware construction\nSoftware deployment\nSoftware maintenance\nProgramming team\nOpen-source model\nTheory of computation\nModel of computation\nFormal language\nAutomata theory\nComputational complexity theory\nLogic\nSemantics\nAlgorithms\nAlgorithm design\nAnalysis of algorithms\nAlgorithmic efficiency\nRandomized algorithm\nComputational geometry\nMathematics\r\nof computing\nDiscrete mathematics\nProbability\nStatistics\nMathematical software\nInformation theory\nMathematical analysis\nNumerical analysis\nInformation\r\nsystems\nDatabase management system\nInformation storage systems\nEnterprise information system\nSocial information systems\nGeographic information system\nDecision support system\nProcess control system\nMultimedia information system\nData mining\nDigital library\nComputing platform\nDigital marketing\nWorld Wide Web\nInformation retrieval\nSecurity\nCryptography\nFormal methods\nSecurity services\nIntrusion detection system\nHardware security\nNetwork security\nInformation security\nApplication security\nHuman\u2013computer\r\ninteraction\nInteraction design\nSocial computing\nUbiquitous computing\nVisualization\nAccessibility\nConcurrency\nConcurrent computing\nParallel computing\nDistributed computing\nMultithreading\nMultiprocessing\nArtificial\r\nintelligence\nNatural language processing\nKnowledge representation and reasoning\nComputer vision\nAutomated planning and scheduling\nSearch methodology\nControl method\nPhilosophy of artificial intelligence\nDistributed artificial intelligence\nMachine learning\nSupervised learning\nUnsupervised learning\nReinforcement learning\nMulti-task learning\nCross-validation\nGraphics\nAnimation\nRendering\nImage manipulation\nGraphics processing unit\nMixed reality\nVirtual reality\nImage compression\nSolid modeling\nApplied\r\ncomputing\nE-commerce\nEnterprise software\nComputational mathematics\nComputational physics\nComputational chemistry\nComputational biology\nComputational social science\nComputational engineering\nComputational healthcare\nDigital art\nElectronic publishing\nCyberwarfare\nElectronic voting\nVideo games\nWord processing\nOperations research\nEducational technology\nDocument management\n\n Book\n Category\n Portal\nWikiProject\n Commons\n\nvteEmerging technologiesFieldsAgriculture\nAgricultural robot\nCellular agriculture\nClosed ecological systems\nCultured meat\nGenetically modified food\nPrecision agriculture\nVertical farming\nArchitecture\nArcology\nBuilding printing\nContour crafting\nDomed city\nBiomedical\nArtificial uterus\nAmpakine\nBrain transplant\nCryonics\nCryoprotectant\nCryopreservation\nVitrification\nSuspended animation\nDe-extinction\nGenetic engineering\nGene therapy\nHead transplant\nIsolated brain\nLife extension\nStrategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence\nNanomedicine\nNanosensors\nOrgan printing\nPersonalized medicine\nRegenerative medicine\nStem-cell therapy\nTissue engineering\nRobot-assisted surgery\nSynthetic biology\nSynthetic genomics\nVirotherapy\nOncolytic virus\nTricorder\nWhole genome sequencing\nDisplaysNext generation\nFED\nFLCD\niMoD\nLaser\nLPD\nOLED\nOLET\nQD-LED\nSED\nTPD\nTDEL\nTMOS\nScreenless\nBionic contact lens\nHead-mounted display\nHead-up display\nOptical head-mounted display\nVirtual retinal display\nOther\nAutostereoscopy\nFlexible display\nHolographic display\nComputer-generated holography\nMulti-primary color display\nUltra HD\nVolumetric display\nElectronics\nElectronic nose\nE-textiles\nFlexible electronics\nMolecular electronics\nNanoelectromechanical systems\nMemristor\nSpintronics\nThermal copper pillar bump\nEnergyProduction\nAirborne wind turbine\nArtificial photosynthesis\nBiofuels\nCarbon-neutral fuel\nConcentrated solar power\nFusion power\nHome fuel cell\nHydrogen economy\nMethanol economy\nMolten salt reactor\nNantenna\nPhotovoltaic pavement\nSpace-based solar power\nVortex engine\nStorage\nBeltway battery\nCompressed air energy storage\nFlywheel energy storage\nGrid energy storage\nLithium\u2013air battery\nMolten-salt battery\nNanowire battery\nResearch in lithium-ion batteries\nSilicon\u2013air battery\nThermal energy storage\nUltracapacitor\nOther\nSmart grid\nWireless power\nInformation and\r\ncommunications\nAmbient intelligence\nInternet of things\nArtificial intelligence\nApplications of artificial intelligence\nProgress in artificial intelligence\nMachine translation\nMobile translation\nMachine vision\nSemantic Web\nSpeech recognition\nAtomtronics\nCarbon nanotube field-effect transistor\nCybermethodology\nFourth-generation optical discs\n3D optical data storage\nHolographic data storage\nGPGPU\nMemory\nCBRAM\nFRAM\nMillipede\nMRAM\nNRAM\nPRAM\nRacetrack memory\nRRAM\nSONOS\nOptical computing\nRFID\nChipless RFID\nSoftware-defined radio\nThree-dimensional integrated circuit\nManufacturing\n3D printing\nClaytronics\nMolecular assembler\nUtility fog\nMaterials science\nAerogel\nAmorphous metal\nArtificial muscle\nConductive polymer\nFemtotechnology\nFullerene\nGraphene\nHigh-temperature superconductivity\nHigh-temperature superfluidity\nLinear acetylenic carbon\nMetamaterials\nMetamaterial cloaking\nMetal foam\nMulti-function structures\nNanotechnology\nCarbon nanotubes\nMolecular nanotechnology\nNanomaterials\nPicotechnology\nProgrammable matter\nQuantum dots\nSilicene\nSuperalloy\nSynthetic diamond\nMilitary\nAntimatter weapon\nCaseless ammunition\nDirected-energy weapon\nLaser\nMaser\nParticle-beam weapon\nSonic weapon\nCoilgun\nRailgun\nPlasma weapon\nPure fusion weapon\nStealth technology\nVortex ring gun\nNeuroscience\nArtificial brain\nBrain\u2013computer interface\nElectroencephalography\nMind uploading\nBrain-reading\nNeuroinformatics\nNeuroprosthetics\nBionic eye\nBrain implant\nExocortex\nRetinal implant\nQuantum\nQuantum algorithms\nQuantum amplifier\nQuantum bus\nQuantum channel\nQuantum circuit\nQuantum complexity theory\nQuantum computing\nQuantum cryptography\nQuantum dynamics\nQuantum electronics\nQuantum error correction\nQuantum imaging\nQuantum information\nQuantum key distribution\nQuantum logic\nQuantum logic gates\nQuantum machine\nQuantum machine learning\nQuantum metamaterial\nQuantum metrology\nQuantum network\nQuantum neural network\nQuantum optics\nQuantum programming\nQuantum sensing\nQuantum simulator\nQuantum teleportation\nRobotics\nDomotics\nNanorobotics\nPowered exoskeleton\nSelf-reconfiguring modular robot\nSwarm robotics\nUncrewed vehicle\nSpace scienceLaunch\nFusion rocket\nNon-rocket spacelaunch\nMass driver\nOrbital ring\nSkyhook\nSpace elevator\nSpace fountain\nSpace tether\nReusable launch system\nPropulsion\nBeam-powered propulsion\nIon thruster\nLaser propulsion\nPlasma propulsion engine\nHelicon thruster\nVASIMR\nNuclear pulse propulsion\nSolar sail\nOther\nInterstellar travel\nPropellant depot\nLaser communication in space\nTransportAerial\nAdaptive compliant wing\nBackpack helicopter\nDelivery drone\nFlying car\nHigh-altitude platform\nJet pack\nPulse detonation engine\nScramjet\nSpaceplane\nSupersonic transport\nLand\nAirless tire\nAlternative fuel vehicle\nHydrogen vehicle\nDriverless car\nGround effect train\nHyperloop\nMaglev train\nPersonal rapid transit\nTransit Elevated Bus\nVactrain\nVehicular communication systems\nPipeline\nPneumatic transport\nAutomated vacuum collection\nOther\nAnti-gravity\nCloak of invisibility\nDigital scent technology\nForce field\nPlasma window\nImmersive virtual reality\nMagnetic refrigeration\nPhased-array optics\nTopics\nCollingridge dilemma\nDifferential technological development\nDisruptive Innovation\nEphemeralization\nExploratory engineering\nFictional technology\nProactionary principle\nTechnological change\nTechnological unemployment\nTechnological convergence\nTechnological evolution\nTechnological paradigm\nTechnology forecasting\nAccelerating change\nMoore's law\nTechnological singularity\nTechnology scouting\nTechnology readiness level\nTechnology roadmap\nTranshumanism\n\n Category\n List\n\nvteRobotics (outline)Main articles\nOutline\nGlossary\nIndex\nHistory\nFuture\nGeography\nHall of Fame\nEthics\nLaws\nCompetitions\nAI competitions\nTypes\nAnthropomorphic\nHumanoid\nAndroid\nCyborg\nClaytronics\nCompanion\nAnimatronic\nIndustrial\nArticulated\narm\nDomestic\nEducational\nEntertainment\nJuggling\nMilitary\nMedical\nService\nDisability\nAgricultural\nFood service\nRetailing\nBEAM robotics\nSoft robotics\nUncrewed vehicle\nClassifications\nBiorobotics\nAerial vehicle\nGround vehicle\nMobile robot\nnavigation\nMicrobotics\nNanorobotics\nRobotic spacecraft\nSpace probe\nSwarm\nUnderwater\nLocomotion\nTracks\nWalking\nHexapod\nClimbing\nSelf-balancing unicycle\nResearch\nEvolutionary\nKits\nSimulator\nSuite\nOpen-source\nSoftware\nAdaptable\nDevelopmental\nParadigms\nUbiquitous\nRelated\nTechnological unemployment\nFictional robots\n\n Category\n Outline\n Portal\n\n\n\nvteRisks from artificial intelligenceConcepts\nAI box\nAI takeover\nControl problem\nExistential risk from artificial general intelligence\nFriendly artificial intelligence\nInstrumental convergence\nIntelligence explosion\nMachine ethics\nSuperintelligence\nTechnological singularity\nOrganizations\nAllen Institute for Artificial Intelligence\nCenter for Applied Rationality\nCentre for the Study of Existential Risk\nDeepMind\nFoundational Questions Institute\nFuture of Humanity Institute\nFuture of Life Institute\nHumanity+\nInstitute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies\nLeverhulme Centre for the Future of Intelligence\nMachine Intelligence Research Institute\nOpenAI\nPeople\nNick Bostrom\nStephen Hawking\nBill Hibbard\nBill Joy\nElon Musk\nSteve Omohundro\nHuw Price\nMartin Rees\nStuart J. Russell\nJaan Tallinn\nMax Tegmark\nFrank Wilczek\nRoman Yampolskiy\nEliezer Yudkowsky\nSam Harris\nOther\nOpen Letter on Artificial Intelligence\nEthics of artificial intelligence\nControversies and dangers of artificial general intelligence\nArtificial intelligence as a global catastrophic risk\nSuperintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies\nOur Final Invention\n\nvtePhilosophy of mindTheories\nBehaviorism (Radical)\nBiological naturalism\nCognitive psychology\nMind\u2013body dualism\nEliminative materialism\nEmergent materialism\nEmergentism\nEpiphenomenalism\nFunctionalism\nIdealism\nInteractionism\nMaterialism\nMonism\nNa\u00efve realism\nNeurophenomenology\nNeutral monism\nOccasionalism\nPsychoanalysis\nParallelism\nPhenomenalism\nPhenomenology\nPhysicalism\nidentity theory\nProperty dualism\nRepresentational\nSolipsism\nSubstance dualism\nConcepts\nAbstract object\nArtificial intelligence\nChinese room\nCognition\nCognitive closure\nConcept\nConcept and object\nConsciousness\nHard problem of consciousness\nHypostatic abstraction\nIdea\nIdentity\nIngenuity\nIntelligence\nIntentionality\nIntrospection\nIntuition\nLanguage of thought\nMaterialism\nMental event\nMental image\nMental process\nMental property\nMental representation\nMind\nMind\u2013body problem\nNon-physical entity\nNew mysterianism\nPain\nPrivileged access\nProblem of other minds\nPropositional attitude\nQualia\nTabula rasa\nUnderstanding\nZombie\nmore...\nRelated topics\nMetaphysics\nPhilosophy of artificial intelligence \/ information \/ perception \/ self\n\nPortal\nCategory\nPhilosophers category\nProject\nTask Force\n\nvteSubfields of and scientists involved in cyberneticsSubfields\nPolycontexturality\nSecond-order cybernetics\nCatastrophe theory\nConnectionism\nControl theory\nDecision theory\nEngineering cybernetics\nInformation theory\nSemiotics\nSynergetics\nBiological cybernetics\nBiosemiotics\nBiomedical cybernetics\nBiorobotics\nComputational neuroscience\nHomeostasis\nManagement cybernetics\nMedical cybernetics\nNeurocybernetics\nSociocybernetics\nEmergence\nArtificial intelligence\nCyberneticists\nMaleyka Abbaszadeh\nIgor Aleksander\nWilliam Ross Ashby\nGregory Bateson\nAnthony Stafford Beer\nNatalia Bekhtereva\nClaude Bernard\nLudwig von Bertalanffy\nValentin Braitenberg\nGordon S. Brown\nWalter Bradford Cannon\nManfred Clynes\nHeinz von Foerster\nCharles Fran\u00e7ois\nJay Wright Forrester\nJacque Fresco\nBuckminster Fuller\nRanulph Glanville\nErnst von Glasersfeld\nPyotr Grigorenko\nN. Katherine Hayles\nFrancis Heylighen\nErich von Holst\nJason Jixuan Hu\nCliff Joslyn\nStuart Kauffman\nSergei P. Kurdyumov\nAllenna Leonard\nAlexander Lerner\nNiklas Luhmann\nWarren McCulloch\nHumberto Maturana\nMarian Mazur\nMargaret Mead\nUlla Mitzdorf\nTalcott Parsons\nGordon Pask\nWalter Pitts\nQian Xuesen\nAlfred Radcliffe-Brown\nRobert Trappl\nValentin Turchin\nJakob von Uexk\u00fcll\nStuart Umpleby\nFrancisco Varela\nFrederic Vester\nCharles Geoffrey Vickers\nJohn N. Warfield\nWilliam Grey Walter\nKevin Warwick\nNorbert Wiener\nJennifer Wilby\nAnthony Wilden\n\nvteComputer scienceNote: This template roughly follows the 2012 ACM Computing Classification System.Hardware\nPrinted circuit board\nPeripheral\nIntegrated circuit\nVery Large Scale Integration\nSystems on Chip (SoCs)\nEnergy consumption (Green computing)\nElectronic design automation\nHardware acceleration\nComputer systems\r\norganization\nComputer architecture\nEmbedded system\nReal-time computing\nDependability\nNetworks\nNetwork architecture\nNetwork protocol\nNetwork components\nNetwork scheduler\nNetwork performance evaluation\nNetwork service\nSoftware organization\nInterpreter\nMiddleware\nVirtual machine\nOperating system\nSoftware quality\nSoftware notations\r\nand tools\nProgramming paradigm\nProgramming language\nCompiler\nDomain-specific language\nModeling language\nSoftware framework\nIntegrated development environment\nSoftware configuration management\nSoftware library\nSoftware repository\nSoftware development\nSoftware development process\nRequirements analysis\nSoftware design\nSoftware construction\nSoftware deployment\nSoftware maintenance\nProgramming team\nOpen-source model\nTheory of computation\nModel of computation\nFormal language\nAutomata theory\nComputational complexity theory\nLogic\nSemantics\nAlgorithms\nAlgorithm design\nAnalysis of algorithms\nAlgorithmic efficiency\nRandomized algorithm\nComputational geometry\nMathematics\r\nof computing\nDiscrete mathematics\nProbability\nStatistics\nMathematical software\nInformation theory\nMathematical analysis\nNumerical analysis\nInformation\r\nsystems\nDatabase management system\nInformation storage systems\nEnterprise information system\nSocial information systems\nGeographic information system\nDecision support system\nProcess control system\nMultimedia information system\nData mining\nDigital library\nComputing platform\nDigital marketing\nWorld Wide Web\nInformation retrieval\nSecurity\nCryptography\nFormal methods\nSecurity services\nIntrusion detection system\nHardware security\nNetwork security\nInformation security\nApplication security\nHuman\u2013computer\r\ninteraction\nInteraction design\nSocial computing\nUbiquitous computing\nVisualization\nAccessibility\nConcurrency\nConcurrent computing\nParallel computing\nDistributed computing\nMultithreading\nMultiprocessing\nArtificial\r\nintelligence\nNatural language processing\nKnowledge representation and reasoning\nComputer vision\nAutomated planning and scheduling\nSearch methodology\nControl method\nPhilosophy of artificial intelligence\nDistributed artificial intelligence\nMachine learning\nSupervised learning\nUnsupervised learning\nReinforcement learning\nMulti-task learning\nCross-validation\nGraphics\nAnimation\nRendering\nImage manipulation\nGraphics processing unit\nMixed reality\nVirtual reality\nImage compression\nSolid modeling\nApplied\r\ncomputing\nE-commerce\nEnterprise software\nComputational mathematics\nComputational physics\nComputational chemistry\nComputational biology\nComputational social science\nComputational engineering\nComputational healthcare\nDigital art\nElectronic publishing\nCyberwarfare\nElectronic voting\nVideo games\nWord processing\nOperations research\nEducational technology\nDocument management\n\n Book\n Category\n Portal\nWikiProject\n Commons\n\nvteEvolutionary computationMain Topics\nConvergence (evolutionary computing)\nEvolutionary algorithm\nEvolutionary data mining\nEvolutionary multimodal optimization\nHuman-based evolutionary computation\nInteractive evolutionary computation\nAlgorithms\nCellular evolutionary algorithm\nCovariance Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy (CMA-ES)\nDifferential evolution\nEvolutionary programming\nGenetic algorithm\nGenetic programming\nGene expression programming\nEvolution strategy\nNatural evolution strategy\nNeuroevolution\nLearning classifier system\nRelated techniques\nSwarm intelligence\nAnt colony optimization\nBees algorithm\nCuckoo search\nParticle swarm optimization\nBacterial Colony Optimization\nMetaheuristic methods\nGrey Wolf Optimizer\nFirefly algorithm\nHarmony search\nGaussian adaptation\nMemetic algorithm\nRelated topics\nArtificial development\nArtificial intelligence\nArtificial life\nDigital organism\nEvolutionary robotics\nFitness function\nFitness landscape\nFitness approximation\nGenetic operators\nInteractive evolutionary computation\nNo free lunch in search and optimization\nMachine learning\nMating pool\nProgram synthesis\nJournals\nEvolutionary Computation (journal)\n\nvteEmerging technologiesFieldsAgriculture\nAgricultural robot\nCellular agriculture\nClosed ecological systems\nCultured meat\nGenetically modified food\nPrecision agriculture\nVertical farming\nArchitecture\nArcology\nBuilding printing\nContour crafting\nDomed city\nBiomedical\nArtificial uterus\nAmpakine\nBrain transplant\nCryonics\nCryoprotectant\nCryopreservation\nVitrification\nSuspended animation\nDe-extinction\nGenetic engineering\nGene therapy\nHead transplant\nIsolated brain\nLife extension\nStrategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence\nNanomedicine\nNanosensors\nOrgan printing\nPersonalized medicine\nRegenerative medicine\nStem-cell therapy\nTissue engineering\nRobot-assisted surgery\nSynthetic biology\nSynthetic genomics\nVirotherapy\nOncolytic virus\nTricorder\nWhole genome sequencing\nDisplaysNext generation\nFED\nFLCD\niMoD\nLaser\nLPD\nOLED\nOLET\nQD-LED\nSED\nTPD\nTDEL\nTMOS\nScreenless\nBionic contact lens\nHead-mounted display\nHead-up display\nOptical head-mounted display\nVirtual retinal display\nOther\nAutostereoscopy\nFlexible display\nHolographic display\nComputer-generated holography\nMulti-primary color display\nUltra HD\nVolumetric display\nElectronics\nElectronic nose\nE-textiles\nFlexible electronics\nMolecular electronics\nNanoelectromechanical systems\nMemristor\nSpintronics\nThermal copper pillar bump\nEnergyProduction\nAirborne wind turbine\nArtificial photosynthesis\nBiofuels\nCarbon-neutral fuel\nConcentrated solar power\nFusion power\nHome fuel cell\nHydrogen economy\nMethanol economy\nMolten salt reactor\nNantenna\nPhotovoltaic pavement\nSpace-based solar power\nVortex engine\nStorage\nBeltway battery\nCompressed air energy storage\nFlywheel energy storage\nGrid energy storage\nLithium\u2013air battery\nMolten-salt battery\nNanowire battery\nResearch in lithium-ion batteries\nSilicon\u2013air battery\nThermal energy storage\nUltracapacitor\nOther\nSmart grid\nWireless power\nInformation and\r\ncommunications\nAmbient intelligence\nInternet of things\nArtificial intelligence\nApplications of artificial intelligence\nProgress in artificial intelligence\nMachine translation\nMobile translation\nMachine vision\nSemantic Web\nSpeech recognition\nAtomtronics\nCarbon nanotube field-effect transistor\nCybermethodology\nFourth-generation optical discs\n3D optical data storage\nHolographic data storage\nGPGPU\nMemory\nCBRAM\nFRAM\nMillipede\nMRAM\nNRAM\nPRAM\nRacetrack memory\nRRAM\nSONOS\nOptical computing\nRFID\nChipless RFID\nSoftware-defined radio\nThree-dimensional integrated circuit\nManufacturing\n3D printing\nClaytronics\nMolecular assembler\nUtility fog\nMaterials science\nAerogel\nAmorphous metal\nArtificial muscle\nConductive polymer\nFemtotechnology\nFullerene\nGraphene\nHigh-temperature superconductivity\nHigh-temperature superfluidity\nLinear acetylenic carbon\nMetamaterials\nMetamaterial cloaking\nMetal foam\nMulti-function structures\nNanotechnology\nCarbon nanotubes\nMolecular nanotechnology\nNanomaterials\nPicotechnology\nProgrammable matter\nQuantum dots\nSilicene\nSuperalloy\nSynthetic diamond\nMilitary\nAntimatter weapon\nCaseless ammunition\nDirected-energy weapon\nLaser\nMaser\nParticle-beam weapon\nSonic weapon\nCoilgun\nRailgun\nPlasma weapon\nPure fusion weapon\nStealth technology\nVortex ring gun\nNeuroscience\nArtificial brain\nBrain\u2013computer interface\nElectroencephalography\nMind uploading\nBrain-reading\nNeuroinformatics\nNeuroprosthetics\nBionic eye\nBrain implant\nExocortex\nRetinal implant\nQuantum\nQuantum algorithms\nQuantum amplifier\nQuantum bus\nQuantum channel\nQuantum circuit\nQuantum complexity theory\nQuantum computing\nQuantum cryptography\nQuantum dynamics\nQuantum electronics\nQuantum error correction\nQuantum imaging\nQuantum information\nQuantum key distribution\nQuantum logic\nQuantum logic gates\nQuantum machine\nQuantum machine learning\nQuantum metamaterial\nQuantum metrology\nQuantum network\nQuantum neural network\nQuantum optics\nQuantum programming\nQuantum sensing\nQuantum simulator\nQuantum teleportation\nRobotics\nDomotics\nNanorobotics\nPowered exoskeleton\nSelf-reconfiguring modular robot\nSwarm robotics\nUncrewed vehicle\nSpace scienceLaunch\nFusion rocket\nNon-rocket spacelaunch\nMass driver\nOrbital ring\nSkyhook\nSpace elevator\nSpace fountain\nSpace tether\nReusable launch system\nPropulsion\nBeam-powered propulsion\nIon thruster\nLaser propulsion\nPlasma propulsion engine\nHelicon thruster\nVASIMR\nNuclear pulse propulsion\nSolar sail\nOther\nInterstellar travel\nPropellant depot\nLaser communication in space\nTransportAerial\nAdaptive compliant wing\nBackpack helicopter\nDelivery drone\nFlying car\nHigh-altitude platform\nJet pack\nPulse detonation engine\nScramjet\nSpaceplane\nSupersonic transport\nLand\nAirless tire\nAlternative fuel vehicle\nHydrogen vehicle\nDriverless car\nGround effect train\nHyperloop\nMaglev train\nPersonal rapid transit\nTransit Elevated Bus\nVactrain\nVehicular communication systems\nPipeline\nPneumatic transport\nAutomated vacuum collection\nOther\nAnti-gravity\nCloak of invisibility\nDigital scent technology\nForce field\nPlasma window\nImmersive virtual reality\nMagnetic refrigeration\nPhased-array optics\nTopics\nCollingridge dilemma\nDifferential technological development\nDisruptive Innovation\nEphemeralization\nExploratory engineering\nFictional technology\nProactionary principle\nTechnological change\nTechnological unemployment\nTechnological convergence\nTechnological evolution\nTechnological paradigm\nTechnology forecasting\nAccelerating change\nMoore's law\nTechnological singularity\nTechnology scouting\nTechnology readiness level\nTechnology roadmap\nTranshumanism\n\n Category\n List\n\nvteGlossaries of science and engineering\nAerospace engineering\nArchaeology\nArchitecture\nArtificial intelligence\nAstronomy\nBiology\nBotany\nCalculus\nChemistry\nCivil engineering\nClinical research\nComputer science\nEcology\nEconomics\nElectrical and electronics engineering\nEngineering\nEntomology\nEnvironmental science\nGenetics\nGeography\nGeology\nMachine vision\nMathematics\nMechanical engineering\nMedicine\nMeteorology\nPhysics\nProbability and statistics\nPsychiatry\nRobotics\nSpeciation\nStructural engineering\n\nAuthority control \nBNF: cb11932084t (data) \nGND: 4033447-8 \nLCCN: sh85008180 \nNDL: 00574798 \n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: AutomationSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest 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\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 27 April 2018, at 16:36.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 15,602 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Artificial_intelligence skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Artificial intelligence<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"AI\" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-redirect mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"AI (disambiguation)\" data-key=\"ee240fd3345b120f2ceeb4bef73e437e\">AI (disambiguation)<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial intelligence (disambiguation)\" data-key=\"6a79ecad026b8e92c791b4d5c25df30c\">Artificial intelligence (disambiguation)<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">Intelligence demonstrated by machines<\/div>\n\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">computer science<\/a>, <b>artificial intelligence<\/b> (<b>AI<\/b>), sometimes called <b>machine intelligence<\/b>, is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligence\" title=\"Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34e224ca1f6aff5a40148ce1a229588d\">intelligence<\/a> demonstrated by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine\" title=\"Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"82c1c83750cde10b09ea0b2a4c17a134\">machines<\/a>, in contrast to the <b>natural intelligence<\/b> displayed by humans and other animals. Computer science defines AI research as the study of \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_agent\" title=\"Intelligent agent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2ded3658bd39dc370a7970df42c985e\">intelligent agents<\/a>\": any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of successfully achieving its goals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Definition_of_AI_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Definition_of_AI-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> More specifically, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Andreas_Kaplan\" title=\"Andreas Kaplan\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7aa9f1d6e5761f178aabb5167ff32055\">Kaplan<\/a> and Haenlein define AI as \u201ca system\u2019s ability to correctly interpret external data, to learn from such data, and to use those learnings to achieve specific goals and tasks through flexible adaptation\u201d.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Colloquially, the term \"artificial intelligence\" is used to describe machines that mimic \"cognitive\" functions that humans associate with other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_mind\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Human mind\" data-key=\"1373f4cbc44786581db4b13b4bbc10d7\">human minds<\/a>, such as \"learning\" and \"problem solving\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20092_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20092-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As machines become increasingly capable, tasks considered to require \"intelligence\" are often removed from the definition of AI, a phenomenon known as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_effect\" title=\"AI effect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47396a038586b92543c1d3524bafc444\">AI effect<\/a>. A quip in Tesler's Theorem says \"AI is whatever hasn't been done yet.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> For instance, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_character_recognition\" title=\"Optical character recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61174982accbb4d0c9bccbdc56a02144\">optical character recognition<\/a> is frequently excluded from things considered to be AI, having become a routine technology.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Modern machine capabilities generally classified as AI include successfully <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_understanding\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Natural language understanding\" data-key=\"8a18ab2d60594427abf27f5ca0823085\">understanding human speech<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2009_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2009-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> competing at the highest level in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strategic_game\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Strategic game\" data-key=\"524d1d081b203adf8c3be7a2cf59f823\">strategic game<\/a> systems (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chess\" title=\"Chess\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1cdd58472d9417fa0229c7cf45b7a20\">chess<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Go_(game)\" title=\"Go (game)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b8c8e702d802b3b6f071b42e8741c6e\">Go<\/a>),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bbc-alphago_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bbc-alphago-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autonomous_car\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Autonomous car\" data-key=\"00b6c736eed7654f1b22efeb8789baa9\">autonomously operating cars<\/a>, and intelligent routing in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_delivery_network\" title=\"Content delivery network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7053d07ff744cf11853ebf51fc814f21\">content delivery networks<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Military_simulations\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Military simulations\" data-key=\"165e83e772eb5cb8a46cb5cb44707cbd\">military simulations<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Borrowing from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Management\" title=\"Management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17fb90bcbcf2a830fc6206cded6281fa\">management<\/a> literature, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Andreas_Kaplan\" title=\"Andreas Kaplan\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7aa9f1d6e5761f178aabb5167ff32055\">Kaplan<\/a> and Haenlein classify artificial intelligence into three different types of AI systems: analytical, human-inspired, and humanized artificial intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Analytical AI has only characteristics consistent with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognition\" title=\"Cognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a14003fac69a2a6412e973657f8c7809\">cognitive intelligence<\/a>; generating a cognitive representation of the world and using learning based on past experience to inform future decisions. Human-inspired AI has elements from cognitive and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emotional_intelligence\" title=\"Emotional intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6792757c2f78374b6bd15a07b22a4600\">emotional intelligence<\/a>; understanding human emotions, in addition to cognitive elements, and considering them in their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_making\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision making\" data-key=\"f7ca18573163d657813ebb8dfb5bff55\">decision making<\/a>. Humanized AI shows characteristics of all types of competencies (i.e., cognitive, emotional, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_intelligence\" title=\"Social intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9488abda952298f7558bdfe88f9cc5cd\">social intelligence<\/a>), is able to be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-consciousness\" title=\"Self-consciousness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"442006d5004c7e480e87ea25e6406787\">self-conscious<\/a> and is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-awareness\" title=\"Self-awareness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01b32a2f970029303cd149beb29c2461\">self-aware<\/a> in interactions with others.\n<\/p><p>Artificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956, and in the years since has experienced several waves of optimism,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Optimism_of_early_AI_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Optimism_of_early_AI-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_the_80s_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_the_80s-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> followed by disappointment and the loss of funding (known as an \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_winter\" title=\"AI winter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0128870650338adbb7c06bbe1dadc305\">AI winter<\/a>\"),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-First_AI_winter_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-First_AI_winter-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Second_AI_winter_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Second_AI_winter-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> followed by new approaches, success and renewed funding.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_the_80s_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_the_80s-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_2000s_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_2000s-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> For most of its history, AI research has been divided into subfields that often fail to communicate with each other.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fragmentation_of_AI_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fragmentation_of_AI-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> These sub-fields are based on technical considerations, such as particular goals (e.g. \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotics\" title=\"Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51e34f62697c054ccec4bfed01d9051\">robotics<\/a>\" or \"machine learning\"),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Problems_of_AI_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Problems_of_AI-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> the use of particular tools (\"logic\" or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural networks<\/a>), or deep philosophical differences.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Biological_intelligence_vs._intelligence_in_general_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Biological_intelligence_vs._intelligence_in_general-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Neats_vs._scruffies_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Neats_vs._scruffies-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Symbolic_vs._sub-symbolic_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Symbolic_vs._sub-symbolic-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> Subfields have also been based on social factors (particular institutions or the work of particular researchers).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fragmentation_of_AI_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fragmentation_of_AI-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The traditional problems (or goals) of AI research include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_reasoning\" title=\"Automated reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9de14c9c0d69a0cb33e3fcbd45499d1f\">reasoning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation\" data-key=\"a51a434d24f3769ccc65859b23494280\">knowledge representation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">planning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">learning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">natural language processing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">perception<\/a> and the ability to move and manipulate objects.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Problems_of_AI_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Problems_of_AI-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">General intelligence<\/a> is among the field's long-term goals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-General_intelligence_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-General_intelligence-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> Approaches include <a href=\"#Statistical\">statistical methods<\/a>, <a href=\"#Sub-symbolic\">computational intelligence<\/a>, and <a href=\"#Symbolic\">traditional symbolic AI<\/a>. Many tools are used in AI, including versions of <a href=\"#Search_and_optimization\">search and mathematical optimization<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural networks<\/a>, and <a href=\"#Probabilistic_methods_for_uncertain_reasoning\">methods based on statistics, probability and economics<\/a>. The AI field draws upon <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">computer science<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_engineering_(field)\" title=\"Information engineering (field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc82daeaf423db9c719ff71599ddb97b\">information engineering<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematics\" title=\"Mathematics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d1fa34d53d056bde259b07ff17a79a1\">mathematics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychology\" title=\"Psychology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a99444d2a275a5cbb5bb5400a4e9030a\">psychology<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linguistics\" title=\"Linguistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc033b9e6f4c07c7265d390670edd9f9\">linguistics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy\" title=\"Philosophy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14ccd0db1fd666754f9f2f851d3a55f7\">philosophy<\/a>, and many other fields.\n<\/p><p>The field was founded on the claim that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_intelligence\" title=\"Human intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"618d0ff3850e203bcffaa3c96fbe2b14\">human intelligence<\/a> \"can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> This raises philosophical arguments about the nature of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mind\" title=\"Mind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e57825f08aece0c29adc836a1c58c45\">mind<\/a> and the ethics of creating artificial beings endowed with human-like intelligence which are issues that have been explored by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_AI#AI_in_myth,_fiction_and_speculation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"History of AI\" data-key=\"461bd9130d54e583102486e30a5cbe46\">myth<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_fiction\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in fiction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e53c1a93997cdae05907136f7e760e8d\">fiction<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Philosophy of AI\" data-key=\"900c7d33cd0ec8fe7d197c1d67f7f96b\">philosophy<\/a> since <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ancient_history\" title=\"Ancient history\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0421171c933aeeddb4bfe20c1b77af19\">antiquity<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McCorduck's_thesis_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#39;s_thesis-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> Some people also consider AI to be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technological_singularity\" title=\"Technological singularity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4787174dcb8c7955e9a9622daf8da71c\">a danger to humanity<\/a> if it progresses unabated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> Others believe that AI, unlike previous technological revolutions, will create a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technological_unemployment#21st_century\" title=\"Technological unemployment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a318432a517ddebd95f5b7f55981e3ee\">risk of mass unemployment<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-guardian_jobs_debate_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-guardian_jobs_debate-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the twenty-first century, AI techniques have experienced a resurgence following concurrent advances in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_performance\" title=\"Computer performance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d96686370e84c5f5ba6588c357ae72b9\">computer power<\/a>, large amounts of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_data\" title=\"Big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e130d519686c4edbc43ee36a686a3d0a\">data<\/a>, and theoretical understanding; and AI techniques have become an essential part of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technology_industry\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Technology industry\" data-key=\"921917556b8ab5c153b68ea6340bdda8\">technology industry<\/a>, helping to solve many challenging problems in computer science, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_engineering\" title=\"Software engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe0adbaec2a85b6f2d492710b645f017\">software engineering<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operations_research\" title=\"Operations research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea13bd10effe5b252bd593334c52b8a8\">operations research<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_widely_used_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_widely_used-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_2000s_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_2000s-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"toclimit-3\">\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"History of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb00251245fc858edc9c12e32694439\">History of artificial intelligence<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Timeline_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Timeline of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e9d017e0ebfd460857b2be655c57964\">Timeline of artificial intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Medeia_and_Talus.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"86288b67097eb350a88d37d4f8e5a331\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/0b\/Medeia_and_Talus.png\/220px-Medeia_and_Talus.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"267\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Medeia_and_Talus.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"86288b67097eb350a88d37d4f8e5a331\"><\/a><\/div><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Talos\" title=\"Talos\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"211e74e5ed1b42440e5c294f0654bf8c\">Talos<\/a>, an ancient mythical <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automaton\" title=\"Automaton\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7359bedbef335d950b10c316a9df9b7\">automaton<\/a> with artificial intelligence<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Thought-capable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_being\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial being\" data-key=\"3688e619df6b7b8d12cf640f764ea9c9\">artificial beings<\/a> appeared as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Storytelling_device\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Storytelling device\" data-key=\"aeb1e8977b6051773ab2dc9fb26d9053\">storytelling devices<\/a> in antiquity,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_myth_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_myth-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> and have been common in fiction, as in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mary_Shelley\" title=\"Mary Shelley\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff812e247d7e306c3890daeeaf17337f\">Mary Shelley<\/a>'s <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frankenstein\" title=\"Frankenstein\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"262d14f4d3e4779a1ebe81a00c22815b\">Frankenstein<\/a><\/i> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Karel_%C4%8Capek\" title=\"Karel \u010capek\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89fef944a9385a283c305b8268dc66bc\">Karel \u010capek<\/a>'s <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/R.U.R._(Rossum%27s_Universal_Robots)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)\" data-key=\"ebcebb12dda807b0d39b4b32b1ffaf3b\">R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)<\/a><\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_early_science_fiction_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_early_science_fiction-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> These characters and their fates raised many of the same issues now discussed in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Ethics of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"608ca5c55237a263936a26d2500d09a6\">ethics of artificial intelligence<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McCorduck's_thesis_20-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#39;s_thesis-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The study of mechanical or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Formal_reasoning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Formal reasoning\" data-key=\"d78fb342f34ab31472722f306e0c97b2\">\"formal\" reasoning<\/a> began with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosopher\" title=\"Philosopher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a6e7ccc818d81ae1a87de588840fb53\">philosophers<\/a> and mathematicians in antiquity. The study of mathematical logic led directly to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Turing\" title=\"Alan Turing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48468f77ba0cf295402108f0dd72c040\">Alan Turing<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory_of_computation\" title=\"Theory of computation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f233b42525db491607859f94be056359\">theory of computation<\/a>, which suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as \"0\" and \"1\", could simulate any conceivable act of mathematical deduction. This insight, that digital computers can simulate any process of formal reasoning, is known as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Church%E2%80%93Turing_thesis\" title=\"Church\u2013Turing thesis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfd853d4a0f4b8dfe7e9506cad278e33\">Church\u2013Turing thesis<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Formal_reasoning_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Formal_reasoning-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> Along with concurrent discoveries in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neuroscience\" title=\"Neuroscience\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"444cbd0b0bfec2ad88df9337f1a2a161\">neurobiology<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_theory\" title=\"Information theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37a5a861361287193f336544da55e690\">information theory<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cybernetic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cybernetic\" data-key=\"60c17dfc4d2b95267409e6191570e053\">cybernetics<\/a>, this led researchers to consider the possibility of building an electronic brain. Turing proposed that \"if a human could not distinguish between responses from a machine and a human, the machine could be considered \"intelligent\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> The first work that is now generally recognized as AI was <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Warren_McCullouch\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Warren McCullouch\" data-key=\"19abfa1b7d2da23db9a6c2e11c9fb29b\">McCullouch<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Walter_Pitts\" title=\"Walter Pitts\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79ea2ec505dd09126d2b191748c40bf3\">Pitts<\/a>' 1943 formal design for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing-complete\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Turing-complete\" data-key=\"b0d5436cd52d52da31af01a00f1d88c5\">Turing-complete<\/a> \"artificial neurons\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200916_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200916-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The field of AI research was born at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dartmouth_workshop\" title=\"Dartmouth workshop\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c9c16aef7f504ef818e0ea59764de30\">a workshop<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dartmouth_College\" title=\"Dartmouth College\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37124aa914875aa433c9863ad4ffb648\">Dartmouth College<\/a> in 1956.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Dartmouth_conference_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dartmouth_conference-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> Attendees <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allen_Newell\" title=\"Allen Newell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92e155bb916e0a942167e5882906563e\">Allen Newell<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Mellon_University\" title=\"Carnegie Mellon University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edc1e7b9266be3eeab86296d0abca43b\">CMU<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herbert_A._Simon\" title=\"Herbert A. Simon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d9e38903367abeb4880342cd666b2b0\">Herbert Simon<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Mellon_University\" title=\"Carnegie Mellon University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edc1e7b9266be3eeab86296d0abca43b\">CMU<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"John McCarthy (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"498a2d3b08b0a194821bc61ed3b973fe\">John McCarthy<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology\" title=\"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6d082af902828b7c6c2395cc18da224\">MIT<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marvin_Minsky\" title=\"Marvin Minsky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5677de93e5b6dc185b95ffc880ffe34\">Marvin Minsky<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology\" title=\"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6d082af902828b7c6c2395cc18da224\">MIT<\/a>) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arthur_Samuel\" title=\"Arthur Samuel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a85e0f3ad1f5e964d5a77c7463f2883e\">Arthur Samuel<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a>) became the founders and leaders of AI research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hegemony_of_the_Dartmouth_conference_attendees_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hegemony_of_the_Dartmouth_conference_attendees-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> They and their students produced programs that the press described as \"astonishing\":<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200318_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200318-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> computers were learning <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Draughts\" title=\"Draughts\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be06208ea1a6c27ec45686433a181b5e\">checkers<\/a> strategies (c. 1954)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> (and by 1959 were reportedly playing better than the average human),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> solving word problems in algebra, proving logical theorems (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_Theorist\" title=\"Logic Theorist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5def3113560113182833535bcc7fb40c\">Logic Theorist<\/a>, first run c. 1956) and speaking English.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Golden_years_of_AI_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Golden_years_of_AI-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup> By the middle of the 1960s, research in the U.S. was heavily funded by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DARPA\" title=\"DARPA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148faa7594a6bd3ddcbe5ba80b48e974\">Department of Defense<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_funding_in_the_60s_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_funding_in_the_60s-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> and laboratories had been established around the world.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_England_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_England-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> AI's founders were optimistic about the future: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herbert_A._Simon\" title=\"Herbert A. Simon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d9e38903367abeb4880342cd666b2b0\">Herbert Simon<\/a> predicted, \"machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marvin_Minsky\" title=\"Marvin Minsky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5677de93e5b6dc185b95ffc880ffe34\">Marvin Minsky<\/a> agreed, writing, \"within a generation ... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be solved\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Optimism_of_early_AI_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Optimism_of_early_AI-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>They failed to recognize the difficulty of some of the remaining tasks. Progress slowed and in 1974, in response to the criticism of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sir_James_Lighthill\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sir James Lighthill\" data-key=\"cad558224507fb55b895dd2063837408\">Sir James Lighthill<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTELighthill1973_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTELighthill1973-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> and ongoing pressure from the US Congress to fund more productive projects, both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in AI. The next few years would later be called an \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_winter\" title=\"AI winter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0128870650338adbb7c06bbe1dadc305\">AI winter<\/a>\",<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-First_AI_winter_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-First_AI_winter-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> a period when obtaining funding for AI projects was difficult.\n<\/p><p>In the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expert_system\" title=\"Expert system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6a738b57cf1f26d8d60f3adb61e3384\">expert systems<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Expert_systems_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Expert_systems-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> a form of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of human experts. By 1985, the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars. At the same time, Japan's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fifth_generation_computer\" title=\"Fifth generation computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ea405d757211784a6c7443121029019\">fifth generation computer<\/a> project inspired the U.S and British governments to restore funding for academic research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_the_80s_9-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_the_80s-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> However, beginning with the collapse of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lisp_Machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Lisp Machine\" data-key=\"59102d5bcf7d67c0846935d5b91e0647\">Lisp Machine<\/a> market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, longer-lasting hiatus began.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Second_AI_winter_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Second_AI_winter-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the late 1990s and early 21st century, AI began to be used for logistics, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_diagnosis\" title=\"Medical diagnosis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3271571a31d7a690a4694c12932a148\">medical diagnosis<\/a> and other areas.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_widely_used_23-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_widely_used-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> The success was due to increasing computational power (see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moore%27s_law\" title=\"Moore's law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4c4bc7df1af8c3b73b34c4fa6964c76\">Moore's law<\/a>), greater emphasis on solving specific problems, new ties between AI and other fields (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">statistics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economics\" title=\"Economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6a490a031e67e7a7ea4fca8dc646e1c\">economics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">mathematics<\/a>), and a commitment by researchers to mathematical methods and scientific standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Formal_methods_in_AI_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Formal_methods_in_AI-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM_Deep_Blue\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IBM Deep Blue\" data-key=\"48f39f03d497eef38fe705c348610de4\">Deep Blue<\/a> became the first computer chess-playing system to beat a reigning world chess champion, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Garry_Kasparov\" title=\"Garry Kasparov\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f40354ae6ed0eb13e885c2dfda3d7ae\">Garry Kasparov<\/a>, on 11 May 1997.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck2004480\u2013483_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck2004480\u2013483-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2011, a <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jeopardy!\" title=\"Jeopardy!\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8db143d9f2e3bd66c690249f8ba93bb2\">Jeopardy!<\/a><\/i> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quiz_show\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Quiz show\" data-key=\"b3be418de5adc6f1abd7247e827917d7\">quiz show<\/a> exhibition match, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Question_answering_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Question answering system\" data-key=\"b390c34cf9b1d330926dbbde37578704\">question answering system<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Watson_(artificial_intelligence_software)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Watson (artificial intelligence software)\" data-key=\"33c9873272f193516b83af00525637e8\">Watson<\/a>, defeated the two greatest <i>Jeopardy!<\/i> champions, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brad_Rutter\" title=\"Brad Rutter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72a380302c403d41165b8403ef09b696\">Brad Rutter<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ken_Jennings\" title=\"Ken Jennings\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e26b4725ec23826e317b9cf0c8c4c91\">Ken Jennings<\/a>, by a significant margin.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarkoff2011_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkoff2011-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moore%27s_law\" title=\"Moore's law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4c4bc7df1af8c3b73b34c4fa6964c76\">Faster computers<\/a>, algorithmic improvements, and access to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_data\" title=\"Big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e130d519686c4edbc43ee36a686a3d0a\">large amounts of data<\/a> enabled advances in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">machine learning<\/a> and perception; data-hungry <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">deep learning<\/a> methods started to dominate accuracy benchmarks <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning#Deep_learning_revolution\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5df9f0a3fb89589923cbf0828114f23\">around 2012<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kinect\" title=\"Kinect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0f985a048baf47ffc3fe179b441f382\">Kinect<\/a>, which provides a 3D body\u2013motion interface for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Xbox_360\" title=\"Xbox 360\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fda4c34a78897dee6f9b6ea6df492433\">Xbox 360<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Xbox_One\" title=\"Xbox One\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ddb696df08bd73cc81867cb4f6e9c1b\">Xbox One<\/a>, uses algorithms that emerged from lengthy AI research<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup> as do <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_personal_assistant\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intelligent personal assistant\" data-key=\"6f0fa4b00876b9d1d7f33de63ccd9563\">intelligent personal assistants<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smartphone\" title=\"Smartphone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49a2d39877c99c533d1236c163ea0100\">smartphones<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> In March 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AlphaGo\" title=\"AlphaGo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"066c88e46c521e4b574ffef8cbfd1dbf\">AlphaGo<\/a> won 4 out of 5 games of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Go_(game)\" title=\"Go (game)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b8c8e702d802b3b6f071b42e8741c6e\">Go<\/a> in a match with Go champion <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lee_Sedol\" title=\"Lee Sedol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc3b9a6cfe2cb22dfca86de4e6408b0a\">Lee Sedol<\/a>, becoming the first <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_Go\" title=\"Computer Go\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"231730de7f7d4eb35a10d620c72fcde9\">computer Go-playing system<\/a> to beat a professional Go player without <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Go_handicaps\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Go handicaps\" data-key=\"e10585deaba40c4b44b77a1af0f24d97\">handicaps<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bbc-alphago_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bbc-alphago-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> In the 2017 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Future_of_Go_Summit\" title=\"Future of Go Summit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"021a0f88b4923366b36e1a2f47294e16\">Future of Go Summit<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AlphaGo\" title=\"AlphaGo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"066c88e46c521e4b574ffef8cbfd1dbf\">AlphaGo<\/a> won a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AlphaGo_versus_Ke_Jie\" title=\"AlphaGo versus Ke Jie\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e614e5f82f2736371a837394383d5434\">three-game match<\/a> with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ke_Jie\" title=\"Ke Jie\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ea9d16a800665755bc37a1314488dde\">Ke Jie<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> who at the time continuously held the world No. 1 ranking for two years.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup> This marked the completion of a significant milestone in the development of Artificial Intelligence as Go is an extremely complex game, more so than Chess.\n<\/p><p>According to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bloomberg_News\" title=\"Bloomberg News\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1274a1dfae27129abe759dcb56c83d1\">Bloomberg's<\/a> Jack Clark, 2015 was a landmark year for artificial intelligence, with the number of software projects that use AI within Google increased from a \"sporadic usage\" in 2012 to more than 2,700 projects. Clark also presents factual data indicating that error rates in image processing tasks have fallen significantly since 2011.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup> He attributes this to an increase in affordable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">neural networks<\/a>, due to a rise in cloud computing infrastructure and to an increase in research tools and datasets.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_2000s_12-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_2000s-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Other cited examples include Microsoft's development of a Skype system that can automatically translate from one language to another and Facebook's system that can describe images to blind people.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_49-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup> In a 2017 survey, one in five companies reported they had \"incorporated AI in some offerings or processes\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> Around 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/China\" title=\"China\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"31a299e4bd7efa2c7ceb9c96eaad6510\">China<\/a> greatly accelerated its government funding; given its large supply of data and its rapidly increasing research output, some observers believe it may be on track to becoming an \"AI superpower\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Basics\">Basics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A typical AI analyses its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of success.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Definition_of_AI_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Definition_of_AI-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> An AI's intended <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Utility_function\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Utility function\" data-key=\"95165180ed0727ed440301e66235cdbc\">utility function (or goal)<\/a> can be simple (\"1 if the AI wins a game of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Go_(game)\" title=\"Go (game)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b8c8e702d802b3b6f071b42e8741c6e\">Go<\/a>, 0 otherwise\") or complex (\"Do mathematically similar actions to the ones succeeded in the past\"). Goals can be explicitly defined, or induced. If the AI is programmed for \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">reinforcement learning<\/a>\", goals can be implicitly induced by rewarding some types of behavior or punishing others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[a]<\/a><\/sup> Alternatively, an evolutionary system can induce goals by using a \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fitness_function\" title=\"Fitness function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc59a5086d1759de639b12642be1a92c\">fitness function<\/a>\" to mutate and preferentially replicate high-scoring AI systems, similarly to how animals evolved to innately desire certain goals such as finding food.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_5_55-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_5-55\">[54]<\/a><\/sup> Some AI systems, such as nearest-neighbor, instead of reason by analogy, these systems are not generally given goals, except to the degree that goals are implicit in their training data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_7_56-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_7-56\">[55]<\/a><\/sup> Such systems can still be benchmarked if the non-goal system is framed as a system whose \"goal\" is to successfully accomplish its narrow classification task.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[56]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>AI often revolves around the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithms\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Algorithms\" data-key=\"16cd99a9a13213c5ec49d9f3dfbdac17\">algorithms<\/a>. An algorithm is a set of unambiguous instructions that a mechanical computer can execute.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-58\">[b]<\/a><\/sup> A complex algorithm is often built on top of other, simpler, algorithms. A simple example of an algorithm is the following (optimal for first player) recipe for play at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tic-tac-toe\" title=\"Tic-tac-toe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46e2fe4b6713de69d1eb577f973282cc\">tic-tac-toe<\/a>:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_1_59-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_1-59\">[57]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>If someone has a \"threat\" (that is, two in a row), take the remaining square. Otherwise,<\/li>\n<li>if a move \"forks\" to create two threats at once, play that move. Otherwise,<\/li>\n<li>take the center square if it is free. Otherwise,<\/li>\n<li>if your opponent has played in a corner, take the opposite corner. Otherwise,<\/li>\n<li>take an empty corner if one exists. Otherwise,<\/li>\n<li>take any empty square.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Many AI algorithms are capable of learning from data; they can enhance themselves by learning new <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heuristic_(computer_science)\" title=\"Heuristic (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed4166fcb2ae0a69da5ac93b79f41785\">heuristics<\/a> (strategies, or \"rules of thumb\", that have worked well in the past), or can themselves write other algorithms. Some of the \"learners\" described below, including Bayesian networks, decision trees, and nearest-neighbor, could theoretically, (given infinite data, time, and memory) learn to approximate any <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Function_(mathematics)\" title=\"Function (mathematics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cde23ae93a7c77b92f2e4620bed5f434\">function<\/a>, including which combination of mathematical functions would best describe the world. These learners could therefore, derive all possible knowledge, by considering every possible hypothesis and matching them against the data. In practice, it is almost never possible to consider every possibility, because of the phenomenon of \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Combinatorial_explosion\" title=\"Combinatorial explosion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b7adb666ea7d8e9537dda277bb943196\">combinatorial explosion<\/a>\", where the amount of time needed to solve a problem grows exponentially. Much of AI research involves figuring out how to identify and avoid considering broad range of possibilities that are unlikely to be beneficial.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Intractability_60-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Intractability-60\">[58]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_2,_Chapter_3_61-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_2,_Chapter_3-61\">[59]<\/a><\/sup> For example, when viewing a map and looking for the shortest driving route from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denver\" title=\"Denver\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"12ceabf6546c03e5e643a10a7f6734d8\">Denver<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New_York_City\" title=\"New York City\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2623ced423fc28f941d653bba638a67\">New York<\/a> in the East, one can in most cases skip looking at any path through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/San_Francisco\" title=\"San Francisco\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d33de7ced5e20c4f75d8e17d36ca2d5c\">San Francisco<\/a> or other areas far to the West; thus, an AI wielding an pathfinding algorithm like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/A*\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"A*\" data-key=\"8303c74ae9d39533849663c54eb48e43\">A*<\/a> can avoid the combinatorial explosion that would ensue if every possible route had to be ponderously considered in turn.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[60]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The earliest (and easiest to understand) approach to AI was symbolism (such as formal logic): \"If an otherwise healthy adult has a fever, then they may have <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Influenza\" title=\"Influenza\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"247659dd7eb1d8b06f0b8346e97c3eef\">influenza<\/a>\". A second, more general, approach is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_inference\" title=\"Bayesian inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26d0e9d790d16771f099137b199877f7\">Bayesian inference<\/a>: \"If the current patient has a fever, adjust the probability they have influenza in such-and-such way\". The third major approach, extremely popular in routine business AI applications, are analogizers such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Support_vector_machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Support vector machine\" data-key=\"01aa5bcb5f310503db0370be4d7dde0c\">SVM<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K-nearest_neighbor_algorithm\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"K-nearest neighbor algorithm\" data-key=\"5507570d79f77d53b25919e43508c533\">nearest-neighbor<\/a>: \"After examining the records of known past patients whose temperature, symptoms, age, and other factors mostly match the current patient, X% of those patients turned out to have influenza\". A fourth approach is harder to intuitively understand, but is inspired by how the brain's machinery works: the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural network<\/a> approach uses artificial \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neurons\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neurons\" data-key=\"a7fa55e0708c294c62c2e008adc2a510\">neurons<\/a>\" that can learn by comparing itself to the desired output and altering the strengths of the connections between its internal neurons to \"reinforce\" connections that seemed to be useful. These four main approaches can overlap with each other and with evolutionary systems; for example, neural nets can learn to make inferences, to generalize, and to make analogies. Some systems implicitly or explicitly use multiple of these approaches, alongside many other AI and non-AI algorithms;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[61]<\/a><\/sup> the best approach is often different depending on the problem.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_2,_Chapter_4,_Chapter_6_64-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_2,_Chapter_4,_Chapter_6-64\">[62]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-65\">[63]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Overfitted_Data.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"810a6a6c3be413bf8eb2dc2e541fb2dd\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/68\/Overfitted_Data.png\/220px-Overfitted_Data.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"149\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Overfitted_Data.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"810a6a6c3be413bf8eb2dc2e541fb2dd\"><\/a><\/div>The blue line could be an example of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overfitting\" title=\"Overfitting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d1e3e9cfe8881363e47824ef11c4bc\">overfitting<\/a> a linear function due to random noise.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Learning algorithms work on the basis that strategies, algorithms, and inferences that worked well in the past are likely to continue working well in the future. These inferences can be obvious, such as \"since the sun rose every morning for the last 10,000 days, it will probably rise tomorrow morning as well\". They can be nuanced, such as \"X% of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Family_(biology)\" title=\"Family (biology)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe97feb90b2423d41029865ddd6df54e\">families<\/a> have geographically separate species with color variants, so there is an Y% chance that undiscovered <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black_swans\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Black swans\" data-key=\"826eaeace474118ce7ad57dbef3a12cd\">black swans<\/a> exist\". Learners also work on the basis of \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Occam%27s_razor#Probability_theory_and_statistics\" title=\"Occam's razor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccdce54636deae6cb9c7ee74065ba3e7\">Occam's razor<\/a>\": The simplest theory that explains the data is the likeliest. Therefore, to be successful, a learner must be designed such that it prefers simpler theories to complex theories, except in cases where the complex theory is proven substantially better. Settling on a bad, overly complex theory gerrymandered to fit all the past training data is known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overfitting\" title=\"Overfitting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d1e3e9cfe8881363e47824ef11c4bc\">overfitting<\/a>. Many systems attempt to reduce overfitting by rewarding a theory in accordance with how well it fits the data, but penalizing the theory in accordance with how complex the theory is.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_6,_Chapter_7_66-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_6,_Chapter_7-66\">[64]<\/a><\/sup> Besides classic overfitting, learners can also disappoint by \"learning the wrong lesson\". A toy example is that an image classifier trained only on pictures of brown horses and black cats might conclude that all brown patches are likely to be horses.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015286_67-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015286-67\">[65]<\/a><\/sup> A real-world example is that, unlike humans, current image classifiers don't determine the spatial relationship between components of the picture; instead, they learn abstract patterns of pixels that humans are oblivious to, but that linearly correlate with images of certain types of real objects. Faintly superimposing such a pattern on a legitimate image results in an \"adversarial\" image that the system misclassifies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68\">[c]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-69\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-69\">[66]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70\">[67]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-71\">[68]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:D%C3%A9tection_de_personne_-_exemple_3.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"2431d9046a062f0a14e38d99aed61f93\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f5\/D%C3%A9tection_de_personne_-_exemple_3.jpg\/220px-D%C3%A9tection_de_personne_-_exemple_3.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"147\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:D%C3%A9tection_de_personne_-_exemple_3.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"2431d9046a062f0a14e38d99aed61f93\"><\/a><\/div>A self-driving car system may use a neural network to determine which parts of the picture seem to match previous training images of pedestrians, and then model those areas as slow-moving but somewhat unpredictable rectangular prisms that must be avoided.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">[69]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-73\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-73\">[70]<\/a><\/sup><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Compared with humans, existing AI lacks several features of human \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commonsense_reasoning\" title=\"Commonsense reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0997a9bcf171a85e9d4fb631fb9bc768\">commonsense reasoning<\/a>\"; most notably, humans have powerful mechanisms for reasoning about \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Na%C3%AFve_physics\" title=\"Na\u00efve physics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f21f115c57667c315497dfd6d1d031d\">na\u00efve physics<\/a>\" such as space, time, and physical interactions. This enables even young children to easily make inferences like \"If I roll this pen off a table, it will fall on the floor\". Humans also have a powerful mechanism of \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Folk_psychology\" title=\"Folk psychology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd3b931e98495aeb1a114fd204b89455\">folk psychology<\/a>\" that helps them to interpret natural-language sentences such as \"The city councilmen refused the demonstrators a permit because they advocated violence\". (A generic AI has difficulty inferring whether the councilmen or the demonstrators are the ones alleged to be advocating violence.)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-74\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-74\">[71]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">[72]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-76\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-76\">[73]<\/a><\/sup> This lack of \"common knowledge\" means that AI often makes different mistakes than humans make, in ways that can seem incomprehensible. For example, existing self-driving cars cannot reason about the location nor the intentions of pedestrians in the exact way that humans do, and instead must use non-human modes of reasoning to avoid accidents.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">[74]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[75]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[76]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Problems\">Problems<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The overall research goal of artificial intelligence is to create technology that allows computers and machines to function in an intelligent manner. The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken down into sub-problems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Problems_of_AI_14-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Problems_of_AI-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Reasoning.2C_problem_solving\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reasoning,_problem_solving\">Reasoning, problem solving<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Early researchers developed algorithms that imitated step-by-step reasoning that humans use when they solve puzzles or make logical deductions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Reasoning_80-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Reasoning-80\">[77]<\/a><\/sup> By the late 1980s and 1990s, AI research had developed methods for dealing with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uncertainty\" title=\"Uncertainty\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3d5a6283c54c37cec2755ceee446628\">uncertain<\/a> or incomplete information, employing concepts from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability\" title=\"Probability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44ea3f63d04643beddabc48ace7e9515\">probability<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economics\" title=\"Economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6a490a031e67e7a7ea4fca8dc646e1c\">economics<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Uncertain_reasoning_81-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Uncertain_reasoning-81\">[78]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>These algorithms proved to be insufficient for solving large reasoning problems, because they experienced a \"combinatorial explosion\": they became exponentially slower as the problems grew larger.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Intractability_60-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Intractability-60\">[58]<\/a><\/sup> In fact, even humans rarely use the step-by-step deduction that early AI research was able to model. They solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning_82-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning-82\">[79]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Knowledge_representation\">Knowledge representation<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:GFO_taxonomy_tree.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6b4583e379d737f7b44899bd2631597\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9e\/GFO_taxonomy_tree.png\/220px-GFO_taxonomy_tree.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"208\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:GFO_taxonomy_tree.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"d6b4583e379d737f7b44899bd2631597\"><\/a><\/div>An ontology represents knowledge as a set of concepts within a domain and the relationships between those concepts.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation\" data-key=\"a51a434d24f3769ccc65859b23494280\">Knowledge representation<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commonsense_knowledge\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Commonsense knowledge\" data-key=\"c2b893c15c4ac96e03552a91efde2724\">Commonsense knowledge<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation\" data-key=\"a51a434d24f3769ccc65859b23494280\">Knowledge representation<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Knowledge_representation_83-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Knowledge_representation-83\">[80]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_engineering\" title=\"Knowledge engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7267aab1197163e1afb413bc0c1d979b\">knowledge engineering<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Knowledge_engineering_84-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Knowledge_engineering-84\">[81]<\/a><\/sup> are central to classical AI research. Some \"expert systems\" attempt to gather together explicit knowledge possessed by experts in some narrow domain. In addition, some projects attempt to gather the \"commonsense knowledge\" known to the average person into a database containing extensive knowledge about the world. Among the things a comprehensive commonsense knowledge base would contain are: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_categories_and_relations_85-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_categories_and_relations-85\">[82]<\/a><\/sup> situations, events, states and time;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_time_86-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_time-86\">[83]<\/a><\/sup> causes and effects;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_causation_87-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_causation-87\">[84]<\/a><\/sup> knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_knowledge_about_knowledge_88-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_knowledge_about_knowledge-88\">[85]<\/a><\/sup> and many other, less well researched domains. A representation of \"what exists\" is an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ontology (computer science)\" data-key=\"2cf14c9076764ffc3f7426754d3c4730\">ontology<\/a>: the set of objects, relations, concepts, and properties formally described so that software agents can interpret them. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantics\" title=\"Semantics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74dfd4c30b765f279ab114a98bb29fbc\">semantics<\/a> of these are captured as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Description_logic\" title=\"Description logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27300d027ae9835f67566eb6262b8187\">description logic<\/a> concepts, roles, and individuals, and typically implemented as classes, properties, and individuals in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_Ontology_Language\" title=\"Web Ontology Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556d5da6276c12ca0c34d72be5fe7f5\">Web Ontology Language<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-89\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-89\">[86]<\/a><\/sup> The most general ontologies are called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Upper_ontology\" title=\"Upper ontology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dcbcfb6607519632b5e84f9ef91e8565\">upper ontologies<\/a>, which attempt to provide a foundation for all other knowledge<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ontology_90-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ontology-90\">[87]<\/a><\/sup> by acting as mediators between <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Domain_ontology\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Domain ontology\" data-key=\"c3a5bd5555ae1dbb95c0ca4a29b8d1fc\">domain ontologies<\/a> that cover specific knowledge about a particular knowledge domain (field of interest or area of concern). Such formal knowledge representations can be used in content-based indexing and retrieval,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-91\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-91\">[88]<\/a><\/sup> scene interpretation,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-92\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-92\">[89]<\/a><\/sup> clinical decision support,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-93\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-93\">[90]<\/a><\/sup> knowledge discovery (mining \"interesting\" and actionable inferences from large databases),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-94\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-94\">[91]<\/a><\/sup> and other areas.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-95\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-95\">[92]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Among the most difficult problems in knowledge representation are:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Default_reasoning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Default reasoning\" data-key=\"9a7e44d10e86a591ef9568c20e32790d\">Default reasoning<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qualification_problem\" title=\"Qualification problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d72ea8e5eb11cff2348636d41410a27\">qualification problem<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd>Many of the things people know take the form of \"working assumptions\". For example, if a bird comes up in conversation, people typically picture an animal that is fist-sized, sings, and flies. None of these things are true about all birds. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"John McCarthy (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"498a2d3b08b0a194821bc61ed3b973fe\">John McCarthy<\/a> identified this problem in 1969<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Qualification_problem_96-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Qualification_problem-96\">[93]<\/a><\/sup> as the qualification problem: for any commonsense rule that AI researchers care to represent, there tend to be a huge number of exceptions. Almost nothing is simply true or false in the way that abstract logic requires. AI research has explored a number of solutions to this problem.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic_97-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic-97\">[94]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt>The breadth of commonsense knowledge<\/dt>\n<dd>The number of atomic facts that the average person knows is very large. Research projects that attempt to build a complete knowledge base of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commonsense_knowledge\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Commonsense knowledge\" data-key=\"c2b893c15c4ac96e03552a91efde2724\">commonsense knowledge<\/a> (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyc\" title=\"Cyc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db8ad97a96ff39f5d7c763a3ef3e0b7c\">Cyc<\/a>) require enormous amounts of laborious <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_engineering\" title=\"Ontology engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7301add05a4401a3cf8a4206c33f8ab\">ontological engineering<\/a>\u2014they must be built, by hand, one complicated concept at a time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Breadth_of_commonsense_knowledge_98-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Breadth_of_commonsense_knowledge-98\">[95]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt>The subsymbolic form of some commonsense knowledge<\/dt>\n<dd>Much of what people know is not represented as \"facts\" or \"statements\" that they could express verbally. For example, a chess master will avoid a particular chess position because it \"feels too exposed\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDreyfusDreyfus1986_99-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyfusDreyfus1986-99\">[96]<\/a><\/sup> or an art critic can take one look at a statue and realize that it is a fake.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladwell2005_100-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladwell2005-100\">[97]<\/a><\/sup> These are non-conscious and sub-symbolic intuitions or tendencies in the human brain.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Intuition_101-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Intuition-101\">[98]<\/a><\/sup> Knowledge like this informs, supports and provides a context for symbolic, conscious knowledge. As with the related problem of sub-symbolic reasoning, it is hoped that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Situated_artificial_intelligence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Situated artificial intelligence\" data-key=\"cbfe042bedab6653840c11fb164d7ad5\">situated AI<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_intelligence\" title=\"Computational intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"858119b708bb38329ea02f8d69a8fa9e\">computational intelligence<\/a>, or <a href=\"#Statistical\">statistical AI<\/a> will provide ways to represent this kind of knowledge.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Intuition_101-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Intuition-101\">[98]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Planning\">Planning<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Hierarchical-control-system.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd047235981f90aea847d220fbb61621\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/76\/Hierarchical-control-system.svg\/220px-Hierarchical-control-system.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"199\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Hierarchical-control-system.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"bd047235981f90aea847d220fbb61621\"><\/a><\/div>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchical_control_system\" title=\"Hierarchical control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd65ca28d201f1781d157d22d2fa3a4f\">hierarchical control system<\/a> is a form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_system\" title=\"Control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1de85e21d2395f64ea337c4e8194d71\">control system<\/a> in which a set of devices and governing software is arranged in a hierarchy.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">Automated planning and scheduling<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Intelligent agents must be able to set goals and achieve them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Planning_102-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Planning-102\">[99]<\/a><\/sup> They need a way to visualize the future\u2014a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it\u2014and be able to make choices that maximize the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Utility\" title=\"Utility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"317210b0c67c2128db183f39aa610e39\">utility<\/a> (or \"value\") of available choices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Information_value_theory_103-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Information_value_theory-103\">[100]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In classical planning problems, the agent can assume that it is the only system acting in the world, allowing the agent to be certain of the consequences of its actions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Classical_planning_104-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Classical_planning-104\">[101]<\/a><\/sup> However, if the agent is not the only actor, then it requires that the agent can reason under uncertainty. This calls for an agent that can not only assess its environment and make predictions, but also evaluate its predictions and adapt based on its assessment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Non-deterministic_planning_105-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Non-deterministic_planning-105\">[102]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multi-agent_planning\" title=\"Multi-agent planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4043c7565af146a8592506ca7e7827c\">Multi-agent planning<\/a> uses the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cooperation\" title=\"Cooperation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a6216c872117f77a38f9598677b8433\">cooperation<\/a> and competition of many agents to achieve a given goal. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emergent_behavior\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Emergent behavior\" data-key=\"16dd3582ea0dd82eec8a3c3bede15259\">Emergent behavior<\/a> such as this is used by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_algorithms\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Evolutionary algorithms\" data-key=\"a96c051f7171e633f6ec9751b8c5c451\">evolutionary algorithms<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swarm_intelligence\" title=\"Swarm intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f37742882c10162325fa45a9fbebf82e\">swarm intelligence<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Multi-agent_planning_106-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Multi-agent_planning-106\">[103]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Learning\">Learning<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">Machine learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Machine learning, a fundamental concept of AI research since the field's inception,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-107\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-107\">[104]<\/a><\/sup> is the study of computer algorithms that improve automatically through experience.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-108\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-108\">[105]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Machine_learning_109-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Machine_learning-109\">[106]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">Unsupervised learning<\/a> is the ability to find patterns in a stream of input, without requiring a human to label the inputs first.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-110\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-110\">[107]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">Supervised learning<\/a> includes both <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">classification<\/a> and numerical <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regression_analysis\" title=\"Regression analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afc84bb0b3e2e76d4909d879fcbb2ae0\">regression<\/a>, which requires a human to label the input data first. Classification is used to determine what category something belongs in, after seeing a number of examples of things from several categories. Regression is the attempt to produce a function that describes the relationship between inputs and outputs and predicts how the outputs should change as the inputs change.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Machine_learning_109-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Machine_learning-109\">[106]<\/a><\/sup> Both classifiers and regression learners can be viewed as \"function approximators\" trying to learn an unknown (possibly implicit) function; for example, a spam classifier can be viewed as learning a function that maps from the text of an email to one of two categories, \"spam\" or \"not spam\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_learning_theory\" title=\"Computational learning theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cc562e86774b252f65ad147577243ae\">Computational learning theory<\/a> can assess learners by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_complexity\" title=\"Computational complexity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2e2b22ca011c443bf80419d65389c36\">computational complexity<\/a>, by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sample_complexity\" title=\"Sample complexity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e3965cb1c9e441aa428bd4a5bbad4ae\">sample complexity<\/a> (how much data is required), or by other notions of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optimization_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Optimization theory\" data-key=\"feb96367d966b48425b47d48285cd29b\">optimization<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-111\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-111\">[108]<\/a><\/sup> In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">reinforcement learning<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Reinforcement_learning_112-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Reinforcement_learning-112\">[109]<\/a><\/sup> the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. The agent uses this sequence of rewards and punishments to form a strategy for operating in its problem space.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Natural_language_processing\">Natural language processing<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:ParseTree.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2083159d9432752b234703f91f8f6d2\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/6e\/ParseTree.svg\/220px-ParseTree.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:ParseTree.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"e2083159d9432752b234703f91f8f6d2\"><\/a><\/div>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parse_tree\" title=\"Parse tree\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"683ae73dc7ec5f849a967dc40916d7b0\">parse tree<\/a> represents the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Syntax\" title=\"Syntax\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cdceb67189302b2893341d79a236c4ac\">syntactic<\/a> structure of a sentence according to some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Formal_grammar\" title=\"Formal grammar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc6a673fae8599ccf49b10a8253ceb7f\">formal grammar<\/a>.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">Natural language processing<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">Natural language processing<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Natural_language_processing_113-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Natural_language_processing-113\">[110]<\/a><\/sup> (NLP) gives machines the ability to read and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_understanding\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Natural language understanding\" data-key=\"8a18ab2d60594427abf27f5ca0823085\">understand<\/a> human language. A sufficiently powerful natural language processing system would enable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural-language_user_interface\" title=\"Natural-language user interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee82114097643dd4f9c471422bdc30de\">natural-language user interfaces<\/a> and the acquisition of knowledge directly from human-written sources, such as newswire texts. Some straightforward applications of natural language processing include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_retrieval\" title=\"Information retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0faaa582e57a2d62bc65c5c191a810c0\">information retrieval<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Text_mining\" title=\"Text mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"399bb009dd237bfe29b2ab9413a97271\">text mining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Question_answering\" title=\"Question answering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b154537fa092a2a4ab66739e9a0e1d3\">question answering<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-114\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-114\">[111]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">machine translation<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Applications_of_natural_language_processing_115-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Applications_of_natural_language_processing-115\">[112]<\/a><\/sup> Many current approaches use word co-occurrence frequencies to construct syntactic representations of text. \"Keyword spotting\" strategies for search are popular and scalable but dumb; a search query for \"dog\" might only match documents with the literal word \"dog\" and miss a document with the word \"poodle\". \"Lexical affinity\" strategies use the occurrence of words such as \"accident\" to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sentiment_analysis\" title=\"Sentiment analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65a8d6b4bb74d78435b7c0e113f93692\">assess the sentiment<\/a> of a document. Modern statistical NLP approaches can combine all these strategies as well as others, and often achieve acceptable accuracy at the page or paragraph level, but continue to lack the semantic understanding required to classify isolated sentences well. Besides the usual difficulties with encoding semantic commonsense knowledge, existing semantic NLP sometimes scales too poorly to be viable in business applications. Beyond semantic NLP, the ultimate goal of \"narrative\" NLP is to embody a full understanding of commonsense reasoning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-116\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-116\">[113]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Perception\">Perception<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">Machine perception<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">Computer vision<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">Speech recognition<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:%C3%84%C3%A4retuvastuse_n%C3%A4ide.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"c482564a80279936bcbd698b3dd2c095\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/20\/%C3%84%C3%A4retuvastuse_n%C3%A4ide.png\/220px-%C3%84%C3%A4retuvastuse_n%C3%A4ide.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"73\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:%C3%84%C3%A4retuvastuse_n%C3%A4ide.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"c482564a80279936bcbd698b3dd2c095\"><\/a><\/div><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feature_detection_(computer_vision)\" title=\"Feature detection (computer vision)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64d483cbe26e960c98f1416539a5dc14\">Feature detection<\/a> (pictured: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edge_detection\" title=\"Edge detection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4a56f830b8a3e334ee30ba757bd7f1d\">edge detection<\/a>) helps AI compose informative abstract structures out of raw data.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">Machine perception<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Machine_perception_117-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Machine_perception-117\">[114]<\/a><\/sup> is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras (visible spectrum or infrared), microphones, wireless signals, and active <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lidar\" title=\"Lidar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4844b5d4c9d113609acb81c9a6421e8c\">lidar<\/a>, sonar, radar, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tactile_sensor\" title=\"Tactile sensor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a326234e1c4db0d9725579debcb206d7\">tactile sensors<\/a>) to deduce aspects of the world. Applications include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech recognition<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Speech_recognition_118-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Speech_recognition-118\">[115]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facial_recognition_system\" title=\"Facial recognition system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a48e820a5eeac01f60fa6d31bf41aac2\">facial recognition<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object_recognition\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Object recognition\" data-key=\"e0f4220ac83074b756845927988d527f\">object recognition<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Object_recognition_119-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Object_recognition-119\">[116]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">Computer vision<\/a> is the ability to analyze visual input. Such input is usually ambiguous; a giant, fifty-meter-tall pedestrian far away may produce exactly the same pixels as a nearby normal-sized pedestrian, requiring the AI to judge the relative likelihood and reasonableness of different interpretations, for example by using its \"object model\" to assess that fifty-meter pedestrians do not exist.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Computer_vision_120-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Computer_vision-120\">[117]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Motion_and_manipulation\">Motion and manipulation<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotics\" title=\"Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51e34f62697c054ccec4bfed01d9051\">Robotics<\/a><\/div>\n<p>AI is heavily used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotics\" title=\"Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51e34f62697c054ccec4bfed01d9051\">robotics<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Robotics_121-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Robotics-121\">[118]<\/a><\/sup> Advanced <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotic_arm\" title=\"Robotic arm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b840aa52cc00deb42dad26aa191affe\">robotic arms<\/a> and other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_robot\" title=\"Industrial robot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b13e0a57afa23c59aa1b27f010c6ec1\">industrial robots<\/a>, widely used in modern factories, can learn from experience how to move efficiently despite the presence of friction and gear slippage.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Configuration_space_122-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Configuration_space-122\">[119]<\/a><\/sup> A modern mobile robot, when given a small, static, and visible environment, can easily determine its location and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotic_mapping\" title=\"Robotic mapping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aec380e891e6fa164c588da737c882c9\">map<\/a> its environment; however, dynamic environments, such as (in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Endoscopy\" title=\"Endoscopy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"015dc50819784cd06eff8da5fe5f940c\">endoscopy<\/a>) the interior of a patient's breathing body, pose a greater challenge. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Motion_planning\" title=\"Motion planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec09ddc98d836d67689e5be4e3274f96\">Motion planning<\/a> is the process of breaking down a movement task into \"primitives\" such as individual joint movements. Such movement often involves compliant motion, a process where movement requires maintaining physical contact with an object.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTETecuci2012_123-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTETecuci2012-123\">[120]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Robotic_mapping_124-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Robotic_mapping-124\">[121]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-125\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-125\">[122]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moravec%27s_paradox\" title=\"Moravec's paradox\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76a808942c6d7fe91ec4f8263c9888b7\">Moravec's paradox<\/a> generalizes that low-level sensorimotor skills that humans take for granted are, counterintuitively, difficult to program into a robot; the paradox is named after <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hans_Moravec\" title=\"Hans Moravec\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"251f9e14d86954130e9f7e16aa21c877\">Hans Moravec<\/a>, who stated in 1988 that \"it is comparatively easy to make computers exhibit adult level performance on intelligence tests or playing checkers, and difficult or impossible to give them the skills of a one-year-old when it comes to perception and mobility\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-126\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-126\">[123]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-127\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-127\">[124]<\/a><\/sup> This is attributed to the fact that, unlike checkers, physical dexterity has been a direct target of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_selection\" title=\"Natural selection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cae9a9a763c86d44cc6c6b5cd83b94f\">natural selection<\/a> for millions of years.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-The_Economist_128-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-The_Economist-128\">[125]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Social_intelligence\">Social intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affective_computing\" title=\"Affective computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2d2895ad8508fe3d7e92180ab59a670\">Affective computing<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Kismet_robot_at_MIT_Museum.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"213f93ca7036ee5859d27b1a4fdb948f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b8\/Kismet_robot_at_MIT_Museum.jpg\/220px-Kismet_robot_at_MIT_Museum.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Kismet_robot_at_MIT_Museum.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"213f93ca7036ee5859d27b1a4fdb948f\"><\/a><\/div><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kismet_(robot)\" title=\"Kismet (robot)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d2a32f554b9b31d0efba66c5432a1a9\">Kismet<\/a>, a robot with rudimentary social skills<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''Kismet''_129-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#39;-129\">[126]<\/a><\/sup><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Moravec's paradox can be extended to many forms of social intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-130\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-130\">[127]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-131\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-131\">[128]<\/a><\/sup> Distributed multi-agent coordination of autonomous vehicles remains a difficult problem.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-132\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-132\">[129]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affective_computing\" title=\"Affective computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2d2895ad8508fe3d7e92180ab59a670\">Affective computing<\/a> is an interdisciplinary umbrella that comprises systems which recognize, interpret, process, or simulate human <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affect_(psychology)\" title=\"Affect (psychology)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"842f01ba2d297d93717bbe8625ef8432\">affects<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThro1993_133-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThro1993-133\">[130]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdelson1991_134-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdelson1991-134\">[131]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaoTan2005_135-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaoTan2005-135\">[132]<\/a><\/sup> Moderate successes related to affective computing include textual <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sentiment_analysis\" title=\"Sentiment analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65a8d6b4bb74d78435b7c0e113f93692\">sentiment analysis<\/a> and, more recently, multimodal affect analysis (see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multimodal_sentiment_analysis\" title=\"Multimodal sentiment analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73eaf397c9899977f927bb020354844e\">multimodal sentiment analysis<\/a>), wherein AI classifies the affects displayed by a videotaped subject.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-136\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-136\">[133]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the long run, social skills and an understanding of human emotion and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_theory\" title=\"Game theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5498b159fb87dc60c8ad0a722348a50a\">game theory<\/a> would be valuable to a social agent. Being able to predict the actions of others by understanding their motives and emotional states would allow an agent to make better decisions. Some computer systems mimic human emotion and expressions to appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction\" title=\"Human\u2013computer interaction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f223dba7ff4b64f99540c3cb7b28b58\">human\u2013computer interaction<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Emotion_and_affective_computing_137-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Emotion_and_affective_computing-137\">[134]<\/a><\/sup> Similarly, some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_assistant\" title=\"Virtual assistant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5cc0ede2ebe08f413668ba2dcd667b17\">virtual assistants<\/a> are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; this tends to give na\u00efve users an unrealistic conception of how intelligent existing computer agents actually are.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-138\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-138\">[135]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"General_intelligence\">General intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">Artificial general intelligence<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI-complete\" title=\"AI-complete\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca17c2e39c2e0737dbe74d837bb5cf63\">AI-complete<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Historically, projects such as the Cyc knowledge base (1984\u2013) and the massive Japanese <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fifth_generation_computer\" title=\"Fifth generation computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ea405d757211784a6c7443121029019\">Fifth Generation Computer Systems<\/a> initiative (1982\u20131992) attempted to cover the breadth of human cognition. These early projects failed to escape the limitations of non-quantitative symbolic logic models and, in retrospect, greatly underestimated the difficulty of cross-domain AI. Nowadays, the vast majority of current AI researchers work instead on tractable \"narrow AI\" applications (such as medical diagnosis or automobile navigation).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-contemporary_agi_139-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-contemporary_agi-139\">[136]<\/a><\/sup> Many researchers predict that such \"narrow AI\" work in different individual domains will eventually be incorporated into a machine with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">artificial general intelligence<\/a> (AGI), combining most of the narrow skills mentioned in this article and at some point even exceeding human ability in most or all these areas.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-General_intelligence_18-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-General_intelligence-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Roberts_140-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Roberts-140\">[137]<\/a><\/sup> Many advances have general, cross-domain significance. One high-profile example is that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DeepMind\" title=\"DeepMind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07f295d7424e66bcbf0d068db4b12869\">DeepMind<\/a> in the 2010s developed a \"generalized artificial intelligence\" that could learn many diverse <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atari_2600\" title=\"Atari 2600\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51dc37661cf8dbe3471f77d1dbf32b36\">Atari<\/a> games on its own, and later developed a variant of the system which succeeds at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Catastrophic_interference#The_Sequential_Learning_Problem:_McCloskey_and_Cohen_(1989)\" title=\"Catastrophic interference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c3ef7589a778be39c87e3342983b4cb\">sequential learning<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-141\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-141\">[138]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-142\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-142\">[139]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-143\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-143\">[140]<\/a><\/sup> Besides <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transfer_learning\" title=\"Transfer learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fcc29c127bd186329e75098901899d9\">transfer learning<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-144\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-144\">[141]<\/a><\/sup> hypothetical AGI breakthroughs could include the development of reflective architectures that can engage in decision-theoretic metareasoning, and figuring out how to \"slurp up\" a comprehensive knowledge base from the entire unstructured <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Wide_Web\" title=\"World Wide Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8167fa2a43229db150009f4a93e3a779\">Web<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2009_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2009-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> Some argue that some kind of (currently-undiscovered) conceptually straightforward, but mathematically difficult, \"Master Algorithm\" could lead to AGI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015_145-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015-145\">[142]<\/a><\/sup> Finally, a few \"emergent\" approaches look to simulating human intelligence extremely closely, and believe that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anthropomorphism\" title=\"Anthropomorphism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f84c22311746c78f566f91168a746bdd\">anthropomorphic<\/a> features like an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_brain\" title=\"Artificial brain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8256966c78780135785df95039a8e22\">artificial brain<\/a> or simulated <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Developmental_robotics\" title=\"Developmental robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bad5eeeb274d212ac93d951ec736f53\">child development<\/a> may someday reach a critical point where general intelligence emerges.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Brain_simulation_146-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Brain_simulation-146\">[143]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-147\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-147\">[144]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Many of the problems in this article may also require general intelligence, if machines are to solve the problems as well as people do. For example, even specific straightforward tasks, like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">machine translation<\/a>, require that a machine read and write in both languages (<a href=\"#Natural_language_processing\">NLP<\/a>), follow the author's argument (<a href=\"#Deduction,_reasoning,_problem_solving\">reason<\/a>), know what is being talked about (<a href=\"#Knowledge_representation\">knowledge<\/a>), and faithfully reproduce the author's original intent (<a href=\"#Social_intelligence\">social intelligence<\/a>). A problem like machine translation is considered \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI-complete\" title=\"AI-complete\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca17c2e39c2e0737dbe74d837bb5cf63\">AI-complete<\/a>\", because all of these problems need to be solved simultaneously in order to reach human-level machine performance.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Approaches\">Approaches<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>There is no established unifying theory or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paradigm\" title=\"Paradigm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ec5fc768447bc5cea2599c1dd36b032\">paradigm<\/a> that guides AI research. Researchers disagree about many issues.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-148\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-148\">[145]<\/a><\/sup> A few of the most long standing questions that have remained unanswered are these: should artificial intelligence simulate natural intelligence by studying <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychology\" title=\"Psychology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a99444d2a275a5cbb5bb5400a4e9030a\">psychology<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neuroscience\" title=\"Neuroscience\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"444cbd0b0bfec2ad88df9337f1a2a161\">neurobiology<\/a>? Or is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_biology\" title=\"Human biology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"15517b7fd20a1adcbe5614c85d69ec5e\">human biology<\/a> as irrelevant to AI research as bird biology is to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aeronautical_engineering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Aeronautical engineering\" data-key=\"1f0463a949de684d2c032838a28feb6a\">aeronautical engineering<\/a>?<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Biological_intelligence_vs._intelligence_in_general_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Biological_intelligence_vs._intelligence_in_general-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\nCan intelligent behavior be described using simple, elegant principles (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic\" title=\"Logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1765a5c4c6dcb7becba1cf644fe3897\">logic<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optimization_(mathematics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Optimization (mathematics)\" data-key=\"a0e43b9012530963008233e16e4d4533\">optimization<\/a>)? Or does it necessarily require solving a large number of completely unrelated problems?<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Neats_vs._scruffies_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Neats_vs._scruffies-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cybernetics_and_brain_simulation\">Cybernetics and brain simulation<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cybernetics\" title=\"Cybernetics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2fd690a7488aff64dd69ac9128dd7a50\">Cybernetics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_neuroscience\" title=\"Computational neuroscience\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"138176b0594a9e374c4eb2738a9c6a59\">Computational neuroscience<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In the 1940s and 1950s, a number of researchers explored the connection between <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neurobiology\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neurobiology\" data-key=\"d1a2ac046b6cbc1d9e2d7a0efb3cd346\">neurobiology<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_theory\" title=\"Information theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37a5a861361287193f336544da55e690\">information theory<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cybernetics\" title=\"Cybernetics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2fd690a7488aff64dd69ac9128dd7a50\">cybernetics<\/a>. Some of them built machines that used electronic networks to exhibit rudimentary intelligence, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W._Grey_Walter\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"W. Grey Walter\" data-key=\"bfde5290670f0648a34a844620843fae\">W. Grey Walter<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turtle_(robot)\" title=\"Turtle (robot)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1833dca0bcfba82da81485018f5faf28\">turtles<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Johns_Hopkins_Beast\" title=\"Johns Hopkins Beast\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"401df00087ef87bb629df53c60c71281\">Johns Hopkins Beast<\/a>. Many of these researchers gathered for meetings of the Teleological Society at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Princeton_University\" title=\"Princeton University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a1cc00ef6b7c320162c1637c4a4f831\">Princeton University<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ratio_Club\" title=\"Ratio Club\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6c0bf373f89cba2c4e72c4c5db5bc6f\">Ratio Club<\/a> in England.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI's_immediate_precursors_149-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#39;s_immediate_precursors-149\">[146]<\/a><\/sup> By 1960, this approach was largely abandoned, although elements of it would be revived in the 1980s.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Symbolic\">Symbolic<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbolic_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Symbolic AI\" data-key=\"f49579f042b3c5582c3951aac3a561ed\">Symbolic AI<\/a><\/div>\n<p>When access to digital computers became possible in the middle 1950s, AI research began to explore the possibility that human intelligence could be reduced to symbol manipulation. The research was centered in three institutions: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Mellon_University\" title=\"Carnegie Mellon University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edc1e7b9266be3eeab86296d0abca43b\">Carnegie Mellon University<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stanford\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Stanford\" data-key=\"b1459cc003991839f0603024a8d7b73c\">Stanford<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MIT\" data-key=\"593b6a7a771d2e31e12181005d6b1bc6\">MIT<\/a>, and as described below, each one developed its own style of research. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Haugeland\" title=\"John Haugeland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"710a0edda7eb08c160d2f42b2fc27b00\">John Haugeland<\/a> named these symbolic approaches to AI \"good old fashioned AI\" or \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GOFAI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GOFAI\" data-key=\"3490f09eb761a8d411e5590ee9b0d6da\">GOFAI<\/a>\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GOFAI_150-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GOFAI-150\">[147]<\/a><\/sup> During the 1960s, symbolic approaches had achieved great success at simulating high-level thinking in small demonstration programs. Approaches based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cybernetics\" title=\"Cybernetics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2fd690a7488aff64dd69ac9128dd7a50\">cybernetics<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural networks<\/a> were abandoned or pushed into the background.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-151\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-151\">[148]<\/a><\/sup>\nResearchers in the 1960s and the 1970s were convinced that symbolic approaches would eventually succeed in creating a machine with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">artificial general intelligence<\/a> and considered this the goal of their field.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cognitive_simulation\">Cognitive simulation<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Economist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herbert_A._Simon\" title=\"Herbert A. Simon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d9e38903367abeb4880342cd666b2b0\">Herbert Simon<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allen_Newell\" title=\"Allen Newell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92e155bb916e0a942167e5882906563e\">Allen Newell<\/a> studied human problem-solving skills and attempted to formalize them, and their work laid the foundations of the field of artificial intelligence, as well as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_science\" title=\"Cognitive science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0dc5911ee55fab6df1517b00fbd0b84\">cognitive science<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operations_research\" title=\"Operations research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea13bd10effe5b252bd593334c52b8a8\">operations research<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Management_science\" title=\"Management science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2074d4c5fa355f4045b8cb50c1eb402\">management science<\/a>. Their research team used the results of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychology\" title=\"Psychology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a99444d2a275a5cbb5bb5400a4e9030a\">psychological<\/a> experiments to develop programs that simulated the techniques that people used to solve problems. This tradition, centered at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Mellon_University\" title=\"Carnegie Mellon University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edc1e7b9266be3eeab86296d0abca43b\">Carnegie Mellon University<\/a> would eventually culminate in the development of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soar_(cognitive_architecture)\" title=\"Soar (cognitive architecture)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42cc343c6f09b7a4aeded14b73a848e8\">Soar<\/a> architecture in the middle 1980s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_at_CMU_in_the_60s_152-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_at_CMU_in_the_60s-152\">[149]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Soar_153-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Soar-153\">[150]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Logic-based\">Logic-based<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Unlike Simon and Newell, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"John McCarthy (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"498a2d3b08b0a194821bc61ed3b973fe\">John McCarthy<\/a> felt that machines did not need to simulate human thought, but should instead try to find the essence of abstract reasoning and problem-solving, regardless whether people used the same algorithms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Biological_intelligence_vs._intelligence_in_general_15-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Biological_intelligence_vs._intelligence_in_general-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> His laboratory at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stanford_University\" title=\"Stanford University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1600c60a7a6c74e2dc1535b8dee0a9a8\">Stanford<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stanford_Artificial_Intelligence_Laboratory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory\" data-key=\"0ee6558dd867f8787fdf9d57242ebff8\">SAIL<\/a>) focused on using formal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic\" title=\"Logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1765a5c4c6dcb7becba1cf644fe3897\">logic<\/a> to solve a wide variety of problems, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation\" data-key=\"a51a434d24f3769ccc65859b23494280\">knowledge representation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">planning<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">learning<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_at_Stanford_in_the_60s_154-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_at_Stanford_in_the_60s-154\">[151]<\/a><\/sup> Logic was also the focus of the work at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Edinburgh\" title=\"University of Edinburgh\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"140ed92e390a6cd5e26d360c50944290\">University of Edinburgh<\/a> and elsewhere in Europe which led to the development of the programming language <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prolog\" title=\"Prolog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa2833d010677a23881b973b47826430\">Prolog<\/a> and the science of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_programming\" title=\"Logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6c0943d2bbff45f5ba0d111f9a594b7\">logic programming<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_at_Edinburgh_and_France_in_the_60s_155-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_at_Edinburgh_and_France_in_the_60s-155\">[152]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Anti-logic_or_scruffy\">Anti-logic or scruffy<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Researchers at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MIT\" data-key=\"593b6a7a771d2e31e12181005d6b1bc6\">MIT<\/a> (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marvin_Minsky\" title=\"Marvin Minsky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5677de93e5b6dc185b95ffc880ffe34\">Marvin Minsky<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seymour_Papert\" title=\"Seymour Papert\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e05adfa2eae95cc6fa0b042c6e2f68b3\">Seymour Papert<\/a>)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_at_MIT_in_the_60s_156-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_at_MIT_in_the_60s-156\">[153]<\/a><\/sup> found that solving difficult problems in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">vision<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">natural language processing<\/a> required ad-hoc solutions\u2014they argued that there was no simple and general principle (like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic\" title=\"Logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1765a5c4c6dcb7becba1cf644fe3897\">logic<\/a>) that would capture all the aspects of intelligent behavior. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Roger_Schank\" title=\"Roger Schank\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48f1273cc15bc6f6f74aa948ad490a99\">Roger Schank<\/a> described their \"anti-logic\" approaches as \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neats_vs._scruffies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neats vs. scruffies\" data-key=\"d9fb5258517ffdc10d3a12c54aef4bbb\">scruffy<\/a>\" (as opposed to the \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neats_vs._scruffies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neats vs. scruffies\" data-key=\"d9fb5258517ffdc10d3a12c54aef4bbb\">neat<\/a>\" paradigms at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Mellon_University\" title=\"Carnegie Mellon University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edc1e7b9266be3eeab86296d0abca43b\">CMU<\/a> and Stanford).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Neats_vs._scruffies_16-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Neats_vs._scruffies-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commonsense_knowledge_bases\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Commonsense knowledge bases\" data-key=\"5f4ad33ddfcb1ec457aa096db97b7274\">Commonsense knowledge bases<\/a> (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doug_Lenat\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doug Lenat\" data-key=\"14ff72c1264def1993310aca4316c4a6\">Doug Lenat<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyc\" title=\"Cyc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db8ad97a96ff39f5d7c763a3ef3e0b7c\">Cyc<\/a>) are an example of \"scruffy\" AI, since they must be built by hand, one complicated concept at a time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cyc_157-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cyc-157\">[154]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Knowledge-based\">Knowledge-based<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>When computers with large memories became available around 1970, researchers from all three traditions began to build <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation\" data-key=\"a51a434d24f3769ccc65859b23494280\">knowledge<\/a> into AI applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Knowledge_revolution_158-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Knowledge_revolution-158\">[155]<\/a><\/sup> This \"knowledge revolution\" led to the development and deployment of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expert_system\" title=\"Expert system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6a738b57cf1f26d8d60f3adb61e3384\">expert systems<\/a> (introduced by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_Feigenbaum\" title=\"Edward Feigenbaum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e413ff4bc35a4fc635fd284080a124e1\">Edward Feigenbaum<\/a>), the first truly successful form of AI software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Expert_systems_38-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Expert_systems-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> A key component of the system architecture for all expert systems is the knowledge base, which stores facts and rules that illustrate AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-159\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-159\">[156]<\/a><\/sup> The knowledge revolution was also driven by the realization that enormous amounts of knowledge would be required by many simple AI applications.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sub-symbolic\">Sub-symbolic<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>By the 1980s, progress in symbolic AI seemed to stall and many believed that symbolic systems would never be able to imitate all the processes of human cognition, especially <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">perception<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotics\" title=\"Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51e34f62697c054ccec4bfed01d9051\">robotics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">learning<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pattern_recognition\" title=\"Pattern recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a507cb5f9432073674e1795cfa5dbd97\">pattern recognition<\/a>. A number of researchers began to look into \"sub-symbolic\" approaches to specific AI problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Symbolic_vs._sub-symbolic_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Symbolic_vs._sub-symbolic-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> Sub-symbolic methods manage to approach intelligence without specific representations of knowledge.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Embodied_intelligence\">Embodied intelligence<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>This includes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embodied_agent\" title=\"Embodied agent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0b62a8c0bfb480d9c9e1cb3bb53bef9\">embodied<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Situated\" title=\"Situated\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8edebb0caa1b6beb1155c7a1cafc2d7d\">situated<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Behavior-based_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Behavior-based AI\" data-key=\"ddb71a426401d613c304a39a0ed77135\">behavior-based<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nouvelle_AI\" title=\"Nouvelle AI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86e434ab66843e50734bee12aca68fa9\">nouvelle AI<\/a>. Researchers from the related field of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotics\" title=\"Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51e34f62697c054ccec4bfed01d9051\">robotics<\/a>, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rodney_Brooks\" title=\"Rodney Brooks\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8193c538969269197c051496ce56e39\">Rodney Brooks<\/a>, rejected symbolic AI and focused on the basic engineering problems that would allow robots to move and survive.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Embodied_AI_160-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Embodied_AI-160\">[157]<\/a><\/sup> Their work revived the non-symbolic viewpoint of the early <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cybernetic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cybernetic\" data-key=\"60c17dfc4d2b95267409e6191570e053\">cybernetics<\/a> researchers of the 1950s and reintroduced the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_theory\" title=\"Control theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca62140e6aa311d719e89134c349c4ce\">control theory<\/a> in AI. This coincided with the development of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embodied_mind_thesis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Embodied mind thesis\" data-key=\"d731fcdb3b0bf13bb28764cfe27736f4\">embodied mind thesis<\/a> in the related field of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_science\" title=\"Cognitive science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0dc5911ee55fab6df1517b00fbd0b84\">cognitive science<\/a>: the idea that aspects of the body (such as movement, perception and visualization) are required for higher intelligence.\n<\/p><p>Within <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Developmental_robotics\" title=\"Developmental robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bad5eeeb274d212ac93d951ec736f53\">developmental robotics<\/a>, developmental learning approaches are elaborated upon to allow robots to accumulate repertoires of novel skills through autonomous self-exploration, social interaction with human teachers, and the use of guidance mechanisms (active learning, maturation, motor synergies, etc.).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWengMcClellandPentlandSporns2001_161-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWengMcClellandPentlandSporns2001-161\">[158]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTELungarellaMettaPfeiferSandini2003_162-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTELungarellaMettaPfeiferSandini2003-162\">[159]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsadaHosodaKuniyoshiIshiguro2009_163-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsadaHosodaKuniyoshiIshiguro2009-163\">[160]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOudeyer2010_164-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOudeyer2010-164\">[161]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Computational_intelligence_and_soft_computing\">Computational intelligence and soft computing<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Interest in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">neural networks<\/a> and \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Connectionism\" title=\"Connectionism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b94d106a53858fb714ed83605033a37\">connectionism<\/a>\" was revived by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Rumelhart\" title=\"David Rumelhart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bab17bb3b9eed4256e3c7c6e9dc03b6\">David Rumelhart<\/a> and others in the middle of the 1980s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Revival_of_connectionism_165-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Revival_of_connectionism-165\">[162]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">Artificial neural networks<\/a> are an example of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soft_computing\" title=\"Soft computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98a6d07429cb4bc4cfd5ec5ae05714f0\">soft computing<\/a>\u2014they are solutions to problems which cannot be solved with complete logical certainty, and where an approximate solution is often sufficient. Other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soft_computing\" title=\"Soft computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98a6d07429cb4bc4cfd5ec5ae05714f0\">soft computing<\/a> approaches to AI include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fuzzy system\" data-key=\"f05f3ca53fa98f8ec534d93ead4359f5\">fuzzy systems<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grey_system_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Grey system theory\" data-key=\"02ef5aca12612410bdb86e9946be18ee\">Grey system theory<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_computation\" title=\"Evolutionary computation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b60cad0a27f9a67815f7da22a51b185\">evolutionary computation<\/a> and many statistical tools. The application of soft computing to AI is studied collectively by the emerging discipline of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_intelligence\" title=\"Computational intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"858119b708bb38329ea02f8d69a8fa9e\">computational intelligence<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Computational_intelligence_166-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Computational_intelligence-166\">[163]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Statistical_learning\">Statistical learning<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Much of traditional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symbolic_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Symbolic artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90f04195cac03010b9702e7b8db7ad93\">GOFAI<\/a> got bogged down on <i>ad hoc<\/i> patches to symbolic computation that worked on their own toy models but failed to generalize to real-world results. However, around the 1990s, AI researchers adopted sophisticated mathematical tools, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hidden_Markov_model\" title=\"Hidden Markov model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2584878cd5e770c2f74616bed61710\">hidden Markov models<\/a> (HMM), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_theory\" title=\"Information theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37a5a861361287193f336544da55e690\">information theory<\/a>, and normative Bayesian <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_theory\" title=\"Decision theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"137e9a51ae7bf68325846793519501ea\">decision theory<\/a> to compare or to unify competing architectures. The shared mathematical language permitted a high level of collaboration with more established fields (like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematics\" title=\"Mathematics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d1fa34d53d056bde259b07ff17a79a1\">mathematics<\/a>, economics or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operations_research\" title=\"Operations research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea13bd10effe5b252bd593334c52b8a8\">operations research<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-167\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-167\">[d]<\/a><\/sup> Compared with GOFAI, new \"statistical learning\" techniques such as HMM and neural networks were gaining higher levels of accuracy in many practical domains such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a>, without necessarily acquiring semantic understanding of the datasets. The increased successes with real-world data led to increasing emphasis on comparing different approaches against shared test data to see which approach performed best in a broader context than that provided by idiosyncratic toy models; AI research was becoming more <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_method\" title=\"Scientific method\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30bf67533e21ecc32c67f63288d2fe2a\">scientific<\/a>. Nowadays results of experiments are often rigorously measurable, and are sometimes (with difficulty) reproducible.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Formal_methods_in_AI_39-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Formal_methods_in_AI-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-168\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-168\">[164]<\/a><\/sup> Different statistical learning techniques have different limitations; for example, basic HMM cannot model the infinite possible combinations of natural language.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorvig2012_169-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorvig2012-169\">[165]<\/a><\/sup> Critics note that the shift from GOFAI to statistical learning is often also a shift away from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Explainable_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Explainable AI\" data-key=\"90b8c6802d5bc97a989d854c1f62d773\">Explainable AI<\/a>. In AGI research, some scholars caution against over-reliance on statistical learning, and argue that continuing research into GOFAI will still be necessary to attain general intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangley2011_170-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTELangley2011-170\">[166]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKatz2012_171-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatz2012-171\">[167]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Integrating_the_approaches\">Integrating the approaches<\/span><\/h3>\n<dl><dt>Intelligent agent paradigm<\/dt>\n<dd>An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_agent\" title=\"Intelligent agent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2ded3658bd39dc370a7970df42c985e\">intelligent agent<\/a> is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success. The simplest intelligent agents are programs that solve specific problems. More complicated agents include human beings and organizations of human beings (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firm\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Firm\" data-key=\"b783020d78993295693a246aff9c0292\">firms<\/a>). The paradigm allows researchers to directly compare or even combine different approaches to isolated problems, by asking which agent is best at maximizing a given \"goal function\". An agent that solves a specific problem can use any approach that works\u2014some agents are symbolic and logical, some are sub-symbolic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural networks<\/a> and others may use new approaches. The paradigm also gives researchers a common language to communicate with other fields\u2014such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_theory\" title=\"Decision theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"137e9a51ae7bf68325846793519501ea\">decision theory<\/a> and economics\u2014that also use concepts of abstract agents. Building a complete agent requires researchers to address realistic problems of integration; for example, because sensory systems give uncertain information about the environment, planning systems must be able to function in the presence of uncertainty. The intelligent agent paradigm became widely accepted during the 1990s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Intelligent_agents_172-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Intelligent_agents-172\">[168]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agent_architecture\" title=\"Agent architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3990628afe0319d0ea0fc44f3be2152\">Agent architectures<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cognitive_architecture\" title=\"Cognitive architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd9f90266743d1e8cb57968a7153079e\">cognitive architectures<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd>Researchers have designed systems to build intelligent systems out of interacting <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_agents\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intelligent agents\" data-key=\"775d764d2d785cc30326a88f00f36770\">intelligent agents<\/a> in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multi-agent_system\" title=\"Multi-agent system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09eb2405abcfe406399c2857ad282249\">multi-agent system<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Agent_architectures_173-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Agent_architectures-173\">[169]<\/a><\/sup> A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchical_control_system\" title=\"Hierarchical control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd65ca28d201f1781d157d22d2fa3a4f\">hierarchical control system<\/a> provides a bridge between sub-symbolic AI at its lowest, reactive levels and traditional symbolic AI at its highest levels, where relaxed time constraints permit planning and world modelling.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hierarchical_control_system_174-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hierarchical_control_system-174\">[170]<\/a><\/sup> Some cognitive architectures are custom-built to solve a narrow problem; others, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soar_(cognitive_architecture)\" title=\"Soar (cognitive architecture)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42cc343c6f09b7a4aeded14b73a848e8\">Soar<\/a>, are designed to mimic human cognition and to provide insight into general intelligence. Modern extensions of Soar are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hybrid_intelligent_system\" title=\"Hybrid intelligent system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"134de857fb48c47e99864f5b0a8a0887\">hybrid intelligent systems<\/a> that include both symbolic and sub-symbolic components.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-175\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-175\">[171]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-176\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-176\">[172]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Tools\">Tools<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>AI has developed a large number of tools to solve the most difficult problems in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">computer science<\/a>. A few of the most general of these methods are discussed below.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Search_and_optimization\">Search and optimization<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_algorithm\" title=\"Search algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8e2192ba143c7f57418b352fefb05f1\">Search algorithm<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">Mathematical optimization<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_computation\" title=\"Evolutionary computation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b60cad0a27f9a67815f7da22a51b185\">Evolutionary computation<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Many problems in AI can be solved in theory by intelligently searching through many possible solutions:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Search_177-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Search-177\">[173]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"#Deduction,_reasoning,_problem_solving\">Reasoning<\/a> can be reduced to performing a search. For example, logical proof can be viewed as searching for a path that leads from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Premise\" title=\"Premise\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97e7e0b8fa720a9888afc31e8fde1b14\">premises<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_consequence\" title=\"Logical consequence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eee8632d58670cb1e707d1ede1db7e73\">conclusions<\/a>, where each step is the application of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inference_rule\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Inference rule\" data-key=\"625a14083c2fe3bd996a4f2efaaec4fe\">inference rule<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Logic_as_search_178-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Logic_as_search-178\">[174]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">Planning<\/a> algorithms search through trees of goals and subgoals, attempting to find a path to a target goal, a process called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Means-ends_analysis\" title=\"Means-ends analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc71a2723ced39f409b832baa01c3ecd\">means-ends analysis<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Planning_as_search_179-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Planning_as_search-179\">[175]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotics\" title=\"Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51e34f62697c054ccec4bfed01d9051\">Robotics<\/a> algorithms for moving limbs and grasping objects use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local_search_(optimization)\" title=\"Local search (optimization)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cab8b40fc21fbe49622f9597f8273a7\">local searches<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Configuration_space_(physics)\" title=\"Configuration space (physics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0d91e9e6064f8849810c32d5123bb83\">configuration space<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Configuration_space_122-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Configuration_space-122\">[119]<\/a><\/sup> Many <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">learning<\/a> algorithms use search algorithms based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optimization_(mathematics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Optimization (mathematics)\" data-key=\"a0e43b9012530963008233e16e4d4533\">optimization<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Simple exhaustive searches<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Uninformed_search_180-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Uninformed_search-180\">[176]<\/a><\/sup> are rarely sufficient for most real-world problems: the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_algorithm\" title=\"Search algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8e2192ba143c7f57418b352fefb05f1\">search space<\/a> (the number of places to search) quickly grows to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Astronomically_large\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Astronomically large\" data-key=\"5ea16871a57c704d2e88fce8df53e548\">astronomical numbers<\/a>. The result is a search that is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computation_time\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computation time\" data-key=\"9ec53af6b0415c650f4f1ba3b5039e82\">too slow<\/a> or never completes. The solution, for many problems, is to use \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heuristics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Heuristics\" data-key=\"47c18358ee6012fc43393af184cc4ccc\">heuristics<\/a>\" or \"rules of thumb\" that prioritize choices in favor of those that are more likely to reach a goal and to do so in a shorter number of steps. In some search methodologies heuristics can also serve to entirely eliminate some choices that are unlikely to lead to a goal (called \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pruning_(algorithm)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Pruning (algorithm)\" data-key=\"1bfec24cb23550ff67ac5ccfd4c34ef5\">pruning<\/a> the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_tree\" title=\"Search tree\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07c406aec309a9eaa8c404baf273c704\">search tree<\/a>\"). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heuristics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Heuristics\" data-key=\"47c18358ee6012fc43393af184cc4ccc\">Heuristics<\/a> supply the program with a \"best guess\" for the path on which the solution lies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Informed_search_181-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Informed_search-181\">[177]<\/a><\/sup> Heuristics limit the search for solutions into a smaller sample size.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTETecuci2012_123-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTETecuci2012-123\">[120]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A very different kind of search came to prominence in the 1990s, based on the mathematical theory of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optimization_(mathematics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Optimization (mathematics)\" data-key=\"a0e43b9012530963008233e16e4d4533\">optimization<\/a>. For many problems, it is possible to begin the search with some form of a guess and then refine the guess incrementally until no more refinements can be made. These algorithms can be visualized as blind <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hill_climbing\" title=\"Hill climbing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10499a35ce754ab13c94d320c98f5df4\">hill climbing<\/a>: we begin the search at a random point on the landscape, and then, by jumps or steps, we keep moving our guess uphill, until we reach the top. Other optimization algorithms are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Simulated_annealing\" title=\"Simulated annealing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1fc61c5395c5214e712c5c35770680be\">simulated annealing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Beam_search\" title=\"Beam search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59e9f190efe7f7fdc3f3f8df8113bc0e\">beam search<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Random_optimization\" title=\"Random optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6234c5d66725504d2116b2b7b5d06104\">random optimization<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Optimization_search_182-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Optimization_search-182\">[178]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:ParticleSwarmArrowsAnimation.gif\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"3cd17e92eaaae7b8f9abae39b2ad1213\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/ec\/ParticleSwarmArrowsAnimation.gif\/220px-ParticleSwarmArrowsAnimation.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:ParticleSwarmArrowsAnimation.gif\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"3cd17e92eaaae7b8f9abae39b2ad1213\"><\/a><\/div>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particle_swarm_optimization\" title=\"Particle swarm optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05cc276e91b836bf00bb6f20e8f451f7\">particle swarm<\/a> seeking the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_minimum\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Global minimum\" data-key=\"727bdaa95e5aa9f32e1716f59a1017ab\">global minimum<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_computation\" title=\"Evolutionary computation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b60cad0a27f9a67815f7da22a51b185\">Evolutionary computation<\/a> uses a form of optimization search. For example, they may begin with a population of organisms (the guesses) and then allow them to mutate and recombine, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_selection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial selection\" data-key=\"a01e2cdc0618f14f4877a49e8a4c5646\">selecting<\/a> only the fittest to survive each generation (refining the guesses). Classic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_algorithms\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Evolutionary algorithms\" data-key=\"a96c051f7171e633f6ec9751b8c5c451\">evolutionary algorithms<\/a> include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_algorithms\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Genetic algorithms\" data-key=\"fc5ef0931d55987c180aeb657a1640aa\">genetic algorithms<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gene_expression_programming\" title=\"Gene expression programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f1ee8402813512e3c408169e1bf548d\">gene expression programming<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_programming\" title=\"Genetic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6654c2a5fac4d4254aee7785de8a3276\">genetic programming<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Genetic_programming_183-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Genetic_programming-183\">[179]<\/a><\/sup> Alternatively, distributed search processes can coordinate via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swarm_intelligence\" title=\"Swarm intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f37742882c10162325fa45a9fbebf82e\">swarm intelligence<\/a> algorithms. Two popular swarm algorithms used in search are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particle_swarm_optimization\" title=\"Particle swarm optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05cc276e91b836bf00bb6f20e8f451f7\">particle swarm optimization<\/a> (inspired by bird <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flocking_(behavior)\" title=\"Flocking (behavior)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"28e0464373293052e74ba73af67e5f0b\">flocking<\/a>) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ant_colony_optimization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ant colony optimization\" data-key=\"767cabe648af62541f20aa5011f4f033\">ant colony optimization<\/a> (inspired by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ant_trail\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ant trail\" data-key=\"e9bfdd0e52c1687ecaf9a7ec670f6a83\">ant trails<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Society_based_learning_184-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Society_based_learning-184\">[180]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-185\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-185\">[181]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Logic\">Logic<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_programming\" title=\"Logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6c0943d2bbff45f5ba0d111f9a594b7\">Logic programming<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_reasoning\" title=\"Automated reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9de14c9c0d69a0cb33e3fcbd45499d1f\">Automated reasoning<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic\" title=\"Logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1765a5c4c6dcb7becba1cf644fe3897\">Logic<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Logic_186-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Logic-186\">[182]<\/a><\/sup> is used for knowledge representation and problem solving, but it can be applied to other problems as well. For example, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Satplan\" title=\"Satplan\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9eed2a999d5f03d778f99133ed025a77\">satplan<\/a> algorithm uses logic for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">planning<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Satplan_187-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Satplan-187\">[183]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inductive_logic_programming\" title=\"Inductive logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93a737196e39fde2d25f8168760d20ff\">inductive logic programming<\/a> is a method for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">learning<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Symbolic_learning_techniques_188-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Symbolic_learning_techniques-188\">[184]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Several different forms of logic are used in AI research. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Propositional_logic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Propositional logic\" data-key=\"c9369aad6f2772123d846a70baa93ee5\">Propositional logic<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Propositional_logic_189-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Propositional_logic-189\">[185]<\/a><\/sup> involves <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Truth_function\" title=\"Truth function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33b5e095e9fb39cce080daa0f143cd1a\">truth functions<\/a> such as \"or\" and \"not\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First-order_logic\" title=\"First-order logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0440e828c0aa870ff198a30aba920282\">First-order logic<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-First-order_logic_190-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-First-order_logic-190\">[186]<\/a><\/sup> adds <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quantifier_(logic)\" title=\"Quantifier (logic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6d9de6880ad9f42fafa5e7566e9bec8\">quantifiers<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)\" title=\"Predicate (mathematical logic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fb74054747fc24a5185c131b106c2ab\">predicates<\/a>, and can express facts about objects, their properties, and their relations with each other. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_set_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fuzzy set theory\" data-key=\"fe016c71ea50ddccb248a6599e51cd8e\">Fuzzy set theory<\/a> assigns a \"degree of truth\" (between 0 and 1) to vague statements such as \"Alice is old\" (or rich, or tall, or hungry) that are too linguistically imprecise to be completely true or false. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\" title=\"Fuzzy logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b5089e9114f91c54ad40c5615094874\">Fuzzy logic<\/a> is successfully used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Control_system\" title=\"Control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1de85e21d2395f64ea337c4e8194d71\">control systems<\/a> to allow experts to contribute vague rules such as \"if you are close to the destination station and moving fast, increase the train's brake pressure\"; these vague rules can then be numerically refined within the system. Fuzzy logic fails to scale well in knowledge bases; many AI researchers question the validity of chaining fuzzy-logic inferences.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-192\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-192\">[e]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fuzzy_logic_193-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fuzzy_logic-193\">[188]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-194\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-194\">[189]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Default_logic\" title=\"Default logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"933c9f13c7f9c9dcf83d5285c4bad102\">Default logics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-monotonic_logic\" title=\"Non-monotonic logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c13bba29e69b618970cbd7fe0b603ec\">non-monotonic logics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Circumscription_(logic)\" title=\"Circumscription (logic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c65c6ccdf03ac558d4456cb7bcf8e03d\">circumscription<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic_97-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic-97\">[94]<\/a><\/sup> are forms of logic designed to help with default reasoning and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qualification_problem\" title=\"Qualification problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d72ea8e5eb11cff2348636d41410a27\">qualification problem<\/a>. Several extensions of logic have been designed to handle specific domains of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation\" data-key=\"a51a434d24f3769ccc65859b23494280\">knowledge<\/a>, such as: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Description_logic\" title=\"Description logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27300d027ae9835f67566eb6262b8187\">description logics<\/a>;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_categories_and_relations_85-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_categories_and_relations-85\">[82]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Situation_calculus\" title=\"Situation calculus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4054713bef9d121fb1ad13be0606a97\">situation calculus<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Event_calculus\" title=\"Event calculus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d7fc6b02518fa30f59e90006e0c8ce1\">event calculus<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fluent_calculus\" title=\"Fluent calculus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fff3e9224b85f8daa97d32dbffbdc61e\">fluent calculus<\/a> (for representing events and time);<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_time_86-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_time-86\">[83]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Causality#Causal_calculus\" title=\"Causality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32cab8565fc9828867945c54d85001ad\">causal calculus<\/a>;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_causation_87-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_causation-87\">[84]<\/a><\/sup> belief calculus;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-195\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-195\">[190]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modal_logic\" title=\"Modal logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfc5296412f894cbbad0a776c7f524f9\">modal logics<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Representing_knowledge_about_knowledge_88-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Representing_knowledge_about_knowledge-88\">[85]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Overall, qualitiative symbolic logic is brittle and scales poorly in the presence of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Noise_(signal_processing)\" title=\"Noise (signal processing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3298a430ce525e37e96c351513822ae4\">noise<\/a> or other uncertainty. Exceptions to rules are numerous, and it is difficult for logical systems to function in the presence of contradictory rules.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015chapter_6_196-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015chapter_6-196\">[191]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-197\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-197\">[192]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Probabilistic_methods_for_uncertain_reasoning\">Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian network<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hidden_Markov_model\" title=\"Hidden Markov model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2584878cd5e770c2f74616bed61710\">Hidden Markov model<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kalman_filter\" title=\"Kalman filter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9ff163ecb988890e9319920b2455342\">Kalman filter<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particle_filter\" title=\"Particle filter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8caeed2f01e67c02f3725b5c3eaf92ca\">Particle filter<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_theory\" title=\"Decision theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"137e9a51ae7bf68325846793519501ea\">Decision theory<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Utility_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Utility theory\" data-key=\"8871149b7760eeab7277bd75b75712ba\">Utility theory<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:362px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:EM_Clustering_of_Old_Faithful_data.gif\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"06f8a17cb69a48467d28e4ff17b84e65\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/69\/EM_Clustering_of_Old_Faithful_data.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"360\" height=\"309\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expectation-maximization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Expectation-maximization\" data-key=\"0d4049af3eb036c84bc73a59be8adccc\">Expectation-maximization<\/a> clustering of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Old_Faithful\" title=\"Old Faithful\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"21515769cade13ba4df39f273ac51d17\">Old Faithful<\/a> eruption data starts from a random guess but then successfully converges on an accurate clustering of the two physically distinct modes of eruption.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Many problems in AI (in reasoning, planning, learning, perception, and robotics) require the agent to operate with incomplete or uncertain information. AI researchers have devised a number of powerful tools to solve these problems using methods from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Probability\" title=\"Probability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44ea3f63d04643beddabc48ace7e9515\">probability<\/a> theory and economics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Stochastic_methods_for_uncertain_reasoning_198-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Stochastic_methods_for_uncertain_reasoning-198\">[193]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian networks<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bayesian_networks_199-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bayesian_networks-199\">[194]<\/a><\/sup> are a very general tool that can be used for a large number of problems: reasoning (using the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_inference\" title=\"Bayesian inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26d0e9d790d16771f099137b199877f7\">Bayesian inference<\/a> algorithm),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bayesian_inference_200-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bayesian_inference-200\">[195]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">learning<\/a> (using the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expectation-maximization_algorithm\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Expectation-maximization algorithm\" data-key=\"30bd70c5e82d98624d02ec9cb807855d\">expectation-maximization algorithm<\/a>),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-202\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-202\">[f]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bayesian_learning_203-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bayesian_learning-203\">[197]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">planning<\/a> (using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision network\" data-key=\"ec62f139d48f4a0547a651f78040aaf3\">decision networks<\/a>)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bayesian_decision_networks_204-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bayesian_decision_networks-204\">[198]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">perception<\/a> (using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_Bayesian_network\" title=\"Dynamic Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c77f6b75feb8e5df8f5bea6a137d340c\">dynamic Bayesian networks<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Stochastic_temporal_models_205-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Stochastic_temporal_models-205\">[199]<\/a><\/sup> Probabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering, prediction, smoothing and finding explanations for streams of data, helping <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">perception<\/a> systems to analyze processes that occur over time (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hidden_Markov_model\" title=\"Hidden Markov model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2584878cd5e770c2f74616bed61710\">hidden Markov models<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kalman_filter\" title=\"Kalman filter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9ff163ecb988890e9319920b2455342\">Kalman filters<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Stochastic_temporal_models_205-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Stochastic_temporal_models-205\">[199]<\/a><\/sup> Compared with symbolic logic, formal Bayesian inference is computationally expensive. For inference to be tractable, most observations must be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Conditionally_independent\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Conditionally independent\" data-key=\"7fe0771b35d69a3e617240a44d8505d7\">conditionally independent<\/a> of one another. Complicated graphs with diamonds or other \"loops\" (undirected <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cycle_(graph_theory)\" title=\"Cycle (graph theory)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"beba3da4080320dd8d3522b846cf6fe1\">cycles<\/a>) can require a sophisticated method such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markov_Chain_Monte_Carlo\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Markov Chain Monte Carlo\" data-key=\"f9baf87edc3e18772f24bbc16c61fb06\">Markov Chain Monte Carlo<\/a>, which spreads an ensemble of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Random_walk\" title=\"Random walk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd751cccad91b34e7983725c551bfa2f\">random walkers<\/a> throughout the Bayesian network and attempts to converge to an assessment of the conditional probabilities. Bayesian networks are used on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Xbox_Live\" title=\"Xbox Live\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"939bf0b950229f7093989e684c928b97\">Xbox Live<\/a> to rate and match players; wins and losses are \"evidence\" of how good a player is. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AdSense\" title=\"AdSense\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f28ccc7c94d374cd84ceb1da3d392a9d\">AdSense<\/a> uses a Bayesian network with over 300 million edges to learn which ads to serve.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015chapter_6_196-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015chapter_6-196\">[191]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A key concept from the science of economics is \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Utility\" title=\"Utility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"317210b0c67c2128db183f39aa610e39\">utility<\/a>\": a measure of how valuable something is to an intelligent agent. Precise mathematical tools have been developed that analyze how an agent can make choices and plan, using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_theory\" title=\"Decision theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"137e9a51ae7bf68325846793519501ea\">decision theory<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_analysis\" title=\"Decision analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c11ec4cc4375ffe34b09e6bcb177863\">decision analysis<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Decisions_theory_and_analysis_206-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Decisions_theory_and_analysis-206\">[200]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Applied_information_economics\" title=\"Applied information economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"537b80b85db74c048103b1dc9a591535\">information value theory<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Information_value_theory_103-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Information_value_theory-103\">[100]<\/a><\/sup> These tools include models such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markov_decision_process\" title=\"Markov decision process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a165b52a9ae8569c3987f865361587a4\">Markov decision processes<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Markov_decision_process_207-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Markov_decision_process-207\">[201]<\/a><\/sup> dynamic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision network\" data-key=\"ec62f139d48f4a0547a651f78040aaf3\">decision networks<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Stochastic_temporal_models_205-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Stochastic_temporal_models-205\">[199]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_theory\" title=\"Game theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5498b159fb87dc60c8ad0a722348a50a\">game theory<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mechanism_design\" title=\"Mechanism design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e592c085fda248bc8c378cadc4d0488\">mechanism design<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Game_theory_and_mechanism_design_208-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Game_theory_and_mechanism_design-208\">[202]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Classifiers_and_statistical_learning_methods\">Classifiers and statistical learning methods<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classifier_(mathematics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Classifier (mathematics)\" data-key=\"eb8bf8d2fe7b65d50bff7a5773990770\">Classifier (mathematics)<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_classification\" title=\"Statistical classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bd89e7f87ae911d07b473e7f48d260\">Statistical classification<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">Machine learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The simplest AI applications can be divided into two types: classifiers (\"if shiny then diamond\") and controllers (\"if shiny then pick up\"). Controllers do, however, also classify conditions before inferring actions, and therefore classification forms a central part of many AI systems. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classifier_(mathematics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Classifier (mathematics)\" data-key=\"eb8bf8d2fe7b65d50bff7a5773990770\">Classifiers<\/a> are functions that use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pattern_matching\" title=\"Pattern matching\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c88c3fbb27731161ec363e2502f11193\">pattern matching<\/a> to determine a closest match. They can be tuned according to examples, making them very attractive for use in AI. These examples are known as observations or patterns. In supervised learning, each pattern belongs to a certain predefined class. A class can be seen as a decision that has to be made. All the observations combined with their class labels are known as a data set. When a new observation is received, that observation is classified based on previous experience.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Classifiers_209-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Classifiers-209\">[203]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A classifier can be trained in various ways; there are many statistical and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">machine learning<\/a> approaches. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_tree_learning\" title=\"Decision tree learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4164d60d7492f2ce658e44b26d1d2702\">decision tree<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Decision_tree_210-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Decision_tree-210\">[204]<\/a><\/sup> is perhaps the most widely used machine learning algorithm.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos201588_211-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos201588-211\">[205]<\/a><\/sup> Other widely used classifiers are the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">neural network<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Neural_networks_212-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Neural_networks-212\">[206]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K-nearest_neighbor_algorithm\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"K-nearest neighbor algorithm\" data-key=\"5507570d79f77d53b25919e43508c533\">k-nearest neighbor algorithm<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-214\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-214\">[g]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-K-nearest_neighbor_algorithm_215-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-K-nearest_neighbor_algorithm-215\">[208]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kernel_methods\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Kernel methods\" data-key=\"e36240e0920bc76e8148b738a016de5d\">kernel methods<\/a> such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Support_vector_machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Support vector machine\" data-key=\"01aa5bcb5f310503db0370be4d7dde0c\">support vector machine<\/a> (SVM),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-217\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-217\">[h]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kernel_methods_218-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kernel_methods-218\">[210]<\/a><\/sup>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gaussian_mixture_model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gaussian mixture model\" data-key=\"f9e2c4b63f8eaf7871a360e371209c97\">Gaussian mixture model<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gaussian_mixture_model_219-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gaussian_mixture_model-219\">[211]<\/a><\/sup> and the extremely popular <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Naive_Bayes_classifier\" title=\"Naive Bayes classifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18dd737ec81f328d3d6681e1620445c7\">naive Bayes classifier<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-221\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-221\">[i]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Naive_Bayes_classifier_222-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Naive_Bayes_classifier-222\">[213]<\/a><\/sup> Classifier performance depends greatly on the characteristics of the data to be classified, such as the dataset size, distribution of samples across classes, the dimensionality, and the level of noise. Model-based classifiers perform well if the assumed model is an extremely good fit for the actual data. Otherwise, if no matching model is available, and if accuracy (rather than speed or scalability) is the sole concern, conventional wisdom is that discriminative classifiers (especially SVM) tend to be more accurate than model-based classifiers such as \"naive Bayes\" on most practical data sets.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Classifier_performance_223-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Classifier_performance-223\">[214]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200918.12:_Learning_from_Examples:_Summary_224-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200918.12:_Learning_from_Examples:_Summary-224\">[215]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Artificial_neural_networks\">Artificial neural networks<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">Artificial neural network<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Connectionism\" title=\"Connectionism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b94d106a53858fb714ed83605033a37\">Connectionism<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Artificial_neural_network.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"793584a50fdecc62ff220ea9e9a16cac\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e4\/Artificial_neural_network.svg\/220px-Artificial_neural_network.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"196\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Artificial_neural_network.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"793584a50fdecc62ff220ea9e9a16cac\"><\/a><\/div>A neural network is an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neuron\" title=\"Neuron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05a82b92028de241144df7d8e40c0874\">neurons<\/a> in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_brain\" title=\"Human brain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff33b42bebe76bd7734491bdb8768fa1\">human brain<\/a>.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Neural networks, or neural nets, were inspired by the architecture of neurons in the human brain. A simple \"neuron\" <i>N<\/i> accepts input from multiple other neurons, each of which, when activated (or \"fired\"), cast a weighted \"vote\" for or against whether neuron <i>N<\/i> should itself activate. Learning requires an algorithm to adjust these weights based on the training data; one simple algorithm (dubbed \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hebbian_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hebbian learning\" data-key=\"216b98473cfd3c64a977c38d200fcd4b\">fire together, wire together<\/a>\") is to increase the weight between two connected neurons when the activation of one triggers the successful activation of another. The net forms \"concepts\" that are distributed among a subnetwork of shared<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-225\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-225\">[j]<\/a><\/sup> neurons that tend to fire together; a concept meaning \"leg\" might be coupled with a subnetwork meaning \"foot\" that includes the sound for \"foot\". Neurons have a continuous spectrum of activation; in addition, neurons can process inputs in a nonlinear way rather than weighing straightforward votes. Modern neural nets can learn both continuous functions and, surprisingly, digital logical operations. Neural networks' early successes included predicting the stock market and (in 1995) a mostly self-driving car.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-226\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-226\">[k]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_4_227-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_4-227\">[216]<\/a><\/sup> In the 2010s, advances in neural networks using deep learning thrust AI into widespread public consciousness and contributed to an enormous upshift in corporate AI spending; for example, AI-related <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mergers_and_acquisitions\" title=\"Mergers and acquisitions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ac2c6ef5681a85f0eb644b5fd7fc40a\">M&A<\/a> in 2017 was over 25 times as large as in 2015.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-228\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-228\">[217]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-229\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-229\">[218]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The study of non-learning <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural networks<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Neural_networks_212-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Neural_networks-212\">[206]<\/a><\/sup> began in the decade before the field of AI research was founded, in the work of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Walter_Pitts\" title=\"Walter Pitts\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79ea2ec505dd09126d2b191748c40bf3\">Walter Pitts<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Warren_McCullouch\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Warren McCullouch\" data-key=\"19abfa1b7d2da23db9a6c2e11c9fb29b\">Warren McCullouch<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frank_Rosenblatt\" title=\"Frank Rosenblatt\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d010ae3689886c9fe2a9fd33d18e193\">Frank Rosenblatt<\/a> invented the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perceptron\" title=\"Perceptron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04a4d1565003f718e5659ee6ae90061f\">perceptron<\/a>, a learning network with a single layer, similar to the old concept of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_regression\" title=\"Linear regression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85453f53b8a2cdb252a2e05dbd419405\">linear regression<\/a>. Early pioneers also include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alexey_Grigorevich_Ivakhnenko\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Alexey Grigorevich Ivakhnenko\" data-key=\"93ba86bc9d383a0fae3965fd173297e6\">Alexey Grigorevich Ivakhnenko<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Teuvo_Kohonen\" title=\"Teuvo Kohonen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c161d168ff3435fd800e7f8c52f1609\">Teuvo Kohonen<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stephen_Grossberg\" title=\"Stephen Grossberg\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e693694db8a0738aef712c3cd2aafd93\">Stephen Grossberg<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kunihiko_Fukushima\" title=\"Kunihiko Fukushima\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6e8e982626e82aa88fe45b0e470bf2d1\">Kunihiko Fukushima<\/a>, Christoph von der Malsburg, David Willshaw, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shun-Ichi_Amari\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Shun-Ichi Amari\" data-key=\"366ee6adb67d7b2ec6a60ed50e847a98\">Shun-Ichi Amari<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bernard_Widrow\" title=\"Bernard Widrow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36b9c7e2db61f72e44c16a0389ac2d48\">Bernard Widrow<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Hopfield\" title=\"John Hopfield\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b5a1208dbcc24d868b7d70c3a6dc6f5\">John Hopfield<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eduardo_R._Caianiello\" title=\"Eduardo R. Caianiello\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"728ab1ffffc0021d2d11a8ffc5124df1\">Eduardo R. Caianiello<\/a>, and others.\n<\/p><p>The main categories of networks are acyclic or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feedforward_neural_network\" title=\"Feedforward neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcbc04f3ee4edcf5215ba9705be493de\">feedforward neural networks<\/a> (where the signal passes in only one direction) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recurrent_neural_network\" title=\"Recurrent neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9947826e865b6f1481a9350c2d215826\">recurrent neural networks<\/a> (which allow feedback and short-term memories of previous input events). Among the most popular feedforward networks are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perceptron\" title=\"Perceptron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04a4d1565003f718e5659ee6ae90061f\">perceptrons<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multi-layer_perceptron\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Multi-layer perceptron\" data-key=\"989eb6ae5e81ee8efd66c517eb66dfc2\">multi-layer perceptrons<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radial_basis_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Radial basis network\" data-key=\"c6b3a599227a898ed003ec2798cbc2b4\">radial basis networks<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Feedforward_neural_networks_230-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Feedforward_neural_networks-230\">[219]<\/a><\/sup> Neural networks can be applied to the problem of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_control\" title=\"Intelligent control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b98e900f46cb7ee5c1380105c5be0b2\">intelligent control<\/a> (for robotics) or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">learning<\/a>, using such techniques as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hebbian_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hebbian learning\" data-key=\"216b98473cfd3c64a977c38d200fcd4b\">Hebbian learning<\/a> (\"fire together, wire together\"), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GMDH\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GMDH\" data-key=\"c37356f009e5d421ab6aaf55b9caba98\">GMDH<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Competitive_learning\" title=\"Competitive learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d65a1180709c0e8a9ddeae54dd8ff784\">competitive learning<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Learning_in_neural_networks_231-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Learning_in_neural_networks-231\">[220]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Today, neural networks are often trained by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backpropagation\" title=\"Backpropagation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7681d69c3acc425256855e31afdd0bf4\">backpropagation<\/a> algorithm, which had been around since 1970 as the reverse mode of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_differentiation\" title=\"Automatic differentiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"992efde1106c37b9da753814774d44e0\">automatic differentiation<\/a> published by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seppo_Linnainmaa\" title=\"Seppo Linnainmaa\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"11fc67b0df8b62d80f1350c84b77c3c4\">Seppo Linnainmaa<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lin1970_232-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lin1970-232\">[221]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-grie2012_233-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-grie2012-233\">[222]<\/a><\/sup> and was introduced to neural networks by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paul_Werbos\" title=\"Paul Werbos\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40fa3481a9308163e8dd3a8916630e69\">Paul Werbos<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WERBOS1974_234-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WERBOS1974-234\">[223]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-werbos1982_235-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-werbos1982-235\">[224]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Backpropagation_236-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Backpropagation-236\">[225]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchical_temporal_memory\" title=\"Hierarchical temporal memory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4a111293b8e2392aa88fc9087c8215f\">Hierarchical temporal memory<\/a> is an approach that models some of the structural and algorithmic properties of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neocortex\" title=\"Neocortex\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfdf421749efc2ebad8ef4474d311705\">neocortex<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hierarchical_temporal_memory_237-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hierarchical_temporal_memory-237\">[226]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>To summarize, most neural networks use some form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gradient_descent\" title=\"Gradient descent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"854eb1e6a6185271e439c38b497c869a\">gradient descent<\/a> on a hand-created neural topology. However, some research groups, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uber\" title=\"Uber\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6eb0bccbaa389a07e4a72d81113dad78\">Uber<\/a>, argue that simple <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neuroevolution\" title=\"Neuroevolution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fc80a70669a9d3009743191c44bcd30\">neuroevolution<\/a> to mutate new neural network topologies and weights may be competitive with sophisticated gradient descent approaches. One advantage of neuroevolution is that it may be less prone to get caught in \"dead ends\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-238\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-238\">[227]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Deep_feedforward_neural_networks\">Deep feedforward neural networks<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60a402792d36ac6697fa1e78697b47ee\">Deep learning<\/a> is any <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural network<\/a> that can learn a long chain of causal links. For example, a feedforward network with six hidden layers can learn a seven-link causal chain (six hidden layers + output layer) and has a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_learning#Credit_assignment\" title=\"Deep learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58d77e62bc50f8e3511de3896b0f4ad5\">\"credit assignment path\"<\/a> (CAP) depth of seven. Many deep learning systems need to be able to learn chains ten or more causal links in length.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-schmidhuber2015_239-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-schmidhuber2015-239\">[228]<\/a><\/sup> Deep learning has transformed many important subfields of artificial intelligence, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">computer vision<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech recognition<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">natural language processing<\/a> and others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-goodfellow2016_240-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-goodfellow2016-240\">[229]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HintonDengYu2012_241-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HintonDengYu2012-241\">[230]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-schmidhuber2015_239-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-schmidhuber2015-239\">[228]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>According to one overview,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-scholarpedia_242-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-scholarpedia-242\">[231]<\/a><\/sup> the expression \"Deep Learning\" was introduced to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_Learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Machine Learning\" data-key=\"663862d8778210283c857692926ff7ea\">Machine Learning<\/a> community by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rina_Dechter\" title=\"Rina Dechter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ee041da8117d9f283d2ee94b8971dc8\">Rina Dechter<\/a> in 1986<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-dechter1986_243-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-dechter1986-243\">[232]<\/a><\/sup> and gained traction after\n<p>Igor Aizenberg and colleagues introduced it to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_Neural_Networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial Neural Networks\" data-key=\"e2c1f425172dd91b5e60a87a7da119ad\">Artificial Neural Networks<\/a> in 2000.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-aizenberg2000_244-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-aizenberg2000-244\">[233]<\/a><\/sup> The first functional Deep Learning networks were published by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alexey_Grigorevich_Ivakhnenko\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Alexey Grigorevich Ivakhnenko\" data-key=\"93ba86bc9d383a0fae3965fd173297e6\">Alexey Grigorevich Ivakhnenko<\/a> and V. G. Lapa in 1965.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-245\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-245\">[234]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citing_sources\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citing sources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27db2d557ba5b9a353b953f4b640a66d\"><span title=\"This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2016)\">page needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> These networks are trained one layer at a time. Ivakhnenko's 1971 paper<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ivak1971_246-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ivak1971-246\">[235]<\/a><\/sup> describes the learning of a deep feedforward multilayer perceptron with eight layers, already much deeper than many later networks. In 2006, a publication by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geoffrey_Hinton\" title=\"Geoffrey Hinton\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"893998bb70c7e5ace243c60bbabbe955\">Geoffrey Hinton<\/a> and Ruslan Salakhutdinov introduced another way of pre-training many-layered <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feedforward_neural_network\" title=\"Feedforward neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcbc04f3ee4edcf5215ba9705be493de\">feedforward neural networks<\/a> (FNNs) one layer at a time, treating each layer in turn as an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unsupervised_learning\" title=\"Unsupervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c9e858df53fef2503acd60c11560020\">unsupervised<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Restricted_Boltzmann_machine\" title=\"Restricted Boltzmann machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c06f419839303ec3e77dce9051551aef\">restricted Boltzmann machine<\/a>, then using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supervised_learning\" title=\"Supervised learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5adaeeb5da1f2d0b8ac1f6d9bab6967c\">supervised<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backpropagation\" title=\"Backpropagation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7681d69c3acc425256855e31afdd0bf4\">backpropagation<\/a> for fine-tuning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHinton2007_247-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHinton2007-247\">[236]<\/a><\/sup> Similar to shallow artificial neural networks, deep neural networks can model complex non-linear relationships. Over the last few years, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer hardware have led to more efficient methods for training deep neural networks that contain many layers of non-linear hidden units and a very large output layer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-248\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-248\">[237]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/p><p>Deep learning often uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Convolutional_neural_network\" title=\"Convolutional neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d66c11cdf5b17fc49358ff9fb8e68dc\">convolutional neural networks<\/a> (CNNs), whose origins can be traced back to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neocognitron\" title=\"Neocognitron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b76066b798e23e5511670db57cb93c14\">Neocognitron<\/a> introduced by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kunihiko_Fukushima\" title=\"Kunihiko Fukushima\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6e8e982626e82aa88fe45b0e470bf2d1\">Kunihiko Fukushima<\/a> in 1980.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FUKU1980_249-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FUKU1980-249\">[238]<\/a><\/sup> In 1989, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yann_LeCun\" title=\"Yann LeCun\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f32025c044e12aee9d1b5241836d3763\">Yann LeCun<\/a> and colleagues applied <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backpropagation\" title=\"Backpropagation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7681d69c3acc425256855e31afdd0bf4\">backpropagation<\/a> to such an architecture. In the early 2000s, in an industrial application CNNs already processed an estimated 10% to 20% of all the checks written in the US.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lecun2016slides_250-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lecun2016slides-250\">[239]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>Since 2011, fast implementations of CNNs on GPUs have\nwon many visual pattern recognition competitions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-schmidhuber2015_239-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-schmidhuber2015-239\">[228]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/p><p>CNNs with 12 convolutional layers were used in conjunction with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">reinforcement learning<\/a> by Deepmind's \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AlphaGo\" title=\"AlphaGo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"066c88e46c521e4b574ffef8cbfd1dbf\">AlphaGo<\/a> Lee\", the program that beat a top <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Go_(game)\" title=\"Go (game)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b8c8e702d802b3b6f071b42e8741c6e\">Go<\/a> champion in 2016.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nature2017_251-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nature2017-251\">[240]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Deep_recurrent_neural_networks\">Deep recurrent neural networks<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recurrent_neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Recurrent neural networks\" data-key=\"1c288ffaa3182c74cce5d5bd2c1caf7c\">Recurrent neural networks<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Early on, deep learning was also applied to sequence learning with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recurrent_neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Recurrent neural networks\" data-key=\"1c288ffaa3182c74cce5d5bd2c1caf7c\">recurrent neural networks<\/a> (RNNs)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Recurrent_neural_networks_252-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Recurrent_neural_networks-252\">[241]<\/a><\/sup> which are in theory Turing complete<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-253\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-253\">[242]<\/a><\/sup> and can run arbitrary programs to process arbitrary sequences of inputs. The depth of an RNN is unlimited and depends on the length of its input sequence; thus, an RNN is an example of deep learning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-schmidhuber2015_239-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-schmidhuber2015-239\">[228]<\/a><\/sup> RNNs can be trained by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gradient_descent\" title=\"Gradient descent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"854eb1e6a6185271e439c38b497c869a\">gradient descent<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-254\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-254\">[243]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-255\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-255\">[244]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-256\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-256\">[245]<\/a><\/sup> but suffer from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vanishing_gradient_problem\" title=\"Vanishing gradient problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0aa0f39bdd52aa3d32461a05ec53362\">vanishing gradient problem<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-goodfellow2016_240-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-goodfellow2016-240\">[229]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hochreiter1991_257-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hochreiter1991-257\">[246]<\/a><\/sup> In 1992, it was shown that unsupervised pre-training of a stack of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recurrent_neural_network\" title=\"Recurrent neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9947826e865b6f1481a9350c2d215826\">recurrent neural networks<\/a> can speed up subsequent supervised learning of deep sequential problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SCHMID1992_258-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SCHMID1992-258\">[247]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Numerous researchers now use variants of a deep learning recurrent NN called the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Long_short-term_memory\" title=\"Long short-term memory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fde1fe57c2336160b7bba531bdd8675a\">long short-term memory<\/a> (LSTM) network published by Hochreiter & Schmidhuber in 1997.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lstm_259-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lstm-259\">[248]<\/a><\/sup> LSTM is often trained by Connectionist Temporal Classification (CTC).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-graves2006_260-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-graves2006-260\">[249]<\/a><\/sup> At Google, Microsoft and Baidu this approach has revolutionised <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">speech recognition<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hannun2014_261-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hannun2014-261\">[250]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-sak2014_262-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-sak2014-262\">[251]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-liwu2015_263-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-liwu2015-263\">[252]<\/a><\/sup> For example, in 2015, Google's speech recognition experienced a dramatic performance jump of 49% through CTC-trained LSTM, which is now available through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_Voice\" title=\"Google Voice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b52350fe34146e096c9398a000a82719\">Google Voice<\/a> to billions of smartphone users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-sak2015_264-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-sak2015-264\">[253]<\/a><\/sup> Google also used LSTM to improve machine translation,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-sutskever2014_265-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-sutskever2014-265\">[254]<\/a><\/sup> Language Modeling<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-vinyals2016_266-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-vinyals2016-266\">[255]<\/a><\/sup> and Multilingual Language Processing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-gillick2015_267-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-gillick2015-267\">[256]<\/a><\/sup> LSTM combined with CNNs also improved automatic image captioning<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-vinyals2015_268-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-vinyals2015-268\">[257]<\/a><\/sup> and a plethora of other applications.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Evaluating_progress\">Evaluating progress<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Progress_in_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Progress in artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d8510838c2ea7a333c8e1efa7a70fea\">Progress in artificial intelligence<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Competitions_and_prizes_in_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Competitions and prizes in artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067748a36914f9f828ea6185c725507f\">Competitions and prizes in artificial intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p>AI, like electricity or the steam engine, is a general purpose technology. There is no consensus on how to characterize which tasks AI tends to excel at.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-269\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-269\">[258]<\/a><\/sup> While projects such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AlphaZero\" title=\"AlphaZero\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7463603707fc2f2f428632f6b33409b8\">AlphaZero<\/a> have succeeded in generating their own knowledge from scratch, many other machine learning projects require large training datasets.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-270\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-270\">[259]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-271\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-271\">[260]<\/a><\/sup> Researcher <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Andrew_Ng\" title=\"Andrew Ng\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f35ee396a84c8894bca277d2088d00a\">Andrew Ng<\/a> has suggested, as a \"highly imperfect rule of thumb\", that \"almost anything a typical human can do with less than one second of mental thought, we can probably now or in the near future automate using AI.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-272\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-272\">[261]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moravec%27s_paradox\" title=\"Moravec's paradox\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76a808942c6d7fe91ec4f8263c9888b7\">Moravec's paradox<\/a> suggests that AI lags humans at many tasks that the human brain has specifically evolved to perform well.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-The_Economist_128-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-The_Economist-128\">[125]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Games provide a well-publicized benchmark for assessing rates of progress. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AlphaGo\" title=\"AlphaGo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"066c88e46c521e4b574ffef8cbfd1dbf\">AlphaGo<\/a> around 2016 brought the era of classical board-game benchmarks to a close. Games of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perfect_knowledge\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Perfect knowledge\" data-key=\"84245d37f832e44788651ffaeddbde76\">imperfect knowledge<\/a> provide new challenges to AI in the area of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_theory\" title=\"Game theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5498b159fb87dc60c8ad0a722348a50a\">game theory<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-273\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-273\">[262]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-274\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-274\">[263]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-sports\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"E-sports\" data-key=\"f1921a0ad0b50c9ba90846c73d6240aa\">E-sports<\/a> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/StarCraft\" title=\"StarCraft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"060f90ac380093beefe54c1316f0d6c0\">StarCraft<\/a> continue to provide additional public benchmarks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-275\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-275\">[264]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-276\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-276\">[265]<\/a><\/sup> There are many competitions and prizes, such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ImageNet_challenge\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ImageNet challenge\" data-key=\"0b9159d8db9ce5bf9b10e32fecd90128\">Imagenet Challenge<\/a>, to promote research in artificial intelligence. The most common areas of competition include general machine intelligence, conversational behavior, data-mining, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Autonomous_car\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Autonomous car\" data-key=\"00b6c736eed7654f1b22efeb8789baa9\">robotic cars<\/a>, and robot soccer as well as conventional games.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-277\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-277\">[266]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The \"imitation game\" (an interpretation of the 1950 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing_test\" title=\"Turing test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f309ecb31df135db989e843377fb9d\">Turing test<\/a> that assesses whether a computer can imitate a human) is nowadays considered too exploitable to be a meaningful benchmark.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-278\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-278\">[267]<\/a><\/sup> A derivative of the Turing test is the Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CAPTCHA\" title=\"CAPTCHA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"adac0498e3f7a2aced172dd210c443dc\">CAPTCHA<\/a>). As the name implies, this helps to determine that a user is an actual person and not a computer posing as a human. In contrast to the standard Turing test, CAPTCHA is administered by a machine and targeted to a human as opposed to being administered by a human and targeted to a machine. A computer asks a user to complete a simple test then generates a grade for that test. Computers are unable to solve the problem, so correct solutions are deemed to be the result of a person taking the test. A common type of CAPTCHA is the test that requires the typing of distorted letters, numbers or symbols that appear in an image undecipherable by a computer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'BrienMarakas2011_279-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#39;BrienMarakas2011-279\">[268]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Proposed \"universal intelligence\" tests aim to compare how well machines, humans, and even non-human animals perform on problem sets that are generic as possible. At an extreme, the test suite can contain every possible problem, weighted by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kolmogorov_complexity\" title=\"Kolmogorov complexity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6e9e93507ce6a458a4cc05beb2cc96f6\">Kolmogorov complexity<\/a>; unfortunately, these problem sets tend to be dominated by impoverished pattern-matching exercises where a tuned AI can easily exceed human performance levels.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mathematical_definitions_of_intelligence_280-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mathematical_definitions_of_intelligence-280\">[269]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-281\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-281\">[270]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications\">Applications<span id=\"rdp-ebb-Goals\"><\/span><\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Automated_online_assistant.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc28d2a51acba8415b273778c84ea5dc\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/8b\/Automated_online_assistant.png\/220px-Automated_online_assistant.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"276\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Automated_online_assistant.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"bc28d2a51acba8415b273778c84ea5dc\"><\/a><\/div>An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_online_assistant\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated online assistant\" data-key=\"93bd7b0f38d93a14bd54489336923ad4\">automated online assistant<\/a> providing customer service on a web page \u2013 one of many very primitive applications of artificial intelligence<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Applications_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Applications of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d70560409a044fef08a6f24b39d11d72\">Applications of artificial intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p>AI is relevant to any intellectual task.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20091_282-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20091-282\">[271]<\/a><\/sup> Modern artificial intelligence techniques are pervasive and are too numerous to list here. Frequently, when a technique reaches mainstream use, it is no longer considered artificial intelligence; this phenomenon is described as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_effect\" title=\"AI effect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47396a038586b92543c1d3524bafc444\">AI effect<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''CNN''2006_283-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#39;2006-283\">[272]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>High-profile examples of AI include autonomous vehicles (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unmanned_aerial_vehicle\" title=\"Unmanned aerial vehicle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41a4e7c5b9ee75018635018effc8f619\">drones<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-driving_cars\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Self-driving cars\" data-key=\"ebf308c77fdaadf930f1bc430894ca2c\">self-driving cars<\/a>), medical diagnosis, creating art (such as poetry), proving mathematical theorems, playing games (such as Chess or Go), search engines (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_search\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Google search\" data-key=\"5f04b35d9e8b527c6527858b876e661c\">Google search<\/a>), online assistants (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siri\" title=\"Siri\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4992c7151554c6a2f8f7236549c6f6e\">Siri<\/a>), image recognition in photographs, spam filtering, predicting flight delays,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-284\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-284\">[273]<\/a><\/sup> prediction of judicial decisions<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ecthr2016_285-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ecthr2016-285\">[274]<\/a><\/sup> and targeting online advertisements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20091_282-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20091-282\">[271]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-286\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-286\">[275]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-287\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-287\">[276]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>With social media sites overtaking TV as a source for news for young people and news organisations increasingly reliant on social media platforms for generating distribution,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-288\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-288\">[277]<\/a><\/sup> major publishers now use artificial intelligence (AI) technology to post stories more effectively and generate higher volumes of traffic.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-289\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-289\">[278]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Healthcare\">Healthcare<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in healthcare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a83c45f6d758fe57b1fe4cb086a660dd\">Artificial intelligence in healthcare<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Laproscopic_Surgery_Robot.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"7850470cf017b789bfab65a5bc535622\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/0d\/Laproscopic_Surgery_Robot.jpg\/220px-Laproscopic_Surgery_Robot.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"320\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Laproscopic_Surgery_Robot.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"7850470cf017b789bfab65a5bc535622\"><\/a><\/div>A patient-side surgical arm of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Da_Vinci_Surgical_System\" title=\"Da Vinci Surgical System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b49edf81d98f6c54f87dcd822caef31b\">Da Vinci Surgical System<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/div><p>AI is being applied to the high cost problem of dosage issues\u2014where findings suggested that AI could save $16 billion. In 2016, a ground breaking study in California found that a mathematical formula developed with the help of AI correctly determined the accurate dose of immunosuppressant drugs to give to organ patients.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-290\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-290\">[279]<\/a><\/sup> <\/p><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:X-ray_of_a_hand_with_automatic_bone_age_calculation.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"52ef789f8f0947c5a439a6efb15eb255\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/5e\/X-ray_of_a_hand_with_automatic_bone_age_calculation.jpg\/220px-X-ray_of_a_hand_with_automatic_bone_age_calculation.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"308\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:X-ray_of_a_hand_with_automatic_bone_age_calculation.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"52ef789f8f0947c5a439a6efb15eb255\"><\/a><\/div><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Projectional_radiography\" title=\"Projectional radiography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d51737c966c96a453d8afd20fcc3159c\">X-ray<\/a> of a hand, with automatic calculation of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bone_age\" title=\"Bone age\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fae6d2cced738c1db621dcc329fd9bb6\">bone age<\/a> by computer software<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Artificial intelligence is breaking into the healthcare industry by assisting doctors. According to Bloomberg Technology, Microsoft has developed AI to help doctors find the right treatments for cancer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-291\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-291\">[280]<\/a><\/sup> There is a great amount of research and drugs developed relating to cancer. In detail, there are more than 800 medicines and vaccines to treat cancer. This negatively affects the doctors, because there are too many options to choose from, making it more difficult to choose the right drugs for the patients. Microsoft is working on a project to develop a machine called \"Hanover\". Its goal is to memorize all the papers necessary to cancer and help predict which combinations of drugs will be most effective for each patient. One project that is being worked on at the moment is fighting <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acute_myeloid_leukemia\" title=\"Acute myeloid leukemia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3e284d26deb8b27e265970249d725e1\">myeloid leukemia<\/a>, a fatal cancer where the treatment has not improved in decades. Another study was reported to have found that artificial intelligence was as good as trained doctors in identifying skin cancers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-292\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-292\">[281]<\/a><\/sup> Another study is using artificial intelligence to try and monitor multiple high-risk patients, and this is done by asking each patient numerous questions based on data acquired from live doctor to patient interactions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-293\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-293\">[282]<\/a><\/sup> One study was done with transfer learning, the machine performed a diagnosis similarly to a well-trained ophthalmologist, and could generate a decision within 30 seconds on whether or not the patient should be referred for treatment, with more than 95% percent accuracy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-294\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-294\">[283]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>According to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CNN\" title=\"CNN\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35398309dc17b6a9d11ef4bb094e05e3\">CNN<\/a>, a recent study by surgeons at the Children's National Medical Center in Washington successfully demonstrated surgery with an autonomous robot. The team supervised the robot while it performed soft-tissue surgery, stitching together a pig's bowel during open surgery, and doing so better than a human surgeon, the team claimed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-295\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-295\">[284]<\/a><\/sup> IBM has created its own artificial intelligence computer, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM_Watson\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IBM Watson\" data-key=\"29c2bd551bb25f5f9e4c30ffb4967a77\">IBM Watson<\/a>, which has beaten human intelligence (at some levels). Watson not only won at the game show <i>Jeopardy!<\/i> against former champions,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-296\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-296\">[285]<\/a><\/sup> but was declared a hero after successfully diagnosing a woman who was suffering from leukemia.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-297\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-297\">[286]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Automotive\">Automotive<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Driverless_cars\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Driverless cars\" data-key=\"1612829c823ca3d4e47911e5452c232f\">driverless cars<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Advancements in AI have contributed to the growth of the automotive industry through the creation and evolution of self-driving vehicles. As of 2016<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, there are over 30 companies utilizing AI into the creation of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Driverless_cars\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Driverless cars\" data-key=\"1612829c823ca3d4e47911e5452c232f\">driverless cars<\/a>. A few companies involved with AI include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tesla_Motors\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Tesla Motors\" data-key=\"da9c025220b05137b162dfec12acde26\">Tesla<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google\" title=\"Google\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b915ee8daf11a90fecc2d0bd0513feb\">Google<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apple_Inc.\" title=\"Apple Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"071b1bca39b3a61799e49233d2df16a3\">Apple<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-298\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-298\">[287]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Many components contribute to the functioning of self-driving cars. These vehicles incorporate systems such as braking, lane changing, collision prevention, navigation and mapping. Together, these systems, as well as high performance computers, are integrated into one complex vehicle.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-299\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-299\">[288]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Recent developments in autonomous automobiles have made the innovation of self-driving trucks possible, though they are still in the testing phase. The UK government has passed legislation to begin testing of self-driving truck platoons in 2018.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-300\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-300\">[289]<\/a><\/sup> Self-driving truck platoons are a fleet of self-driving trucks following the lead of one non-self-driving truck, so the truck platoons aren't entirely autonomous yet. Meanwhile, the Daimler, a German automobile corporation, is testing the Freightliner Inspiration which is a semi-autonomous truck that will only be used on the highway.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-301\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-301\">[290]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>One main factor that influences the ability for a driver-less automobile to function is mapping. In general, the vehicle would be pre-programmed with a map of the area being driven. This map would include data on the approximations of street light and curb heights in order for the vehicle to be aware of its surroundings. However, Google has been working on an algorithm with the purpose of eliminating the need for pre-programmed maps and instead, creating a device that would be able to adjust to a variety of new surroundings.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-302\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-302\">[291]<\/a><\/sup> Some self-driving cars are not equipped with steering wheels or brake pedals, so there has also been research focused on creating an algorithm that is capable of maintaining a safe environment for the passengers in the vehicle through awareness of speed and driving conditions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-303\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-303\">[292]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Another factor that is influencing the ability for a driver-less automobile is the safety of the passenger. To make a driver-less automobile, engineers must program it to handle high-risk situations. These situations could include a head-on collision with pedestrians. The car's main goal should be to make a decision that would avoid hitting the pedestrians and saving the passengers in the car. But there is a possibility the car would need to make a decision that would put someone in danger. In other words, the car would need to decide to save the pedestrians or the passengers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-304\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-304\">[293]<\/a><\/sup> The programming of the car in these situations is crucial to a successful driver-less automobile.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Finance_and_economics\">Finance and economics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_institution\" title=\"Financial institution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef7ff1361e62469d9f8f94564fef25b3\">Financial institutions<\/a> have long used <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_neural_network\" title=\"Artificial neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73964ffff0d6be12acd68eded7e41d19\">artificial neural network<\/a> systems to detect charges or claims outside of the norm, flagging these for human investigation. The use of AI in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Banking\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Banking\" data-key=\"130d6ac80c8cbb2debee0d8e2b601b67\">banking<\/a> can be traced back to 1987 when <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_Pacific_National_Bank\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Security Pacific National Bank\" data-key=\"8b9d712cedd1b01ca0f4da472b23ead9\">Security Pacific National Bank<\/a> in US set-up a Fraud Prevention Task force to counter the unauthorised use of debit cards. Programs like Kasisto and Moneystream are using AI in financial services.\n<\/p><p>Banks use artificial intelligence systems today to organize operations, maintain book-keeping, invest in stocks, and manage properties. AI can react to changes overnight or when business is not taking place.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Eleanor_305-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Eleanor-305\">[294]<\/a><\/sup> In August 2001, robots beat humans in a simulated <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stock_trader\" title=\"Stock trader\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cb1b1f016086a6a98a5f5ec158608f6\">financial trading<\/a> competition.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-306\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-306\">[295]<\/a><\/sup> AI has also reduced fraud and financial crimes by monitoring <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Behavioral_pattern\" title=\"Behavioral pattern\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dff6b7ce802c47a40aa57ed5b735d52\">behavioral patterns<\/a> of users for any abnormal changes or anomalies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-fsroundtable.org_307-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-fsroundtable.org-307\">[296]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The use of AI machines in the market in applications such as online trading and decision making has changed major economic theories.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-308\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-308\">[297]<\/a><\/sup> For example, AI based buying and selling platforms have changed the law of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_and_demand\" title=\"Supply and demand\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42246df9c89895766cea5d399661d70d\">supply and demand<\/a> in that it is now possible to easily estimate individualized demand and supply curves and thus individualized pricing. Furthermore, AI machines reduce <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_asymmetry\" title=\"Information asymmetry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5bd815d80de7e2e410db5a22be82c58\">information asymmetry<\/a> in the market and thus making markets more efficient while reducing the volume of trades. Furthermore, AI in the markets limits the consequences of behavior in the markets again making markets more efficient. Other theories where AI has had impact include in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rational_choice\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Rational choice\" data-key=\"317cad8880063b69cbd45ba81e5a27b8\">rational choice<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rational_expectations\" title=\"Rational expectations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89fa8a8622643c636ec39637c78aa0e2\">rational expectations<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_theory\" title=\"Game theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5498b159fb87dc60c8ad0a722348a50a\">game theory<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lewis_turning_point\" title=\"Lewis turning point\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5badcf2f6f76e0cc0e3beead440d7024\">Lewis turning point<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portfolio_optimization\" title=\"Portfolio optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53f0aeca60bb2af7b1f1ad459518c5a8\">portfolio optimization<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Counterfactual_thinking\" title=\"Counterfactual thinking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f30042b44f46509c06d92d3af6120173\">counterfactual thinking<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Government\">Government<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_government\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in government\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9448e3d83145520174134747105bd90e\">Artificial intelligence in government<\/a><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Video_games\">Video games<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_(video_games)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial intelligence (video games)\" data-key=\"1bec520adf9e4f525342fa8598c47e36\">Artificial intelligence (video games)<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In video games, artificial intelligence is routinely used to generate dynamic purposeful behavior in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-player_character\" title=\"Non-player character\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bca3fd78a39c26aab4fcc13d26e8738e\">non-player characters<\/a> (NPCs). In addition, well-understood AI techniques are routinely used for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pathfinding\" title=\"Pathfinding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25394edc027240bdff6cb13d6e064be7\">pathfinding<\/a>. Some researchers consider NPC AI in games to be a \"solved problem\" for most production tasks. Games with more atypical AI include the AI director of <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Left_4_Dead\" title=\"Left 4 Dead\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a40c4e64c84f9f95b295e1be26e63c66\">Left 4 Dead<\/a><\/i> (2008) and the neuroevolutionary training of platoons in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supreme_Commander_2\" title=\"Supreme Commander 2\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"29ff391da6f7e01beed9a35ffef32bee\">Supreme Commander 2<\/a><\/i> (2010).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-309\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-309\">[298]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-310\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-310\">[299]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Military\">Military<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_arms_race\" title=\"Artificial intelligence arms race\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68e25256b70ca83356f730c25eeebb12\">Artificial intelligence arms race<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lethal_autonomous_weapon\" title=\"Lethal autonomous weapon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae7b2a314d9703fad85566fba355ca29\">Lethal autonomous weapon<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unmanned_combat_aerial_vehicle\" title=\"Unmanned combat aerial vehicle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4caf96c1aafa4c233e3cc593eaf8dce6\">Unmanned combat aerial vehicle<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Worldwide annual military spending on robotics rose from US$5.1 billion in 2010 to US$7.5 billion in 2015.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-311\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-311\">[300]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-312\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-312\">[301]<\/a><\/sup> Military drones capable of autonomous action are widely considered a useful asset.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-313\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-313\">[302]<\/a><\/sup> Many artificial intelligence researchers seek to distance themselves from military applications of AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-314\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-314\">[303]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Audit\">Audit<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>For financial statements audit, AI makes continuous audit possible. AI tools could analyze many sets of different information immediately. The potential benefit would be the overall audit risk will be reduced, the level of assurance will be increased and the time duration of audit will be reduced.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-315\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-315\">[304]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Advertising\">Advertising<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>It is possible to use AI to predict or generalize the behavior of customers from their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_footprints\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital footprints\" data-key=\"b871b241df5df30f870cc77cb5306f87\">digital footprints<\/a> in order to target them with personalized promotions or build customer personas automatically.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Matz_et_al_2017_316-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Matz_et_al_2017-316\">[305]<\/a><\/sup> A documented case reports that online gambling companies were using AI to improve customer targeting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-317\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-317\">[306]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Moreover, the application of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personality_computing\" title=\"Personality computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92d37d1bd3adc2ebd6d8cc61a4ba0c8e\">Personality computing<\/a> AI models can help reducing the cost of advertising campaigns by adding psychological targeting to more traditional sociodemographic or behavioral targeting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Celli_et_al._2017_318-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Celli_et_al._2017-318\">[307]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Art\">Art<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Artificial Intelligence has inspired numerous creative applications including its usage to produce visual art. The exhibition \"Thinking Machines: Art and Design in the Computer Age, 1959\u20131989\" at MoMA<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-moma_319-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-moma-319\">[308]<\/a><\/sup> provides a good overview of the historical applications of AI for art, architecture, and design. Recent exhibitions showcasing the usage of AI to produce art include the Google-sponsored benefit and auction at the Gray Area Foundation in San Francisco, where artists experimented with the deepdream algorithm<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-wp1_320-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-wp1-320\">[309]<\/a><\/sup> and the exhibition \"Unhuman: Art in the Age of AI,\" which took place in Los Angeles and Frankfurt in the fall of 2017.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-sf_321-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-sf-321\">[310]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-artsy_322-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-artsy-322\">[311]<\/a><\/sup> In the spring of 2018, the Association of Computing Machinery dedicated a special magazine issue to the subject of computers and art highlighting the role of machine learning in the arts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-acm_323-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-acm-323\">[312]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Philosophy_and_ethics\">Philosophy and ethics<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Philosophy of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72fe09222fe7606d43e990764f3076b4\">Philosophy of artificial intelligence<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Ethics of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"608ca5c55237a263936a26d2500d09a6\">Ethics of artificial intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p>There are three philosophical questions related to AI:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">artificial general intelligence<\/a> possible? Can a machine solve any problem that a human being can solve using intelligence? Or are there hard limits to what a machine can accomplish?<\/li>\n<li>Are intelligent machines dangerous? How can we ensure that machines behave ethically and that they are used ethically?<\/li>\n<li>Can a machine have a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mind\" title=\"Mind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e57825f08aece0c29adc836a1c58c45\">mind<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consciousness\" title=\"Consciousness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2eed83cfa284bea87c6aa280ee361ee6\">consciousness<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_mind\" title=\"Philosophy of mind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b4e71d5c57fcf6363812fa60dee7da\">mental states<\/a> in exactly the same sense that human beings do? Can a machine be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sentience\" title=\"Sentience\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0cc015b39f4a0fbbe13615e5400bd8d\">sentient<\/a>, and thus deserve certain rights? Can a machine <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intention\" title=\"Intention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c4f71abd19ee3c266d4cdd665824534\">intentionally<\/a> cause harm?<\/li><\/ol>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_limits_of_artificial_general_intelligence\">The limits of artificial general intelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Philosophy of AI\" data-key=\"900c7d33cd0ec8fe7d197c1d67f7f96b\">Philosophy of AI<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing_test\" title=\"Turing test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f309ecb31df135db989e843377fb9d\">Turing test<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_symbol_systems_hypothesis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Physical symbol systems hypothesis\" data-key=\"733c03cef623b724ea33207a310dcadc\">Physical symbol systems hypothesis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dreyfus%27_critique_of_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dreyfus' critique of AI\" data-key=\"da10b2855245e37a0180fce639e95b67\">Dreyfus' critique of AI<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Emperor%27s_New_Mind\" title=\"The Emperor's New Mind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5714f13fc6a3814b1169be292b06545\">The Emperor's New Mind<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_effect\" title=\"AI effect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47396a038586b92543c1d3524bafc444\">AI effect<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Can a machine be intelligent? Can it \"think\"?\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing_Machinery_and_Intelligence\" title=\"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22cb407e5fe68247851a69a0646c3f7e\">Alan Turing's \"polite convention\"<\/a><\/i><\/dt>\n<dd>We need not decide if a machine can \"think\"; we need only decide if a machine can act as intelligently as a human being. This approach to the philosophical problems associated with artificial intelligence forms the basis of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing_test\" title=\"Turing test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f309ecb31df135db989e843377fb9d\">Turing test<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turing_test_324-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turing_test-324\">[313]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><i>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dartmouth_Workshop\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dartmouth Workshop\" data-key=\"f370e455271ea1bd7e5a4972da69d608\">Dartmouth proposal<\/a><\/i><\/dt>\n<dd>\"Every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it.\" This conjecture was printed in the proposal for the Dartmouth Conference of 1956, and represents the position of most working AI researchers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Dartmouth_proposal_325-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dartmouth_proposal-325\">[314]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_symbol_system\" title=\"Physical symbol system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"968d5e32d7080477b411e283fee0e47c\">Newell and Simon's physical symbol system hypothesis<\/a><\/i><\/dt>\n<dd>\"A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent action.\" Newell and Simon argue that intelligence consists of formal operations on symbols.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Physical_symbol_system_hypothesis_326-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Physical_symbol_system_hypothesis-326\">[315]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hubert_Dreyfus\" title=\"Hubert Dreyfus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7b4ff8e951542af50a558d4a1d6abc5\">Hubert Dreyfus<\/a> argued that, on the contrary, human expertise depends on unconscious instinct rather than conscious symbol manipulation and on having a \"feel\" for the situation rather than explicit symbolic knowledge. (See <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dreyfus%27_critique_of_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dreyfus' critique of AI\" data-key=\"da10b2855245e37a0180fce639e95b67\">Dreyfus' critique of AI<\/a>.)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-327\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-327\">[316]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Dreyfus'_critique_328-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#39;_critique-328\">[317]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><i>G\u00f6delian arguments<\/i><\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/G%C3%B6del\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"G\u00f6del\" data-key=\"5186640c7eee955eba08b738a2d5dfb0\">G\u00f6del<\/a> himself,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-G\u00f6del_himself_329-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-G\u00f6del_himself-329\">[318]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Lucas_(philosopher)\" title=\"John Lucas (philosopher)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10ddf48c6fe0ab2e718f6e3b80136802\">John Lucas<\/a> (in 1961) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Roger_Penrose\" title=\"Roger Penrose\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae853f6825affd3f8c392df77b1c0719\">Roger Penrose<\/a> (in a more detailed argument from 1989 onwards) made highly technical arguments that human mathematicians can consistently see the truth of their own \"G\u00f6del statements\" and therefore have computational abilities beyond that of mechanical Turing machines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-The_mathematical_objection_330-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-The_mathematical_objection-330\">[319]<\/a><\/sup> However, the modern consensus in the scientific and mathematical community is that these \"G\u00f6delian arguments\" fail.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-331\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-331\">[320]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-332\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-332\">[321]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-333\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-333\">[322]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><i>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_brain\" title=\"Artificial brain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8256966c78780135785df95039a8e22\">artificial brain<\/a> argument<\/i><\/dt>\n<dd>The brain can be simulated by machines and because brains are intelligent, simulated brains must also be intelligent; thus machines can be intelligent. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hans_Moravec\" title=\"Hans Moravec\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"251f9e14d86954130e9f7e16aa21c877\">Hans Moravec<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Kurzweil\" title=\"Ray Kurzweil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bfcf52303d37aac624912e3fdddd296\">Ray Kurzweil<\/a> and others have argued that it is technologically feasible to copy the brain directly into hardware and software and that such a simulation will be essentially identical to the original.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Brain_simulation_146-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Brain_simulation-146\">[143]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><i>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_effect\" title=\"AI effect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47396a038586b92543c1d3524bafc444\">AI effect<\/a><\/i><\/dt>\n<dd>Machines are <i>already<\/i> intelligent, but observers have failed to recognize it. When <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_Blue_(chess_computer)\" title=\"Deep Blue (chess computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"87b3d86ca3a2bf93f8614573e7bd0683\">Deep Blue<\/a> beat <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Garry_Kasparov\" title=\"Garry Kasparov\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f40354ae6ed0eb13e885c2dfda3d7ae\">Garry Kasparov<\/a> in chess, the machine was acting intelligently. However, onlookers commonly discount the behavior of an artificial intelligence program by arguing that it is not \"real\" intelligence after all; thus \"real\" intelligence is whatever intelligent behavior people can do that machines still cannot. This is known as the AI Effect: \"AI is whatever hasn't been done yet.\"<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Potential_harm\">Potential harm<span id=\"rdp-ebb-Potential_risks_and_moral_reasoning\"><\/span><\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Widespread use of artificial intelligence could have <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unintended_consequences\" title=\"Unintended consequences\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d61c5eca8f618769596ad4de1d6b0ff7\">unintended consequences<\/a> that are dangerous or undesirable. Scientists from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Future_of_Life_Institute\" title=\"Future of Life Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b79fa8ffaae2e86d7248eeaafb89dbfc\">Future of Life Institute<\/a>, among others, described some short-term research goals to see how AI influences the economy, the laws and ethics that are involved with AI and how to minimize AI security risks. In the long-term, the scientists have proposed to continue optimizing function while minimizing possible security risks that come along with new technologies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-334\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-334\">[323]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Existential_risk\">Existential risk<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Existential risk from artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2417fff2c86867851343cad51bd9bfb9\">Existential risk from artificial general intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Physicist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stephen_Hawking\" title=\"Stephen Hawking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69b33fec7c42fdee67d9bd45dbd04d38\">Stephen Hawking<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a> founder <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bill_Gates\" title=\"Bill Gates\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe87275749a4271121f08444b65287cc\">Bill Gates<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SpaceX\" title=\"SpaceX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc5ff8ab9c06cfdc1dfe6328cae5870d\">SpaceX<\/a> founder <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Elon_Musk\" title=\"Elon Musk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1eab8dd1ffa92906f7fc839862871ca5\">Elon Musk<\/a> have expressed concerns about the possibility that AI could evolve to the point that humans could not control it, with Hawking theorizing that this could \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_catastrophic_risk\" title=\"Global catastrophic risk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ee5b9ef3812086f707de9713dec1a0c\">spell the end of the human race<\/a>\".\n<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-335\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-335\">[324]<\/a><\/sup>\n<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Holley_336-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Holley-336\">[325]<\/a><\/sup>\n<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-337\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-337\">[326]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<blockquote class=\"templatequote\"><p>The development of full artificial intelligence could spell the end of the human race. Once humans develop artificial intelligence, it will take off on its own and redesign itself at an ever-increasing rate. Humans, who are limited by slow biological evolution, couldn't compete and would be superseded.<\/p><div class=\"templatequotecite\">\u2014 <cite><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stephen_Hawking\" title=\"Stephen Hawking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69b33fec7c42fdee67d9bd45dbd04d38\">Stephen Hawking<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-338\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-338\">[327]<\/a><\/sup><\/cite><\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p>In his book <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superintelligence:_Paths,_Dangers,_Strategies\" title=\"Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7fd8ddc116ccf6b8dc91ca1db5a2e63\">Superintelligence<\/a><\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nick_Bostrom\" title=\"Nick Bostrom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c3c8bc124e1204cfb4d1594e89c8a93\">Nick Bostrom<\/a> provides an argument that artificial intelligence will pose a threat to humankind. He argues that sufficiently intelligent AI, if it chooses actions based on achieving some goal, will exhibit <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Instrumental_convergence\" title=\"Instrumental convergence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6b7c45ce748d10d5293074562ce6ba4\">convergent<\/a> behavior such as acquiring resources or protecting itself from being shut down. If this AI's goals do not reflect humanity's\u2014one example is an AI told to compute as many digits of pi as possible\u2014it might harm humanity in order to acquire more resources or prevent itself from being shut down, ultimately to better achieve its goal.\n<\/p><p>Concern over risk from artificial intelligence has led to some high-profile donations and investments. A group of prominent tech titans including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Thiel\" title=\"Peter Thiel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd2003620d13ec70d95bb140f7f0d4d4\">Peter Thiel<\/a>, Amazon Web Services and Musk have committed $1billion to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenAI\" title=\"OpenAI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4980df9317894d76a3309b4bed8d51e4\">OpenAI<\/a>, a nonprofit company aimed at championing responsible AI development.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-339\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-339\">[328]<\/a><\/sup> The opinion of experts within the field of artificial intelligence is mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superhumanly-capable AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-340\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-340\">[329]<\/a><\/sup> In January 2015, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Elon_Musk\" title=\"Elon Musk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1eab8dd1ffa92906f7fc839862871ca5\">Elon Musk<\/a> donated ten million dollars to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Future_of_Life_Institute\" title=\"Future of Life Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b79fa8ffaae2e86d7248eeaafb89dbfc\">Future of Life Institute<\/a> to fund research on understanding AI decision making. The goal of the institute is to \"grow wisdom with which we manage\" the growing power of technology. Musk also funds companies developing artificial intelligence such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google_DeepMind\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Google DeepMind\" data-key=\"2fcd438311c3ec5d5f4d792e7e473602\">Google DeepMind<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vicarious_(company)\" title=\"Vicarious (company)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17b61d18635564043784a22548484760\">Vicarious<\/a> to \"just keep an eye on what's going on with artificial intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-341\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-341\">[330]<\/a><\/sup> I think there is potentially a dangerous outcome there.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-342\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-342\">[331]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-343\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-343\">[332]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>For this danger to be realized, the hypothetical AI would have to overpower or out-think all of humanity, which a minority of experts argue is a possibility far enough in the future to not be worth researching.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-344\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-344\">[333]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-345\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-345\">[334]<\/a><\/sup> Other counterarguments revolve around humans being either intrinsically or convergently valuable from the perspective of an artificial intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-346\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-346\">[335]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Devaluation_of_humanity\">Devaluation of humanity<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_Power_and_Human_Reason\" title=\"Computer Power and Human Reason\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0c1166e1f004f0d6f778e21fa850ffa\">Computer Power and Human Reason<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joseph_Weizenbaum\" title=\"Joseph Weizenbaum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72e93fb709be93ac931fb371bb1319c4\">Joseph Weizenbaum<\/a> wrote that AI applications cannot, by definition, successfully simulate genuine human empathy and that the use of AI technology in fields such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_service\" title=\"Customer service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9c2af210669f5d5b0abb17df8b11862\">customer service<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Psychotherapy\" title=\"Psychotherapy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0926e16177caeb3786313ebbfdfa85d\">psychotherapy<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-347\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-347\">[336]<\/a><\/sup> was deeply misguided. Weizenbaum was also bothered that AI researchers (and some philosophers) were willing to view the human mind as nothing more than a computer program (a position is now known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computationalism\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computationalism\" data-key=\"08434cf5f81c74fd4183972fc4b732b2\">computationalism<\/a>). To Weizenbaum these points suggest that AI research devalues human life.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Weizenbaum's_critique_348-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#39;s_critique-348\">[337]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Social_justice\">Social justice<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>One concern is that AI programs may be programmed to be biased against certain groups, such as women and minorities, because most of the developers are wealthy Caucasian men.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-349\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-349\">[338]<\/a><\/sup> Support for artificial intelligence is higher among men (with 47% approving) than women (35% approving).\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Decrease_in_demand_for_human_labor\">Decrease in demand for human labor<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technological_unemployment#21st_century\" title=\"Technological unemployment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a318432a517ddebd95f5b7f55981e3ee\">Technological unemployment \u00a7 21st century<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The relationship between automation and employment is complicated. While automation eliminates old jobs, it also creates new jobs through micro-economic and macro-economic effects.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-350\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-350\">[339]<\/a><\/sup> Unlike previous waves of automation, many middle-class jobs may be eliminated by artificial intelligence; <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Economist\" title=\"The Economist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4158a46c0e55d5660f61e619889b8a1d\">The Economist<\/a><\/i> states that \"the worry that AI could do to white-collar jobs what steam power did to blue-collar ones during the Industrial Revolution\" is \"worth taking seriously\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-351\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-351\">[340]<\/a><\/sup> Subjective estimates of the risk vary widely; for example, Michael Osborne and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carl_Benedikt_Frey\" title=\"Carl Benedikt Frey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc288dc515c6ecf0702ab68af5f9a03b\">Carl Benedikt Frey<\/a> estimate 47% of U.S. jobs are at \"high risk\" of potential automation, while an OECD report classifies only 9% of U.S. jobs as \"high risk\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-352\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-352\">[341]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-353\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-353\">[342]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-354\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-354\">[343]<\/a><\/sup> Jobs at extreme risk range from paralegals to fast food cooks, while job demand is likely to increase for care-related professions ranging from personal healthcare to the clergy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-355\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-355\">[344]<\/a><\/sup> Author <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Martin_Ford_(author)\" title=\"Martin Ford (author)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d64f31052b77d6d7ebfebd7c0a8374f1\">Martin Ford<\/a> and others go further and argue that a large number of jobs are routine, repetitive and (to an AI) predictable; Ford warns that these jobs may be automated in the next couple of decades, and that many of the new jobs may not be \"accessible to people with average capability\", even with retraining. Economists point out that in the past technology has tended to increase rather than reduce total employment, but acknowledge that \"we're in uncharted territory\" with AI.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-guardian_jobs_debate_22-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-guardian_jobs_debate-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Autonomous_weapons\">Autonomous weapons<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lethal_autonomous_weapon\" title=\"Lethal autonomous weapon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae7b2a314d9703fad85566fba355ca29\">Lethal autonomous weapon<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Currently, 50+ countries are researching battlefield robots, including the United States, China, Russia, and the United Kingdom. Many people concerned about risk from superintelligent AI also want to limit the use of artificial soldiers and drones.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-356\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-356\">[345]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ethical_machines\">Ethical machines<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Machines with intelligence have the potential to use their intelligence to prevent harm and minimize the risks; they may have the ability to use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethics\" title=\"Ethics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"775a2057162d49efbbddfae101ee61ec\">ethical reasoning<\/a> to better choose their actions in the world. Research in this area includes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_ethics\" title=\"Machine ethics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3a0c55ae3309465a1780ba9c3038f57\">machine ethics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_moral_agents\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial moral agents\" data-key=\"27d8a2b02dc968eeecdbf7e9f137cdb3\">artificial moral agents<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Friendly_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Friendly AI\" data-key=\"5e061eec4a4a20cd984762a43c8fe903\">friendly AI<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Artificial_moral_agents\">Artificial moral agents<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Wendell Wallach introduced the concept of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_moral_agents\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Artificial moral agents\" data-key=\"27d8a2b02dc968eeecdbf7e9f137cdb3\">artificial moral agents<\/a> (AMA) in his book <i>Moral Machines<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-357\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-357\">[346]<\/a><\/sup> For Wallach, AMAs have become a part of the research landscape of artificial intelligence as guided by its two central questions which he identifies as \"Does Humanity Want Computers Making Moral Decisions\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-358\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-358\">[347]<\/a><\/sup> and \"Can (Ro)bots Really Be Moral\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-359\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-359\">[348]<\/a><\/sup> For Wallach the question is not centered on the issue of <i>whether<\/i> machines can demonstrate the equivalent of moral behavior in contrast to the <i>constraints<\/i> which society may place on the development of AMAs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-360\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-360\">[349]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Machine_ethics\">Machine ethics<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_ethics\" title=\"Machine ethics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3a0c55ae3309465a1780ba9c3038f57\">Machine ethics<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The field of machine ethics is concerned with giving machines ethical principles, or a procedure for discovering a way to resolve the ethical dilemmas they might encounter, enabling them to function in an ethically responsible manner through their own ethical decision making.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-autogenerated1_361-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-autogenerated1-361\">[350]<\/a><\/sup> The field was delineated in the AAAI Fall 2005 Symposium on Machine Ethics: \"Past research concerning the relationship between technology and ethics has largely focused on responsible and irresponsible use of technology by human beings, with a few people being interested in how human beings ought to treat machines. In all cases, only human beings have engaged in ethical reasoning. The time has come for adding an ethical dimension to at least some machines. Recognition of the ethical ramifications of behavior involving machines, as well as recent and potential developments in machine autonomy, necessitate this. In contrast to computer hacking, software property issues, privacy issues and other topics normally ascribed to computer ethics, machine ethics is concerned with the behavior of machines towards human users and other machines. Research in machine ethics is key to alleviating concerns with autonomous systems\u2014it could be argued that the notion of autonomous machines without such a dimension is at the root of all fear concerning machine intelligence. Further, investigation of machine ethics could enable the discovery of problems with current ethical theories, advancing our thinking about Ethics.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-autogenerated2_362-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-autogenerated2-362\">[351]<\/a><\/sup> Machine ethics is sometimes referred to as machine morality, computational ethics or computational morality. A variety of perspectives of this nascent field can be found in the collected edition \"Machine Ethics\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-autogenerated1_361-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-autogenerated1-361\">[350]<\/a><\/sup> that stems from the AAAI Fall 2005 Symposium on Machine Ethics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-autogenerated2_362-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-autogenerated2-362\">[351]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Malevolent_and_friendly_AI\">Malevolent and friendly AI<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Friendly_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Friendly AI\" data-key=\"5e061eec4a4a20cd984762a43c8fe903\">Friendly AI<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Political scientist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charles_T._Rubin\" title=\"Charles T. Rubin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46bb7ad151446f51a90230ff53058f0a\">Charles T. Rubin<\/a> believes that AI can be neither designed nor guaranteed to be benevolent.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-363\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-363\">[352]<\/a><\/sup> He argues that \"any sufficiently advanced benevolence may be indistinguishable from malevolence.\" Humans should not assume machines or robots would treat us favorably because there is no <i>a priori<\/i> reason to believe that they would be sympathetic to our system of morality, which has evolved along with our particular biology (which AIs would not share). Hyper-intelligent software may not necessarily decide to support the continued existence of humanity and would be extremely difficult to stop. This topic has also recently begun to be discussed in academic publications as a real source of risks to civilization, humans, and planet Earth.\n<\/p><p>One proposal to deal with this is to ensure that the first generally intelligent AI is '<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Friendly_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Friendly AI\" data-key=\"5e061eec4a4a20cd984762a43c8fe903\">Friendly AI<\/a>', and will then be able to control subsequently developed AIs. Some question whether this kind of check could really remain in place.\n<\/p><p>Leading AI researcher <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rodney_Brooks\" title=\"Rodney Brooks\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8193c538969269197c051496ce56e39\">Rodney Brooks<\/a> writes, \"I think it is a mistake to be worrying about us developing malevolent AI anytime in the next few hundred years. I think the worry stems from a fundamental error in not distinguishing the difference between the very real recent advances in a particular aspect of AI, and the enormity and complexity of building sentient volitional intelligence.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-364\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-364\">[353]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Machine_consciousness.2C_sentience_and_mind\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Machine_consciousness,_sentience_and_mind\">Machine consciousness, sentience and mind<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_consciousness\" title=\"Artificial consciousness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1abb86be8a5d28c37fa1a5c9f30c527\">Artificial consciousness<\/a><\/div>\n<p>If an AI system replicates all key aspects of human intelligence, will that system also be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sentience\" title=\"Sentience\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0cc015b39f4a0fbbe13615e5400bd8d\">sentient<\/a>\u2014will it have a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mind\" title=\"Mind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e57825f08aece0c29adc836a1c58c45\">mind<\/a> which has <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consciousness\" title=\"Consciousness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2eed83cfa284bea87c6aa280ee361ee6\">conscious experiences<\/a>? This question is closely related to the philosophical problem as to the nature of human consciousness, generally referred to as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard_problem_of_consciousness\" title=\"Hard problem of consciousness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65b5ddeaf78597cd962829a8ee29aae4\">hard problem of consciousness<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Consciousness\">Consciousness<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard_problem_of_consciousness\" title=\"Hard problem of consciousness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65b5ddeaf78597cd962829a8ee29aae4\">Hard problem of consciousness<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory_of_mind\" title=\"Theory of mind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51176008e2fecf6c136bd53bf5ecf2d3\">Theory of mind<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Chalmers\" title=\"David Chalmers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec4a71fe936ef9233c3333ca26d35e22\">David Chalmers<\/a> identified two problems in understanding the mind, which he named the \"hard\" and \"easy\" problems of consciousness.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Chalmers_365-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Chalmers-365\">[354]<\/a><\/sup> The easy problem is understanding how the brain processes signals, makes plans and controls behavior. The hard problem is explaining how this <i>feels<\/i> or why it should feel like anything at all. Human <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_processing\" title=\"Information processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f9cfcbf61872281cf70396ed5f1427c\">information processing<\/a> is easy to explain, however human <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subjective_experience\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Subjective experience\" data-key=\"f7abfa43c0ce729f250e4cf74be9eebd\">subjective experience<\/a> is difficult to explain.\n<\/p><p>For example, consider what happens when a person is shown a color swatch and identifies it, saying \"it's red\". The easy problem only requires understanding the machinery in the brain that makes it possible for a person to know that the color swatch is red. The hard problem is that people also know something else\u2014they also know <i>what red looks like<\/i>. (Consider that a person born blind can know that something is red without knowing what red looks like.)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-366\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-366\">[l]<\/a><\/sup> Everyone knows subjective experience exists, because they do it every day (e.g., all sighted people know what red looks like). The hard problem is explaining how the brain creates it, why it exists, and how it is different than knowledge and other aspects of the brain.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Computationalism_and_functionalism\">Computationalism and functionalism<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computationalism\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computationalism\" data-key=\"08434cf5f81c74fd4183972fc4b732b2\">Computationalism<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)\" title=\"Functionalism (philosophy of mind)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8575c5b699db1aa695dafbbc970b5daa\">Functionalism (philosophy of mind)<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Computationalism is the position in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy_of_mind\" title=\"Philosophy of mind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b4e71d5c57fcf6363812fa60dee7da\">philosophy of mind<\/a> that the human mind or the human brain (or both) is an information processing system and that thinking is a form of computing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-367\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-367\">[355]<\/a><\/sup> Computationalism argues that the relationship between mind and body is similar or identical to the relationship between software and hardware and thus may be a solution to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mind-body_problem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mind-body problem\" data-key=\"9815a6938117baa6544cc3a85dd35d51\">mind-body problem<\/a>. This philosophical position was inspired by the work of AI researchers and cognitive scientists in the 1960s and was originally proposed by philosophers <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerry_Fodor\" title=\"Jerry Fodor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c83b56fe5ece316c18b5952cee322198\">Jerry Fodor<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hilary_Putnam\" title=\"Hilary Putnam\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4aad0bdd5cb05bd5d83a757dafddf1e3\">Hilary Putnam<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Strong_AI_hypothesis\">Strong AI hypothesis<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_room\" title=\"Chinese room\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40e4f68def9042fbadc20dbe8654fdca\">Chinese room<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The philosophical position that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Searle\" title=\"John Searle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8a0c5f2845bfc0d1b015937657a9b1f\">John Searle<\/a> has named <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strong_AI_hypothesis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Strong AI hypothesis\" data-key=\"c81d64881909cab62ae4da95d7f7ad1a\">\"strong AI\"<\/a> states: \"The appropriately programmed computer with the right inputs and outputs would thereby have a mind in exactly the same sense human beings have minds.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Searle's_strong_AI_368-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#39;s_strong_AI-368\">[356]<\/a><\/sup> Searle counters this assertion with his <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_room\" title=\"Chinese room\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40e4f68def9042fbadc20dbe8654fdca\">Chinese room<\/a> argument, which asks us to look <i>inside<\/i> the computer and try to find where the \"mind\" might be.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Chinese_room_369-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Chinese_room-369\">[357]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Robot_rights\">Robot rights<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robot_rights\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Robot rights\" data-key=\"3d9e387e8ec555912cdbfcc557d3d762\">Robot rights<\/a><\/div>\n<p>If a machine can be created that has intelligence, could it also <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sentience\" title=\"Sentience\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0cc015b39f4a0fbbe13615e5400bd8d\">feel<\/a><\/i>? If it can feel, does it have the same rights as a human? This issue, now known as \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robot_rights\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Robot rights\" data-key=\"3d9e387e8ec555912cdbfcc557d3d762\">robot rights<\/a>\", is currently being considered by, for example, California's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Institute_for_the_Future\" title=\"Institute for the Future\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5dd3a4d778e0f6737037d7d20545376c\">Institute for the Future<\/a>, although many critics believe that the discussion is premature.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Robot_rights_370-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Robot_rights-370\">[358]<\/a><\/sup> Some critics of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transhumanism\" title=\"Transhumanism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"599e68dd128d0e860d6861776bad3385\">transhumanism<\/a> argue that any hypothetical robot rights would lie on a spectrum with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Animal_rights\" title=\"Animal rights\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9bbf6b71ac12e3ce3aa9964c9162d7b\">animal rights<\/a> and human rights.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Evans_2015_371-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Evans_2015-371\">[359]<\/a><\/sup> The subject is profoundly discussed in the 2010 documentary film <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plug_%26_Pray\" title=\"Plug & Pray\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13d267f55e9c82961912beda0f74e036\">Plug & Pray<\/a><\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-372\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-372\">[360]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Superintelligence\">Superintelligence<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superintelligence\" title=\"Superintelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b118c2443168f3f5a961bada59001ecc\">Superintelligence<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Are there limits to how intelligent machines\u2014or human-machine hybrids\u2014can be? A superintelligence, hyperintelligence, or superhuman intelligence is a hypothetical agent that would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human mind. <i>Superintelligence<\/i> may also refer to the form or degree of intelligence possessed by such an agent.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Roberts_140-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Roberts-140\">[137]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technological_singularity\">Technological singularity<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technological_singularity\" title=\"Technological singularity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4787174dcb8c7955e9a9622daf8da71c\">Technological singularity<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moore%27s_law\" title=\"Moore's law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4c4bc7df1af8c3b73b34c4fa6964c76\">Moore's law<\/a><\/div>\n<p>If research into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">Strong AI<\/a> produced sufficiently intelligent software, it might be able to reprogram and improve itself. The improved software would be even better at improving itself, leading to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligence_explosion\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intelligence explosion\" data-key=\"b16c3047e73e428a36c3c41a53b98c72\">recursive self-improvement<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-recurse_373-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-recurse-373\">[361]<\/a><\/sup> The new intelligence could thus increase exponentially and dramatically surpass humans. Science fiction writer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vernor_Vinge\" title=\"Vernor Vinge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b1b61f79e9e3f719f8b2ce721dcac0f\">Vernor Vinge<\/a> named this scenario \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technological_singularity\" title=\"Technological singularity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4787174dcb8c7955e9a9622daf8da71c\">singularity<\/a>\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Singularity_374-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Singularity-374\">[362]<\/a><\/sup> Technological singularity is when accelerating progress in technologies will cause a runaway effect wherein artificial intelligence will exceed human intellectual capacity and control, thus radically changing or even ending civilization. Because the capabilities of such an intelligence may be impossible to comprehend, the technological singularity is an occurrence beyond which events are unpredictable or even unfathomable.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Singularity_374-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Singularity-374\">[362]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Roberts_140-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Roberts-140\">[137]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Kurzweil\" title=\"Ray Kurzweil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bfcf52303d37aac624912e3fdddd296\">Ray Kurzweil<\/a> has used <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moore%27s_law\" title=\"Moore's law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4c4bc7df1af8c3b73b34c4fa6964c76\">Moore's law<\/a> (which describes the relentless exponential improvement in digital technology) to calculate that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Desktop_computer\" title=\"Desktop computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e5e0251e133f75953c1ef7f39954752\">desktop computers<\/a> will have the same processing power as human brains by the year 2029, and predicts that the singularity will occur in 2045.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Singularity_374-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Singularity-374\">[362]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Transhumanism\">Transhumanism<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transhumanism\" title=\"Transhumanism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"599e68dd128d0e860d6861776bad3385\">Transhumanism<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Robot designer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hans_Moravec\" title=\"Hans Moravec\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"251f9e14d86954130e9f7e16aa21c877\">Hans Moravec<\/a>, cyberneticist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kevin_Warwick\" title=\"Kevin Warwick\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e61c73793aff0e8ec32cd8caf6a1b8b4\">Kevin Warwick<\/a> and inventor <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Kurzweil\" title=\"Ray Kurzweil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bfcf52303d37aac624912e3fdddd296\">Ray Kurzweil<\/a> have predicted that humans and machines will merge in the future into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyborg\" title=\"Cyborg\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68ff73406b62517d73d3a4c986fe66f6\">cyborgs<\/a> that are more capable and powerful than either.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Transhumanism_375-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Transhumanism-375\">[363]<\/a><\/sup> This idea, called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transhumanism\" title=\"Transhumanism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"599e68dd128d0e860d6861776bad3385\">transhumanism<\/a>, which has roots in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aldous_Huxley\" title=\"Aldous Huxley\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cafe77e64bb15ab5aa9f0f761a48e16c\">Aldous Huxley<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert_Ettinger\" title=\"Robert Ettinger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d39c58f72283601b0ec16d183d22a603\">Robert Ettinger<\/a>.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_Fredkin\" title=\"Edward Fredkin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c048410d673ea47508c13c8f98f7015\">Edward Fredkin<\/a> argues that \"artificial intelligence is the next stage in evolution\", an idea first proposed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Samuel_Butler_(novelist)\" title=\"Samuel Butler (novelist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e10417b2af600ca52e522c57713009b3\">Samuel Butler<\/a>'s \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Darwin_among_the_Machines\" title=\"Darwin among the Machines\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4af6c95574f12f2123aeca288af889d6\">Darwin among the Machines<\/a>\" (1863), and expanded upon by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Dyson_(science_historian)\" title=\"George Dyson (science historian)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24ab0a81cf8f365c1303a86a89652fce\">George Dyson<\/a> in his book of the same name in 1998.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_as_evolution_376-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_as_evolution-376\">[364]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_fiction\">In fiction<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence_in_fiction\" title=\"Artificial intelligence in fiction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e53c1a93997cdae05907136f7e760e8d\">Artificial intelligence in fiction<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Capek_play.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8b15c7991901ddad3ba2b94d89276fb\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/87\/Capek_play.jpg\/220px-Capek_play.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"123\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Capek_play.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"d8b15c7991901ddad3ba2b94d89276fb\"><\/a><\/div>The word \"robot\" itself was coined by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Karel_%C4%8Capek\" title=\"Karel \u010capek\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89fef944a9385a283c305b8268dc66bc\">Karel \u010capek<\/a> in his 1921 play <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/R.U.R.\" title=\"R.U.R.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c4517be68c67ada2e989427daf3e78c\">R.U.R.<\/a><\/i>, the title standing for \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rossum%27s_Universal_Robots\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Rossum's Universal Robots\" data-key=\"6bf8d96da5cc9ba8d6929a32e7a5a0ab\">Rossum's Universal Robots<\/a>\"<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Thought-capable artificial beings appeared as storytelling devices since antiquity,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AI_in_myth_24-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AI_in_myth-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\nand have been a persistent theme in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Science_fiction\" title=\"Science fiction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51452459b09530b7a8be48be26da616c\">science fiction<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>A common <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trope_(literature)\" title=\"Trope (literature)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db06d77c02a2af8fe293ead8a489f5f4\">trope<\/a> in these works began with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mary_Shelley\" title=\"Mary Shelley\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff812e247d7e306c3890daeeaf17337f\">Mary Shelley<\/a>'s <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frankenstein\" title=\"Frankenstein\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"262d14f4d3e4779a1ebe81a00c22815b\">Frankenstein<\/a><\/i>, where a human creation becomes a threat to its masters. This includes such works as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2001:_A_Space_Odyssey_(novel)\" title=\"2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98e52636349b35b1da532b044d52b0e7\">Arthur C. Clarke's<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2001:_A_Space_Odyssey_(film)\" title=\"2001: A Space Odyssey (film)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3e91b17705c4d71cf0b56e536ccbb50\">Stanley Kubrick's<\/a> <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2001:_A_Space_Odyssey\" title=\"2001: A Space Odyssey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4950fd90c308955eb8e342bfbef2d5c7\">2001: A Space Odyssey<\/a><\/i> (both 1968), with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HAL_9000\" title=\"HAL 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb1dedab35abc25b6ac10d8a69ba7ce3\">HAL 9000<\/a>, the murderous computer in charge of the <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discovery_One\" title=\"Discovery One\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"597a4b65f878d60c7d79304a1640397f\">Discovery One<\/a><\/i> spaceship, as well as <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Terminator\" title=\"The Terminator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a50163c8a08b71dae35198ba26876b3\">The Terminator<\/a><\/i> (1984) and <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Matrix\" title=\"The Matrix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42aae0d7f0a4f9ed00e741a42a0000ea\">The Matrix<\/a><\/i> (1999). In contrast, the rare loyal robots such as Gort from <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Day_the_Earth_Stood_Still\" title=\"The Day the Earth Stood Still\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c8b3d1ca2b90498e39913f0746f3bbc\">The Day the Earth Stood Still<\/a><\/i> (1951) and Bishop from <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aliens_(film)\" title=\"Aliens (film)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"486f4fe66384374f9c8d73b55592d888\">Aliens<\/a><\/i> (1986) are less prominent in popular culture.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-377\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-377\">[365]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Isaac_Asimov\" title=\"Isaac Asimov\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9aa5a817142483ea71354a06dd25bcb6\">Isaac Asimov<\/a> introduced the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Three_Laws_of_Robotics\" title=\"Three Laws of Robotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c2e4393b87f809c2d9eb5cc9fe89101\">Three Laws of Robotics<\/a> in many books and stories, most notably the \"Multivac\" series about a super-intelligent computer of the same name. Asimov's laws are often brought up during layman discussions of machine ethics;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-378\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-378\">[366]<\/a><\/sup> while almost all artificial intelligence researchers are familiar with Asimov's laws through popular culture, they generally consider the laws useless for many reasons, one of which is their ambiguity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-379\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-379\">[367]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transhumanism\" title=\"Transhumanism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"599e68dd128d0e860d6861776bad3385\">Transhumanism<\/a> (the merging of humans and machines) is explored in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manga\" title=\"Manga\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c138728de25fc953becbb4a29e960521\">manga<\/a> <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ghost_in_the_Shell\" title=\"Ghost in the Shell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67aca2b364a62586705c707cacac0165\">Ghost in the Shell<\/a><\/i> and the science-fiction series <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dune_(novel)\" title=\"Dune (novel)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b353d0f04abcdc63794c35eeef991cad\">Dune<\/a><\/i>. In the 1980s, artist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hajime_Sorayama\" title=\"Hajime Sorayama\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a303042e684424453bd05ab94437e6d0\">Hajime Sorayama<\/a>'s Sexy Robots series were painted and published in Japan depicting the actual organic human form with lifelike muscular metallic skins and later \"the Gynoids\" book followed that was used by or influenced movie makers including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Lucas\" title=\"George Lucas\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"536c56ebf7c5b55959771836fa69c954\">George Lucas<\/a> and other creatives. Sorayama never considered these organic robots to be real part of nature but always unnatural product of the human mind, a fantasy existing in the mind even when realized in actual form.\n<\/p><p>Several works use AI to force us to confront the fundamental of question of what makes us human, showing us artificial beings that have <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sentience\" title=\"Sentience\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0cc015b39f4a0fbbe13615e5400bd8d\">the ability to feel<\/a>, and thus to suffer. This appears in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Karel_%C4%8Capek\" title=\"Karel \u010capek\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89fef944a9385a283c305b8268dc66bc\">Karel \u010capek<\/a>'s \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/R.U.R.\" title=\"R.U.R.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c4517be68c67ada2e989427daf3e78c\">R.U.R.<\/a>\", the films \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/A.I._Artificial_Intelligence\" title=\"A.I. Artificial Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69cf4178a0b5f12a546c001986bf7508\">A.I. Artificial Intelligence<\/a>\" and \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ex_Machina_(film)\" title=\"Ex Machina (film)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7af6891dfa7ddee51cfd737c99e51828\">Ex Machina<\/a>\", as well as the novel <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Do_Androids_Dream_of_Electric_Sheep%3F\" title=\"Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97cd714558b30d4fe9e2386dc9970824\">Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?<\/a><\/i>, by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philip_K._Dick\" title=\"Philip K. Dick\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c7a1ae8bbe84fdbc52e8ad143cb71bb\">Philip K. Dick<\/a>. Dick considers the idea that our understanding of human subjectivity is altered by technology created with artificial intelligence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-380\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-380\">[368]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Animation2.gif\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"8672b166014dbf07b55ebb7903ed9df7\"><img alt=\"Animation2.gif\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c0\/Animation2.gif\/10px-Animation2.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"10\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Portal:Artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6045ecdbeff506ec8727aab4a9ae4854\">Artificial intelligence portal<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abductive_reasoning\" title=\"Abductive reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"264cd823c453d6095a82de6f8ce3c5b1\">Abductive reasoning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/A.I._Rising\" title=\"A.I. Rising\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"993ab40e564484efc353dd3536e5ca09\">A.I. Rising<\/a><\/i><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Behavior_selection_algorithm\" title=\"Behavior selection algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7554428e33fd4d1c700379187b9c8b4a\">Behavior selection algorithm<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_automation\" title=\"Business process automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6961c6e95c105b9a05bf46f6e116c7d\">Business process automation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Case-based_reasoning\" title=\"Case-based reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"185576b5b04df29876c608868d2a827d\">Case-based reasoning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commonsense_reasoning\" title=\"Commonsense reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0997a9bcf171a85e9d4fb631fb9bc768\">Commonsense reasoning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emergent_algorithm\" title=\"Emergent algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd085d5c4058231f622eecf40122b76b\">Emergent algorithm<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolutionary_computation\" title=\"Evolutionary computation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b60cad0a27f9a67815f7da22a51b185\">Evolutionary computation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence\" title=\"Glossary of artificial intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"441c02aab14ebdf235a3e39d66538693\">Glossary of artificial intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">Machine learning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematical_optimization\" title=\"Mathematical optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3971a7d176811cdbfe476e66dedd7be2\">Mathematical optimization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multi-agent_system\" title=\"Multi-agent system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09eb2405abcfe406399c2857ad282249\">Multi-agent system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotic_process_automation\" title=\"Robotic process automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d49cf593ed2f4c4a7c2e383e1b467d6\">Robotic process automation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soft_computing\" title=\"Soft computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98a6d07429cb4bc4cfd5ec5ae05714f0\">Soft computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weak_AI\" title=\"Weak AI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c48ab2fc2a20d2840778280dac215c1e\">Weak AI<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personality_computing\" title=\"Personality computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92d37d1bd3adc2ebd6d8cc61a4ba0c8e\">Personality computing<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Explanatory_notes\">Explanatory notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: lower-alpha;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-54\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">The act of doling out rewards can itself be formalized or automated into a \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reward_function\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Reward function\" data-key=\"bc28aa695da6c2094cd00efd8a5741a4\">reward function<\/a>\".<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-58\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Terminology varies; see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithm_characterizations\" title=\"Algorithm characterizations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"040b6f784e31c98d318adc907001aab3\">algorithm characterizations<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-68\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-68\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Adversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems, or from non-pattern perturbations. Some systems are so brittle that changing a single adversarial pixel predictably induces misclassification.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-167\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-167\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">While such a \"victory of the neats\" may be a consequence of the field becoming more mature, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_Intelligence:_A_Modern_Approach\" title=\"Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9dbb28c25594c66d5bac1148dc06e5f6\">AIMA<\/a> states that in practice both <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neats_and_scruffies\" title=\"Neats and scruffies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb270bddfd319cb600a2d9cd2196de05\">neat and scruffy<\/a> approaches continue to be necessary in AI research.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-192\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-192\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\"There exist many different types of uncertainty, vagueness, and ignorance... [We] independently confirm the inadequacy of systems for reasoning about uncertainty that propagates numerical factors according to only to which connectives appear in assertions.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-191\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-191\">[187]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-202\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-202\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Expectation-maximization, one of the most popular algorithms in machine learning, allows clustering in the presence of unknown <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Latent_variables\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Latent variables\" data-key=\"d1c4b0cd6dcdbec12c484f9a28d1f315\">latent variables<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015210_201-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015210-201\">[196]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-214\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-214\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">The most widely used analogical AI until the mid-1990s<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015187_213-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015187-213\">[207]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-217\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-217\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">SVM displaced k-nearest neighbor in the 1990s<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015188_216-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015188-216\">[209]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-221\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-221\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Naive Bayes is reportedly the \"most widely used learner\" at Google, due in part to its scalability.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015152_220-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015152-220\">[212]<\/a><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-225\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-225\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Each individual neuron is likely to participate in more than one concept.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-226\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-226\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Steering for the 1995 \"<a href=\"#1990s\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"History of autonomous cars\">No Hands Across America<\/a>\" required \"only a few human assists\".<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-366\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-366\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">This is based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mary%27s_Room\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mary's Room\" data-key=\"ee0842e782b5e02a2575d57c5f5a3a4a\">Mary's Room<\/a>, a thought experiment first proposed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frank_Cameron_Jackson\" title=\"Frank Cameron Jackson\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7693d2d496c5d01f9cd72a911017d568\">Frank Jackson<\/a> in 1982<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Definition_of_AI-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Definition_of_AI_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Definition_of_AI_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nDefinition of AI as the study of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_agents\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intelligent agents\" data-key=\"775d764d2d785cc30326a88f00f36770\">intelligent agents<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/people.cs.ubc.ca\/~poole\/ci\/ch1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">p. 1<\/a>, which provides the version that is used in this article. Note that they use the term \"computational intelligence\" as a synonym for artificial intelligence.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig (2003)<\/a> (who prefer the term \"rational agent\") and write \"The whole-agent view is now widely accepted in the field\" (<a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 55).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLeggHutter2007\">Legg & Hutter 2007<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-sciencedirect.com-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-sciencedirect.com_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0007681318301393\" target=\"_blank\">Kaplan Andreas; Michael Haenlein (2018) Siri, Siri in my Hand, who's the Fairest in the Land? On the Interpretations, Illustrations and Implications of Artificial Intelligence, Business Horizons, 62(1)<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20092-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20092_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2009\">Russell & Norvig 2009<\/a>, p. 2.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Maloof, Mark. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/people.cs.georgetown.edu\/~maloof\/cosc270.f17\/cosc270-intro-handout.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence: An Introduction, p. 37\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>georgetown.edu<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=georgetown.edu&rft.atitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+An+Introduction%2C+p.+37&rft.aulast=Maloof&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.cs.georgetown.edu%2F~maloof%2Fcosc270.f17%2Fcosc270-intro-handout.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation magazine\">Schank, Roger C. (1991). \"Where's the AI\". <i>AI magazine<\/i>. Vol. 12 no. 4. p. 38.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AI+magazine&rft.atitle=Where%27s+the+AI&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=38&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Schank&rft.aufirst=Roger+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2009-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2009_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig2009_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2009\">Russell & Norvig 2009<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-bbc-alphago-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-bbc-alphago_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-bbc-alphago_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/deepmind.com\/alpha-go.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"AlphaGo \u2013 Google DeepMind\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160310191926\/https:\/\/www.deepmind.com\/alpha-go.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 March 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AlphaGo+%E2%80%93+Google+DeepMind&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdeepmind.com%2Falpha-go.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Optimism_of_early_AI-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Optimism_of_early_AI_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Optimism_of_early_AI_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nOptimism of early AI:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herbert_A._Simon\" title=\"Herbert A. Simon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d9e38903367abeb4880342cd666b2b0\">Herbert Simon<\/a> quote: <a href=\"#CITEREFSimon1965\">Simon 1965<\/a>, p. 96 quoted in <a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, p. 109.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marvin_Minsky\" title=\"Marvin Minsky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5677de93e5b6dc185b95ffc880ffe34\">Marvin Minsky<\/a> quote: <a href=\"#CITEREFMinsky1967\">Minsky 1967<\/a>, p. 2 quoted in <a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, p. 109.<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_in_the_80s-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_in_the_80s_9-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_in_the_80s_9-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_in_the_80s_9-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nBoom of the 1980s: rise of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expert_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Expert systems\" data-key=\"44411c04edd68e6a954aa2e9e23afff0\">expert systems<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fifth_generation_computer\" title=\"Fifth generation computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ea405d757211784a6c7443121029019\">Fifth Generation Project<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alvey\" title=\"Alvey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1d690fa44e990886bdc25e66e125cb4\">Alvey<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microelectronics_and_Computer_Technology_Corporation\" title=\"Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59af6fadc9ca1307b025c4e95eb1a7e7\">MCC<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strategic_Computing_Initiative\" title=\"Strategic Computing Initiative\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed8fd7149deefae07c439c1adae756a9\">SCI<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 426\u2013441<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 161\u2013162,197\u2013203, 211, 240<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 24<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNRC1999\">NRC 1999<\/a>, pp. 210\u2013211<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-First_AI_winter-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-First_AI_winter_10-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-First_AI_winter_10-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nFirst <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_Winter\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AI Winter\" data-key=\"e21ab2ed92c2b3a426616dcc8a180b60\">AI Winter<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mansfield_Amendment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mansfield Amendment\" data-key=\"8e7fd7e41fb96382a622c2461b2c3651\">Mansfield Amendment<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lighthill_report\" title=\"Lighthill report\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36a1a6b47ed38abd3c468d76c7bf8aa0\">Lighthill report<\/a>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 115\u2013117<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 22<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNRC1999\">NRC 1999<\/a>, pp. 212\u2013213<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFHowe1994\">Howe 1994<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Second_AI_winter-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Second_AI_winter_11-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Second_AI_winter_11-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nSecond <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_winter\" title=\"AI winter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0128870650338adbb7c06bbe1dadc305\">AI winter<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 430\u2013435<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 209\u2013210<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNRC1999\">NRC 1999<\/a>, pp. 214\u2013216<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_in_2000s-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_in_2000s_12-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_in_2000s_12-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_in_2000s_12-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nAI becomes hugely successful in the early 21st century\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFClark2015\">Clark 2015<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Fragmentation_of_AI-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Fragmentation_of_AI_13-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Fragmentation_of_AI_13-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nPamela <a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, pp. 424) writes of \"the rough shattering of AI in subfields\u2014vision, natural language, decision theory, genetic algorithms, robotics ... and these with own sub-subfield\u2014that would hardly have anything to say to each other.\"<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Problems_of_AI-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Problems_of_AI_14-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Problems_of_AI_14-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Problems_of_AI_14-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nThis list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Biological_intelligence_vs._intelligence_in_general-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Biological_intelligence_vs._intelligence_in_general_15-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Biological_intelligence_vs._intelligence_in_general_15-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Biological_intelligence_vs._intelligence_in_general_15-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nBiological intelligence vs. intelligence in general:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 2\u20133, who make the analogy with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aeronautical_engineering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Aeronautical engineering\" data-key=\"1f0463a949de684d2c032838a28feb6a\">aeronautical engineering<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 100\u2013101, who writes that there are \"two major branches of artificial intelligence: one aimed at producing intelligent behavior regardless of how it was accomplished, and the other aimed at modeling intelligent processes found in nature, particularly human ones.\"<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFKolata1982\">Kolata 1982<\/a>, a paper in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Science_(journal)\" title=\"Science (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66fadc137113f770d46101bbab995cdc\">Science<\/a><\/i>, which describes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"John McCarthy (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"498a2d3b08b0a194821bc61ed3b973fe\">McCarthy's<\/a> indifference to biological models. Kolata quotes McCarthy as writing: \"This is AI, so we don't care if it's psychologically real\"<cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=PEkqAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">\"Science\"<\/a>. August 1982.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Science&rft.date=1982-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPEkqAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>. McCarthy recently reiterated his position at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI@50\" title=\"AI@50\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1386c262a346546c76d73cbddec4ddc\">AI@50<\/a> conference where he said \"Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence\" (<a href=\"#CITEREFMaker2006\">Maker 2006<\/a>).<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Neats_vs._scruffies-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Neats_vs._scruffies_16-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Neats_vs._scruffies_16-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Neats_vs._scruffies_16-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neats_vs._scruffies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neats vs. scruffies\" data-key=\"d9fb5258517ffdc10d3a12c54aef4bbb\">Neats vs. scruffies<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 421\u2013424, 486\u2013489<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 168<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1983\">Nilsson 1983<\/a>, pp. 10\u201311<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Symbolic_vs._sub-symbolic-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Symbolic_vs._sub-symbolic_17-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Symbolic_vs._sub-symbolic_17-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nSymbolic vs. sub-symbolic AI:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, p. 7), who uses the term \"sub-symbolic\".<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-General_intelligence-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-General_intelligence_18-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-General_intelligence_18-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nGeneral intelligence (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_general_intelligence\" title=\"Artificial general intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f53649097e783e63ebea1909d4045f\">strong AI<\/a>) is discussed in popular introductions to AI:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFKurzweil1999\">Kurzweil 1999<\/a> and <a href=\"#CITEREFKurzweil2005\">Kurzweil 2005<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dartmouth_Workshop\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dartmouth Workshop\" data-key=\"f370e455271ea1bd7e5a4972da69d608\">Dartmouth proposal<\/a>, under <a href=\"#Philosophy\">Philosophy<\/a>, below.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-McCorduck's_thesis-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#39;s_thesis_20-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#39;s_thesis_20-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nThis is a central idea of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pamela_McCorduck\" title=\"Pamela McCorduck\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a3df1a76781c9d5b71f140ed6df22e0\">Pamela McCorduck<\/a>'s <i>Machines Who Think<\/i>. She writes: \"I like to think of artificial intelligence as the scientific apotheosis of a venerable cultural tradition.\" (<a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, p. 34) \"Artificial intelligence in one form or another is an idea that has pervaded Western intellectual history, a dream in urgent need of being realized.\" (<a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, p. xviii) \"Our history is full of attempts\u2014nutty, eerie, comical, earnest, legendary and real\u2014to make artificial intelligences, to reproduce what is the essential us\u2014bypassing the ordinary means. Back and forth between myth and reality, our imaginations supplying what our workshops couldn't, we have engaged for a long time in this odd form of self-reproduction.\" (<a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, p. 3) She traces the desire back to its <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hellenistic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hellenistic\" data-key=\"7ceab9686784b854fcb6d5be7455759b\">Hellenistic<\/a> roots and calls it the urge to \"forge the Gods.\" (<a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 340\u2013400)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/betanews.com\/2016\/10\/21\/artificial-intelligence-stephen-hawking\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stephen Hawking believes AI could be mankind's last accomplishment\"<\/a>. <i>BetaNews<\/i>. 21 October 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170828183930\/https:\/\/betanews.com\/2016\/10\/21\/artificial-intelligence-stephen-hawking\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 28 August 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BetaNews&rft.atitle=Stephen+Hawking+believes+AI+could+be+mankind%27s+last+accomplishment&rft.date=2016-10-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbetanews.com%2F2016%2F10%2F21%2Fartificial-intelligence-stephen-hawking%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-guardian_jobs_debate-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-guardian_jobs_debate_22-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-guardian_jobs_debate_22-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Ford, Martin; Colvin, Geoff (6 September 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2015\/sep\/06\/will-robots-create-destroy-jobs\" target=\"_blank\">\"Will robots create more jobs than they destroy?\"<\/a>. <i>The Guardian<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Will+robots+create+more+jobs+than+they+destroy%3F&rft.date=2015-09-06&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Colvin%2C+Geoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2015%2Fsep%2F06%2Fwill-robots-create-destroy-jobs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_widely_used-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_widely_used_23-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_widely_used_23-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nAI applications widely used behind the scenes:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 28<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFKurzweil2005\">Kurzweil 2005<\/a>, p. 265<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNRC1999\">NRC 1999<\/a>, pp. 216\u2013222<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_in_myth-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_in_myth_24-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_in_myth_24-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nAI in myth:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 4\u20135<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 939<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_in_early_science_fiction-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_in_early_science_fiction_25-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nAI in early science fiction.\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 17\u201325<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Formal_reasoning-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Formal_reasoning_26-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nFormal reasoning:\n<ul><li><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Berlinski\" title=\"David Berlinski\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"12de7ae9b1211d45a724563468dad1de\">Berlinski, David<\/a> (2000). <i>The Advent of the Algorithm<\/i>. Harcourt Books. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-15-601391-8. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC\" title=\"OCLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e119fc7e1d352d47ef5b80f32a4b20c3\">OCLC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/46890682\" target=\"_blank\">46890682<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Advent+of+the+Algorithm&rft.pub=Harcourt+Books&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F46890682&rft.isbn=978-0-15-601391-8&rft.aulast=Berlinski&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\"Artificial Intelligence.\" Encyclopedia of Emerging Industries, edited by Lynn M. Pearce, 6th ed., Gale, 2011, pp. 73\u201380. Gale Virtual Reference Library, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/go.galegroup.com\/ps\/anonymous?id=GALE%7CCX1930200017\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/go.galegroup.com\/ps\/anonymous?id=GALE%7CCX1930200017<\/a>. Accessed 31 Mar. 2018.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200916-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200916_28-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2009\">Russell & Norvig 2009<\/a>, p. 16.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Dartmouth_conference-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Dartmouth_conference_29-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dartmouth_Workshop\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dartmouth Workshop\" data-key=\"f370e455271ea1bd7e5a4972da69d608\">Dartmouth conference<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 111\u2013136<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 47\u201349, who writes \"the conference is generally recognized as the official birthdate of the new science.\"<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 17, who call the conference \"the birth of artificial intelligence.\"<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNRC1999\">NRC 1999<\/a>, pp. 200\u2013201<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Hegemony_of_the_Dartmouth_conference_attendees-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Hegemony_of_the_Dartmouth_conference_attendees_30-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nHegemony of the Dartmouth conference attendees:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 17, who write \"for the next 20 years the field would be dominated by these people and their students.\"<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 129\u2013130<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200318-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200318_31-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 18.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Schaeffer J. (2009) Didn't Samuel Solve That Game?. In: One Jump Ahead. Springer, Boston, MA<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Samuel, A. L. (July 1959). \"Some Studies in Machine Learning Using the Game of Checkers\". <i>IBM Journal of Research and Development<\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (3): 210\u2013229. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.368.2254\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.368.2254<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1147%2Frd.33.0210\" target=\"_blank\">10.1147\/rd.33.0210<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IBM+Journal+of+Research+and+Development&rft.atitle=Some+Studies+in+Machine+Learning+Using+the+Game+of+Checkers&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=210-229&rft.date=1959-07&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.368.2254&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1147%2Frd.33.0210&rft.aulast=Samuel&rft.aufirst=A.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Golden_years_of_AI-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Golden_years_of_AI_34-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n\"<a href=\"#The_golden_years_1956\u20131974\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"History of AI\">Golden years<\/a>\" of AI (successful symbolic reasoning programs 1956\u20131973):\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 243\u2013252<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 52\u2013107<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMoravec1988\">Moravec 1988<\/a>, p. 9<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 18\u201321<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The programs described are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arthur_Samuel\" title=\"Arthur Samuel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a85e0f3ad1f5e964d5a77c7463f2883e\">Arthur Samuel<\/a>'s checkers program for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM_701\" title=\"IBM 701\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"813ce04388d687273f4b74940b9e783e\">IBM 701<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Bobrow\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Daniel Bobrow\" data-key=\"deefed668828c9f306f16e5750a0fac2\">Daniel Bobrow<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/STUDENT_(computer_program)\" title=\"STUDENT (computer program)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d34fbb016c81ff992c8dbc676fb0384b\">STUDENT<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allen_Newell\" title=\"Allen Newell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92e155bb916e0a942167e5882906563e\">Newell<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herbert_A._Simon\" title=\"Herbert A. Simon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d9e38903367abeb4880342cd666b2b0\">Simon<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic_Theorist\" title=\"Logic Theorist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5def3113560113182833535bcc7fb40c\">Logic Theorist<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Terry_Winograd\" title=\"Terry Winograd\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02ac915309233b2e7af145a2fb8811d3\">Terry Winograd<\/a>'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SHRDLU\" title=\"SHRDLU\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bc30f4e608685afbe2e6096d23b7fe4\">SHRDLU<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_funding_in_the_60s-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_funding_in_the_60s_35-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DARPA\" title=\"DARPA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148faa7594a6bd3ddcbe5ba80b48e974\">DARPA<\/a> pours money into undirected pure research into AI during the 1960s:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 131<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 51, 64\u201365<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNRC1999\">NRC 1999<\/a>, pp. 204\u2013205<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_in_England-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_in_England_36-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nAI in England:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFHowe1994\">Howe 1994<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTELighthill1973-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELighthill1973_37-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLighthill1973\">Lighthill 1973<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Expert_systems-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Expert_systems_38-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Expert_systems_38-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nExpert systems:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFACM1998\">ACM 1998<\/a>, I.2.1<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 22\u201324<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 227\u2013331<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 17.4<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 327\u2013335, 434\u2013435<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 145\u201362, 197\u2013203<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Formal_methods_in_AI-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Formal_methods_in_AI_39-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Formal_methods_in_AI_39-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nFormal methods are now preferred (\"Victory of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Neats_vs._scruffies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Neats vs. scruffies\" data-key=\"d9fb5258517ffdc10d3a12c54aef4bbb\">neats<\/a>\"):\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 25\u201326<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 486\u2013487<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck2004480\u2013483-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCorduck2004480\u2013483_40-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 480\u2013483.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkoff2011-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarkoff2011_41-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFMarkoff2011\">Markoff 2011<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mckinsey.com\/business-functions\/mckinsey-analytics\/our-insights\/ask-the-ai-experts-whats-driving-todays-progress-in-ai\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ask the AI experts: What's driving today's progress in AI?\"<\/a>. <i>McKinsey & Company<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=McKinsey+%26+Company&rft.atitle=Ask+the+AI+experts%3A+What%27s+driving+today%27s+progress+in+AI%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mckinsey.com%2Fbusiness-functions%2Fmckinsey-analytics%2Four-insights%2Fask-the-ai-experts-whats-driving-todays-progress-in-ai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Administrator. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.i-programmer.info\/news\/105-artificial-intelligence\/2176-kinects-ai-breakthrough-explained.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Kinect's AI breakthrough explained\"<\/a>. <i>i-programmer.info<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160201031242\/http:\/\/www.i-programmer.info\/news\/105-artificial-intelligence\/2176-kinects-ai-breakthrough-explained.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 1 February 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=i-programmer.info&rft.atitle=Kinect%27s+AI+breakthrough+explained&rft.au=Administrator&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.i-programmer.info%2Fnews%2F105-artificial-intelligence%2F2176-kinects-ai-breakthrough-explained.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-44\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Rowinski, Dan (15 January 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/readwrite.com\/2013\/01\/15\/virtual-personal-assistants-the-future-of-your-smartphone-infographic\" target=\"_blank\">\"Virtual Personal Assistants & The Future Of Your Smartphone [Infographic]\"<\/a>. <i>ReadWrite<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151222083034\/http:\/\/readwrite.com\/2013\/01\/15\/virtual-personal-assistants-the-future-of-your-smartphone-infographic\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 December 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ReadWrite&rft.atitle=Virtual+Personal+Assistants+%26+The+Future+Of+Your+Smartphone+%5BInfographic%5D&rft.date=2013-01-15&rft.au=Rowinski%2C+Dan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freadwrite.com%2F2013%2F01%2F15%2Fvirtual-personal-assistants-the-future-of-your-smartphone-infographic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/technology-35785875\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial intelligence: Google's AlphaGo beats Go master Lee Se-dol\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i>. 12 March 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160826103910\/http:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/technology-35785875\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 26 August 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 October<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Artificial+intelligence%3A+Google%27s+AlphaGo+beats+Go+master+Lee+Se-dol&rft.date=2016-03-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Ftechnology-35785875&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/2017\/05\/win-china-alphagos-designers-explore-new-ai\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"After Win in China, AlphaGo's Designers Explore New AI\"<\/a>. <i>Wired<\/i>. 27 May 2017. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170602234726\/https:\/\/www.wired.com\/2017\/05\/win-china-alphagos-designers-explore-new-ai\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 June 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=After+Win+in+China%2C+AlphaGo%27s+Designers+Explore+New+AI&rft.date=2017-05-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2017%2F05%2Fwin-china-alphagos-designers-explore-new-ai%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.goratings.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"World's Go Player Ratings\"<\/a>. May 2017. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170401123616\/https:\/\/www.goratings.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 1 April 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World%27s+Go+Player+Ratings&rft.date=2017-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.goratings.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sports.sina.com.cn\/go\/2016-08-02\/doc-ifxunyya3020238.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"\u67ef\u6d01\u8fce19\u5c81\u751f\u65e5 \u96c4\u8e1e\u4eba\u7c7b\u4e16\u754c\u6392\u540d\u7b2c\u4e00\u5df2\u4e24\u5e74\"<\/a> (in Chinese). May 2017. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170811222849\/http:\/\/sports.sina.com.cn\/go\/2016-08-02\/doc-ifxunyya3020238.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 August 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E6%9F%AF%E6%B4%81%E8%BF%8E19%E5%B2%81%E7%94%9F%E6%97%A5+%E9%9B%84%E8%B8%9E%E4%BA%BA%E7%B1%BB%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E6%8E%92%E5%90%8D%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E5%B7%B2%E4%B8%A4%E5%B9%B4&rft.date=2017-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsports.sina.com.cn%2Fgo%2F2016-08-02%2Fdoc-ifxunyya3020238.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_49-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_49-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Clark, Jack (8 December 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2015-12-08\/why-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why 2015 Was a Breakthrough Year in Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>Bloomberg News<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161123053855\/https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2015-12-08\/why-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 23 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>. <q>After a half-decade of quiet breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, 2015 has been a landmark year. Computers are smarter and learning faster than ever.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bloomberg+News&rft.atitle=Why+2015+Was+a+Breakthrough+Year+in+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.date=2015-12-08&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2015-12-08%2Fwhy-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/sloanreview.mit.edu\/projects\/reshaping-business-with-artificial-intelligence\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Reshaping Business With Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>MIT Sloan Management Review<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MIT+Sloan+Management+Review&rft.atitle=Reshaping+Business+With+Artificial+Intelligence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsloanreview.mit.edu%2Fprojects%2Freshaping-business-with-artificial-intelligence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-51\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Lorica, Ben (18 December 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.oreilly.com\/ideas\/the-state-of-ai-adoption\" target=\"_blank\">\"The state of AI adoption\"<\/a>. <i>O'Reilly Media<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=O%27Reilly+Media&rft.atitle=The+state+of+AI+adoption&rft.date=2017-12-18&rft.aulast=Lorica&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oreilly.com%2Fideas%2Fthe-state-of-ai-adoption&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-52\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Allen, Gregory (February 6, 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cnas.org\/publications\/reports\/understanding-chinas-ai-strategy\" target=\"_blank\">\"Understanding China's AI Strategy\"<\/a>. <i>Center for a New American Security<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Center+for+a+New+American+Security&rft.atitle=Understanding+China%27s+AI+Strategy&rft.date=2019-02-06&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnas.org%2Fpublications%2Freports%2Funderstanding-chinas-ai-strategy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-53\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/outlook\/in-the-race-for-supremacy-in-artificial-intelligence-its-us-innovation-vs-chinese-ambition\/2018\/11\/02\/013e0030-b08c-11e8-aed9-001309990777_story.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Review | How two AI superpowers \u2013 the U.S. and China \u2013 battle for supremacy in the field\"<\/a>. <i>Washington Post<\/i>. 2 November 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 November<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Review+%7C+How+two+AI+superpowers+%E2%80%93+the+U.S.+and+China+%E2%80%93+battle+for+supremacy+in+the+field&rft.date=2018-11-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Foutlook%2Fin-the-race-for-supremacy-in-artificial-intelligence-its-us-innovation-vs-chinese-ambition%2F2018%2F11%2F02%2F013e0030-b08c-11e8-aed9-001309990777_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_5-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_5_55-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, Chapter 5.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_7-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_7_56-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, Chapter 7.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-57\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Lindenbaum, M., Markovitch, S., & Rusakov, D. 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Machine learning, 54(2), 125\u2013152.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_1-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_1_59-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, Chapter 1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Intractability-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Intractability_60-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Intractability_60-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intractably\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intractably\" data-key=\"8237f9be91486be1695918891970fd86\">Intractability and efficiency<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Combinatorial_explosion\" title=\"Combinatorial explosion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b7adb666ea7d8e9537dda277bb943196\">combinatorial explosion<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 9, 21\u201322<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_2,_Chapter_3-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_2,_Chapter_3_61-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, Chapter 2, Chapter 3.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Hart, P. 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(1972). \"Correction to \"A Formal Basis for the Heuristic Determination of Minimum Cost Paths<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\">\"<\/span>\". <i>SIGART Newsletter<\/i> (37): 28\u201329. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F1056777.1056779\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/1056777.1056779<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SIGART+Newsletter&rft.atitle=Correction+to+%22A+Formal+Basis+for+the+Heuristic+Determination+of+Minimum+Cost+Paths%22&rft.issue=37&rft.pages=28-29&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1056777.1056779&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=P.+E.&rft.au=Nilsson%2C+N.+J.&rft.au=Raphael%2C+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-63\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/artificial-future.com\/artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">\"Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Algorithm+in+Artificial+Intelligence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fartificial-future.com%2Fartificial-intelligence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_2,_Chapter_4,_Chapter_6-64\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_2,_Chapter_4,_Chapter_6_64-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, Chapter 2, Chapter 4, Chapter 6.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-65\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-65\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/can-neural-network-comput\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Can neural network computers learn from experience, and if so, could they ever become what we would call 'smart'?\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific American<\/i>. 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Can+neural+network+computers+learn+from+experience%2C+and+if+so%2C+could+they+ever+become+what+we+would+call+%27smart%27%3F&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fcan-neural-network-comput%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_6,_Chapter_7-66\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_6,_Chapter_7_66-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, Chapter 6, Chapter 7.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015286-67\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015286_67-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, p. 286.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-69\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-69\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/technology-41845878\" target=\"_blank\">\"Single pixel change fools AI programs\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i>. 3 November 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Single+pixel+change+fools+AI+programs&rft.date=2017-11-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Ftechnology-41845878&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-70\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-70\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/story\/ai-has-a-hallucination-problem-thats-proving-tough-to-fix\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI Has a Hallucination Problem That's Proving Tough to Fix\"<\/a>. <i>WIRED<\/i>. 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WIRED&rft.atitle=AI+Has+a+Hallucination+Problem+That%27s+Proving+Tough+to+Fix&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fstory%2Fai-has-a-hallucination-problem-thats-proving-tough-to-fix%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-71\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-71\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Goodfellow, Ian J., Jonathon Shlens, and Christian Szegedy. \"Explaining and harnessing adversarial examples.\" arXiv preprint arXiv:1412.6572 (2014).<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-72\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-72\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Matti, D.; Ekenel, H. 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(2017). <i>Combining LiDAR space clustering and convolutional neural networks for pedestrian detection<\/i>. <i>2017 14th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Video and Signal Based Surveillance (AVSS)<\/i>. pp. 1\u20136. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FAVSS.2017.8078512\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/AVSS.2017.8078512<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-5386-2939-0.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Combining+LiDAR+space+clustering+and+convolutional+neural+networks+for+pedestrian+detection&rft.pages=1-6&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FAVSS.2017.8078512&rft.isbn=978-1-5386-2939-0&rft.aulast=Matti&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Ekenel%2C+H.+K.&rft.au=Thiran%2C+J.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-73\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-73\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Ferguson, Sarah; Luders, Brandon; Grande, Robert C.; How, Jonathan P. (2015). <i>Real-Time Predictive Modeling and Robust Avoidance of Pedestrians with Uncertain, Changing Intentions<\/i>. <i>Algorithmic Foundations of Robotics XI<\/i>. Springer Tracts in Advanced Robotics. <b>107<\/b>. Springer, Cham. pp. 161\u2013177. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv\" title=\"ArXiv\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b604eac0fe0659f490c93649bb7700\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1405.5581\" target=\"_blank\">1405.5581<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-319-16595-0_10\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-319-16595-0_10<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-3-319-16594-3.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Real-Time+Predictive+Modeling+and+Robust+Avoidance+of+Pedestrians+with+Uncertain%2C+Changing+Intentions&rft.series=Springer+Tracts+in+Advanced+Robotics&rft.pages=161-177&rft.pub=Springer%2C+Cham&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1405.5581&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-16595-0_10&rft.isbn=978-3-319-16594-3&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft.au=Luders%2C+Brandon&rft.au=Grande%2C+Robert+C.&rft.au=How%2C+Jonathan+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-74\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-74\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/discovermagazine.com\/2017\/april-2017\/cultivating-common-sense\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cultivating Common Sense | DiscoverMagazine.com\"<\/a>. <i>Discover Magazine<\/i>. 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Discover+Magazine&rft.atitle=Cultivating+Common+Sense+%7C+DiscoverMagazine.com&rft.date=2017&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdiscovermagazine.com%2F2017%2Fapril-2017%2Fcultivating-common-sense&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-75\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-75\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Davis, Ernest; Marcus, Gary (24 August 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/m.cacm.acm.org\/magazines\/2015\/9\/191169-commonsense-reasoning-and-commonsense-knowledge-in-artificial-intelligence\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Commonsense reasoning and commonsense knowledge in artificial intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>Communications of the ACM<\/i>. <b>58<\/b> (9): 92\u2013103. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F2701413\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/2701413<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&rft.atitle=Commonsense+reasoning+and+commonsense+knowledge+in+artificial+intelligence&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=92-103&rft.date=2015-08-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2701413&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Ernest&rft.au=Marcus%2C+Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fm.cacm.acm.org%2Fmagazines%2F2015%2F9%2F191169-commonsense-reasoning-and-commonsense-knowledge-in-artificial-intelligence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-76\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-76\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Winograd, Terry (January 1972). \"Understanding natural language\". <i>Cognitive Psychology<\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (1): 1\u2013191. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2F0010-0285%2872%2990002-3\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/0010-0285(72)90002-3<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Psychology&rft.atitle=Understanding+natural+language&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-191&rft.date=1972-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0010-0285%2872%2990002-3&rft.aulast=Winograd&rft.aufirst=Terry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-77\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/autoweek.com\/article\/technology\/fully-autonomous-vehicles-are-more-decade-down-road\" target=\"_blank\">\"Don't worry: Autonomous cars aren't coming tomorrow (or next year)\"<\/a>. <i>Autoweek<\/i>. 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Autoweek&rft.atitle=Don%27t+worry%3A+Autonomous+cars+aren%27t+coming+tomorrow+%28or+next+year%29&rft.date=2016&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fautoweek.com%2Farticle%2Ftechnology%2Ffully-autonomous-vehicles-are-more-decade-down-road&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-78\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-78\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Knight, Will (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/608871\/finally-a-driverless-car-with-some-common-sense\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Boston may be famous for bad drivers, but it's the testing ground for a smarter self-driving car\"<\/a>. <i>MIT Technology Review<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MIT+Technology+Review&rft.atitle=Boston+may+be+famous+for+bad+drivers%2C+but+it%27s+the+testing+ground+for+a+smarter+self-driving+car&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologyreview.com%2Fs%2F608871%2Ffinally-a-driverless-car-with-some-common-sense%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-79\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Prakken, Henry (31 August 2017). \"On the problem of making autonomous vehicles conform to traffic law\". <i>Artificial Intelligence and Law<\/i>. <b>25<\/b> (3): 341\u2013363. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10506-017-9210-0\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s10506-017-9210-0<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artificial+Intelligence+and+Law&rft.atitle=On+the+problem+of+making+autonomous+vehicles+conform+to+traffic+law&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=341-363&rft.date=2017-08-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10506-017-9210-0&rft.aulast=Prakken&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Reasoning-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Reasoning_80-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nProblem solving, puzzle solving, game playing and deduction:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, chpt. 3\u20139,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, chpt. 2,3,7,9,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, chpt. 3,4,6,8,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 7\u201312<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Uncertain_reasoning-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Uncertain_reasoning_81-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nUncertain reasoning:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 452\u2013644,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 345\u2013395,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 333\u2013381,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 19<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning-82\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Psychological_evidence_of_sub-symbolic_reasoning_82-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nPsychological evidence of sub-symbolic reasoning:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFWasonShapiro1966\">Wason & Shapiro (1966)<\/a> showed that people do poorly on completely abstract problems, but if the problem is restated to allow the use of intuitive <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_intelligence\" title=\"Social intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9488abda952298f7558bdfe88f9cc5cd\">social intelligence<\/a>, performance dramatically improves. (See <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wason_selection_task\" title=\"Wason selection task\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7a0e41835f526995d481f1ec701584a3\">Wason selection task<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFKahnemanSlovicTversky1982\">Kahneman, Slovic & Tversky (1982)<\/a> have shown that people are terrible at elementary problems that involve uncertain reasoning. (See <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_cognitive_biases\" title=\"List of cognitive biases\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49d477217bd7e2cfd34cfaac4cf693d0\">list of cognitive biases<\/a> for several examples).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLakoffN\u00fa\u00f1ez2000\">Lakoff & N\u00fa\u00f1ez (2000)<\/a> have controversially argued that even our skills at mathematics depend on knowledge and skills that come from \"the body\", i.e. sensorimotor and perceptual skills. (See <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Where_Mathematics_Comes_From\" title=\"Where Mathematics Comes From\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f870f1e95d9c150be0a22fd12db11e90\">Where Mathematics Comes From<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Knowledge_representation-83\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Knowledge_representation_83-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_representation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge representation\" data-key=\"a51a434d24f3769ccc65859b23494280\">Knowledge representation<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFACM1998\">ACM 1998<\/a>, I.2.4,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 320\u2013363,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 23\u201346, 69\u201381, 169\u2013196, 235\u2013277, 281\u2013298, 319\u2013345,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 227\u2013243,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 18<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Knowledge_engineering-84\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Knowledge_engineering_84-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_engineering\" title=\"Knowledge engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7267aab1197163e1afb413bc0c1d979b\">Knowledge engineering<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 260\u2013266,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 199\u2013233,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. \u224817.1\u201317.4<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Representing_categories_and_relations-85\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Representing_categories_and_relations_85-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Representing_categories_and_relations_85-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nRepresenting categories and relations: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_network\" title=\"Semantic network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64a11922fbc4867fa40750caf3480c27\">Semantic networks<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Description_logic\" title=\"Description logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27300d027ae9835f67566eb6262b8187\">description logics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inheritance_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Inheritance (computer science)\" data-key=\"69484bbf765112d9483ff758dd9c6acf\">inheritance<\/a> (including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_(artificial_intelligence)\" title=\"Frame (artificial intelligence)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5de0ade622122365c91ffa3e5ebb99e7\">frames<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scripts_(artificial_intelligence)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Scripts (artificial intelligence)\" data-key=\"0aea090f1579129b5cdcc3f48d8bc667\">scripts<\/a>):\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 349\u2013354,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 174\u2013177,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 248\u2013258,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 18.3<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Representing_time-86\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Representing_time_86-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Representing_time_86-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nRepresenting events and time:<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Situation_calculus\" title=\"Situation calculus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4054713bef9d121fb1ad13be0606a97\">Situation calculus<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Event_calculus\" title=\"Event calculus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d7fc6b02518fa30f59e90006e0c8ce1\">event calculus<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fluent_calculus\" title=\"Fluent calculus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fff3e9224b85f8daa97d32dbffbdc61e\">fluent calculus<\/a> (including solving the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frame_problem\" title=\"Frame problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51f6d2eccfe1f077362bc8264e5cf325\">frame problem<\/a>):\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 328\u2013341,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 281\u2013298,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 18.2<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Representing_causation-87\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Representing_causation_87-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Representing_causation_87-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"#Causal_calculus\" title=\"Causality\">Causal calculus<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 335\u2013337<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Representing_knowledge_about_knowledge-88\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Representing_knowledge_about_knowledge_88-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Representing_knowledge_about_knowledge_88-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nRepresenting knowledge about knowledge: , <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modal_logic\" title=\"Modal logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfc5296412f894cbbad0a776c7f524f9\">modal logics<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 341\u2013344,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 275\u2013277<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-89\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-89\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Sikos, Leslie F. (June 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.springer.com\/us\/book\/9783319540658\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Description Logics in Multimedia Reasoning<\/i><\/a>. Cham: Springer. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-319-54066-5\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-319-54066-5<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-3-319-54066-5. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170829120912\/https:\/\/www.springer.com\/us\/book\/9783319540658\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 August 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Description+Logics+in+Multimedia+Reasoning&rft.place=Cham&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-54066-5&rft.isbn=978-3-319-54066-5&rft.aulast=Sikos&rft.aufirst=Leslie+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.springer.com%2Fus%2Fbook%2F9783319540658&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Ontology-90\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Ontology_90-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ontology (computer science)\" data-key=\"2cf14c9076764ffc3f7426754d3c4730\">Ontology<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 320\u2013328<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-91\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-91\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Smoliar, Stephen W.; Zhang, HongJiang (1994). \"Content based video indexing and retrieval\". <i>IEEE Multimedia<\/i>. <b>1.2<\/b>: 62\u201372.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Multimedia&rft.atitle=Content+based+video+indexing+and+retrieval&rft.volume=1.2&rft.pages=62-72&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Smoliar&rft.aufirst=Stephen+W.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+HongJiang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-92\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-92\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Neumann, Bernd; M\u00f6ller, Ralf (January 2008). \"On scene interpretation with description logics\". <i>Image and Vision Computing<\/i>. <b>26<\/b> (1): 82\u2013101. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.imavis.2007.08.013\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.imavis.2007.08.013<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Image+and+Vision+Computing&rft.atitle=On+scene+interpretation+with+description+logics&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=82-101&rft.date=2008-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.imavis.2007.08.013&rft.aulast=Neumann&rft.aufirst=Bernd&rft.au=M%C3%B6ller%2C+Ralf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-93\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-93\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Kuperman, G. J.; Reichley, R. M.; Bailey, T. C. (1 July 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1513681\" target=\"_blank\">\"Using Commercial Knowledge Bases for Clinical Decision Support: Opportunities, Hurdles, and Recommendations\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association<\/i>. <b>13<\/b> (4): 369\u2013371. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1197%2Fjamia.M2055\" target=\"_blank\">10.1197\/jamia.M2055<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" title=\"PubMed Central\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63771bf92616f7746c20a676c8bc36e6\">PMC<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC1513681\" target=\"_blank\">1513681<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/16622160\" target=\"_blank\">16622160<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Medical+Informatics+Association&rft.atitle=Using+Commercial+Knowledge+Bases+for+Clinical+Decision+Support%3A+Opportunities%2C+Hurdles%2C+and+Recommendations&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=369-371&rft.date=2006-07-01&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1513681&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16622160&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1197%2Fjamia.M2055&rft.aulast=Kuperman&rft.aufirst=G.+J.&rft.au=Reichley%2C+R.+M.&rft.au=Bailey%2C+T.+C.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1513681&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-94\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-94\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">MCGARRY, KEN (1 December 2005). \"A survey of interestingness measures for knowledge discovery\". <i>The Knowledge Engineering Review<\/i>. <b>20<\/b> (1): 39. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017%2FS0269888905000408\" target=\"_blank\">10.1017\/S0269888905000408<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Knowledge+Engineering+Review&rft.atitle=A+survey+of+interestingness+measures+for+knowledge+discovery&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39&rft.date=2005-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0269888905000408&rft.aulast=MCGARRY&rft.aufirst=KEN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-95\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-95\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation conference\">Bertini, M; Del Bimbo, A; Torniai, C (2006). \"Automatic annotation and semantic retrieval of video sequences using multimedia ontologies\". <i>MM '06 Proceedings of the 14th ACM international conference on Multimedia<\/i>. 14th ACM international conference on Multimedia. Santa Barbara: ACM. pp. 679\u2013682.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Automatic+annotation+and+semantic+retrieval+of+video+sequences+using+multimedia+ontologies&rft.btitle=MM+%2706+Proceedings+of+the+14th+ACM+international+conference+on+Multimedia&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pages=679-682&rft.pub=ACM&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Bertini&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Del+Bimbo%2C+A&rft.au=Torniai%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Qualification_problem-96\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Qualification_problem_96-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qualification_problem\" title=\"Qualification problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d72ea8e5eb11cff2348636d41410a27\">Qualification problem<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCarthyHayes1969\">McCarthy & Hayes 1969<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citing_sources\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citing sources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27db2d557ba5b9a353b953f4b640a66d\"><span title=\"This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (February 2011)\">page needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>While McCarthy was primarily concerned with issues in the logical representation of actions, <a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a> apply the term to the more general issue of default reasoning in the vast network of assumptions underlying all our commonsense knowledge.<\/span>\n<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic-97\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic_97-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Default_reasoning_and_non-monotonic_logic_97-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nDefault reasoning and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Default_logic\" title=\"Default logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"933c9f13c7f9c9dcf83d5285c4bad102\">default logic<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-monotonic_logic\" title=\"Non-monotonic logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c13bba29e69b618970cbd7fe0b603ec\">non-monotonic logics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Circumscription_(logic)\" title=\"Circumscription (logic)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c65c6ccdf03ac558d4456cb7bcf8e03d\">circumscription<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Closed_world_assumption\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Closed world assumption\" data-key=\"d2816e19a8579a4f4463d7f8f20b1323\">closed world assumption<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abductive_reasoning\" title=\"Abductive reasoning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"264cd823c453d6095a82de6f8ce3c5b1\">abduction<\/a> (Poole <i>et al.<\/i> places abduction under \"default reasoning\". Luger <i>et al.<\/i> places this under \"uncertain reasoning\"):\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 354\u2013360,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 248\u2013256, 323\u2013335,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 335\u2013363,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, ~18.3.3<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Breadth_of_commonsense_knowledge-98\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Breadth_of_commonsense_knowledge_98-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nBreadth of commonsense knowledge:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 21,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 113\u2013114,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMoravec1988\">Moravec 1988<\/a>, p. 13,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLenatGuha1989\">Lenat & Guha 1989<\/a> (Introduction)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyfusDreyfus1986-99\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDreyfusDreyfus1986_99-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDreyfusDreyfus1986\">Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEGladwell2005-100\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGladwell2005_100-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGladwell2005\">Gladwell 2005<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Intuition-101\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Intuition_101-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Intuition_101-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nExpert knowledge as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embodied_cognition\" title=\"Embodied cognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eeb7debefdd345db18e1787da77cb2d5\">embodied<\/a> intuition:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFDreyfusDreyfus1986\">Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hubert_Dreyfus\" title=\"Hubert Dreyfus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7b4ff8e951542af50a558d4a1d6abc5\">Hubert Dreyfus<\/a> is a philosopher and critic of AI who was among the first to argue that most useful human knowledge was encoded sub-symbolically. See <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dreyfus%27_critique_of_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dreyfus' critique of AI\" data-key=\"da10b2855245e37a0180fce639e95b67\">Dreyfus' critique of AI<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFGladwell2005\">Gladwell 2005<\/a> (Gladwell's <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blink_(book)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Blink (book)\" data-key=\"1a45c0d86f2a66cd25bb84500e4e1d1c\">Blink<\/a><\/i> is a popular introduction to sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge.)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFHawkinsBlakeslee2005\">Hawkins & Blakeslee 2005<\/a> (Hawkins argues that sub-symbolic knowledge should be the primary focus of AI research.)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Planning-102\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Planning_102-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">Planning<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFACM1998\">ACM 1998<\/a>, ~I.2.8,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 375\u2013459,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 281\u2013316,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 314\u2013329,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 10.1\u20132, 22<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Information_value_theory-103\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Information_value_theory_103-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Information_value_theory_103-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Applied_information_economics\" title=\"Applied information economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"537b80b85db74c048103b1dc9a591535\">Information value theory<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 600\u2013604<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Classical_planning-104\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Classical_planning_104-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nClassical planning:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 375\u2013430,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 281\u2013315,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 314\u2013329,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 10.1\u20132, 22<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Non-deterministic_planning-105\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Non-deterministic_planning_105-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nPlanning and acting in non-deterministic domains: conditional planning, execution monitoring, replanning and continuous planning:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 430\u2013449<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Multi-agent_planning-106\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Multi-agent_planning_106-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nMulti-agent planning and emergent behavior:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 449\u2013455<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-107\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-107\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Turing\" title=\"Alan Turing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48468f77ba0cf295402108f0dd72c040\">Alan Turing<\/a> discussed the centrality of learning as early as 1950, in his classic paper \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing_Machinery_and_Intelligence\" title=\"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22cb407e5fe68247851a69a0646c3f7e\">Computing Machinery and Intelligence<\/a>\".(<a href=\"#CITEREFTuring1950\">Turing 1950<\/a>) In 1956, at the original Dartmouth AI summer conference, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Solomonoff\" title=\"Ray Solomonoff\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"938a83ba5a77aced401a2894a2e4abde\">Ray Solomonoff<\/a> wrote a report on unsupervised probabilistic machine learning: \"An Inductive Inference Machine\".(<a href=\"#CITEREFSolomonoff1956\">Solomonoff 1956<\/a>)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-108\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-108\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">This is a form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tom_M._Mitchell\" title=\"Tom M. Mitchell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76f25a619760da0f98fb78df5993986c\">Tom Mitchell<\/a>'s widely quoted definition of machine learning: \"A computer program is set to learn from an experience <i>E<\/i> with respect to some task <i>T<\/i> and some performance measure <i>P<\/i> if its performance on <i>T<\/i> as measured by <i>P<\/i> improves with experience <i>E<\/i>.\"<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Machine_learning-109\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Machine_learning_109-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Machine_learning_109-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">Learning<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFACM1998\">ACM 1998<\/a>, I.2.6,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 649\u2013788,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 397\u2013438,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 385\u2013542,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 3.3, 10.3, 17.5, 20<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-110\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-110\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/deepai.org\/machine-learning-glossary-and-terms\/unsupervised-learning\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is Unsupervised Learning?\"<\/a>. <i>deepai.org<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=deepai.org&rft.atitle=What+is+Unsupervised+Learning%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdeepai.org%2Fmachine-learning-glossary-and-terms%2Funsupervised-learning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-111\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-111\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Jordan, M. I.; Mitchell, T. M. (16 July 2015). \"Machine learning: Trends, perspectives, and prospects\". <i>Science<\/i>. <b>349<\/b> (6245): 255\u2013260. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode\" title=\"Bibcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8d53091b41d79b165d88661365dde91\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2015Sci...349..255J\" target=\"_blank\">2015Sci...349..255J<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.aaa8415\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.aaa8415<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/26185243\" target=\"_blank\">26185243<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Machine+learning%3A+Trends%2C+perspectives%2C+and+prospects&rft.volume=349&rft.issue=6245&rft.pages=255-260&rft.date=2015-07-16&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26185243&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aaa8415&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Sci...349..255J&rft.aulast=Jordan&rft.aufirst=M.+I.&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+T.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Reinforcement_learning-112\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Reinforcement_learning_112-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reinforcement_learning\" title=\"Reinforcement learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cecfb51a025421a8d22a6fa8a7094e15\">Reinforcement learning<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 763\u2013788<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 442\u2013449<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Natural_language_processing-113\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Natural_language_processing_113-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_language_processing\" title=\"Natural language processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258d1d348c952c69c2cf806f12baac0d\">Natural language processing<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFACM1998\">ACM 1998<\/a>, I.2.7<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 790\u2013831<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 91\u2013104<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 591\u2013632<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-114\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-114\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.academia.edu\/2475776\/Versatile_question_answering_systems_seeing_in_synthesis\" target=\"_blank\">\"Versatile question answering systems: seeing in synthesis\"<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160201125047\/http:\/\/www.academia.edu\/2475776\/Versatile_question_answering_systems_seeing_in_synthesis\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 1 February 2016 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, Mittal et al., IJIIDS, 5(2), 119\u2013142, 2011<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Applications_of_natural_language_processing-115\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Applications_of_natural_language_processing_115-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nApplications of natural language processing, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_retrieval\" title=\"Information retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0faaa582e57a2d62bc65c5c191a810c0\">information retrieval<\/a> (i.e. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Text_mining\" title=\"Text mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"399bb009dd237bfe29b2ab9413a97271\">text mining<\/a>) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">machine translation<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 840\u2013857,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 623\u2013630<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-116\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-116\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Cambria, Erik; White, Bebo (May 2014). \"Jumping NLP Curves: A Review of Natural Language Processing Research [Review Article]\". <i>IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine<\/i>. <b>9<\/b> (2): 48\u201357. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FMCI.2014.2307227\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/MCI.2014.2307227<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Computational+Intelligence+Magazine&rft.atitle=Jumping+NLP+Curves%3A+A+Review+of+Natural+Language+Processing+Research+%5BReview+Article%5D&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=48-57&rft.date=2014-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMCI.2014.2307227&rft.aulast=Cambria&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft.au=White%2C+Bebo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Machine_perception-117\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Machine_perception_117-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_perception\" title=\"Machine perception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfffd3cba5956ce2d78ebcd3f401115a\">Machine perception<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 537\u2013581, 863\u2013898<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, ~chpt. 6<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Speech_recognition-118\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Speech_recognition_118-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speech_recognition\" title=\"Speech recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067c5c5cfe1e2d0e23c8b0dd8809446d\">Speech recognition<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFACM1998\">ACM 1998<\/a>, ~I.2.7<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 568\u2013578<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Object_recognition-119\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Object_recognition_119-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object_recognition\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Object recognition\" data-key=\"e0f4220ac83074b756845927988d527f\">Object recognition<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 885\u2013892<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Computer_vision-120\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Computer_vision_120-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_vision\" title=\"Computer vision\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"082554c667906c00efbfe0986943ab7f\">Computer vision<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFACM1998\">ACM 1998<\/a>, I.2.10<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 863\u2013898<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 6<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Robotics-121\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Robotics_121-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Robotic\" data-key=\"f6aa7e3cde3fcd0a13ae1c997167fad3\">Robotics<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFACM1998\">ACM 1998<\/a>, I.2.9,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 901\u2013942,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 443\u2013460<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Configuration_space-122\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Configuration_space_122-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Configuration_space_122-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nMoving and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Configuration_space_(physics)\" title=\"Configuration space (physics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0d91e9e6064f8849810c32d5123bb83\">configuration space<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 916\u2013932<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTETecuci2012-123\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETecuci2012_123-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETecuci2012_123-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFTecuci2012\">Tecuci 2012<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Robotic_mapping-124\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Robotic_mapping_124-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robotic_mapping\" title=\"Robotic mapping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aec380e891e6fa164c588da737c882c9\">Robotic mapping<\/a> (localization, etc):\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 908\u2013915<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-125\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-125\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Cadena, Cesar; Carlone, Luca; Carrillo, Henry; Latif, Yasir; Scaramuzza, Davide; Neira, Jose; Reid, Ian; Leonard, John J. (December 2016). \"Past, Present, and Future of Simultaneous Localization and Mapping: Toward the Robust-Perception Age\". <i>IEEE Transactions on Robotics<\/i>. <b>32<\/b> (6): 1309\u20131332. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FTRO.2016.2624754\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/TRO.2016.2624754<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Robotics&rft.atitle=Past%2C+Present%2C+and+Future+of+Simultaneous+Localization+and+Mapping%3A+Toward+the+Robust-Perception+Age&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1309-1332&rft.date=2016-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTRO.2016.2624754&rft.aulast=Cadena&rft.aufirst=Cesar&rft.au=Carlone%2C+Luca&rft.au=Carrillo%2C+Henry&rft.au=Latif%2C+Yasir&rft.au=Scaramuzza%2C+Davide&rft.au=Neira%2C+Jose&rft.au=Reid%2C+Ian&rft.au=Leonard%2C+John+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-126\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-126\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hans_Moravec\" title=\"Hans Moravec\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"251f9e14d86954130e9f7e16aa21c877\">Moravec, Hans<\/a> (1988). <i>Mind Children<\/i>. Harvard University Press. p. 15.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mind+Children&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Moravec&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-127\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-127\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Chan, Szu Ping (15 November 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.telegraph.co.uk\/finance\/economics\/11994694\/Heres-what-will-happen-when-robots-take-over-the-world.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"This is what will happen when robots take over the world\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=This+is+what+will+happen+when+robots+take+over+the+world&rft.date=2015-11-15&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Szu+Ping&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Ffinance%2Feconomics%2F11994694%2FHeres-what-will-happen-when-robots-take-over-the-world.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-The_Economist-128\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-The_Economist_128-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-The_Economist_128-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.economist.com\/news\/leaders\/21740735-humans-have-had-good-run-most-recent-breakthrough-robotics-it-clear\" target=\"_blank\">\"IKEA furniture and the limits of AI\"<\/a>. <i>The Economist<\/i>. 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=IKEA+furniture+and+the+limits+of+AI&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Fleaders%2F21740735-humans-have-had-good-run-most-recent-breakthrough-robotics-it-clear&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Kismet''-129\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#39;_129-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFKismet\"><i>Kismet<\/i><\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-130\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-130\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation magazine\">Thompson, Derek (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/business\/archive\/2014\/01\/what-jobs-will-the-robots-take\/283239\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Jobs Will the Robots Take?\"<\/a>. <i>The Atlantic<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=What+Jobs+Will+the+Robots+Take%3F&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Derek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fbusiness%2Farchive%2F2014%2F01%2Fwhat-jobs-will-the-robots-take%2F283239%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-131\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-131\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Scassellati, Brian (2002). \"Theory of mind for a humanoid robot\". <i>Autonomous Robots<\/i>. <b>12<\/b> (1): 13\u201324. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023%2FA%3A1013298507114\" target=\"_blank\">10.1023\/A:1013298507114<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Autonomous+Robots&rft.atitle=Theory+of+mind+for+a+humanoid+robot&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13-24&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1013298507114&rft.aulast=Scassellati&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-132\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-132\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Cao, Yongcan; Yu, Wenwu; Ren, Wei; Chen, Guanrong (February 2013). \"An Overview of Recent Progress in the Study of Distributed Multi-Agent Coordination\". <i>IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics<\/i>. <b>9<\/b> (1): 427\u2013438. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv\" title=\"ArXiv\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b604eac0fe0659f490c93649bb7700\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1207.3231\" target=\"_blank\">1207.3231<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FTII.2012.2219061\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/TII.2012.2219061<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Industrial+Informatics&rft.atitle=An+Overview+of+Recent+Progress+in+the+Study+of+Distributed+Multi-Agent+Coordination&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=427-438&rft.date=2013-02&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1207.3231&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTII.2012.2219061&rft.aulast=Cao&rft.aufirst=Yongcan&rft.au=Yu%2C+Wenwu&rft.au=Ren%2C+Wei&rft.au=Chen%2C+Guanrong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEThro1993-133\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThro1993_133-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFThro1993\">Thro 1993<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdelson1991-134\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdelson1991_134-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFEdelson1991\">Edelson 1991<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTETaoTan2005-135\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaoTan2005_135-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFTaoTan2005\">Tao & Tan 2005<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-136\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-136\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Poria, Soujanya; Cambria, Erik; Bajpai, Rajiv; Hussain, Amir (September 2017). \"A review of affective computing: From unimodal analysis to multimodal fusion\". <i>Information Fusion<\/i>. <b>37<\/b>: 98\u2013125. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.inffus.2017.02.003\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.inffus.2017.02.003<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Information+Fusion&rft.atitle=A+review+of+affective+computing%3A+From+unimodal+analysis+to+multimodal+fusion&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=98-125&rft.date=2017-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.inffus.2017.02.003&rft.aulast=Poria&rft.aufirst=Soujanya&rft.au=Cambria%2C+Erik&rft.au=Bajpai%2C+Rajiv&rft.au=Hussain%2C+Amir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Emotion_and_affective_computing-137\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Emotion_and_affective_computing_137-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nEmotion and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Affective_computing\" title=\"Affective computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2d2895ad8508fe3d7e92180ab59a670\">affective computing<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMinsky2006\">Minsky 2006<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-138\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-138\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation magazine\">Waddell, Kaveh (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/technology\/archive\/2017\/04\/uncanny-valley-digital-assistants\/523806\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chatbots Have Entered the Uncanny Valley\"<\/a>. <i>The Atlantic<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Chatbots+Have+Entered+the+Uncanny+Valley&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Waddell&rft.aufirst=Kaveh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Ftechnology%2Farchive%2F2017%2F04%2Funcanny-valley-digital-assistants%2F523806%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-contemporary_agi-139\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-contemporary_agi_139-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Pennachin, C.; Goertzel, B. (2007). <i>Contemporary Approaches to Artificial General Intelligence<\/i>. <i>Artificial General Intelligence. Cognitive Technologies<\/i>. Cognitive Technologies. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-540-68677-4_1\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-540-68677-4_1<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-3-540-23733-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Approaches+to+Artificial+General+Intelligence&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&rft.series=Cognitive+Technologies&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-540-68677-4_1&rft.isbn=978-3-540-23733-4&rft.aulast=Pennachin&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Goertzel%2C+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Roberts-140\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Roberts_140-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Roberts_140-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Roberts_140-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation magazine\">Roberts, Jacob (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencehistory.org\/distillations\/magazine\/thinking-machines-the-search-for-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">\"Thinking Machines: The Search for Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>Distillations<\/i>. Vol. 2 no. 2. pp. 14\u201323<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Distillations&rft.atitle=Thinking+Machines%3A+The+Search+for+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=14-23&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencehistory.org%2Fdistillations%2Fmagazine%2Fthinking-machines-the-search-for-artificial-intelligence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-141\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-141\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2016\/feb\/16\/demis-hassabis-artificial-intelligence-deepmind-alphago\" target=\"_blank\">\"The superhero of artificial intelligence: can this genius keep it in check?\"<\/a>. <i>the Guardian<\/i>. 16 February 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+superhero+of+artificial+intelligence%3A+can+this+genius+keep+it+in+check%3F&rft.date=2016-02-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2016%2Ffeb%2F16%2Fdemis-hassabis-artificial-intelligence-deepmind-alphago&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-142\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-142\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Mnih, Volodymyr; Kavukcuoglu, Koray; Silver, David; Rusu, Andrei A.; Veness, Joel; Bellemare, Marc G.; Graves, Alex; Riedmiller, Martin; Fidjeland, Andreas K.; Ostrovski, Georg; Petersen, Stig; Beattie, Charles; Sadik, Amir; Antonoglou, Ioannis; King, Helen; Kumaran, Dharshan; Wierstra, Daan; Legg, Shane; Hassabis, Demis (26 February 2015). \"Human-level control through deep reinforcement learning\". <i>Nature<\/i>. <b>518<\/b> (7540): 529\u2013533. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode\" title=\"Bibcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8d53091b41d79b165d88661365dde91\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2015Natur.518..529M\" target=\"_blank\">2015Natur.518..529M<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fnature14236\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/nature14236<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/25719670\" target=\"_blank\">25719670<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Human-level+control+through+deep+reinforcement+learning&rft.volume=518&rft.issue=7540&rft.pages=529-533&rft.date=2015-02-26&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25719670&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature14236&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Natur.518..529M&rft.aulast=Mnih&rft.aufirst=Volodymyr&rft.au=Kavukcuoglu%2C+Koray&rft.au=Silver%2C+David&rft.au=Rusu%2C+Andrei+A.&rft.au=Veness%2C+Joel&rft.au=Bellemare%2C+Marc+G.&rft.au=Graves%2C+Alex&rft.au=Riedmiller%2C+Martin&rft.au=Fidjeland%2C+Andreas+K.&rft.au=Ostrovski%2C+Georg&rft.au=Petersen%2C+Stig&rft.au=Beattie%2C+Charles&rft.au=Sadik%2C+Amir&rft.au=Antonoglou%2C+Ioannis&rft.au=King%2C+Helen&rft.au=Kumaran%2C+Dharshan&rft.au=Wierstra%2C+Daan&rft.au=Legg%2C+Shane&rft.au=Hassabis%2C+Demis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-143\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-143\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Sample, Ian (14 March 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/global\/2017\/mar\/14\/googles-deepmind-makes-ai-program-that-can-learn-like-a-human\" target=\"_blank\">\"Google's DeepMind makes AI program that can learn like a human\"<\/a>. <i>the Guardian<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=Google%27s+DeepMind+makes+AI+program+that+can+learn+like+a+human&rft.date=2017-03-14&rft.aulast=Sample&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fglobal%2F2017%2Fmar%2F14%2Fgoogles-deepmind-makes-ai-program-that-can-learn-like-a-human&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-144\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-144\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.economist.com\/news\/special-report\/21700756-artificial-intelligence-boom-based-old-idea-modern-twist-not\" target=\"_blank\">\"From not working to neural networking\"<\/a>. <i>The Economist<\/i>. 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=From+not+working+to+neural+networking&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Fspecial-report%2F21700756-artificial-intelligence-boom-based-old-idea-modern-twist-not&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015-145\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015_145-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Brain_simulation-146\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Brain_simulation_146-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Brain_simulation_146-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_brain\" title=\"Artificial brain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8256966c78780135785df95039a8e22\">Artificial brain<\/a> arguments: AI requires a simulation of the operation of the human brain\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 957<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 271 and 279<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>A few of the people who make some form of the argument:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMoravec1988\">Moravec 1988<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFKurzweil2005\">Kurzweil 2005<\/a>, p. 262<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFHawkinsBlakeslee2005\">Hawkins & Blakeslee 2005<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The most extreme form of this argument (the brain replacement scenario) was put forward by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clark_Glymour\" title=\"Clark Glymour\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9abdf88ab0b6f9b46113534519153a1\">Clark Glymour<\/a> in the mid-1970s and was touched on by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Zenon_Pylyshyn\" title=\"Zenon Pylyshyn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c47b79b855acdef65858bda5e0c21a05\">Zenon Pylyshyn<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Searle\" title=\"John Searle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8a0c5f2845bfc0d1b015937657a9b1f\">John Searle<\/a> in 1980.<\/span>\n<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-147\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-147\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Goertzel, Ben; Lian, Ruiting; Arel, Itamar; de Garis, Hugo; Chen, Shuo (December 2010). \"A world survey of artificial brain projects, Part II: Biologically inspired cognitive architectures\". <i>Neurocomputing<\/i>. <b>74<\/b> (1\u20133): 30\u201349. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.neucom.2010.08.012\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.neucom.2010.08.012<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neurocomputing&rft.atitle=A+world+survey+of+artificial+brain+projects%2C+Part+II%3A+Biologically+inspired+cognitive+architectures&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=1%E2%80%933&rft.pages=30-49&rft.date=2010-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neucom.2010.08.012&rft.aulast=Goertzel&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft.au=Lian%2C+Ruiting&rft.au=Arel%2C+Itamar&rft.au=de+Garis%2C+Hugo&rft.au=Chen%2C+Shuo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-148\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-148\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nils_Nilsson_(researcher)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nils Nilsson (researcher)\" data-key=\"5ec99f61dc752c5fa3f7b86c24345070\">Nils Nilsson<\/a> writes: \"Simply put, there is wide disagreement in the field about what AI is all about\" (<a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1983\">Nilsson 1983<\/a>, p. 10).<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI's_immediate_precursors-149\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#39;s_immediate_precursors_149-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nAI's immediate precursors:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 51\u2013107<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 27\u201332<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 15, 940<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMoravec1988\">Moravec 1988<\/a>, p. 3<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GOFAI-150\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GOFAI_150-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"#CITEREFHaugeland1985\">Haugeland 1985<\/a>, pp. 112\u2013117<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-151\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-151\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">The most dramatic case of sub-symbolic AI being pushed into the background was the devastating critique of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perceptron\" title=\"Perceptron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04a4d1565003f718e5659ee6ae90061f\">perceptrons<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marvin_Minsky\" title=\"Marvin Minsky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5677de93e5b6dc185b95ffc880ffe34\">Marvin Minsky<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seymour_Papert\" title=\"Seymour Papert\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e05adfa2eae95cc6fa0b042c6e2f68b3\">Seymour Papert<\/a> in 1969. See <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_AI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"History of AI\" data-key=\"a9c7fc358bdde1b61247cf6f5d7ec805\">History of AI<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AI_winter\" title=\"AI winter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0128870650338adbb7c06bbe1dadc305\">AI winter<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frank_Rosenblatt\" title=\"Frank Rosenblatt\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d010ae3689886c9fe2a9fd33d18e193\">Frank Rosenblatt<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_at_CMU_in_the_60s-152\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_at_CMU_in_the_60s_152-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nCognitive simulation, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allen_Newell\" title=\"Allen Newell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92e155bb916e0a942167e5882906563e\">Newell<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herbert_A._Simon\" title=\"Herbert A. Simon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d9e38903367abeb4880342cd666b2b0\">Simon<\/a>, AI at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Mellon_University\" title=\"Carnegie Mellon University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edc1e7b9266be3eeab86296d0abca43b\">CMU<\/a> (then called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Tech\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Carnegie Tech\" data-key=\"0558f3a5cd6f39ad1a8c88f33d2d1a52\">Carnegie Tech<\/a>):\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 139\u2013179, 245\u2013250, 322\u2013323 (EPAM)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 145\u2013149<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Soar-153\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Soar_153-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Soar_(cognitive_architecture)\" title=\"Soar (cognitive architecture)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42cc343c6f09b7a4aeded14b73a848e8\">Soar<\/a> (history):\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 450\u2013451<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 258\u2013263<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_at_Stanford_in_the_60s-154\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_at_Stanford_in_the_60s_154-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"John McCarthy (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"498a2d3b08b0a194821bc61ed3b973fe\">McCarthy<\/a> and AI research at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stanford_Artificial_Intelligence_Laboratory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory\" data-key=\"0ee6558dd867f8787fdf9d57242ebff8\">SAIL<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SRI_International\" title=\"SRI International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1945dc9f6613fe86bf52ea8e7a715dc0\">SRI International<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 251\u2013259<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_at_Edinburgh_and_France_in_the_60s-155\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_at_Edinburgh_and_France_in_the_60s_155-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nAI research at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Edinburgh\" title=\"University of Edinburgh\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"140ed92e390a6cd5e26d360c50944290\">Edinburgh<\/a> and in France, birth of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prolog\" title=\"Prolog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa2833d010677a23881b973b47826430\">Prolog<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 193\u2013196<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFHowe1994\">Howe 1994<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_at_MIT_in_the_60s-156\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_at_MIT_in_the_60s_156-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nAI at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MIT\" data-key=\"593b6a7a771d2e31e12181005d6b1bc6\">MIT<\/a> under <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marvin_Minsky\" title=\"Marvin Minsky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5677de93e5b6dc185b95ffc880ffe34\">Marvin Minsky<\/a> in the 1960s :\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 259\u2013305<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 83\u2013102, 163\u2013176<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 19<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cyc-157\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Cyc_157-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyc\" title=\"Cyc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db8ad97a96ff39f5d7c763a3ef3e0b7c\">Cyc<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, p. 489, who calls it \"a determinedly scruffy enterprise\"<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 239\u2013243<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 363\u2212365<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLenatGuha1989\">Lenat & Guha 1989<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Knowledge_revolution-158\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Knowledge_revolution_158-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nKnowledge revolution:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 266\u2013276, 298\u2013300, 314, 421<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 22\u201323<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-159\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-159\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Frederick, Hayes-Roth; William, Murray; Leonard, Adelman. \"Expert systems\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1036%2F1097-8542.248550\" target=\"_blank\">10.1036\/1097-8542.248550<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Expert+systems&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1036%2F1097-8542.248550&rft.aulast=Frederick&rft.aufirst=Hayes-Roth&rft.au=William%2C+Murray&rft.au=Leonard%2C+Adelman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Embodied_AI-160\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Embodied_AI_160-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embodied_agent\" title=\"Embodied agent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0b62a8c0bfb480d9c9e1cb3bb53bef9\">Embodied<\/a> approaches to AI:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 454\u2013462<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFBrooks1990\">Brooks 1990<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMoravec1988\">Moravec 1988<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEWengMcClellandPentlandSporns2001-161\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWengMcClellandPentlandSporns2001_161-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFWengMcClellandPentlandSporns2001\">Weng et al. 2001<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTELungarellaMettaPfeiferSandini2003-162\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELungarellaMettaPfeiferSandini2003_162-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLungarellaMettaPfeiferSandini2003\">Lungarella et al. 2003<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsadaHosodaKuniyoshiIshiguro2009-163\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAsadaHosodaKuniyoshiIshiguro2009_163-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAsadaHosodaKuniyoshiIshiguro2009\">Asada et al. 2009<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEOudeyer2010-164\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOudeyer2010_164-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFOudeyer2010\">Oudeyer 2010<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Revival_of_connectionism-165\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Revival_of_connectionism_165-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nRevival of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Connectionism\" title=\"Connectionism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b94d106a53858fb714ed83605033a37\">connectionism<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 214\u2013215<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 25<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Computational_intelligence-166\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Computational_intelligence_166-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_intelligence\" title=\"Computational intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"858119b708bb38329ea02f8d69a8fa9e\">Computational intelligence<\/a>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ieee-cis.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">IEEE Computational Intelligence Society<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080509191840\/http:\/\/www.ieee-cis.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 9 May 2008 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-168\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-168\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Hutson, Matthew (16 February 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/science.sciencemag.org\/content\/359\/6377\/725\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial intelligence faces reproducibility crisis\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Science_Magazine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Science Magazine\" data-key=\"44461a5e2907de995b277bf9349a5aa4\">Science<\/a><\/i>. pp. 725\u2013726. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode\" title=\"Bibcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8d53091b41d79b165d88661365dde91\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2018Sci...359..725H\" target=\"_blank\">2018Sci...359..725H<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.359.6377.725\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.359.6377.725<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Artificial+intelligence+faces+reproducibility+crisis&rft.pages=725-726&rft.date=2018-02-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.359.6377.725&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Sci...359..725H&rft.aulast=Hutson&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscience.sciencemag.org%2Fcontent%2F359%2F6377%2F725&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTENorvig2012-169\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorvig2012_169-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFNorvig2012\">Norvig 2012<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTELangley2011-170\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELangley2011_170-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLangley2011\">Langley 2011<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatz2012-171\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKatz2012_171-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFKatz2012\">Katz 2012<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Intelligent_agents-172\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Intelligent_agents_172-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nThe <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_agent\" title=\"Intelligent agent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2ded3658bd39dc370a7970df42c985e\">intelligent agent<\/a> paradigm:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 27, 32\u201358, 968\u2013972<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 7\u201321<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 235\u2013240<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFHutter2005\">Hutter 2005<\/a>, pp. 125\u2013126<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The definition used in this article, in terms of goals, actions, perception and environment, is due to <a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig (2003)<\/a>. Other definitions also include knowledge and learning as additional criteria.<\/span>\n<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Agent_architectures-173\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Agent_architectures_173-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agent_architecture\" title=\"Agent architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3990628afe0319d0ea0fc44f3be2152\">Agent architectures<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hybrid_intelligent_system\" title=\"Hybrid intelligent system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"134de857fb48c47e99864f5b0a8a0887\">hybrid intelligent systems<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig (2003<\/a>, pp. 27, 932, 970\u2013972)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson (1998<\/a>, chpt. 25)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Hierarchical_control_system-174\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Hierarchical_control_system_174-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchical_control_system\" title=\"Hierarchical control system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd65ca28d201f1781d157d22d2fa3a4f\">Hierarchical control system<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFAlbus2002\">Albus 2002<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-175\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-175\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Laird, John (2008). \"Extending the Soar cognitive architecture\". <i>Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications<\/i>. <b>171<\/b>: 224. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.77.2473\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.77.2473<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Artificial+Intelligence+and+Applications&rft.atitle=Extending+the+Soar+cognitive+architecture&rft.volume=171&rft.pages=224&rft.date=2008&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.77.2473&rft.aulast=Laird&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-176\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-176\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Lieto, Antonio; Bhatt, Mehul; Oltramari, Alessandro; Vernon, David (May 2018). \"The role of cognitive architectures in general artificial intelligence\". <i>Cognitive Systems Research<\/i>. <b>48<\/b>: 1\u20133. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.cogsys.2017.08.003\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.cogsys.2017.08.003<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Systems+Research&rft.atitle=The+role+of+cognitive+architectures+in+general+artificial+intelligence&rft.volume=48&rft.pages=1-3&rft.date=2018-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cogsys.2017.08.003&rft.aulast=Lieto&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft.au=Bhatt%2C+Mehul&rft.au=Oltramari%2C+Alessandro&rft.au=Vernon%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Search-177\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Search_177-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_algorithm\" title=\"Search algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8e2192ba143c7f57418b352fefb05f1\">Search algorithms<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 59\u2013189<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 113\u2013163<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 79\u2013164, 193\u2013219<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 7\u201312<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Logic_as_search-178\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Logic_as_search_178-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forward_chaining\" title=\"Forward chaining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"816c7a2d7a6b9a461f4ff5e72cd29fa3\">Forward chaining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backward_chaining\" title=\"Backward chaining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5efd143343ba959844997778b3ac4b6\">backward chaining<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Horn_clause\" title=\"Horn clause\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08129ab108d3d828c170b1b7c3c33116\">Horn clauses<\/a>, and logical deduction as search:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 217\u2013225, 280\u2013294<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. ~46\u201352<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 62\u201373<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 4.2, 7.2<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Planning_as_search-179\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Planning_as_search_179-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/State_space_search\" title=\"State space search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"416f44b7d5908ce41a1f0e6367790d1a\">State space search<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_planning_and_scheduling\" title=\"Automated planning and scheduling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd62254769426508b9de418255a3e6f9\">planning<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 382\u2013387<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 298\u2013305<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 10.1\u20132<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Uninformed_search-180\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Uninformed_search_180-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nUninformed searches (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Breadth_first_search\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Breadth first search\" data-key=\"b592d69a58f5dae7e564076ee0a0c527\">breadth first search<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Depth_first_search\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Depth first search\" data-key=\"da0aaad9d3732cd7377f7671bc0aac46\">depth first search<\/a> and general <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/State_space_search\" title=\"State space search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"416f44b7d5908ce41a1f0e6367790d1a\">state space search<\/a>):\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 59\u201393<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 113\u2013132<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 79\u2013121<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 8<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Informed_search-181\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Informed_search_181-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heuristic\" title=\"Heuristic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43bdbf6d64573ad3685511cbc07502fd\">Heuristic<\/a> or informed searches (e.g., greedy <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Best-first_search\" title=\"Best-first search\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fdb8c8c179b9b016ad4b09b749b5f23\">best first<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/A*\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"A*\" data-key=\"8303c74ae9d39533849663c54eb48e43\">A*<\/a>):\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 94\u2013109,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. pp. 132\u2013147,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 133\u2013150,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 9,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworth2017\">Poole & Mackworth 2017<\/a>, Section 3.6<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Optimization_search-182\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Optimization_search_182-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optimization_(mathematics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Optimization (mathematics)\" data-key=\"a0e43b9012530963008233e16e4d4533\">Optimization<\/a> searches:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 110\u2013116,120\u2013129<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 56\u2013163<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 127\u2013133<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Genetic_programming-183\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Genetic_programming_183-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_programming\" title=\"Genetic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6654c2a5fac4d4254aee7785de8a3276\">Genetic programming<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_algorithms\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Genetic algorithms\" data-key=\"fc5ef0931d55987c180aeb657a1640aa\">genetic algorithms<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 509\u2013530,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 4.2,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFHolland1975\">Holland 1975<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFKoza1992\">Koza 1992<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPoliLangdonMcPhee2008\">Poli, Langdon & McPhee 2008<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Society_based_learning-184\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Society_based_learning_184-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_life\" title=\"Artificial life\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfb66e91edb5ce1d4e276c292218ffff\">Artificial life<\/a> and society based learning:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 530\u2013541<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-185\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-185\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Daniel Merkle; Martin Middendorf (2013). \"Swarm Intelligence\". In Burke, Edmund K.; Kendall, Graham. <i>Search Methodologies: Introductory Tutorials in Optimization and Decision Support Techniques<\/i>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-4614-6940-7.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Swarm+Intelligence&rft.btitle=Search+Methodologies%3A+Introductory+Tutorials+in+Optimization+and+Decision+Support+Techniques&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4614-6940-7&rft.au=Daniel+Merkle&rft.au=Martin+Middendorf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Logic-186\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Logic_186-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logic\" title=\"Logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1765a5c4c6dcb7becba1cf644fe3897\">Logic<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFACM1998\">ACM 1998<\/a>, ~I.2.3,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 194\u2013310,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 35\u201377,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 13\u201316<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Satplan-187\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Satplan_187-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Satplan\" title=\"Satplan\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9eed2a999d5f03d778f99133ed025a77\">Satplan<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 402\u2013407,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 300\u2013301,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 21<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Symbolic_learning_techniques-188\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Symbolic_learning_techniques_188-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Explanation_based_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Explanation based learning\" data-key=\"a9945be3be7dcde4a4aa2fb1d8d9b753\">Explanation based learning<\/a>, , <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inductive_logic_programming\" title=\"Inductive logic programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93a737196e39fde2d25f8168760d20ff\">inductive logic programming<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Case_based_reasoning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Case based reasoning\" data-key=\"b0d94f585e7062ac2c9b8199a50b46d9\">case based reasoning<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 678\u2013710,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 414\u2013416,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. ~422\u2013442,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 10.3, 17.5<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Propositional_logic-189\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Propositional_logic_189-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Propositional_logic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Propositional logic\" data-key=\"c9369aad6f2772123d846a70baa93ee5\">Propositional logic<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 204\u2013233,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 45\u201350<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 13<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-First-order_logic-190\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-First-order_logic_190-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First-order_logic\" title=\"First-order logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0440e828c0aa870ff198a30aba920282\">First-order logic<\/a> and features such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Equality_(mathematics)\" title=\"Equality (mathematics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b702b0dbf99835b501e36de15d4db035\">equality<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFACM1998\">ACM 1998<\/a>, ~I.2.4,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 240\u2013310,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 268\u2013275,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 50\u201362,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 15<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-191\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-191\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Elkin, Charles (1994). \"The paradoxical success of fuzzy logic\". <i>IEEE Expert<\/i>. <b>9<\/b> (4): 3\u201349. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.100.8402\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.100.8402<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2F64.336150\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/64.336150<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Expert&rft.atitle=The+paradoxical+success+of+fuzzy+logic&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=3-49&rft.date=1994&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.100.8402&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F64.336150&rft.aulast=Elkin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Fuzzy_logic-193\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Fuzzy_logic_193-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_logic\" title=\"Fuzzy logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b5089e9114f91c54ad40c5615094874\">Fuzzy logic<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 526\u2013527<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-194\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-194\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/what-is-fuzzy-logic-are-t\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is 'fuzzy logic'? Are there computers that are inherently fuzzy and do not apply the usual binary logic?\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific American<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=What+is+%27fuzzy+logic%27%3F+Are+there+computers+that+are+inherently+fuzzy+and+do+not+apply+the+usual+binary+logic%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fwhat-is-fuzzy-logic-are-t%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-195\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-195\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\"The Belief Calculus and Uncertain Reasoning\", Yen-Teh Hsia<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015chapter_6-196\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015chapter_6_196-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015chapter_6_196-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, chapter 6.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-197\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-197\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Demey, Lorenz; Kooi, Barteld; Sack, Joshua (2013-03-07). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/archives\/sum2017\/entries\/logic-probability\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Logic and Probability\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy\" title=\"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b68b5de1d3d70cb0dfaf7d6baa42dca2\">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Logic+and+Probability&rft.date=2013-03-07&rft.aulast=Demey&rft.aufirst=Lorenz&rft.au=Kooi%2C+Barteld&rft.au=Sack%2C+Joshua&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2017%2Fentries%2Flogic-probability%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Stochastic_methods_for_uncertain_reasoning-198\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Stochastic_methods_for_uncertain_reasoning_198-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nStochastic methods for uncertain reasoning:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFACM1998\">ACM 1998<\/a>, ~I.2.3,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 462\u2013644,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 345\u2013395,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 165\u2013191, 333\u2013381,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 19<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bayesian_networks-199\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Bayesian_networks_199-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_network\" title=\"Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebc823a40ca85fe6368464bee686f254\">Bayesian networks<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 492\u2013523,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 361\u2013381,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. ~182\u2013190, \u2248363\u2013379,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 19.3\u20134<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bayesian_inference-200\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Bayesian_inference_200-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_inference\" title=\"Bayesian inference\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26d0e9d790d16771f099137b199877f7\">Bayesian inference<\/a> algorithm:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 504\u2013519,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 361\u2013381,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. ~363\u2013379,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 19.4 & 7<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015210-201\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015210_201-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, p. 210.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bayesian_learning-203\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Bayesian_learning_203-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bayesian learning\" data-key=\"47a160e5cb5341ef013690d2df9436e3\">Bayesian learning<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expectation-maximization_algorithm\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Expectation-maximization algorithm\" data-key=\"30bd70c5e82d98624d02ec9cb807855d\">expectation-maximization algorithm<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 712\u2013724,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 424\u2013433,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 20<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bayesian_decision_networks-204\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Bayesian_decision_networks_204-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bayesian_decision_theory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bayesian decision theory\" data-key=\"d0b27716d762b0a89ee0d3d8d58c19b2\">Bayesian decision theory<\/a> and Bayesian <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision network\" data-key=\"ec62f139d48f4a0547a651f78040aaf3\">decision networks<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 597\u2013600<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Stochastic_temporal_models-205\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Stochastic_temporal_models_205-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Stochastic_temporal_models_205-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Stochastic_temporal_models_205-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nStochastic temporal models:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 537\u2013581<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_Bayesian_network\" title=\"Dynamic Bayesian network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c77f6b75feb8e5df8f5bea6a137d340c\">Dynamic Bayesian networks<\/a>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 551\u2013557<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hidden_Markov_model\" title=\"Hidden Markov model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2584878cd5e770c2f74616bed61710\">Hidden Markov model<\/a>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>(<a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 549\u2013551)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kalman_filter\" title=\"Kalman filter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9ff163ecb988890e9319920b2455342\">Kalman filters<\/a>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 551\u2013557<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Decisions_theory_and_analysis-206\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Decisions_theory_and_analysis_206-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_theory\" title=\"Decision theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"137e9a51ae7bf68325846793519501ea\">decision theory<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_analysis\" title=\"Decision analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c11ec4cc4375ffe34b09e6bcb177863\">decision analysis<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 584\u2013597,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 381\u2013394<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Markov_decision_process-207\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Markov_decision_process_207-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markov_decision_process\" title=\"Markov decision process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a165b52a9ae8569c3987f865361587a4\">Markov decision processes<\/a> and dynamic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision network\" data-key=\"ec62f139d48f4a0547a651f78040aaf3\">decision networks<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 613\u2013631<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Game_theory_and_mechanism_design-208\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Game_theory_and_mechanism_design_208-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_theory\" title=\"Game theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5498b159fb87dc60c8ad0a722348a50a\">Game theory<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mechanism_design\" title=\"Mechanism design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e592c085fda248bc8c378cadc4d0488\">mechanism design<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 631\u2013643<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Classifiers-209\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Classifiers_209-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nStatistical learning methods and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classifier_(mathematics)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Classifier (mathematics)\" data-key=\"eb8bf8d2fe7b65d50bff7a5773990770\">classifiers<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 712\u2013754,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 453\u2013541<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Decision_tree-210\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Decision_tree_210-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alternating_decision_tree\" title=\"Alternating decision tree\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e194b20236c22163974c18a2bc508fe\">Decision tree<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 653\u2013664,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 403\u2013408,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 408\u2013417<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos201588-211\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos201588_211-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, p. 88.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Neural_networks-212\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Neural_networks_212-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Neural_networks_212-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nNeural networks and connectionism:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 736\u2013748,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\">Poole, Mackworth & Goebel 1998<\/a>, pp. 408\u2013414,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 453\u2013505,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 3<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015187-213\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015187_213-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, p. 187.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-K-nearest_neighbor_algorithm-215\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-K-nearest_neighbor_algorithm_215-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K-nearest_neighbor_algorithm\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"K-nearest neighbor algorithm\" data-key=\"5507570d79f77d53b25919e43508c533\">K-nearest neighbor algorithm<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 733\u2013736<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015188-216\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015188_216-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, p. 188.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Kernel_methods-218\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Kernel_methods_218-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kernel_methods\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Kernel methods\" data-key=\"e36240e0920bc76e8148b738a016de5d\">kernel methods<\/a> such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Support_vector_machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Support vector machine\" data-key=\"01aa5bcb5f310503db0370be4d7dde0c\">support vector machine<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 749\u2013752<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Gaussian_mixture_model-219\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Gaussian_mixture_model_219-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gaussian_mixture_model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gaussian mixture model\" data-key=\"f9e2c4b63f8eaf7871a360e371209c97\">Gaussian mixture model<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 725\u2013727<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015152-220\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015152_220-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, p. 152.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Naive_Bayes_classifier-222\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Naive_Bayes_classifier_222-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Naive_Bayes_classifier\" title=\"Naive Bayes classifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18dd737ec81f328d3d6681e1620445c7\">Naive Bayes classifier<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 718<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Classifier_performance-223\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Classifier_performance_223-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nClassifier performance:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFvan_der_WaltBernard2006\">van der Walt & Bernard 2006<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200918.12:_Learning_from_Examples:_Summary-224\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig200918.12:_Learning_from_Examples:_Summary_224-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2009\">Russell & Norvig 2009<\/a>, 18.12: Learning from Examples: Summary.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_4-227\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDomingos2015Chapter_4_227-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDomingos2015\">Domingos 2015<\/a>, Chapter 4.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-228\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-228\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/fortune.com\/ai-artificial-intelligence-deep-machine-learning\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why Deep Learning Is Suddenly Changing Your Life\"<\/a>. <i>Fortune<\/i>. 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fortune&rft.atitle=Why+Deep+Learning+Is+Suddenly+Changing+Your+Life&rft.date=2016&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffortune.com%2Fai-artificial-intelligence-deep-machine-learning%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-229\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-229\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.economist.com\/news\/business\/21732125-tech-giants-are-investing-billions-transformative-technology-google-leads-race\" target=\"_blank\">\"Google leads in the race to dominate artificial intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>The Economist<\/i>. 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Google+leads+in+the+race+to+dominate+artificial+intelligence&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Fbusiness%2F21732125-tech-giants-are-investing-billions-transformative-technology-google-leads-race&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Feedforward_neural_networks-230\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Feedforward_neural_networks_230-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Feedforward_neural_network\" title=\"Feedforward neural network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcbc04f3ee4edcf5215ba9705be493de\">Feedforward neural networks<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Perceptron\" title=\"Perceptron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04a4d1565003f718e5659ee6ae90061f\">perceptrons<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radial_basis_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Radial basis network\" data-key=\"c6b3a599227a898ed003ec2798cbc2b4\">radial basis networks<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 739\u2013748, 758<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 458\u2013467<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Learning_in_neural_networks-231\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Learning_in_neural_networks_231-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Competitive_learning\" title=\"Competitive learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d65a1180709c0e8a9ddeae54dd8ff784\">Competitive learning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hebbian_theory\" title=\"Hebbian theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49b7525484ed35e6edb867f711f27f41\">Hebbian<\/a> coincidence learning, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hopfield_network\" title=\"Hopfield network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c21a73f89f5154cdd3af429e2310137\">Hopfield networks<\/a> and attractor networks:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 474\u2013505<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-lin1970-232\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-lin1970_232-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seppo_Linnainmaa\" title=\"Seppo Linnainmaa\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"11fc67b0df8b62d80f1350c84b77c3c4\">Seppo Linnainmaa<\/a> (1970). The representation of the cumulative rounding error of an algorithm as a Taylor expansion of the local rounding errors. Master's Thesis (in Finnish), Univ. Helsinki, 6\u20137.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-grie2012-233\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-grie2012_233-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Griewank, Andreas (2012). Who Invented the Reverse Mode of Differentiation?. Optimization Stories, Documenta Matematica, Extra Volume ISMP (2012), 389\u2013400.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WERBOS1974-234\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WERBOS1974_234-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paul_Werbos\" title=\"Paul Werbos\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40fa3481a9308163e8dd3a8916630e69\">Paul Werbos<\/a>, \"Beyond Regression: New Tools for Prediction and Analysis in the Behavioral Sciences\", <i>PhD thesis, Harvard University<\/i>, 1974.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-werbos1982-235\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-werbos1982_235-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paul_Werbos\" title=\"Paul Werbos\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40fa3481a9308163e8dd3a8916630e69\">Paul Werbos<\/a> (1982). Applications of advances in nonlinear sensitivity analysis. In System modeling and optimization (pp. 762\u2013770). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/werbos.com\/Neural\/SensitivityIFIPSeptember1981.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Online<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160414055503\/http:\/\/werbos.com\/Neural\/SensitivityIFIPSeptember1981.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 14 April 2016 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Backpropagation-236\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Backpropagation_236-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backpropagation\" title=\"Backpropagation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7681d69c3acc425256855e31afdd0bf4\">Backpropagation<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 744\u2013748,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 467\u2013474,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFNilsson1998\">Nilsson 1998<\/a>, chpt. 3.3<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Hierarchical_temporal_memory-237\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Hierarchical_temporal_memory_237-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchical_temporal_memory\" title=\"Hierarchical temporal memory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4a111293b8e2392aa88fc9087c8215f\">Hierarchical temporal memory<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFHawkinsBlakeslee2005\">Hawkins & Blakeslee 2005<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-238\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-238\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sciencemag.org\/news\/2018\/01\/artificial-intelligence-can-evolve-solve-problems\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial intelligence can 'evolve' to solve problems\"<\/a>. <i>Science | AAAS<\/i>. 10 January 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 February<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+%7C+AAAS&rft.atitle=Artificial+intelligence+can+%27evolve%27+to+solve+problems&rft.date=2018-01-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemag.org%2Fnews%2F2018%2F01%2Fartificial-intelligence-can-evolve-solve-problems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-schmidhuber2015-239\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-schmidhuber2015_239-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-schmidhuber2015_239-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-schmidhuber2015_239-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-schmidhuber2015_239-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Schmidhuber, J. 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Deep Learning. MIT Press. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.deeplearningbook.org\" target=\"_blank\">Online<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160416111010\/http:\/\/www.deeplearningbook.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 16 April 2016 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HintonDengYu2012-241\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HintonDengYu2012_241-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Hinton, G.; Deng, L.; Yu, D.; Dahl, G.; Mohamed, A.; Jaitly, N.; Senior, A.; Vanhoucke, V.; Nguyen, P.; Sainath, T.; Kingsbury, B. 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top: -2px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paywall\" title=\"closed access publication \u2013 behind paywall\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8d57fdef6ff47e6ad6f709656587346\"><img alt=\"closed access\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c1\/Closed_Access_logo_alternative.svg\/9px-Closed_Access_logo_alternative.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"9\" height=\"14\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Recurrent_neural_networks-252\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Recurrent_neural_networks_252-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recurrent_neural_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Recurrent neural networks\" data-key=\"1c288ffaa3182c74cce5d5bd2c1caf7c\">Recurrent neural networks<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hopfield_nets\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hopfield nets\" data-key=\"34cb475a530c5dc0960af59209a3e8ec\">Hopfield nets<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 758<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\">Luger & Stubblefield 2004<\/a>, pp. 474\u2013505<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-253\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-253\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Hy\u00f6tyniemi, Heikki (1996). \"Turing machines are recurrent neural networks\". <i>Proceedings of STeP '96\/Publications of the Finnish Artificial Intelligence Society<\/i>: 13\u201324.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+STeP+%2796%2FPublications+of+the+Finnish+Artificial+Intelligence+Society&rft.atitle=Turing+machines+are+recurrent+neural+networks&rft.pages=13-24&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Hy%C3%B6tyniemi&rft.aufirst=Heikki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-254\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-254\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">P. 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Dowe, David L.; Hern\u00e1ndez-Lloreda, M.Victoria (March 2014). \"Universal psychometrics: Measuring cognitive abilities in the machine kingdom\". <i>Cognitive Systems Research<\/i>. <b>27<\/b>: 50\u201374. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.cogsys.2013.06.001\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.cogsys.2013.06.001<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Systems+Research&rft.atitle=Universal+psychometrics%3A+Measuring+cognitive+abilities+in+the+machine+kingdom&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=50-74&rft.date=2014-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cogsys.2013.06.001&rft.aulast=Hern%C3%A1ndez-Orallo&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9&rft.au=Dowe%2C+David+L.&rft.au=Hern%C3%A1ndez-Lloreda%2C+M.Victoria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20091-282\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20091_282-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussellNorvig20091_282-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2009\">Russell & Norvig 2009<\/a>, p. 1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FOOTNOTE''CNN''2006-283\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#39;2006_283-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFCNN2006\"><i>CNN<\/i> 2006<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-284\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-284\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ishti.org\/2018\/11\/19\/using-artificial-intelligence-to-predict-flight-delays\/\" target=\"_blank\">Using AI to predict flight delays<\/a>, Ishti.org.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ecthr2016-285\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ecthr2016_285-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">N. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=The+Economist+Explains%3A+Why+firms+are+piling+into+artificial+intelligence&rft.date=2016-03-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fblogs%2Feconomist-explains%2F2016%2F04%2Feconomist-explains&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-287\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-287\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Lohr, Steve (28 February 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/02\/29\/technology\/the-promise-of-artificial-intelligence-unfolds-in-small-steps.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Promise of Artificial Intelligence Unfolds in Small Steps\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_York_Times\" title=\"The New York Times\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"623c682760636b635e0bd6f2cf164389\">The New York Times<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160229171843\/http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/02\/29\/technology\/the-promise-of-artificial-intelligence-unfolds-in-small-steps.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 February 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 February<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Promise+of+Artificial+Intelligence+Unfolds+in+Small+Steps&rft.date=2016-02-28&rft.aulast=Lohr&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F02%2F29%2Ftechnology%2Fthe-promise-of-artificial-intelligence-unfolds-in-small-steps.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-288\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-288\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Wakefield, Jane (15 June 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/uk-36528256\" target=\"_blank\">\"Social media 'outstrips TV' as news source for young people\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160624000744\/http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/uk-36528256\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 24 June 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Social+media+%27outstrips+TV%27+as+news+source+for+young+people&rft.date=2016-06-15&rft.au=Wakefield%2C+Jane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk-36528256&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-289\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-289\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Smith, Mark (22 July 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/business-36837824\" target=\"_blank\">\"So you think you chose to read this article?\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160725205007\/http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/business-36837824\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 25 July 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=So+you+think+you+chose+to+read+this+article%3F&rft.date=2016-07-22&rft.au=Smith%2C+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fbusiness-36837824&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-290\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-290\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hbr.org\/2018\/05\/10-promising-ai-applications-in-health-care\" target=\"_blank\">\"10 Promising AI Applications in Health Care\"<\/a>. <i>Harvard Business Review<\/i>. 2018-05-10<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-12-18<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cell.com&rft.atitle=Identifying+Medical+Diagnoses+and+Treatable+Diseases+by+Image-Based+Deep+Learning&rft.aulast=Kermany&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Goldbaum%2C+M&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Kang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cell.com%2Faction%2FcaptchaChallenge%3FredirectUri%3D%252Fcell%252Fpdf%252FS0092-8674%252818%252930154-5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-295\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-295\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Senthilingam, Meera (12 May 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2016\/05\/12\/health\/robot-surgeon-bowel-operation\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Are Autonomous Robots Your next Surgeons?\"<\/a>. <i>CNN<\/i>. Cable News Network. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161203154119\/http:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2016\/05\/12\/health\/robot-surgeon-bowel-operation\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 3 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Are+Autonomous+Robots+Your+next+Surgeons%3F&rft.date=2016-05-12&rft.au=Senthilingam%2C+Meera&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2016%2F05%2F12%2Fhealth%2Frobot-surgeon-bowel-operation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-296\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-296\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Markoff, John (16 February 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2011\/02\/17\/science\/17jeopardy-watson.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"On 'Jeopardy!' Watson Win Is All but Trivial\"<\/a>. <i>The New York Times<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170922050941\/http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2011\/02\/17\/science\/17jeopardy-watson.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 September 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=On+%27Jeopardy%21%27+Watson+Win+Is+All+but+Trivial&rft.date=2011-02-16&rft.aulast=Markoff&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F02%2F17%2Fscience%2F17jeopardy-watson.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-297\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-297\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Ng, Alfred (7 August 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nydailynews.com\/news\/world\/ibm-watson-proper-diagnosis-doctors-stumped-article-1.2741857\" target=\"_blank\">\"IBM's Watson gives proper diagnosis after doctors were stumped\"<\/a>. <i>NY Daily News<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170922101344\/http:\/\/www.nydailynews.com\/news\/world\/ibm-watson-proper-diagnosis-doctors-stumped-article-1.2741857\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 September 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NY+Daily+News&rft.atitle=IBM%27s+Watson+gives+proper+diagnosis+after+doctors+were+stumped&rft.date=2016-08-07&rft.aulast=Ng&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nydailynews.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fibm-watson-proper-diagnosis-doctors-stumped-article-1.2741857&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-298\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-298\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\"33 Corporations Working On Autonomous Vehicles\". CB Insights. N.p., 11 August 2016. 12 November 2016.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-299\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-299\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">West, Darrell M. \"Moving forward: Self-driving vehicles in China, Europe, Japan, Korea, and the United States\". Center for Technology Innovation at Brookings. N.p., September 2016. 12 November 2016.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-300\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-300\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Burgess, Matt (24 August 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.co.uk\/article\/uk-trial-self-driving-trucks-platoons-roads\" target=\"_blank\">\"The UK is about to Start Testing Self-Driving Truck Platoons\"<\/a>. <i>Wired UK<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170922055917\/http:\/\/www.wired.co.uk\/article\/uk-trial-self-driving-trucks-platoons-roads\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 September 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 September<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired+UK&rft.atitle=The+UK+is+about+to+Start+Testing+Self-Driving+Truck+Platoons&rft.date=2017-08-24&rft.aulast=Burgess&rft.aufirst=Matt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.co.uk%2Farticle%2Fuk-trial-self-driving-trucks-platoons-roads&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-301\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-301\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Davies, Alex (5 May 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/2015\/05\/worlds-first-self-driving-semi-truck-hits-road\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"World's First Self-Driving Semi-Truck Hits the Road\"<\/a>. <i>WIRED<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171028222802\/https:\/\/www.wired.com\/2015\/05\/worlds-first-self-driving-semi-truck-hits-road\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 28 October 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Infotrac Newsstand. 24 October 2016<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-303\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-303\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\"Programming safety into self-driving cars\". National Science Foundation. N.p., 2 February 2015. 24 October 2016.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-304\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-304\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">ArXiv, E. T. (26 October 2015). Why Self-Driving Cars Must Be Programmed to Kill. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Services+Roundtable&rft.atitle=CTO+Corner%3A+Artificial+Intelligence+Use+in+Financial+Services+%E2%80%93+Financial+Services+Roundtable&rft.date=2015-04-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffsroundtable.org%2Fcto-corner-artificial-intelligence-use-in-financial-services%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-308\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-308\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Marwala, Tshilidzi; Hurwitz, Evan (2017). <i>Artificial Intelligence and Economic Theory: Skynet in the Market<\/i>. London: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media\" title=\"Springer Science+Business Media\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba4eaf43157902cc7993fc8f078878cb\">Springer<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-3-319-66104-9.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence+and+Economic+Theory%3A+Skynet+in+the+Market&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-319-66104-9&rft.aulast=Marwala&rft.aufirst=Tshilidzi&rft.au=Hurwitz%2C+Evan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-309\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-309\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.economist.com\/news\/science-and-technology\/21721890-games-help-them-understand-reality-why-ai-researchers-video-games\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why AI researchers like video games\"<\/a>. <i>The Economist<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171005051028\/https:\/\/www.economist.com\/news\/science-and-technology\/21721890-games-help-them-understand-reality-why-ai-researchers-video-games\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 5 October 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Why+AI+researchers+like+video+games&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Fscience-and-technology%2F21721890-games-help-them-understand-reality-why-ai-researchers-video-games&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-310\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-310\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Yannakakis, G. N. (2012, May). Game AI revisited. In Proceedings of the 9th conference on Computing Frontiers (pp. 285\u2013292). ACM.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-311\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-311\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.economist.com\/news\/special-report\/21735478-autonomous-robots-and-swarms-will-change-nature-warfare-getting-grips\" target=\"_blank\">\"Getting to grips with military robotics\"<\/a>. <i>The Economist<\/i>. 25 January 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 February<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.siemens.com&rft.atitle=Autonomous+Systems%3A+Infographic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.siemens.com%2Finnovation%2Fen%2Fhome%2Fpictures-of-the-future%2Fdigitalization-and-software%2Fautonomous-systems-infographic.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-313\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-313\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Allen, Gregory (February 6, 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20190317004017\/https:\/\/www.cnas.org\/publications\/reports\/understanding-chinas-ai-strategy\" target=\"_blank\">\"Understanding China's AI Strategy\"<\/a>. <i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cnas.org\/publications\/reports\/understanding-chinas-ai-strategy\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.cnas.org\/publications\/reports\/understanding-chinas-ai-strategy<\/a><\/i>. Center for a New American Security. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cnas.org\/publications\/reports\/understanding-chinas-ai-strategy\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on March 17, 2019<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">March 17,<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnas.org%2Fpublications%2Freports%2Funderstanding-chinas-ai-strategy&rft.atitle=Understanding+China%27s+AI+Strategy&rft.date=2019-02-06&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnas.org%2Fpublications%2Freports%2Funderstanding-chinas-ai-strategy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error error citation-comment\">External link in <code class=\"cs1-code\">|website=<\/code> (<a href=\"#param_has_ext_link\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-314\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-314\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Metz, Cade (15 March 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/03\/15\/technology\/military-artificial-intelligence.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Pentagon Wants Silicon Valley's Help on A.I.\"<\/a> <i>The New York Times<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Pentagon+Wants+Silicon+Valley%27s+Help+on+A.I.&rft.date=2018-03-15&rft.aulast=Metz&rft.aufirst=Cade&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2018%2F03%2F15%2Ftechnology%2Fmilitary-artificial-intelligence.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-315\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-315\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Chang, Hsihui; Kao, Yi-Ching; Mashruwala, Raj; Sorensen, Susan M. (10 April 2017). \"Technical Inefficiency, Allocative Inefficiency, and Audit Pricing\". <i>Journal of Accounting, Auditing & Finance<\/i>. <b>33<\/b> (4): 580\u2013600. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F0148558X17696760\" target=\"_blank\">10.1177\/0148558X17696760<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Accounting%2C+Auditing+%26+Finance&rft.atitle=Technical+Inefficiency%2C+Allocative+Inefficiency%2C+and+Audit+Pricing&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=580-600&rft.date=2017-04-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0148558X17696760&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Hsihui&rft.au=Kao%2C+Yi-Ching&rft.au=Mashruwala%2C+Raj&rft.au=Sorensen%2C+Susan+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Matz_et_al_2017-316\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Matz_et_al_2017_316-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Matz, S. C., et al. \"Psychological targeting as an effective approach to digital mass persuasion.\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2017): 201710966.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-317\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-317\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Busby, Mattha (30 April 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2018\/apr\/30\/bookies-using-ai-to-keep-gamblers-hooked-insiders-say\" target=\"_blank\">\"Revealed: how bookies use AI to keep gamblers hooked\"<\/a>. <i>the Guardian<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=Revealed%3A+how+bookies+use+AI+to+keep+gamblers+hooked&rft.date=2018-04-30&rft.aulast=Busby&rft.aufirst=Mattha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2018%2Fapr%2F30%2Fbookies-using-ai-to-keep-gamblers-hooked-insiders-say&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Celli_et_al._2017-318\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Celli_et_al._2017_318-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Celli, Fabio, Pietro Zani Massani, and Bruno Lepri. \"Profilio: Psychometric Profiling to Boost Social Media Advertising.\" Proceedings of the 2017 ACM on Multimedia Conference. ACM, 2017 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/320542489_Profilio_Psychometric_Profiling_to_Boost_Social_Media_Advertising\" target=\"_blank\">[1]<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-moma-319\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-moma_319-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.moma.org\/calendar\/exhibitions\/3863\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.moma.org\/calendar\/exhibitions\/3863<\/a> Retrieved July 29, 2018<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-wp1-320\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-wp1_320-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/innovations\/wp\/2016\/03\/10\/googles-psychedelic-paint-brush-raises-the-oldest-question-in-art\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/innovations\/wp\/2016\/03\/10\/googles-psychedelic-paint-brush-raises-the-oldest-question-in-art\/<\/a> Retrieved July 29<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-sf-321\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-sf_321-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.statefestival.org\/program\/2017\/unhuman-art-in-the-age-of-ai\" target=\"_blank\">\"Unhuman: Art in the Age of AI \u2013 State Festival\"<\/a>. Statefestival.org<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-09-13<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unhuman%3A+Art+in+the+Age+of+AI+%E2%80%93+State+Festival&rft.pub=Statefestival.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.statefestival.org%2Fprogram%2F2017%2Funhuman-art-in-the-age-of-ai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-artsy-322\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-artsy_322-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.artsy.net\/article\/artsy-editorial-hard-painting-made-computer-human\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.artsy.net\/article\/artsy-editorial-hard-painting-made-computer-human<\/a>. Retrieved July 29<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-acm-323\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-acm_323-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?id=3204480.3186697\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?id=3204480.3186697<\/a> Retrieved July 29<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Turing_test-324\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Turing_test_324-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nThe <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turing_test\" title=\"Turing test\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f309ecb31df135db989e843377fb9d\">Turing test<\/a>:<br \/>\nTuring's original publication:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFTuring1950\">Turing 1950<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Historical influence and philosophical implications:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFHaugeland1985\">Haugeland 1985<\/a>, pp. 6\u20139<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, p. 24<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 70\u201371<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 2\u20133 and 948<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Dartmouth_proposal-325\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Dartmouth_proposal_325-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nDartmouth proposal:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCarthyMinskyRochesterShannon1955\">McCarthy et al. 1955<\/a> (the original proposal)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, p. 49 (historical significance)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Physical_symbol_system_hypothesis-326\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Physical_symbol_system_hypothesis_326-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nThe <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_symbol_system\" title=\"Physical symbol system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"968d5e32d7080477b411e283fee0e47c\">physical symbol systems<\/a> hypothesis:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFNewellSimon1976\">Newell & Simon 1976<\/a>, p. 116<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, p. 153<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 18<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-327\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-327\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nDreyfus criticized the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Necessary_and_sufficient\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Necessary and sufficient\" data-key=\"8e06f5ede91f25f00c5689e3d0bcd69a\">necessary<\/a> condition of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_symbol_system\" title=\"Physical symbol system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"968d5e32d7080477b411e283fee0e47c\">physical symbol system<\/a> hypothesis, which he called the \"psychological assumption\": \"The mind can be viewed as a device operating on bits of information according to formal rules.\" (<a href=\"#CITEREFDreyfus1992\">Dreyfus 1992<\/a>, p. 156)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Dreyfus'_critique-328\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#39;_critique_328-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dreyfus%27_critique_of_artificial_intelligence\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dreyfus' critique of artificial intelligence\" data-key=\"204bad51e14b126e2a03fab5cdd61ea2\">Dreyfus' critique of artificial intelligence<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFDreyfus1972\">Dreyfus 1972<\/a>, <a href=\"#CITEREFDreyfusDreyfus1986\">Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 120\u2013132<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 211\u2013239<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 950\u2013952,<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-G\u00f6del_himself-329\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-G\u00f6del_himself_329-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"#CITEREFG\u00f6del1951\">G\u00f6del 1951<\/a>: in this lecture, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kurt_G%C3%B6del\" title=\"Kurt G\u00f6del\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"020c4629de6c9e627e208aa36e20161e\">Kurt G\u00f6del<\/a> uses the incompleteness theorem to arrive at the following disjunction: (a) the human mind is not a consistent finite machine, or (b) there exist <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diophantine_equations\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Diophantine equations\" data-key=\"e44c42a864c16494113ff7e91955e3d7\">Diophantine equations<\/a> for which it cannot decide whether solutions exist. G\u00f6del finds (b) implausible, and thus seems to have believed the human mind was not equivalent to a finite machine, i.e., its power exceeded that of any finite machine. He recognized that this was only a conjecture, since one could never disprove (b). Yet he considered the disjunctive conclusion to be a \"certain fact\".<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-The_mathematical_objection-330\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-The_mathematical_objection_330-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nThe Mathematical Objection:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 949<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 448\u2013449<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Making the Mathematical Objection:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFLucas1961\">Lucas 1961<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFPenrose1989\">Penrose 1989<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Refuting Mathematical Objection:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFTuring1950\">Turing 1950<\/a> under \"(2) The Mathematical Objection\"<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFHofstadter1979\">Hofstadter 1979<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Background:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>G\u00f6del 1931, Church 1936, Kleene 1935, Turing 1937<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-331\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-331\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graham_Oppy\" title=\"Graham Oppy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c773f581434ad26d998bee756e4332e2\">Graham Oppy<\/a> (20 January 2015). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#GdeArgAgaMec\">\"G\u00f6del's Incompleteness Theorems\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy\" title=\"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b68b5de1d3d70cb0dfaf7d6baa42dca2\">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 April<\/span> 2016<\/span>. <q>These G\u00f6delian anti-mechanist arguments are, however, problematic, and there is wide consensus that they fail.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=G%C3%B6del%27s+Incompleteness+Theorems&rft.date=2015-01-20&rft.au=Graham+Oppy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fgoedel-incompleteness%2F%23GdeArgAgaMec&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-332\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-332\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Stuart J. Russell<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Peter Norvig<\/a> (2010). \"26.1.2: Philosophical Foundations\/Weak AI: Can Machines Act Intelligently?\/The mathematical objection\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_Intelligence:_A_Modern_Approach\" title=\"Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9dbb28c25594c66d5bac1148dc06e5f6\"><i>Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach<\/i><\/a> (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prentice_Hall\" title=\"Prentice Hall\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c343600b0fb1a6c46cb4a25ec0583aa\">Prentice Hall<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-13-604259-4. <q>even if we grant that computers have limitations on what they can prove, there is no evidence that humans are immune from those limitations.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=26.1.2%3A+Philosophical+Foundations%2FWeak+AI%3A+Can+Machines+Act+Intelligently%3F%2FThe+mathematical+objection&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+Modern+Approach&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-13-604259-4&rft.au=Stuart+J.+Russell&rft.au=Peter+Norvig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-333\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-333\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Mark Colyvan. An introduction to the philosophy of mathematics. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cambridge_University_Press\" title=\"Cambridge University Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2f08c47b8f3710987767a19a2aab5e5\">Cambridge University Press<\/a>, 2012. From 2.2.2, 'Philosophical significance of G\u00f6del's incompleteness results': \"The accepted wisdom (with which I concur) is that the Lucas-Penrose arguments fail.\"<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-334\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-334\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Russel, Stuart., Daniel Dewey, and Max Tegmark. Research Priorities for Robust and Beneficial Artificial Intelligence. AI Magazine 36:4 (2015). 8 December 2016.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-335\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-335\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Rawlinson, Kevin (29 January 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/31047780\" target=\"_blank\">\"Microsoft's Bill Gates insists AI is a threat\"<\/a>. BBC News. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150129183607\/http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/31047780\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 January 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 January<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Microsoft%27s+Bill+Gates+insists+AI+is+a+threat&rft.date=2015-01-29&rft.aulast=Rawlinson&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2F31047780&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Holley-336\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Holley_336-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Holley, Peter (28 January 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/the-switch\/wp\/2015\/01\/28\/bill-gates-on-dangers-of-artificial-intelligence-dont-understand-why-some-people-are-not-concerned\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bill Gates on dangers of artificial intelligence: 'I don't understand why some people are not concerned<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\">'<\/span>\"<\/a>. <i>The Washington Post<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0190-8286\" target=\"_blank\">0190-8286<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151030054330\/https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/the-switch\/wp\/2015\/01\/28\/bill-gates-on-dangers-of-artificial-intelligence-dont-understand-why-some-people-are-not-concerned\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 October 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Bill+Gates+on+dangers+of+artificial+intelligence%3A+%27I+don%27t+understand+why+some+people+are+not+concerned%27&rft.date=2015-01-28&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Holley&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fthe-switch%2Fwp%2F2015%2F01%2F28%2Fbill-gates-on-dangers-of-artificial-intelligence-dont-understand-why-some-people-are-not-concerned%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-337\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-337\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Gibbs, Samuel (27 October 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2014\/oct\/27\/elon-musk-artificial-intelligence-ai-biggest-existential-threat\" target=\"_blank\">\"Elon Musk: artificial intelligence is our biggest existential threat\"<\/a>. <i>The Guardian<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151030054330\/http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2014\/oct\/27\/elon-musk-artificial-intelligence-ai-biggest-existential-threat\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 October 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Elon+Musk%3A+artificial+intelligence+is+our+biggest+existential+threat&rft.date=2014-10-27&rft.aulast=Gibbs&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2014%2Foct%2F27%2Felon-musk-artificial-intelligence-ai-biggest-existential-threat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-338\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-338\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Cellan-Jones, Rory (2 December 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/technology-30290540\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stephen Hawking warns artificial intelligence could end mankind\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BBC_News\" title=\"BBC News\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"255865441b3342024adf145c10c2e1d7\">BBC News<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151030054329\/http:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/technology-30290540\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 October 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Stephen+Hawking+warns+artificial+intelligence+could+end+mankind&rft.date=2014-12-02&rft.aulast=Cellan-Jones&rft.aufirst=Rory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Ftechnology-30290540&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-339\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-339\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Post, Washington. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.chicagotribune.com\/bluesky\/technology\/ct-tech-titans-against-terminators-20151214-story.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tech titans like Elon Musk are spending $1 billion to save you from terminators\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160607121118\/http:\/\/www.chicagotribune.com\/bluesky\/technology\/ct-tech-titans-against-terminators-20151214-story.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 June 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tech+titans+like+Elon+Musk+are+spending+%241+billion+to+save+you+from+terminators&rft.aulast=Post&rft.aufirst=Washington&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chicagotribune.com%2Fbluesky%2Ftechnology%2Fct-tech-titans-against-terminators-20151214-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-340\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-340\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">M\u00fcller, Vincent C.; Bostrom, Nick (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sophia.de\/pdf\/2014_PT-AI_polls.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Future Progress in Artificial Intelligence: A Poll Among Experts\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>AI Matters<\/i>. <b>1<\/b> (1): 9\u201311. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F2639475.2639478\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/2639475.2639478<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160115114604\/http:\/\/www.sophia.de\/pdf\/2014_PT-AI_polls.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 15 January 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AI+Matters&rft.atitle=Future+Progress+in+Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+Poll+Among+Experts&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=9-11&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2639475.2639478&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCller&rft.aufirst=Vincent+C.&rft.au=Bostrom%2C+Nick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sophia.de%2Fpdf%2F2014_PT-AI_polls.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-341\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-341\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.techinsider.io\/mysterious-artificial-intelligence-company-elon-musk-investment-2015-10\" target=\"_blank\">\"The mysterious artificial intelligence company Elon Musk invested in is developing game-changing smart computers\"<\/a>. <i>Tech Insider<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151030165333\/http:\/\/www.techinsider.io\/mysterious-artificial-intelligence-company-elon-musk-investment-2015-10\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 October 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tech+Insider&rft.atitle=The+mysterious+artificial+intelligence+company+Elon+Musk+invested+in+is+developing+game-changing+smart+computers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.techinsider.io%2Fmysterious-artificial-intelligence-company-elon-musk-investment-2015-10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-342\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-342\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Clark, Jack. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2015-07-01\/musk-backed-group-probes-risks-behind-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">\"Musk-Backed Group Probes Risks Behind Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>Bloomberg.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151030202356\/http:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2015-07-01\/musk-backed-group-probes-risks-behind-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 October 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bloomberg.com&rft.atitle=Musk-Backed+Group+Probes+Risks+Behind+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2015-07-01%2Fmusk-backed-group-probes-risks-behind-artificial-intelligence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-343\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-343\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fastcompany.com\/3041007\/fast-feed\/elon-musk-is-donating-10m-of-his-own-money-to-artificial-intelligence-research\" target=\"_blank\">\"Elon Musk Is Donating $10M Of His Own Money To Artificial Intelligence Research\"<\/a>. <i>Fast Company<\/i>. 15 January 2015. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151030202356\/http:\/\/www.fastcompany.com\/3041007\/fast-feed\/elon-musk-is-donating-10m-of-his-own-money-to-artificial-intelligence-research\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 October 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fast+Company&rft.atitle=Elon+Musk+Is+Donating+%2410M+Of+His+Own+Money+To+Artificial+Intelligence+Research&rft.date=2015-01-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fastcompany.com%2F3041007%2Ffast-feed%2Felon-musk-is-donating-10m-of-his-own-money-to-artificial-intelligence-research&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-344\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-344\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/thebulletin.org\/artificial-intelligence-really-existential-threat-humanity8577\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is artificial intelligence really an existential threat to humanity?\"<\/a>. <i>Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists<\/i>. 9 August 2015. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151030054330\/http:\/\/thebulletin.org\/artificial-intelligence-really-existential-threat-humanity8577\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 October 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Atomic+Scientists&rft.atitle=Is+artificial+intelligence+really+an+existential+threat+to+humanity%3F&rft.date=2015-08-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthebulletin.org%2Fartificial-intelligence-really-existential-threat-humanity8577&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-345\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-345\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/fusion.net\/story\/54583\/the-case-against-killer-robots-from-a-guy-actually-building-ai\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The case against killer robots, from a guy actually working on artificial intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>Fusion.net<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160204175716\/http:\/\/fusion.net\/story\/54583\/the-case-against-killer-robots-from-a-guy-actually-building-ai\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 February 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 January<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fusion.net&rft.atitle=The+case+against+killer+robots%2C+from+a+guy+actually+working+on+artificial+intelligence&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffusion.net%2Fstory%2F54583%2Fthe-case-against-killer-robots-from-a-guy-actually-building-ai%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-346\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-346\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.vox.com\/2014\/8\/22\/6043635\/5-reasons-we-shouldnt-worry-about-super-intelligent-computers-taking\" target=\"_blank\">\"Will artificial intelligence destroy humanity? Here are 5 reasons not to worry\"<\/a>. <i>Vox<\/i>. 22 August 2014. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151030092203\/http:\/\/www.vox.com\/2014\/8\/22\/6043635\/5-reasons-we-shouldnt-worry-about-super-intelligent-computers-taking\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 October 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=Will+artificial+intelligence+destroy+humanity%3F+Here+are+5+reasons+not+to+worry.&rft.date=2014-08-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2F2014%2F8%2F22%2F6043635%2F5-reasons-we-shouldnt-worry-about-super-intelligent-computers-taking&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-347\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-347\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">In the early 1970s, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kenneth_Colby\" title=\"Kenneth Colby\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a234e2f52d3de203baf89fd7e8878da5\">Kenneth Colby<\/a> presented a version of Weizenbaum's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ELIZA\" title=\"ELIZA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"406b17f4697999119e607a8c60e660ac\">ELIZA<\/a> known as DOCTOR which he promoted as a serious therapeutic tool. (<a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 132\u2013144)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Weizenbaum's_critique-348\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#39;s_critique_348-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joseph_Weizenbaum\" title=\"Joseph Weizenbaum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72e93fb709be93ac931fb371bb1319c4\">Joseph Weizenbaum<\/a>'s critique of AI:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFWeizenbaum1976\">Weizenbaum 1976<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 132\u2013144<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 356\u2013373<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 961<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Weizenbaum (the AI researcher who developed the first <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chatterbot\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Chatterbot\" data-key=\"924136249644b9e81699dbe354c94a1b\">chatterbot<\/a> program, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ELIZA\" title=\"ELIZA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"406b17f4697999119e607a8c60e660ac\">ELIZA<\/a>) argued in 1976 that the misuse of artificial intelligence has the potential to devalue human life.<\/span>\n<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-349\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-349\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.channelnewsasia.com\/news\/commentary\/artificial-intelligence-big-data-bias-hiring-loans-key-challenge-11097374\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.channelnewsasia.com\/news\/commentary\/artificial-intelligence-big-data-bias-hiring-loans-key-challenge-11097374<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-350\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-350\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">E McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy' (2018) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3044448\" target=\"_blank\">SSRN, part 2(3)<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-351\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-351\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.economist.com\/news\/special-report\/21700758-will-smarter-machines-cause-mass-unemployment-automation-and-anxiety\" target=\"_blank\">\"Automation and anxiety\"<\/a>. <i>The Economist<\/i>. 9 May 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Automation+and+anxiety&rft.date=2015-05-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Fspecial-report%2F21700758-will-smarter-machines-cause-mass-unemployment-automation-and-anxiety&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-352\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-352\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Lohr, Steve (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2017\/01\/12\/technology\/robots-will-take-jobs-but-not-as-fast-as-some-fear-new-report-says.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Robots Will Take Jobs, but Not as Fast as Some Fear, New Report Says\"<\/a>. <i>The New York Times<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Robots+Will+Take+Jobs%2C+but+Not+as+Fast+as+Some+Fear%2C+New+Report+Says&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Lohr&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F01%2F12%2Ftechnology%2Frobots-will-take-jobs-but-not-as-fast-as-some-fear-new-report-says.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-353\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-353\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Frey, Carl Benedikt; Osborne, Michael A (1 January 2017). \"The future of employment: How susceptible are jobs to computerisation?\". <i>Technological Forecasting and Social Change<\/i>. <b>114<\/b>: 254\u2013280. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.395.416\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.395.416<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.techfore.2016.08.019\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.techfore.2016.08.019<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0040-1625\" target=\"_blank\">0040-1625<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technological+Forecasting+and+Social+Change&rft.atitle=The+future+of+employment%3A+How+susceptible+are+jobs+to+computerisation%3F&rft.volume=114&rft.pages=254-280&rft.date=2017-01-01&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.395.416&rft.issn=0040-1625&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.techfore.2016.08.019&rft.aulast=Frey&rft.aufirst=Carl+Benedikt&rft.au=Osborne%2C+Michael+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-354\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-354\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Arntz, Melanie, Terry Gregory, and Ulrich Zierahn. \"The risk of automation for jobs in OECD countries: A comparative analysis.\" OECD Social, Employment, and Migration Working Papers 189 (2016). p. 33.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-355\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-355\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Mahdawi, Arwa (26 June 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/us-news\/2017\/jun\/26\/jobs-future-automation-robots-skills-creative-health\" target=\"_blank\">\"What jobs will still be around in 20 years? Read this to prepare your future\"<\/a>. <i>The Guardian<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=What+jobs+will+still+be+around+in+20+years%3F+Read+this+to+prepare+your+future&rft.date=2017-06-26&rft.aulast=Mahdawi&rft.aufirst=Arwa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fus-news%2F2017%2Fjun%2F26%2Fjobs-future-automation-robots-skills-creative-health&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-356\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-356\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/observer.com\/2015\/08\/stephen-hawking-elon-musk-and-bill-gates-warn-about-artificial-intelligence\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stephen Hawking, Elon Musk, and Bill Gates Warn About Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>Observer<\/i>. 19 August 2015. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151030053323\/http:\/\/observer.com\/2015\/08\/stephen-hawking-elon-musk-and-bill-gates-warn-about-artificial-intelligence\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 October 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Observer&rft.atitle=Stephen+Hawking%2C+Elon+Musk%2C+and+Bill+Gates+Warn+About+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.date=2015-08-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fobserver.com%2F2015%2F08%2Fstephen-hawking-elon-musk-and-bill-gates-warn-about-artificial-intelligence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-357\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-357\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Wendell Wallach (2010). <i>Moral Machines<\/i>, Oxford University Press.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-358\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-358\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Wallach, pp 37\u201354.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-359\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-359\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Wallach, pp 55\u201373.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-360\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-360\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Wallach, Introduction chapter.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-autogenerated1-361\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-autogenerated1_361-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-autogenerated1_361-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Michael Anderson and Susan Leigh Anderson (2011), Machine Ethics, Cambridge University Press.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-autogenerated2-362\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-autogenerated2_362-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-autogenerated2_362-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141129044821\/http:\/\/www.aaai.org\/Library\/Symposia\/Fall\/fs05-06\" target=\"_blank\">\"Machine Ethics\"<\/a>. <i>aaai.org<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aaai.org\/Library\/Symposia\/Fall\/fs05-06\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 29 November 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=aaai.org&rft.atitle=Machine+Ethics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaai.org%2FLibrary%2FSymposia%2FFall%2Ffs05-06&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-363\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-363\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charles_T._Rubin\" title=\"Charles T. Rubin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46bb7ad151446f51a90230ff53058f0a\">Rubin, Charles<\/a> (Spring 2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120611115223\/http:\/\/www.thenewatlantis.com\/publications\/artificial-intelligence-and-human-nature\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence and Human Nature |'The New Atlantis\"<\/a>. <b>1<\/b>: 88\u2013100. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.thenewatlantis.com\/publications\/artificial-intelligence-and-human-nature\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 11 June 2012.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Artificial+Intelligence+and+Human+Nature+%26%23124%3B%27The+New+Atlantis&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=88-100&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenewatlantis.com%2Fpublications%2Fartificial-intelligence-and-human-nature&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-364\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-364\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Brooks, Rodney (10 November 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141112130954\/http:\/\/www.rethinkrobotics.com\/artificial-intelligence-tool-threat\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"artificial intelligence is a tool, not a threat\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rethinkrobotics.com\/artificial-intelligence-tool-threat\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 12 November 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=artificial+intelligence+is+a+tool%2C+not+a+threat&rft.date=2014-11-10&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=Rodney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rethinkrobotics.com%2Fartificial-intelligence-tool-threat%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Chalmers-365\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Chalmers_365-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Chalmers\" title=\"David Chalmers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec4a71fe936ef9233c3333ca26d35e22\">Chalmers, David<\/a> (1995). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.imprint.co.uk\/chalmers.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Facing up to the problem of consciousness\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journal_of_Consciousness_Studies\" title=\"Journal of Consciousness Studies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25a4ef1cc5b72118348333a156606c75\">Journal of Consciousness Studies<\/a><\/i>. <b>2<\/b> (3): 200\u2013219.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Consciousness+Studies&rft.atitle=Facing+up+to+the+problem+of+consciousness&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=200-219&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Chalmers&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imprint.co.uk%2Fchalmers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> See also <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/consc.net\/papers\/facing.html\" target=\"_blank\">this link<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-367\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-367\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">, (2005) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/computational-mind\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Computational Theory of Mind\"<\/a> in <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/i><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Searle's_strong_AI-368\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#39;s_strong_AI_368-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nThis version is from <a href=\"#CITEREFSearle1999\">Searle (1999)<\/a>, and is also quoted in <a href=\"#CITEREFDennett1991\">Dennett 1991<\/a>, p. 435. Searle's original formulation was \"The appropriately programmed computer really is a mind, in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states.\" (<a href=\"#CITEREFSearle1980\">Searle 1980<\/a>, p. 1). Strong AI is defined similarly by <a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig (2003<\/a>, p. 947): \"The assertion that machines could possibly act intelligently (or, perhaps better, act as if they were intelligent) is called the 'weak AI' hypothesis by philosophers, and the assertion that machines that do so are actually thinking (as opposed to simulating thinking) is called the 'strong AI' hypothesis.\"<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Chinese_room-369\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Chinese_room_369-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nSearle's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_room\" title=\"Chinese room\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40e4f68def9042fbadc20dbe8654fdca\">Chinese room<\/a> argument:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFSearle1980\">Searle 1980<\/a>. Searle's original presentation of the thought experiment.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFSearle1999\">Searle 1999<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Discussion:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, pp. 958\u2013960<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck 2004<\/a>, pp. 443\u2013445<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFCrevier1993\">Crevier 1993<\/a>, pp. 269\u2013271<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Robot_rights-370\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Robot_rights_370-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robot_rights\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Robot rights\" data-key=\"3d9e387e8ec555912cdbfcc557d3d762\">Robot rights<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 964<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFBBC_News2006\"><i>BBC News<\/i> 2006<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Prematurity of:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFHenderson2007\">Henderson 2007<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In fiction:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, pp. 190\u201325) discusses <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Frankenstein\" title=\"Frankenstein\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"262d14f4d3e4779a1ebe81a00c22815b\">Frankenstein<\/a><\/i> and identifies the key ethical issues as scientific hubris and the suffering of the monster, i.e. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robot_rights\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Robot rights\" data-key=\"3d9e387e8ec555912cdbfcc557d3d762\">robot rights<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Evans_2015-371\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Evans_2015_371-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Woody_Evans\" title=\"Woody Evans\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"305f84dbe0924d325cd39180bc8827de\">Evans, Woody<\/a> (2015). \"Posthuman Rights: Dimensions of Transhuman Worlds\". <i>Teknokultura<\/i>. <b>12<\/b> (2). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5209%2Frev_TK.2015.v12.n2.49072\" target=\"_blank\">10.5209\/rev_TK.2015.v12.n2.49072<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Teknokultura&rft.atitle=Posthuman+Rights%3A+Dimensions+of+Transhuman+Worlds&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5209%2Frev_TK.2015.v12.n2.49072&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Woody&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-372\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-372\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">maschafilm. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.plugandpray-film.de\/en\/content.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Content: Plug & Pray Film \u2013 Artificial Intelligence \u2013 Robots -\"<\/a>. <i>plugandpray-film.de<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160212040134\/http:\/\/www.plugandpray-film.de\/en\/content.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 12 February 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=plugandpray-film.de&rft.atitle=Content%3A+Plug+%26+Pray+Film+%E2%80%93+Artificial+Intelligence+%E2%80%93+Robots+-&rft.au=maschafilm&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plugandpray-film.de%2Fen%2Fcontent.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-recurse-373\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-recurse_373-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation conference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Steve_Omohundro\" title=\"Steve Omohundro\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a0394c1cdb5179b85a1a9861f80b0c8\">Omohundro, Steve<\/a> (2008). <i>The Nature of Self-Improving Artificial Intelligence<\/i>. presented and distributed at the 2007 Singularity Summit, San Francisco, CA.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Self-Improving+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.pub=presented+and+distributed+at+the+2007+Singularity+Summit%2C+San+Francisco%2C+CA.&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Omohundro&rft.aufirst=Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Singularity-374\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Singularity_374-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Singularity_374-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Singularity_374-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technological_singularity\" title=\"Technological singularity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4787174dcb8c7955e9a9622daf8da71c\">Technological singularity<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFVinge1993\">Vinge 1993<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFKurzweil2005\">Kurzweil 2005<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 963<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Transhumanism-375\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Transhumanism_375-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transhumanism\" title=\"Transhumanism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"599e68dd128d0e860d6861776bad3385\">Transhumanism<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"#CITEREFMoravec1988\">Moravec 1988<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFKurzweil2005\">Kurzweil 2005<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\">Russell & Norvig 2003<\/a>, p. 963<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AI_as_evolution-376\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AI_as_evolution_376-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nAI as evolution:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_Fredkin\" title=\"Edward Fredkin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c048410d673ea47508c13c8f98f7015\">Edward Fredkin<\/a> is quoted in <a href=\"#CITEREFMcCorduck2004\">McCorduck (2004<\/a>, p. 401).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFButler1863\">Butler 1863<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"#CITEREFDyson1998\">Dyson 1998<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-377\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-377\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Buttazzo, G. (July 2001). \"Artificial consciousness: Utopia or real possibility?\". <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_(magazine)\" title=\"Computer (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d547f8fc9de43474a8023ba83ee330c0\">Computer (IEEE)<\/a><\/i>. <b>34<\/b> (7): 24\u201330. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2F2.933500\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/2.933500<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computer+%28IEEE%29&rft.atitle=Artificial+consciousness%3A+Utopia+or+real+possibility%3F&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=24-30&rft.date=2001-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F2.933500&rft.aulast=Buttazzo&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-378\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-378\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Anderson, Susan Leigh. \"Asimov's \"three laws of robotics\" and machine metaethics.\" AI & Society 22.4 (2008): 477\u2013493.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-379\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-379\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">McCauley, Lee (2007). \"AI armageddon and the three laws of robotics\". <i>Ethics and Information Technology<\/i>. <b>9<\/b> (2): 153\u2013164. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.85.8904\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.85.8904<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10676-007-9138-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s10676-007-9138-2<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethics+and+Information+Technology&rft.atitle=AI+armageddon+and+the+three+laws+of+robotics&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=153-164&rft.date=2007&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.85.8904&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10676-007-9138-2&rft.aulast=McCauley&rft.aufirst=Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-380\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-380\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Galvan, Jill (1 January 1997). \"Entering the Posthuman Collective in Philip K. Dick's \"Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\">\"<\/span>\". <i>Science Fiction Studies<\/i>. <b>24<\/b> (3): 413\u2013429. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSTOR\" title=\"JSTOR\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5a2011b7c1e7325af22d9508b7ded7b\">JSTOR<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/4240644\" target=\"_blank\">4240644<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Fiction+Studies&rft.atitle=Entering+the+Posthuman+Collective+in+Philip+K.+Dick%27s+%22Do+Androids+Dream+of+Electric+Sheep%3F%22&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=413-429&rft.date=1997-01-01&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4240644&rft.aulast=Galvan&rft.aufirst=Jill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"AI_textbooks\">AI textbooks<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"refbegin columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHutter2005\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marcus_Hutter\" title=\"Marcus Hutter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"75235e922c219030fa5f270c8e315459\">Hutter, Marcus<\/a> (2005). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AIXI\" title=\"AIXI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a78b00a6615e89b274251d9c44549472\"><i>Universal Artificial Intelligence<\/i><\/a>. Berlin: Springer. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-3-540-22139-5.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Universal+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-540-22139-5&rft.aulast=Hutter&rft.aufirst=Marcus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFJackson1985\" class=\"citation book\"> (1985). <i>Introduction to Artificial Intelligence<\/i> (2nd ed.). Dover. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-486-24864-6.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Dover&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-486-24864-6&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLugerStubblefield2004\" class=\"citation book\">; (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cs.unm.edu\/~luger\/ai-final\/tocfull.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving<\/i><\/a> (5th ed.). Benjamin\/Cummings. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-8053-4780-7.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+Structures+and+Strategies+for+Complex+Problem+Solving&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Benjamin%2FCummings&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8053-4780-7&rft.aulast=Luger&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Stubblefield%2C+William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.unm.edu%2F~luger%2Fai-final%2Ftocfull.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Richard_Neapolitan\" title=\"Richard Neapolitan\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9304e712763803ff9702aaf67b880f94\">Neapolitan, Richard<\/a>; Jiang, Xia (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.crcpress.com\/Contemporary-Artificial-Intelligence-Second-Edition\/Neapolitan-Jiang\/p\/book\/9781138502383\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Artificial Intelligence: With an Introduction to Machine Learning<\/i><\/a>. Chapman & Hall\/CRC. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-138-50238-3.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+With+an+Introduction+to+Machine+Learning&rft.pub=Chapman+%26+Hall%2FCRC&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-138-50238-3&rft.aulast=Neapolitan&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Jiang%2C+Xia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.crcpress.com%2FContemporary-Artificial-Intelligence-Second-Edition%2FNeapolitan-Jiang%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9781138502383&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNilsson1998\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nils_Nilsson_(researcher)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nils Nilsson (researcher)\" data-key=\"5ec99f61dc752c5fa3f7b86c24345070\">Nilsson, Nils<\/a> (1998). <i>Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis<\/i>. Morgan Kaufmann. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-55860-467-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+New+Synthesis&rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-55860-467-4&rft.aulast=Nilsson&rft.aufirst=Nils&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRussellNorvig2003\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell, Stuart J.<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig, Peter<\/a> (2003), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aima.cs.berkeley.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach<\/i><\/a> (2nd ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-13-790395-2<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+Modern+Approach&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-13-790395-2&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Stuart+J.&rft.au=Norvig%2C+Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faima.cs.berkeley.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRussellNorvig2009\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stuart_J._Russell\" title=\"Stuart J. Russell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e38c6f5a629dd2baa69347ae6a6a541a\">Russell, Stuart J.<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig, Peter<\/a> (2009). <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_Intelligence:_A_Modern_Approach\" title=\"Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9dbb28c25594c66d5bac1148dc06e5f6\">Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach<\/a><\/i> (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-13-604259-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+Modern+Approach&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-13-604259-4&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Stuart+J.&rft.au=Norvig%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPooleMackworthGoebel1998\" class=\"citation book\">; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Mackworth\" title=\"Alan Mackworth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0e12463d5ba2a3f90905d9ae7c57867\">Mackworth, Alan<\/a>; (1998). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cs.ubc.ca\/spider\/poole\/ci.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach<\/i><\/a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-19-510270-3.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computational+Intelligence%3A+A+Logical+Approach&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-510270-3&rft.aulast=Poole&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Mackworth%2C+Alan&rft.au=Goebel%2C+Randy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.ubc.ca%2Fspider%2Fpoole%2Fci.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Patrick_Winston\" title=\"Patrick Winston\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c64f3c5473a65ff66615c57996a9e39\">Winston, Patrick Henry<\/a> (1984). <i>Artificial Intelligence<\/i>. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-201-08259-3.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence&rft.place=Reading%2C+MA&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-201-08259-3&rft.aulast=Winston&rft.aufirst=Patrick+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\"> (1983). <i>Artificial Intelligence<\/i>. McGraw-Hill. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-07-052261-9.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-07-052261-9&rft.aulast=Rich&rft.aufirst=Elaine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Bundy\" title=\"Alan Bundy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae48240db360927ded2621eb0a7fdac6\">Bundy, Alan<\/a> (1980). <i>Artificial Intelligence: An Introductory Course<\/i> (2nd ed.). Edinburgh University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-85224-410-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+An+Introductory+Course&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-85224-410-4&rft.aulast=Bundy&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPooleMackworth2017\" class=\"citation book\">; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Mackworth\" title=\"Alan Mackworth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0e12463d5ba2a3f90905d9ae7c57867\">Mackworth, Alan<\/a> (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/artint.info\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational Agents<\/i><\/a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-107-19539-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+Foundations+of+Computational+Agents&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-107-19539-4&rft.aulast=Poole&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Mackworth%2C+Alan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fartint.info%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_AI\">History of AI<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047268\"\/><div class=\"refbegin columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCrevier1993\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Crevier\" title=\"Daniel Crevier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46eaed1414bf84bc2917fb2686c02931\">Crevier, Daniel<\/a> (1993), <i>AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence<\/i>, New York, NY: BasicBooks, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-465-02997-3<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=AI%3A+The+Tumultuous+Search+for+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=BasicBooks&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Crevier&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMcCorduck2004\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pamela_McCorduck\" title=\"Pamela McCorduck\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a3df1a76781c9d5b71f140ed6df22e0\">McCorduck, Pamela<\/a> (2004), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pamelamc.com\/html\/machines_who_think.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Machines Who Think<\/i><\/a> (2nd ed.), Natick, MA: A. K. Peters, Ltd., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 1-56881-205-1<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Machines+Who+Think&rft.place=Natick%2C+MA&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=A.+K.+Peters%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-56881-205-1&rft.aulast=McCorduck&rft.aufirst=Pamela&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pamelamc.com%2Fhtml%2Fmachines_who_think.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HP_Newquist\" title=\"HP Newquist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"feb7727fa709720201bf36fe027309ff\">Newquist, HP<\/a> (1994). <i>The Brain Makers: Genius, Ego, And Greed In The Quest For Machines That Think<\/i>. New York: Macmillan\/SAMS. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-672-30412-5.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Brain+Makers%3A+Genius%2C+Ego%2C+And+Greed+In+The+Quest+For+Machines+That+Think&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan%2FSAMS&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-672-30412-5&rft.aulast=Newquist&rft.aufirst=HP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nils_Nilsson_(researcher)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nils Nilsson (researcher)\" data-key=\"5ec99f61dc752c5fa3f7b86c24345070\">Nilsson, Nils<\/a> (2009). <i>The Quest for Artificial Intelligence: A History of Ideas and Achievements<\/i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-521-12293-1.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quest+for+Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+History+of+Ideas+and+Achievements&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-12293-1&rft.aulast=Nilsson&rft.aufirst=Nils&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_sources\">Other sources<\/span><\/h3>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047268\"\/><div class=\"refbegin columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAsadaHosodaKuniyoshiIshiguro2009\" class=\"citation journal\">Asada, M.; Hosoda, K.; Kuniyoshi, Y.; Ishiguro, H.; Inui, T.; Yoshikawa, Y.; Ogino, M.; Yoshida, C. (2009). \"Cognitive developmental robotics: a survey\". <i>IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development<\/i>. <b>1<\/b> (1): 12\u201334. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2Ftamd.2009.2021702\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/tamd.2009.2021702<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Autonomous+Mental+Development&rft.atitle=Cognitive+developmental+robotics%3A+a+survey&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12-34&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Ftamd.2009.2021702&rft.aulast=Asada&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Hosoda%2C+K.&rft.au=Kuniyoshi%2C+Y.&rft.au=Ishiguro%2C+H.&rft.au=Inui%2C+T.&rft.au=Yoshikawa%2C+Y.&rft.au=Ogino%2C+M.&rft.au=Yoshida%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFACM1998\" class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20071012025921\/http:\/\/www.acm.org\/class\/1998\/I.2.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ACM Computing Classification System: Artificial intelligence\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_for_Computing_Machinery\" title=\"Association for Computing Machinery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d44eae5903ccb21b4fe3765a37220bb0\">ACM<\/a>. 1998. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.acm.org\/class\/1998\/I.2.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 12 October 2007<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 August<\/span> 2007<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ACM+Computing+Classification+System%3A+Artificial+intelligence&rft.pub=ACM&rft.date=1998&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.acm.org%2Fclass%2F1998%2FI.2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGoodman2016\" class=\"citation book\"> (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ark-group.com\/product\/robots-law-how-artificial-intelligence-transforming-legal-services\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Robots in Law: How Artificial Intelligence is Transforming Legal Services<\/i><\/a> (1st ed.). Ark Group. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-78358-264-8.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robots+in+Law%3A+How+Artificial+Intelligence+is+Transforming+Legal+Services&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Ark+Group&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-78358-264-8&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Joanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ark-group.com%2Fproduct%2Frobots-law-how-artificial-intelligence-transforming-legal-services&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAlbus2002\" class=\"citation encyclopaedia\">Albus, J. S. (2002). \"4D\/RCS: A reference model architecture for intelligent unmanned ground vehicles\". In Gerhart, G.; Gunderson, R.; Shoemaker, C. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20040725051856\/http:\/\/www.isd.mel.nist.gov\/documents\/albus\/4DRCS.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>4-D\/RCS: A Reference Model Architecture for Intelligent Unmanned Ground Vehicles<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Proceedings of the SPIE AeroSense Session on Unmanned Ground Vehicle Technology<\/i>. Unmanned Ground Vehicle Technology IV. <b>3693<\/b>. pp. 11\u201320. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode\" title=\"Bibcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8d53091b41d79b165d88661365dde91\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2002SPIE.4715..303A\" target=\"_blank\">2002SPIE.4715..303A<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.15.14\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.15.14<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1117%2F12.474462\" target=\"_blank\">10.1117\/12.474462<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.isd.mel.nist.gov\/documents\/albus\/4DRCS.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 25 July 2004.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4-D%2FRCS%3A+A+Reference+Model+Architecture+for+Intelligent+Unmanned+Ground+Vehicles&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+SPIE+AeroSense+Session+on+Unmanned+Ground+Vehicle+Technology&rft.series=Unmanned+Ground+Vehicle+Technology+IV&rft.pages=11-20&rft.date=2002&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.15.14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1117%2F12.474462&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002SPIE.4715..303A&rft.aulast=Albus&rft.aufirst=J.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isd.mel.nist.gov%2Fdocuments%2Falbus%2F4DRCS.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAleksander1995\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Igor_Aleksander\" title=\"Igor Aleksander\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0cf54ad0754c5959ad86d1de19882fed\">Aleksander, Igor<\/a> (1995). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19970302014628\/http:\/\/www.ee.ic.ac.uk\/research\/neural\/publications\/iwann.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Artificial Neuroconsciousness: An Update<\/i><\/a>. IWANN. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ee.ic.ac.uk\/research\/neural\/publications\/iwann.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2 March 1997.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Neuroconsciousness%3A+An+Update&rft.pub=IWANN&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Aleksander&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ee.ic.ac.uk%2Fresearch%2Fneural%2Fpublications%2Fiwann.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dblp.uni-trier.de\/rec\/bibtex\/conf\/iwann\/Aleksander95\" target=\"_blank\">BibTex<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/19970302014628\/http:\/\/www.ee.ic.ac.uk\/research\/neural\/publications\/iwann.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2 March 1997 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBach2008\" class=\"citation encyclopaedia\">Bach, Joscha (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=a_ZR81Z25z0C&pg=PA63\" target=\"_blank\">\"Seven Principles of Synthetic Intelligence\"<\/a>. In Wang, Pei; Goertzel, Ben; Franklin, Stan. <i>Artificial General Intelligence, 2008: Proceedings of the First AGI Conference<\/i>. IOS Press. pp. 63\u201374. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-58603-833-5.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Seven+Principles+of+Synthetic+Intelligence&rft.btitle=Artificial+General+Intelligence%2C+2008%3A+Proceedings+of+the+First+AGI+Conference&rft.pages=63-74&rft.pub=IOS+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-58603-833-5&rft.aulast=Bach&rft.aufirst=Joscha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da_ZR81Z25z0C%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBBC_News2006\" class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.bbc.co.uk\/2\/hi\/technology\/6200005.stm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Robots could demand legal rights\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i>. 21 December 2006<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 February<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Robots+could+demand+legal+rights&rft.date=2006-12-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Ftechnology%2F6200005.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrooks1990\" class=\"citation journal\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rodney_Brooks\" title=\"Rodney Brooks\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8193c538969269197c051496ce56e39\">Brooks, Rodney<\/a> (1990). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/people.csail.mit.edu\/brooks\/papers\/elephants.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Elephants Don't Play Chess\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Robotics and Autonomous Systems<\/i>. <b>6<\/b> (1\u20132): 3\u201315. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.588.7539\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.588.7539<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0921-8890%2805%2980025-9\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/S0921-8890(05)80025-9<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070809020912\/http:\/\/people.csail.mit.edu\/brooks\/papers\/elephants.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 9 August 2007.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Robotics+and+Autonomous+Systems&rft.atitle=Elephants+Don%27t+Play+Chess&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=3-15&rft.date=1990&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.588.7539&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0921-8890%2805%2980025-9&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=Rodney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.csail.mit.edu%2Fbrooks%2Fpapers%2Felephants.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBrooks1991\" class=\"citation encyclopaedia\">Brooks, R. A. (1991). \"How to build complete creatures rather than isolated cognitive simulators\". In VanLehn, K. <i>Architectures for Intelligence<\/i>. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 225\u2013239. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.52.9510\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.52.9510<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=How+to+build+complete+creatures+rather+than+isolated+cognitive+simulators&rft.btitle=Architectures+for+Intelligence&rft.place=Hillsdale%2C+NJ&rft.pages=225-239&rft.pub=Lawrence+Erlbaum+Associates&rft.date=1991&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.52.9510&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=R.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBuchanan2005\" class=\"citation journal\">Buchanan, Bruce G. (2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070926023314\/http:\/\/www.aaai.org\/AITopics\/assets\/PDF\/AIMag26-04-016.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A (Very) Brief History of Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>AI Magazine<\/i>: 53\u201360. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aaai.org\/AITopics\/assets\/PDF\/AIMag26-04-016.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 26 September 2007.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AI+Magazine&rft.atitle=A+%28Very%29+Brief+History+of+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.pages=53-60&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Buchanan&rft.aufirst=Bruce+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaai.org%2FAITopics%2Fassets%2FPDF%2FAIMag26-04-016.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFButler1863\" class=\"citation news\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Samuel_Butler_(novelist)\" title=\"Samuel Butler (novelist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e10417b2af600ca52e522c57713009b3\">Butler, Samuel<\/a> (13 June 1863). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nzetc.org\/tm\/scholarly\/tei-ButFir-t1-g1-t1-g1-t4-body.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Darwin among the Machines\"<\/a>. Letters to the Editor. <i>The Press<\/i>. Christchurch, New Zealand<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 October<\/span> 2014<\/span> – via Victoria University of Wellington.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Press&rft.atitle=Darwin+among+the+Machines&rft.date=1863-06-13&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzetc.org%2Ftm%2Fscholarly%2Ftei-ButFir-t1-g1-t1-g1-t4-body.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFClark2015\" class=\"citation web\">Clark, Jack (8 December 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2015-12-08\/why-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why 2015 Was a Breakthrough Year in Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>Bloomberg News<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161123053855\/https:\/\/www.bloomberg.com\/news\/articles\/2015-12-08\/why-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 23 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>. <q>After a half-decade of quiet breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, 2015 has been a landmark year. Computers are smarter and learning faster than ever.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bloomberg+News&rft.atitle=Why+2015+Was+a+Breakthrough+Year+in+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.date=2015-12-08&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2015-12-08%2Fwhy-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCNN2006\" class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2006\/TECH\/science\/07\/24\/ai.bostrom\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"AI set to exceed human brain power\"<\/a>. <i>CNN<\/i>. 26 July 2006. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080219001624\/http:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2006\/TECH\/science\/07\/24\/ai.bostrom\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 February 2008.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=AI+set+to+exceed+human+brain+power&rft.date=2006-07-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2006%2FTECH%2Fscience%2F07%2F24%2Fai.bostrom%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDennett1991\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Dennett\" title=\"Daniel Dennett\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"400639e3b2831a6424003b83d2f2fdec\">Dennett, Daniel<\/a> (1991). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consciousness_Explained\" title=\"Consciousness Explained\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ef96bdd30d20d37237543ce2c388f62\"><i>Consciousness Explained<\/i><\/a>. The Penguin Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-7139-9037-9.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consciousness+Explained&rft.pub=The+Penguin+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7139-9037-9&rft.aulast=Dennett&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDomingos2015\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pedro_Domingos\" title=\"Pedro Domingos\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"054fdd869e12e909b1bb7842a2b55e14\">Domingos, Pedro<\/a> (2015). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Master_Algorithm\" title=\"The Master Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18c2fcdd2e2c3cfc53b5f3dd7dfe8550\"><i>The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World<\/i><\/a>. Basic Books. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-465-06192-1.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Master+Algorithm%3A+How+the+Quest+for+the+Ultimate+Learning+Machine+Will+Remake+Our+World&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-465-06192-1&rft.aulast=Domingos&rft.aufirst=Pedro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDoweHajek1997\" class=\"citation journal\">Dowe, D. L.; Hajek, A. R. (1997). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110628194905\/http:\/\/www.csse.monash.edu.au\/publications\/1997\/tr-cs97-322-abs.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A computational extension to the Turing Test\"<\/a>. <i>Proceedings of the 4th Conference of the Australasian Cognitive Science Society<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.csse.monash.edu.au\/publications\/1997\/tr-cs97-322-abs.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 28 June 2011.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+4th+Conference+of+the+Australasian+Cognitive+Science+Society&rft.atitle=A+computational+extension+to+the+Turing+Test&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Dowe&rft.aufirst=D.+L.&rft.au=Hajek%2C+A.+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csse.monash.edu.au%2Fpublications%2F1997%2Ftr-cs97-322-abs.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDreyfus1972\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hubert_Dreyfus\" title=\"Hubert Dreyfus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7b4ff8e951542af50a558d4a1d6abc5\">Dreyfus, Hubert<\/a> (1972). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/What_Computers_Can%27t_Do\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"What Computers Can't Do\" data-key=\"e94c158ee445cf022cbee701236f9c14\"><i>What Computers Can't Do<\/i><\/a>. New York: MIT Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-06-011082-6.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Computers+Can%27t+Do&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-06-011082-6&rft.aulast=Dreyfus&rft.aufirst=Hubert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDreyfusDreyfus1986\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hubert_Dreyfus\" title=\"Hubert Dreyfus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7b4ff8e951542af50a558d4a1d6abc5\">Dreyfus, Hubert<\/a>; Dreyfus, Stuart (1986). <i>Mind over Machine: The Power of Human Intuition and Expertise in the Era of the Computer<\/i>. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-02-908060-3.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mind+over+Machine%3A+The+Power+of+Human+Intuition+and+Expertise+in+the+Era+of+the+Computer&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-02-908060-3&rft.aulast=Dreyfus&rft.aufirst=Hubert&rft.au=Dreyfus%2C+Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDreyfus1992\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hubert_Dreyfus\" title=\"Hubert Dreyfus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7b4ff8e951542af50a558d4a1d6abc5\">Dreyfus, Hubert<\/a> (1992). <i>What Computers <\/i>Still<i> Can't Do<\/i>. New York: MIT Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-262-54067-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Computers+Still+Can%27t+Do&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-262-54067-4&rft.aulast=Dreyfus&rft.aufirst=Hubert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDyson1998\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Dyson_(science_historian)\" title=\"George Dyson (science historian)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24ab0a81cf8f365c1303a86a89652fce\">Dyson, George<\/a> (1998). <i>Darwin among the Machines<\/i>. Allan Lane Science. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-7382-0030-9.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darwin+among+the+Machines&rft.pub=Allan+Lane+Science&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7382-0030-9&rft.aulast=Dyson&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEdelman2007\" class=\"citation web\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gerald_Edelman\" title=\"Gerald Edelman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"935a4d884991837fa5a00b63345f4d64\">Edelman, Gerald<\/a> (23 November 2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091008184132\/http:\/\/lis.epfl.ch\/resources\/podcast\/2007\/11\/gerald-edelman-neural-darwinism-and.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Gerald Edelman \u2013 Neural Darwinism and Brain-based Devices\"<\/a>. Talking Robots. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/lis.epfl.ch\/resources\/podcast\/2007\/11\/gerald-edelman-neural-darwinism-and.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 8 October 2009.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gerald+Edelman+%E2%80%93+Neural+Darwinism+and+Brain-based+Devices&rft.pub=Talking+Robots&rft.date=2007-11-23&rft.aulast=Edelman&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flis.epfl.ch%2Fresources%2Fpodcast%2F2007%2F11%2Fgerald-edelman-neural-darwinism-and.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFEdelson1991\" class=\"citation book\">Edelson, Edward (1991). <i>The Nervous System<\/i>. New York: Chelsea House. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-7910-0464-7.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nervous+System&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Chelsea+House&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7910-0464-7&rft.aulast=Edelson&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFearn2007\" class=\"citation book\">Fearn, Nicholas (2007). <i>The Latest Answers to the Oldest Questions: A Philosophical Adventure with the World's Greatest Thinkers<\/i>. New York: Grove Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-8021-1839-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Latest+Answers+to+the+Oldest+Questions%3A+A+Philosophical+Adventure+with+the+World%27s+Greatest+Thinkers&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8021-1839-4&rft.aulast=Fearn&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGladwell2005\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malcolm_Gladwell\" title=\"Malcolm Gladwell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2055e7fdc149bf8f1bfa60422f3a2e84\">Gladwell, Malcolm<\/a> (2005). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blink_(book)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Blink (book)\" data-key=\"1a45c0d86f2a66cd25bb84500e4e1d1c\"><i>Blink<\/i><\/a>. New York: Little, Brown and Co. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-316-17232-5.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blink&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+and+Co.&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-316-17232-5&rft.aulast=Gladwell&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFG\u00f6del1951\" class=\"citation conference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kurt_G%C3%B6del\" title=\"Kurt G\u00f6del\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"020c4629de6c9e627e208aa36e20161e\">G\u00f6del, Kurt<\/a> (1951). <i>Some basic theorems on the foundations of mathematics and their implications<\/i>. Gibbs Lecture.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Some+basic+theorems+on+the+foundations+of+mathematics+and+their+implications&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=G%C3%B6del&rft.aufirst=Kurt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> In<br \/> <cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Solomon_Feferman\" title=\"Solomon Feferman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef582dda3345eeb32b2a117f71b42d98\">Feferman, Solomon<\/a>, ed. (1995). <i>Kurt G\u00f6del: Collected Works, Vol. III: Unpublished Essays and Lectures<\/i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 304\u201323. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-19-514722-3.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kurt+G%C3%B6del%3A+Collected+Works%2C+Vol.+III%3A+Unpublished+Essays+and+Lectures&rft.pages=304-23&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514722-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHaugeland1985\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Haugeland\" title=\"John Haugeland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"710a0edda7eb08c160d2f42b2fc27b00\">Haugeland, John<\/a> (1985). <i>Artificial Intelligence: The Very Idea<\/i>. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-262-08153-5.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+The+Very+Idea&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-262-08153-5&rft.aulast=Haugeland&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHawkinsBlakeslee2005\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jeff_Hawkins\" title=\"Jeff Hawkins\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f14462613cf3e17e9b808f5cfa691c45\">Hawkins, Jeff<\/a>; Blakeslee, Sandra (2005). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/On_Intelligence\" title=\"On Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c009a16655865711394f2e6d5a2b8c9a\"><i>On Intelligence<\/i><\/a>. New York, NY: Owl Books. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-8050-7853-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Intelligence&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Owl+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-7853-4&rft.aulast=Hawkins&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft.au=Blakeslee%2C+Sandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHenderson2007\" class=\"citation news\">Henderson, Mark (24 April 2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.thetimes.co.uk\/tto\/technology\/article1966391.ece\" target=\"_blank\">\"Human rights for robots? We're getting carried away\"<\/a>. <i>The Times Online<\/i>. London.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times+Online&rft.atitle=Human+rights+for+robots%3F+We%27re+getting+carried+away&rft.date=2007-04-24&rft.aulast=Henderson&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetimes.co.uk%2Ftto%2Ftechnology%2Farticle1966391.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHernandez-Orallo2000\" class=\"citation journal\">Hernandez-Orallo, Jose (2000). \"Beyond the Turing Test\". <i>Journal of Logic, Language and Information<\/i>. <b>9<\/b> (4): 447\u2013466. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023%2FA%3A1008367325700\" target=\"_blank\">10.1023\/A:1008367325700<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Logic%2C+Language+and+Information&rft.atitle=Beyond+the+Turing+Test&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=447-466&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1008367325700&rft.aulast=Hernandez-Orallo&rft.aufirst=Jose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHernandez-OralloDowe2010\" class=\"citation journal\">Hernandez-Orallo, J.; Dowe, D. 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(2010). \"Measuring Universal Intelligence: Towards an Anytime Intelligence Test\". <i>Artificial Intelligence<\/i>. <b>174<\/b> (18): 1508\u20131539. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.295.9079\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.295.9079<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.artint.2010.09.006\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.artint.2010.09.006<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artificial+Intelligence&rft.atitle=Measuring+Universal+Intelligence%3A+Towards+an+Anytime+Intelligence+Test&rft.volume=174&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=1508-1539&rft.date=2010&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.295.9079&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.artint.2010.09.006&rft.aulast=Hernandez-Orallo&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Dowe%2C+D.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHinton2007\" class=\"citation journal\">Hinton, G. E. (2007). \"Learning multiple layers of representation\". <i>Trends in Cognitive Sciences<\/i>. <b>11<\/b> (10): 428\u2013434. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.tics.2007.09.004\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.tics.2007.09.004<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/17921042\" target=\"_blank\">17921042<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cognitive+Sciences&rft.atitle=Learning+multiple+layers+of+representation&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=428-434&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tics.2007.09.004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17921042&rft.aulast=Hinton&rft.aufirst=G.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHofstadter1979\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Douglas_Hofstadter\" title=\"Douglas Hofstadter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c6ad1102cab4b007ba9432c56ae0c6f\">Hofstadter, Douglas<\/a> (1979). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/G%C3%B6del,_Escher,_Bach\" title=\"G\u00f6del, Escher, Bach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b7d0eb2aee1af4986ddcca3e3bb96f5c\"><i>G\u00f6del, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid<\/i><\/a>. New York, NY: Vintage Books. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-394-74502-2.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=G%C3%B6del%2C+Escher%2C+Bach%3A+an+Eternal+Golden+Braid&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Vintage+Books&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-394-74502-2&rft.aulast=Hofstadter&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHolland1975\" class=\"citation book\">Holland, John H. (1975). <i>Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems<\/i>. University of Michigan Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-262-58111-0.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adaptation+in+Natural+and+Artificial+Systems&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-262-58111-0&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHowe1994\" class=\"citation web\">Howe, J. (November 1994). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.inf.ed.ac.uk\/about\/AIhistory.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence at Edinburgh University: a Perspective\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 August<\/span> 2007<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence+at+Edinburgh+University%3A+a+Perspective&rft.date=1994-11&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.inf.ed.ac.uk%2Fabout%2FAIhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHutter2012\" class=\"citation book\">Hutter, M. (2012). \"One Decade of Universal Artificial Intelligence\". <i>Theoretical Foundations of Artificial General Intelligence<\/i>. Atlantis Thinking Machines. <b>4<\/b>. pp. 67\u201388. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.228.8725\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.228.8725<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2991%2F978-94-91216-62-6_5\" target=\"_blank\">10.2991\/978-94-91216-62-6_5<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-94-91216-61-9.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=One+Decade+of+Universal+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.btitle=Theoretical+Foundations+of+Artificial+General+Intelligence&rft.series=Atlantis+Thinking+Machines&rft.pages=67-88&rft.date=2012&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.228.8725&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2991%2F978-94-91216-62-6_5&rft.isbn=978-94-91216-61-9&rft.aulast=Hutter&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKahnemanSlovicTversky1982\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Daniel_Kahneman\" title=\"Daniel Kahneman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45fadd048de64f2457eb0179d1ee33b4\">Kahneman, Daniel<\/a>; Slovic, D.; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amos_Tversky\" title=\"Amos Tversky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2345ee00b19a19d9580e6672da5cc240\">Tversky, Amos<\/a> (1982). <i>Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases<\/i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-521-28414-1.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judgment+under+uncertainty%3A+Heuristics+and+biases&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-521-28414-1&rft.aulast=Kahneman&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Slovic%2C+D.&rft.au=Tversky%2C+Amos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKaplanHaenlein2018\" class=\"citation journal\">Kaplan, Andreas; Haenlein, Michael (2018). \"Siri, Siri in my Hand, who's the Fairest in the Land? 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MIT Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode\" title=\"Bibcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8d53091b41d79b165d88661365dde91\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/1992gppc.book.....K\" target=\"_blank\">1992gppc.book.....K<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-262-11170-6.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genetic+Programming+%28On+the+Programming+of+Computers+by+Means+of+Natural+Selection%29&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992gppc.book.....K&rft.isbn=978-0-262-11170-6&rft.aulast=Koza&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKolata1982\" class=\"citation journal\">Kolata, G. (1982). \"How can computers get common sense?\". <i>Science<\/i>. <b>217<\/b> (4566): 1237\u20131238. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode\" title=\"Bibcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8d53091b41d79b165d88661365dde91\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/1982Sci...217.1237K\" target=\"_blank\">1982Sci...217.1237K<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.217.4566.1237\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.217.4566.1237<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/17837639\" target=\"_blank\">17837639<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=How+can+computers+get+common+sense%3F&rft.volume=217&rft.issue=4566&rft.pages=1237-1238&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17837639&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.217.4566.1237&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1982Sci...217.1237K&rft.aulast=Kolata&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKumarKumar2012\" class=\"citation journal\">Kumar, Gulshan; Kumar, Krishan (2012). \"The Use of Artificial-Intelligence-Based Ensembles for Intrusion Detection: A Review\". <i>Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing<\/i>. <b>2012<\/b>: 1\u201320. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155%2F2012%2F850160\" target=\"_blank\">10.1155\/2012\/850160<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Computational+Intelligence+and+Soft+Computing&rft.atitle=The+Use+of+Artificial-Intelligence-Based+Ensembles+for+Intrusion+Detection%3A+A+Review&rft.volume=2012&rft.pages=1-20&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2012%2F850160&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Gulshan&rft.au=Kumar%2C+Krishan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKurzweil1999\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Kurzweil\" title=\"Ray Kurzweil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bfcf52303d37aac624912e3fdddd296\">Kurzweil, Ray<\/a> (1999). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Age_of_Spiritual_Machines\" title=\"The Age of Spiritual Machines\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f434e38ccc351fd38dd6358d76c45fff\"><i>The Age of Spiritual Machines<\/i><\/a>. Penguin Books. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-670-88217-5.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Spiritual+Machines&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-670-88217-5&rft.aulast=Kurzweil&rft.aufirst=Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKurzweil2005\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Kurzweil\" title=\"Ray Kurzweil\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bfcf52303d37aac624912e3fdddd296\">Kurzweil, Ray<\/a> (2005). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Singularity_is_Near\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"The Singularity is Near\" data-key=\"c64ef1fe142a126a0999d7cb2a96b17f\"><i>The Singularity is Near<\/i><\/a>. Penguin Books. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-670-03384-3.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Singularity+is+Near&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-670-03384-3&rft.aulast=Kurzweil&rft.aufirst=Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLakoffN\u00fa\u00f1ez2000\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/George_Lakoff\" title=\"George Lakoff\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9bca3338fbc0084c6156499d86fd90f\">Lakoff, George<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rafael_E._N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez\" title=\"Rafael E. N\u00fa\u00f1ez\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edcbf4735f918c266725b6b645c9dcb7\">N\u00fa\u00f1ez, Rafael E.<\/a> (2000). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Where_Mathematics_Comes_From\" title=\"Where Mathematics Comes From\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f870f1e95d9c150be0a22fd12db11e90\"><i>Where Mathematics Comes From: How the Embodied Mind Brings Mathematics into Being<\/i><\/a>. Basic Books. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-465-03771-1.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Where+Mathematics+Comes+From%3A+How+the+Embodied+Mind+Brings+Mathematics+into+Being&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-465-03771-1&rft.aulast=Lakoff&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez%2C+Rafael+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLangley2011\" class=\"citation journal\">Langley, Pat (2011). \"The changing science of machine learning\". <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_Learning_(journal)\" title=\"Machine Learning (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27721329792e0278fe13787f13d45840\">Machine Learning<\/a><\/i>. <b>82<\/b> (3): 275\u2013279. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10994-011-5242-y\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s10994-011-5242-y<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Machine+Learning&rft.atitle=The+changing+science+of+machine+learning&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=275-279&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10994-011-5242-y&rft.aulast=Langley&rft.aufirst=Pat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLaw1994\" class=\"citation techreport\">Law, Diane (June 1994). <i>Searle, Subsymbolic Functionalism and Synthetic Intelligence<\/i> (Technical report). University of Texas at Austin. p. AI94-222. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.38.8384\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.38.8384<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Searle%2C+Subsymbolic+Functionalism+and+Synthetic+Intelligence&rft.pages=AI94-222&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+at+Austin&rft.date=1994-06&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.38.8384&rft.aulast=Law&rft.aufirst=Diane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLeggHutter2007\" class=\"citation techreport\">Legg, Shane; Hutter, Marcus (15 June 2007). <i>A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence<\/i> (Technical report). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IDSIA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IDSIA\" data-key=\"2bcc189575f316cb7c6a391fb40677bb\">IDSIA<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ArXiv\" title=\"ArXiv\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b604eac0fe0659f490c93649bb7700\">arXiv<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/0706.3639\" target=\"_blank\">0706.3639<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode\" title=\"Bibcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8d53091b41d79b165d88661365dde91\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2007arXiv0706.3639L\" target=\"_blank\">2007arXiv0706.3639L<\/a>. 07-07.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=A+Collection+of+Definitions+of+Intelligence&rft.pub=IDSIA&rft.date=2007-06-15&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0706.3639&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007arXiv0706.3639L&rft.aulast=Legg&rft.aufirst=Shane&rft.au=Hutter%2C+Marcus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLenatGuha1989\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Douglas_Lenat\" title=\"Douglas Lenat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fab9f948aad98953f943d7d1de883e91\">Lenat, Douglas<\/a>; Guha, R. V. (1989). <i>Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems<\/i>. Addison-Wesley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-201-51752-1.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Building+Large+Knowledge-Based+Systems&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-201-51752-1&rft.aulast=Lenat&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft.au=Guha%2C+R.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLighthill1973\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/James_Lighthill\" title=\"James Lighthill\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1cc095758af88371cdb95668fb4fca29\">Lighthill, James<\/a> (1973). \"Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey\". <i>Artificial Intelligence: a paper symposium<\/i>. Science Research Council.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+A+General+Survey&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence%3A+a+paper+symposium&rft.pub=Science+Research+Council&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Lighthill&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLucas1961\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Lucas_(philosopher)\" title=\"John Lucas (philosopher)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10ddf48c6fe0ab2e718f6e3b80136802\">Lucas, John<\/a> (1961). \"Minds, Machines and G\u00f6del\". In Anderson, A.R. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/users.ox.ac.uk\/~jrlucas\/Godel\/mmg.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Minds and Machines<\/i><\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070819165214\/http:\/\/users.ox.ac.uk\/~jrlucas\/Godel\/mmg.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 August 2007<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(1969). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www-formal.stanford.edu\/jmc\/mcchay69.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Some philosophical problems from the standpoint of artificial intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>Machine Intelligence<\/i>. <b>4<\/b>: 463\u2013502. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.85.5082\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.85.5082<\/a><\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070810233856\/http:\/\/www-formal.stanford.edu\/jmc\/mcchay69.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 August 2007<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-13-165449-5.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computation%3A+Finite+and+Infinite+Machines&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-13-165449-5&rft.aulast=Minsky&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMinsky2006\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marvin_Minsky\" title=\"Marvin Minsky\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5677de93e5b6dc185b95ffc880ffe34\">Minsky, Marvin<\/a> (2006). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Emotion_Machine\" title=\"The Emotion Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"211eeb6b581151269c536b849f5a239d\"><i>The Emotion Machine<\/i><\/a>. New York, NY: Simon & Schusterl. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-7432-7663-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emotion+Machine&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schusterl&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-7663-4&rft.aulast=Minsky&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMoravec1988\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hans_Moravec\" title=\"Hans Moravec\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"251f9e14d86954130e9f7e16aa21c877\">Moravec, Hans<\/a> (1988). <i>Mind Children<\/i>. Harvard University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-674-57616-2.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mind+Children&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-674-57616-2&rft.aulast=Moravec&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNorvig2012\" class=\"citation web\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Norvig\" title=\"Peter Norvig\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"681461eb2a0dfd85ab3e7c620a4c4ef0\">Norvig, Peter<\/a> (25 June 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/norvig.com\/chomsky.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"On Chomsky and the Two Cultures of Statistical Learning\"<\/a>. Peter Norvig. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141019223259\/http:\/\/norvig.com\/chomsky.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 October 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+Chomsky+and+the+Two+Cultures+of+Statistical+Learning&rft.pub=Peter+Norvig&rft.date=2012-06-25&rft.aulast=Norvig&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnorvig.com%2Fchomsky.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNRC1999\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_National_Research_Council\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"United States National Research Council\" data-key=\"f2b29a0245cb37417c0425aa4f9868b4\">NRC (United States National Research Council)<\/a> (1999). \"Developments in Artificial Intelligence\". <i>Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research<\/i>. National Academy Press.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Developments+in+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.btitle=Funding+a+Revolution%3A+Government+Support+for+Computing+Research&rft.pub=National+Academy+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.au=NRC+%28United+States+National+Research+Council%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNeedham1986\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Joseph_Needham\" title=\"Joseph Needham\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55c6cc3064ed996d02f7a9b57fce994e\">Needham, Joseph<\/a> (1986). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Science_and_Civilization_in_China\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Science and Civilization in China\" data-key=\"76a6b60afebc1f5f55714d97be935b97\"><i>Science and Civilization in China: Volume 2<\/i><\/a>. Caves Books Ltd.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Civilization+in+China%3A+Volume+2&rft.pub=Caves+Books+Ltd.&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNewellSimon1976\" class=\"citation journal\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Allen_Newell\" title=\"Allen Newell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92e155bb916e0a942167e5882906563e\">Newell, Allen<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herbert_A._Simon\" title=\"Herbert A. Simon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d9e38903367abeb4880342cd666b2b0\">Simon, H. A.<\/a> (1976). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081007162810\/http:\/\/www.rci.rutgers.edu\/~cfs\/472_html\/AI_SEARCH\/PSS\/PSSH4.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Computer Science as Empirical Inquiry: Symbols and Search\"<\/a>. <i>Communications of the ACM<\/i>. <b>19<\/b> (3): 113\u2013126. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F360018.360022\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/360018.360022<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rci.rutgers.edu\/~cfs\/472_html\/AI_SEARCH\/PSS\/PSSH4.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 7 October 2008.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&rft.atitle=Computer+Science+as+Empirical+Inquiry%3A+Symbols+and+Search&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=113-126&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F360018.360022&rft.aulast=Newell&rft.aufirst=Allen&rft.au=Simon%2C+H.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rci.rutgers.edu%2F~cfs%2F472_html%2FAI_SEARCH%2FPSS%2FPSSH4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNilsson1983\" class=\"citation journal\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nils_Nilsson_(researcher)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Nils Nilsson (researcher)\" data-key=\"5ec99f61dc752c5fa3f7b86c24345070\">Nilsson, Nils<\/a> (1983). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ai.stanford.edu\/~nilsson\/OnlinePubs-Nils\/General%20Essays\/AIMag04-04-002.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence Prepares for 2001\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>AI Magazine<\/i>. <b>1<\/b> (1).<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AI+Magazine&rft.atitle=Artificial+Intelligence+Prepares+for+2001&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Nilsson&rft.aufirst=Nils&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fai.stanford.edu%2F~nilsson%2FOnlinePubs-Nils%2FGeneral%2520Essays%2FAIMag04-04-002.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> Presidential Address to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Artificial_Intelligence\" title=\"Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8d17dba2c2805408d4a3fc60e820e1e\">Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFO'BrienMarakas2011\" class=\"citation book\">O'Brien, James; Marakas, George (2011). <i>Management Information Systems<\/i> (10th ed.). 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University of Pennsylvania: 1\u2013435.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+alchemical+creation+of+life+%28takwin%29+and+other+concepts+of+Genesis+in+medieval+Islam&rft.pages=1-435&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=Kathleen+Malone&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frepository.upenn.edu%2Fdissertations%2FAAI9503804&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOudeyer2010\" class=\"citation journal\">Oudeyer, P-Y. (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pyoudeyer.com\/IEEETAMDOudeyer10.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"On the impact of robotics in behavioral and cognitive sciences: from insect navigation to human cognitive development\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development<\/i>. <b>2<\/b> (1): 2\u201316. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2Ftamd.2009.2039057\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/tamd.2009.2039057<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Autonomous+Mental+Development&rft.atitle=On+the+impact+of+robotics+in+behavioral+and+cognitive+sciences%3A+from+insect+navigation+to+human+cognitive+development&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-16&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2Ftamd.2009.2039057&rft.aulast=Oudeyer&rft.aufirst=P-Y.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pyoudeyer.com%2FIEEETAMDOudeyer10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPenrose1989\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Roger_Penrose\" title=\"Roger Penrose\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae853f6825affd3f8c392df77b1c0719\">Penrose, Roger<\/a> (1989). <i>The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computer, Minds and The Laws of Physics<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oxford_University_Press\" title=\"Oxford University Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d18ae98bb880a41214eeea3e78f31ffe\">Oxford University Press<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-19-851973-7.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emperor%27s+New+Mind%3A+Concerning+Computer%2C+Minds+and+The+Laws+of+Physics&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-19-851973-7&rft.aulast=Penrose&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPoliLangdonMcPhee2008\" class=\"citation book\">Poli, R.; Langdon, W. 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Lulu.com. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-4092-0073-4 – via gp-field-guide.org.uk.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Field+Guide+to+Genetic+Programming&rft.pub=Lulu.com&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4092-0073-4&rft.aulast=Poli&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Langdon%2C+W.+B.&rft.au=McPhee%2C+N.+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gp-field-guide.org.uk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFRajani2011\" class=\"citation journal\">Rajani, Sandeep (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130118095844\/http:\/\/www.csjournals.com\/IJITKM\/PDF%204-1\/35.Sandeep%20Rajani.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence \u2013 Man or Machine\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>International Journal of Information Technology and Knowledge Management<\/i>. <b>4<\/b> (1): 173\u2013176. 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A. and Sipper, M. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/0B6G3tbmMcpR4TFdHSXNFWUtlNWc\/view?usp=sharing\" target=\"_blank\">Intelligence is not enough: On the socialization of talking machines, Minds and Machines<\/a>, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 567\u2013576, November 2001.<\/li>\n<li>Ronald, E. M. A. and Sipper, M. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/drive.google.com\/file\/d\/0B6G3tbmMcpR4VnpOX0xxazFNbjA\/view?usp=sharing\" target=\"_blank\">What use is a Turing chatterbox?<\/a>, Communications of the ACM, vol. 43, no. 10, pp. 21\u201323, October 2000.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSearle1980\" class=\"citation journal\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Searle\" title=\"John Searle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8a0c5f2845bfc0d1b015937657a9b1f\">Searle, John<\/a> (1980). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100118120034\/http:\/\/www.bbsonline.org\/documents\/a\/00\/00\/04\/84\/bbs00000484-00\/bbs.searle2.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Minds, Brains and Programs\"<\/a>. <i>Behavioral and Brain Sciences<\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (3): 417\u2013457. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017%2FS0140525X00005756\" target=\"_blank\">10.1017\/S0140525X00005756<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bbsonline.org\/documents\/a\/00\/00\/04\/84\/bbs00000484-00\/bbs.searle2.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 18 January 2010.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=Minds%2C+Brains+and+Programs&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=417-457&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X00005756&rft.aulast=Searle&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbsonline.org%2Fdocuments%2Fa%2F00%2F00%2F04%2F84%2Fbbs00000484-00%2Fbbs.searle2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSearle1999\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Searle\" title=\"John Searle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8a0c5f2845bfc0d1b015937657a9b1f\">Searle, John<\/a> (1999). <i>Mind, language and society<\/i>. New York, NY: Basic Books. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-465-04521-1. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC\" title=\"OCLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e119fc7e1d352d47ef5b80f32a4b20c3\">OCLC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/231867665\" target=\"_blank\">231867665<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mind%2C+language+and+society&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F231867665&rft.isbn=978-0-465-04521-1&rft.aulast=Searle&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFShapiro1992\" class=\"citation book\">Shapiro, Stuart C. (1992). \"Artificial Intelligence\". In Shapiro, Stuart C. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cse.buffalo.edu\/~shapiro\/Papers\/ai.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Encyclopedia of Artificial Intelligence<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley. pp. 54\u201357. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-471-50306-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Artificial+Intelligence&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=54-57&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-471-50306-4&rft.aulast=Shapiro&rft.aufirst=Stuart+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cse.buffalo.edu%2F~shapiro%2FPapers%2Fai.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSimon1965\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Herbert_A._Simon\" title=\"Herbert A. Simon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d9e38903367abeb4880342cd666b2b0\">Simon, H. A.<\/a> (1965). <i>The Shape of Automation for Men and Management<\/i>. New York: Harper & Row.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shape+of+Automation+for+Men+and+Management&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=H.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSkillings2006\" class=\"citation web\">Skillings, Jonathan (3 July 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.cnet.com\/Getting-machines-to-think-like-us\/2008-11394_3-6090207.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Getting Machines to Think Like Us\"<\/a>. <i>cnet<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 February<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cnet&rft.atitle=Getting+Machines+to+Think+Like+Us&rft.date=2006-07-03&rft.aulast=Skillings&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.cnet.com%2FGetting-machines-to-think-like-us%2F2008-11394_3-6090207.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFSolomonoff1956\" class=\"citation conference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ray_Solomonoff\" title=\"Ray Solomonoff\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"938a83ba5a77aced401a2894a2e4abde\">Solomonoff, Ray<\/a> (1956). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/world.std.com\/~rjs\/indinf56.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>An Inductive Inference Machine<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Dartmouth Summer Research Conference on Artificial Intelligence – via std.com, pdf scanned copy of the original.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=An+Inductive+Inference+Machine&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Solomonoff&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworld.std.com%2F~rjs%2Findinf56.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> Later published as<br \/><cite class=\"citation book\">Solomonoff, Ray (1957). \"An Inductive Inference Machine\". <i>IRE Convention Record<\/i>. Section on Information Theory, part 2. pp. 56\u201362.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+Inductive+Inference+Machine&rft.btitle=IRE+Convention+Record&rft.pages=56-62&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Solomonoff&rft.aufirst=Ray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTaoTan2005\" class=\"citation conference\">Tao, Jianhua; Tan, Tieniu (2005). <i>Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction<\/i>. Affective Computing: A Review. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LNCS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"LNCS\" data-key=\"61c6b3efd899c9a14fecefc6efe7163a\">LNCS<\/a> 3784. Springer. pp. 981\u2013995. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F11573548\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/11573548<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Affective+Computing+and+Intelligent+Interaction&rft.pages=981-995&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F11573548&rft.aulast=Tao&rft.aufirst=Jianhua&rft.au=Tan%2C+Tieniu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTecuci2012\" class=\"citation journal\">Tecuci, Gheorghe (March\u2013April 2012). \"Artificial Intelligence\". <i>Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Computational Statistics<\/i>. <b>4<\/b> (2): 168\u2013180. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002%2Fwics.200\" target=\"_blank\">10.1002\/wics.200<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wiley+Interdisciplinary+Reviews%3A+Computational+Statistics&rft.atitle=Artificial+Intelligence&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=168-180&rft.date=2012-03%2F2012-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fwics.200&rft.aulast=Tecuci&rft.aufirst=Gheorghe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFThro1993\" class=\"citation book\">Thro, Ellen (1993). <i>Robotics: The Marriage of Computers and Machines<\/i>. New York: Facts on File. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-8160-2628-9.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robotics%3A+The+Marriage+of+Computers+and+Machines&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-2628-9&rft.aulast=Thro&rft.aufirst=Ellen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTuring1950\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Turing\" title=\"Alan Turing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48468f77ba0cf295402108f0dd72c040\">Turing, Alan<\/a> (October 1950), \"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\", <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mind_(journal)\" title=\"Mind (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7d8a82bb0475f3d765461e8aef179b2\">Mind<\/a><\/i>, <b>LIX<\/b> (236): 433\u2013460, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093%2Fmind%2FLIX.236.433\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/mind\/LIX.236.433<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0026-4423\" target=\"_blank\">0026-4423<\/a><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mind&rft.atitle=Computing+Machinery+and+Intelligence&rft.volume=LIX&rft.issue=236&rft.pages=433-460&rft.date=1950-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmind%2FLIX.236.433&rft.issn=0026-4423&rft.aulast=Turing&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFvan_der_WaltBernard2006\" class=\"citation web\">van der Walt, Christiaan; Bernard, Etienne (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090325194051\/http:\/\/www.patternrecognition.co.za\/publications\/cvdwalt_data_characteristics_classifiers.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data characteristics that determine classifier performance\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 August<\/span> 2009<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data+characteristics+that+determine+classifier+performance&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=van+der+Walt&rft.aufirst=Christiaan&rft.au=Bernard%2C+Etienne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.patternrecognition.co.za%2Fpublications%2Fcvdwalt_data_characteristics_classifiers.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFVinge1993\" class=\"citation journal\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vernor_Vinge\" title=\"Vernor Vinge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b1b61f79e9e3f719f8b2ce721dcac0f\">Vinge, Vernor<\/a> (1993). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www-rohan.sdsu.edu\/faculty\/vinge\/misc\/singularity.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Coming Technological Singularity: How to Survive in the Post-Human Era\"<\/a>. <i>Vision 21: Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in the Era of Cyberspace<\/i>: 11. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode\" title=\"Bibcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8d53091b41d79b165d88661365dde91\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/1993vise.nasa...11V\" target=\"_blank\">1993vise.nasa...11V<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vision+21%3A+Interdisciplinary+Science+and+Engineering+in+the+Era+of+Cyberspace&rft.atitle=The+Coming+Technological+Singularity%3A+How+to+Survive+in+the+Post-Human+Era&rft.pages=11&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993vise.nasa...11V&rft.aulast=Vinge&rft.aufirst=Vernor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-rohan.sdsu.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fvinge%2Fmisc%2Fsingularity.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWasonShapiro1966\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Cathcart_Wason\" title=\"Peter Cathcart Wason\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"174a7d2d9a0e3c5222363b0934b58018\">Wason, P. 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(2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cse.msu.edu\/dl\/SciencePaper.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Autonomous mental development by robots and animals\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Science<\/i>. <b>291<\/b> (5504): 599\u2013600. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscience.291.5504.599\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/science.291.5504.599<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/11229402\" target=\"_blank\">11229402<\/a> – via msu.edu.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Autonomous+mental+development+by+robots+and+animals&rft.volume=291&rft.issue=5504&rft.pages=599-600&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.291.5504.599&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11229402&rft.aulast=Weng&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=McClelland&rft.au=Pentland%2C+A.&rft.au=Sporns%2C+O.&rft.au=Stockman%2C+I.&rft.au=Sur%2C+M.&rft.au=Thelen%2C+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cse.msu.edu%2Fdl%2FSciencePaper.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www-formal.stanford.edu\/jmc\/whatisai\/node3.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Applications of AI\"<\/a>. <i>www-formal.stanford.edu<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 September<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www-formal.stanford.edu&rft.atitle=Applications+of+AI&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-formal.stanford.edu%2Fjmc%2Fwhatisai%2Fnode3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047268\"\/><div class=\"refbegin columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li>DH Author, \u2018Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation\u2019 (2015) 29(3) Journal of Economic Perspectives 3.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Margaret_Boden\" title=\"Margaret Boden\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e97e774601f11921b0fc400ba20fb344\">Boden, Margaret<\/a>, <i>Mind As Machine<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oxford_University_Press\" title=\"Oxford University Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d18ae98bb880a41214eeea3e78f31ffe\">Oxford University Press<\/a>, 2006<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pedro_Domingos\" title=\"Pedro Domingos\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"054fdd869e12e909b1bb7842a2b55e14\">Domingos, Pedro<\/a>, \"Our Digital Doubles: AI will serve our species, not control it\", <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_American\" title=\"Scientific American\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78478150ef4a0fec815a7dd19d513fb8\">Scientific American<\/a><\/i>, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp. 88\u201393.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alison_Gopnik\" title=\"Alison Gopnik\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"795ab1405b4d0d3f80714d006ce276f0\">Gopnik, Alison<\/a>, \"Making AI More Human: Artificial intelligence has staged a revival by starting to incorporate what we know about how children learn\", <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_American\" title=\"Scientific American\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78478150ef4a0fec815a7dd19d513fb8\">Scientific American<\/a><\/i>, vol. 316, no. 6 (June 2017), pp. 60\u201365.<\/li>\n<li>Johnston, John (2008) <i>The Allure of Machinic Life: Cybernetics, Artificial Life, and the New AI<\/i>, MIT Press<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gary_Marcus\" title=\"Gary Marcus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac4273b8d8efbca9ddf14fb3203ded12\">Marcus, Gary<\/a>, \"Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind\", <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_American\" title=\"Scientific American\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78478150ef4a0fec815a7dd19d513fb8\">Scientific American<\/a><\/i>, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp. 58\u201363.<\/li>\n<li>E McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy' (2018) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3044448\" target=\"_blank\">SSRN, part 2(3)<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Myers, Courtney Boyd ed. (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/2009\/06\/22\/singularity-robots-computers-opinions-contributors-artificial-intelligence-09_land.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The AI Report\"<\/a>. <i>Forbes<\/i> June 2009<\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bertram_Raphael\" title=\"Bertram Raphael\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ca22c4376d146ac8212db1186b4ec75\">Raphael, Bertram<\/a> (1976). <i>The Thinking Computer<\/i>. W.H.Freeman and Company. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-7167-0723-3.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thinking+Computer&rft.pub=W.H.Freeman+and+Company&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-0723-3&rft.aulast=Raphael&rft.aufirst=Bertram&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation journal\">Serenko, Alexander (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aserenko.com\/papers\/JOI_Serenko_AI_Journal_Ranking_Published.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The development of an AI journal ranking based on the revealed preference approach\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Journal of Informetrics<\/i>. <b>4<\/b> (4): 447\u2013459. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.joi.2010.04.001\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.joi.2010.04.001<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Informetrics&rft.atitle=The+development+of+an+AI+journal+ranking+based+on+the+revealed+preference+approach&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=447-459&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.joi.2010.04.001&rft.aulast=Serenko&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aserenko.com%2Fpapers%2FJOI_Serenko_AI_Journal_Ranking_Published.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation journal\">Serenko, Alexander; Michael Dohan (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aserenko.com\/papers\/JOI_AI_Journal_Ranking_Serenko.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Comparing the expert survey and citation impact journal ranking methods: Example from the field of Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Journal of Informetrics<\/i>. <b>5<\/b> (4): 629\u2013649. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.joi.2011.06.002\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.joi.2011.06.002<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Informetrics&rft.atitle=Comparing+the+expert+survey+and+citation+impact+journal+ranking+methods%3A+Example+from+the+field+of+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=629-649&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.joi.2011.06.002&rft.aulast=Serenko&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft.au=Michael+Dohan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aserenko.com%2Fpapers%2FJOI_AI_Journal_Ranking_Serenko.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li>Sun, R. & Bookman, L. (eds.), <i>Computational Architectures: Integrating Neural and Symbolic Processes<\/i>. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Needham, MA. 1994.<\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation web\">Tom Simonite (29 December 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/news\/533686\/2014-in-computing-breakthroughs-in-artificial-intelligence\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"2014 in Computing: Breakthroughs in Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i>MIT Technology Review<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MIT+Technology+Review&rft.atitle=2014+in+Computing%3A+Breakthroughs+in+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.date=2014-12-29&rft.au=Tom+Simonite&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.technologyreview.com%2Fnews%2F533686%2F2014-in-computing-breakthroughs-in-artificial-intelligence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li>Stone, James V. <i>Artificial Intelligence Engines: A Tutorial Introduction to the Mathematics of Deep Learning<\/i><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https:\/\/jim-stone.staff.shef.ac.uk\/AIEngines\" target=\"_blank\">[2]<\/a>, Sebtel Press, March 2019.<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151118212402\/http:\/\/www-formal.stanford.edu\/jmc\/whatisai\/whatisai.html\" target=\"_blank\">What Is AI?<\/a> \u2013 An introduction to artificial intelligence by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"John McCarthy (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"498a2d3b08b0a194821bc61ed3b973fe\">John McCarthy<\/a>\u2014a co-founder of the field, and the person who coined the term.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/handbookofartific01barr\/\" target=\"_blank\">The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence Volume \u2160 by Avron Barr and Edward A. Feigenbaum (Stanford University)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation encyclopaedia\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iep.utm.edu\/art-inte\" target=\"_blank\">\"Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy\" title=\"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cd510f18a82ba3a17584224ef620f12\">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/a><\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Artificial+Intelligence&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fart-inte&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation encyclopaedia\">Thomason, Richmond. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/plato.stanford.edu\/entries\/logic-ai\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Logic and Artificial Intelligence\"<\/a>. In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_N._Zalta\" title=\"Edward N. Zalta\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b452e51c9d610557958ac26dff8332ba\">Zalta, Edward N.<\/a> <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy\" title=\"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b68b5de1d3d70cb0dfaf7d6baa42dca2\">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy<\/a><\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Logic+and+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Thomason&rft.aufirst=Richmond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Flogic-ai%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArtificial+intelligence\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/curlie.org\/Computers\/Artificial_Intelligence\/\" target=\"_blank\">AI<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curlie\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Curlie\" data-key=\"f2bf78e9dbc70f166d4b3bd9f21cf9f3\">Curlie<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aitopics.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">AITopics<\/a> \u2013 A large directory of links and other resources maintained by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Artificial_Intelligence\" title=\"Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8d17dba2c2805408d4a3fc60e820e1e\">Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence<\/a>, the leading organization of academic AI researchers.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.standuply.com\/200-ai-ml-conferences-in-2018-eec7d0a50bcf\/\" target=\"_blank\">List of AI Conferences<\/a> \u2013 A list of 225 AI conferences taking place all over the world.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/programmes\/p003k9fc\" target=\"_blank\">Artificial Intelligence<\/a>, BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Agar, Alison Adam & Igor Aleksander (<i>In Our Time<\/i>, Dec. 8, 2005)<\/li><\/ul>\n<div style=\"clear:both;\"><\/div>\n\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1270\nCached time: 20190403143508\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 4.116 seconds\nReal time usage: 4.553 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 21864\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 925437\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 126364\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 16\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 22\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 817699\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 9\/400\nLua time usage: 2.087\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 10.62 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 3484.889 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>55.03% 1917.885 2 Template:Reflist\n14.68% 511.573 70 Template:Cite_journal\n10.57% 368.479 323 Template:Harvnb\n10.04% 349.847 64 Template:Cite_book\n 8.80% 306.705 51 Template:Cite_web\n 6.94% 241.732 49 Template:Cite_news\n 3.86% 134.355 1 Template:Navboxes\n 3.63% 126.347 17 Template:Navbox\n 2.68% 93.231 45 Template:Sfn\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:stable-pcache:idhash:1164-1!canonical and timestamp 20190403143508 and revision id 890782419\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Artificial_intelligence\" data-key=\"f69d9e0954165931d1f7176b378dc39f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203009\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.063 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.306 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 267.228 1 - wikipedia:Artificial_intelligence\n100.00% 267.228 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10544-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203009 and revision id 33017\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Artificial_intelligence<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/0b\/Medeia_and_Talus.png\/440px-Medeia_and_Talus.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/68\/Overfitted_Data.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f5\/D%C3%A9tection_de_personne_-_exemple_3.jpg\/440px-D%C3%A9tection_de_personne_-_exemple_3.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9e\/GFO_taxonomy_tree.png\/440px-GFO_taxonomy_tree.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/76\/Hierarchical-control-system.svg\/440px-Hierarchical-control-system.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/6e\/ParseTree.svg\/440px-ParseTree.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/20\/%C3%84%C3%A4retuvastuse_n%C3%A4ide.png\/440px-%C3%84%C3%A4retuvastuse_n%C3%A4ide.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/b8\/Kismet_robot_at_MIT_Museum.jpg\/440px-Kismet_robot_at_MIT_Museum.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/ec\/ParticleSwarmArrowsAnimation.gif\/440px-ParticleSwarmArrowsAnimation.gif","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/69\/EM_Clustering_of_Old_Faithful_data.gif","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e4\/Artificial_neural_network.svg\/440px-Artificial_neural_network.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/8b\/Automated_online_assistant.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/0\/0d\/Laproscopic_Surgery_Robot.jpg\/440px-Laproscopic_Surgery_Robot.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/5e\/X-ray_of_a_hand_with_automatic_bone_age_calculation.jpg\/440px-X-ray_of_a_hand_with_automatic_bone_age_calculation.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/87\/Capek_play.jpg\/440px-Capek_play.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c0\/Animation2.gif\/19px-Animation2.gif","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c5\/Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg\/200px-Shadow_Hand_Bulb_large.jpg"],"0c45a597361ca47e1cd8112af676276e_timestamp":1554323409,"5d5150b04547e963d28d3ce7ffdae9c6_type":"article","5d5150b04547e963d28d3ce7ffdae9c6_title":"Web application security","5d5150b04547e963d28d3ce7ffdae9c6_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Web_application_security","5d5150b04547e963d28d3ce7ffdae9c6_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tWeb application security\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThis article is part of a series onInformation security\nRelated security categories\nInternet security\nCyberwarfare\nComputer security\nMobile security\nNetwork security\n\nThreats\nComputer crime\nVulnerabilities\nEavesdropping\nMalware\nSpyware\nRansomware\nTrojans\nViruses\nWorms\nRootkits\nBootkits\nKeyloggers\nScreen scrapers\nExploits\nBackdoors\nLogic bombs\nPayloads\nDenial of service\nWeb shells\n\nDefenses\nComputer access control\nApplication security\nAntivirus software\nSecure coding\nSecure by default\nSecure by design\nSecure operating systems\nAuthentication\nMulti-factor authentication\nAuthorization\nData-centric security\nEncryption\nFirewall\nIntrusion detection system\nMobile secure gateway\nRuntime application self-protection (RASP)\nvte\nWeb application security is a branch of information security that deals specifically with security of websites, web applications and web services. At a high level, web application security draws on the principles of application security but applies them specifically to internet and web systems.[1]\n\nContents \n\n1 Security threats \n2 Best practices recommendation \n3 Security standards \n4 Security technology \n5 See also \n6 References \n\n\nSecurity threats \nThe majority of web application attacks occur through cross-site scripting (XSS) and SQL injection attacks[2] which typically are made possible by flawed coding and failure to sanitize application inputs and outputs. These attacks are ranked in the 2009 CWE\/SANS Top 25 Most Dangerous Programming Errors.[3]\nAccording to the security vendor Cenzic, the top vulnerabilities in March 2012 include:[4]\n\n\n\n\n37%\nCross-site scripting\n\n\n16%\nSQL injection\n\n\n5%\nPath disclosure\n\n\n5%\nDenial-of-service attack\n\n\n4%\nArbitrary code execution\n\n\n4%\nMemory corruption\n\n\n4%\nCross-site request forgery\n\n\n3%\nData breach (information disclosure)\n\n\n3%\nArbitrary file inclusion\n\n\n2%\nLocal file inclusion\n\n\n1%\nRemote file inclusion\n\n\n1%\nBuffer overflow\n\n\n15%\nOther, including code injection (PHP\/JavaScript), etc.\n The Open Web Application Security Project (OWASP) provides free and open resources. It is led by a non-profit called The OWASP Foundation. The OWASP Top 10 - 2017 is the published result of recent research based on comprehensive data compiled from over 40 partner organizations. From this data, approximately 2.3 million vulnerabilities were discovered across over 50,000 applications.[5] According to the OWASP Top 10 - 2017, the ten most critical web application security risks include:[6]<\/dd>\nInjection\nBroken Authentication\nSensitive Data Exposure\nXML External Entities (XXE)\nBroken Access Control\nSecurity Misconfiguration\nCross-Site Scripting (XSS)\nInsecure Deserialization\nUsing Components with Known Vulnerabilities\nInsufficient Logging and Monitoring\nBest practices recommendation \nSecure web application development should be enhanced by applying security checkpoints and techniques at early stages of development as well as throughout the software development lifecycle. Special emphasis should be applied to the coding phase of development. Security mechanisms that should be used include, threat modeling, risk analysis, static analysis, digital signature, among others.[7]\n\nSecurity standards \nOWASP is the emerging standards body for web application security. In particular they have published the OWASP Top 10 which describes in detail the major threats against web applications. The Web Application Security Consortium (WASC) has created the Web Hacking Incident Database (WHID) and also produced open source best practice documents on web application security. The WHID became an OWASP project in February 2014.[8]\n\nSecurity technology \nWhile security is fundamentally based on people and processes, there are a number of technical solutions to consider when designing, building and testing secure web applications. At a high level, these solutions include:\n\nBlack box testing tools such as Web application security scanners,[9] vulnerability scanners and penetration testing software\nWhite box testing tools such as static source code analyzers[10]\nFuzzing[11] Tools used for input testing\nWeb application security scanner (vulnerability scanner)\nWeb application firewalls (WAF)[12] used to provide firewall-type protection at the web application layer\nPassword cracking tools for testing password strength and implementation\nSee also \nApplication service architecture (ASA)\nw3af a free open-source web application security scanner\nOWASP Open Web Application Security Project\nWeb application security scanner\nRuntime Application Self-Protection\nReferences \n\n^ \"Web Application Security Overview\". 2015-10-23. \n\n^ \"Testing and Comparing Web Vulnerability Scanning Tools for SQL Injection and XSS Attacks\". Fonseca, J.; Vieira, M.; Madeira, H., Dependable Computing, IEEE. Dec 2007. \n\n^ \"CWE\/SANS Top 25 Most Dangerous Programming Errors\". CWE\/SANS. May 2009. \n\n^ \"2012 Trends Report: Application Security Risks\". Cenzic, Inc. 11 March 2012. Retrieved 9 July 2012 . \n\n^ Korolov, Maria (Apr 27, 2017). \"Latest OWASP Top 10 looks at APIs, web apps: The new OWASP Top 10 list is out, and while most of it remains the same, there are new additions focusing on web applications and APIs\". CSO – via ProQuest. \n\n^ \"OWASP Top 10 - 2017: The Ten Most Critical Web Application Security Risks\" (PDF) . Open Web Application Security Project. 2017. Retrieved June 30, 2018 . \n\n^ Shuaibu, Bala Musa; Norwawi, Norita Md; Selamat, Mohd Hasan; Al-Alwani, Abdulkareem (2013-01-17). \"Systematic review of web application security development model\". Artificial Intelligence Review. 43 (2): 259\u2013276. doi:10.1007\/s10462-012-9375-6. ISSN 0269-2821. \n\n^ \"WHID Project is now a Joint WASC\/OWASP Project\". WASC. 18 February 2014. \n\n^ \"Web Application Vulnerability Scanners\". NIST. \n\n^ \"Source Code Security Analyzers\". NIST. \n\n^ \"Fuzzing\". OWASP. \n\n^ \"Web application firewalls for security and regulatory compliance\". TestingXperts Blog. March 2017. \n\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Web_application_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Web_application_security<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Computer securityData securitySoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 10 August 2016, at 17:43.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 591 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","5d5150b04547e963d28d3ce7ffdae9c6_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Web_application_security skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Web application security<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\">\n<p><b>Web application security<\/b> is a branch of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security\" title=\"Information security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f71a603755a900e335af2b5cfacd0cfc\">information security<\/a> that deals specifically with security of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Website\" title=\"Website\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baaafe699fb6fda8b6611a6b03e9f889\">websites<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_application\" title=\"Web application\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b0c037b91fdf27407b8d9f6abc6430b\">web applications<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_service\" title=\"Web service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e72dffc79d570a758fb072280ae0ca6e\">web services<\/a>. At a high level, web application security draws on the principles of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_security\" title=\"Application security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58af074101b32ff0ed2601987d6030d0\">application security<\/a> but applies them specifically to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">internet<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Wide_Web\" title=\"World Wide Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8167fa2a43229db150009f4a93e3a779\">web<\/a> systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_threats\">Security threats<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The majority of web application attacks occur through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cross-site_scripting\" title=\"Cross-site scripting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"391f7d8887d885507dda342a5e19632b\">cross-site scripting (XSS)<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SQL_injection\" title=\"SQL injection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"241ac5083c3ddb380c01ac1166f0c108\">SQL injection<\/a> attacks<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> which typically are made possible by flawed coding and failure to sanitize application inputs and outputs. These attacks are ranked in the 2009 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mitre_Corporation\" title=\"Mitre Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"29bfe47710068f5df69444253335675e\">CWE<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SANS_Institute\" title=\"SANS Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0499e283012185dce5aaefd6905169fc\">SANS<\/a> Top 25 Most Dangerous Programming Errors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>According to the security vendor Cenzic, the top vulnerabilities in March 2012 include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dd><dl><dd><table class=\"wikitable\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<td>37%<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cross-site_scripting\" title=\"Cross-site scripting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"391f7d8887d885507dda342a5e19632b\">Cross-site scripting<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>16%<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SQL_injection\" title=\"SQL injection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"241ac5083c3ddb380c01ac1166f0c108\">SQL injection<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>5%<\/td>\n<td>Path disclosure\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>5%<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denial-of-service_attack\" title=\"Denial-of-service attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60592f037a0652dd16c640127be8ca89\">Denial-of-service attack<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>4%<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arbitrary_code_execution\" title=\"Arbitrary code execution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19deeabcaa279b61ce2ef1bf1634e305\">Arbitrary code execution<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>4%<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memory_corruption\" title=\"Memory corruption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acf24bf69693360fb4d4d1c62dc4d5f0\">Memory corruption<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>4%<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cross-site_request_forgery\" title=\"Cross-site request forgery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"797762dd6506141fca55661a6c505a3b\">Cross-site request forgery<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>3%<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_breach\" title=\"Data breach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"611c0b2099532a287e0e8fe5b0c95f57\">Data breach<\/a> (information disclosure)\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>3%<\/td>\n<td>Arbitrary <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_inclusion_vulnerability\" title=\"File inclusion vulnerability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c7029de467376e95c9f330590baec9c\">file inclusion<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>2%<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_inclusion_vulnerability\" title=\"File inclusion vulnerability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c7029de467376e95c9f330590baec9c\">Local file inclusion<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>1%<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_inclusion_vulnerability\" title=\"File inclusion vulnerability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c7029de467376e95c9f330590baec9c\">Remote file inclusion<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>1%<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Buffer_overflow\" title=\"Buffer overflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf438fc270f1a494ade76df74757bc25\">Buffer overflow<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>15%<\/td>\n<td>Other, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_injection\" title=\"Code injection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00531af3c3892206e5934bea084f51de\">code injection<\/a> (PHP\/JavaScript), etc.\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table> The Open Web Application Security Project (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OWASP\" title=\"OWASP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6645fae799f6ffc4d392d524cce16a3b\">OWASP<\/a>) provides free and open resources. It is led by a non-profit called The OWASP Foundation. The OWASP Top 10 - 2017 is the published result of recent research based on comprehensive data compiled from over 40 partner organizations. From this data, approximately 2.3 million vulnerabilities were discovered across over 50,000 applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> According to the OWASP Top 10 - 2017, the ten most critical web application security risks include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dd><ol><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_injection\" title=\"Code injection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00531af3c3892206e5934bea084f51de\">Injection<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Broken Authentication<\/li>\n<li>Sensitive Data Exposure<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML_external_entity_attack\" title=\"XML external entity attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da44deae28624e3e3596a97850df9433\">XML External Entities (XXE)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Broken Access Control<\/li>\n<li>Security Misconfiguration<\/li>\n<li>Cross-Site Scripting (XSS)<\/li>\n<li>Insecure Deserialization<\/li>\n<li>Using Components with Known Vulnerabilities<\/li>\n<li>Insufficient Logging and Monitoring<\/li><\/ol><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Best_practices_recommendation\">Best practices recommendation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Secure web application development should be enhanced by applying security checkpoints and techniques at early stages of development as well as throughout the software development lifecycle. Special emphasis should be applied to the coding phase of development. Security mechanisms that should be used include, threat modeling, risk analysis, static analysis, digital signature, among others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_standards\">Security standards<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OWASP\" title=\"OWASP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6645fae799f6ffc4d392d524cce16a3b\">OWASP<\/a> is the emerging standards body for web application security. In particular they have published the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.owasp.org\/index.php\/OWASP_Top_Ten_Project\" target=\"_blank\">OWASP Top 10<\/a> which describes in detail the major threats against web applications. The (WASC) has created the Web Hacking Incident Database (WHID) and also produced open source best practice documents on web application security. The WHID became an OWASP project in February 2014.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_technology\">Security technology<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>While security is fundamentally based on people and processes, there are a number of technical solutions to consider when designing, building and testing secure web applications. At a high level, these solutions include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_security#Security_testing_for_applications\" title=\"Application security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00873abbbb71d7e227dfa174efb00882\">Black box<\/a> testing tools such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_application_security_scanner\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Web application security scanner\" data-key=\"7a7bb9050eec5428b122509fe434f772\">Web application security scanners<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_scanner\" title=\"Vulnerability scanner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"066ed2d3c61ea0e8d99c85c1c6d44125\">vulnerability scanners<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Penetration_testing#Web_application_penetration_testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Penetration testing\" data-key=\"4e61950c7271e5cf54cbaeba459a0877\">penetration testing<\/a> software<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_security#Security_testing_for_applications\" title=\"Application security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00873abbbb71d7e227dfa174efb00882\">White box<\/a> testing tools such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Static_code_analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Static code analysis\" data-key=\"094eea0b9e1d948220da670c7cf69e82\">static source code analyzers<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzz_testing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fuzz testing\" data-key=\"f88b60ad99003c88099c0faef4e8affb\">Fuzzing<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> Tools used for input testing<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_application_security_scanner\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Web application security scanner\" data-key=\"7a7bb9050eec5428b122509fe434f772\">Web application security scanner<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_scanner\" title=\"Vulnerability scanner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"066ed2d3c61ea0e8d99c85c1c6d44125\">vulnerability scanner<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_application_firewall\" title=\"Web application firewall\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93729d443af473272c4a3875baccdcbe\">Web application firewalls<\/a> (WAF)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> used to provide <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewall_(computing)\" title=\"Firewall (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"853725a035c106719dbf2660d8eca0b8\">firewall<\/a>-type protection at the web application layer<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Password_cracking\" title=\"Password cracking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b74fe6de71755c97404804c9d00cc711\">Password cracking<\/a> tools for testing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Password_strength\" title=\"Password strength\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3c8435a3bb824d359e6caf3fac2686a\">password strength<\/a> and implementation<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_service_architecture\" title=\"Application service architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c6097184b8e56031ff5d0209db54622e\">Application service architecture<\/a> (ASA)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/W3af\" title=\"W3af\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"644cae0cb7b58290734a4763ec642e55\">w3af<\/a> a free open-source web application security scanner<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OWASP\" title=\"OWASP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6645fae799f6ffc4d392d524cce16a3b\">OWASP<\/a> Open Web Application Security Project<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_application_security_scanner\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Web application security scanner\" data-key=\"7a7bb9050eec5428b122509fe434f772\">Web application security scanner<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Runtime_application_self-protection\" data-key=\"c953e57a348f1c10b6a0169b2613c6b6\">Runtime Application Self-Protection<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/msdn.microsoft.com\/en-us\/library\/ff648636.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Web Application Security Overview\"<\/a>. 2015-10-23.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Web+Application+Security+Overview&rft.date=2015-10-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmsdn.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Flibrary%2Fff648636.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+application+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/Xplore\/login.jsp?url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fiel5%2F4459624%2F4459625%2F04459684.pdf%3Farnumber%3D4459684&authDecision=-203\" target=\"_blank\">\"Testing and Comparing Web Vulnerability Scanning Tools for SQL Injection and XSS Attacks\"<\/a>. Fonseca, J.; Vieira, M.; Madeira, H., Dependable Computing, IEEE. Dec 2007.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Testing+and+Comparing+Web+Vulnerability+Scanning+Tools+for+SQL+Injection+and+XSS+Attacks&rft.date=2007-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2FXplore%2Flogin.jsp%3Furl%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fieeexplore.ieee.org%252Fiel5%252F4459624%252F4459625%252F04459684.pdf%253Farnumber%253D4459684%26authDecision%3D-203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+application+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/cwe.mitre.org\/top25\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"CWE\/SANS Top 25 Most Dangerous Programming Errors\"<\/a>. CWE\/SANS. May 2009.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=CWE%2FSANS+Top+25+Most+Dangerous+Programming+Errors&rft.date=2009-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcwe.mitre.org%2Ftop25%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+application+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/info.cenzic.com\/Trend-Report-Application-Security.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"2012 Trends Report: Application Security Risks\"<\/a>. Cenzic, Inc. 11 March 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 July<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2012+Trends+Report%3A+Application+Security+Risks&rft.pub=Cenzic%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2012-03-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finfo.cenzic.com%2FTrend-Report-Application-Security.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+application+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Korolov, Maria (Apr 27, 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu\/login?url=https:\/\/search-proquest-com.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu\/docview\/1892694046?accountid=13158\" target=\"_blank\">\"Latest OWASP Top 10 looks at APIs, web apps: The new OWASP Top 10 list is out, and while most of it remains the same, there are new additions focusing on web applications and APIs\"<\/a>. <i>CSO<\/i> – via ProQuest.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CSO&rft.atitle=Latest+OWASP+Top+10+looks+at+APIs%2C+web+apps%3A+The+new+OWASP+Top+10+list+is+out%2C+and+while+most+of+it+remains+the+same%2C+there+are+new+additions+focusing+on+web+applications+and+APIs&rft.date=2017-04-27&rft.aulast=Korolov&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fezaccess.libraries.psu.edu%2Flogin%3Furl%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fsearch-proquest-com.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu%2Fdocview%2F1892694046%3Faccountid%3D13158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+application+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.owasp.org\/images\/7\/72\/OWASP_Top_10-2017_%28en%29.pdf.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"OWASP Top 10 - 2017: The Ten Most Critical Web Application Security Risks\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Open Web Application Security Project<\/i>. 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">June 30,<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Open+Web+Application+Security+Project&rft.atitle=OWASP+Top+10+-+2017%3A+The+Ten+Most+Critical+Web+Application+Security+Risks&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.owasp.org%2Fimages%2F7%2F72%2FOWASP_Top_10-2017_%2528en%2529.pdf.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+application+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Shuaibu, Bala Musa; Norwawi, Norita Md; Selamat, Mohd Hasan; Al-Alwani, Abdulkareem (2013-01-17). \"Systematic review of web application security development model\". <i>Artificial Intelligence Review<\/i>. <b>43<\/b> (2): 259\u2013276. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs10462-012-9375-6\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s10462-012-9375-6<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0269-2821\" target=\"_blank\">0269-2821<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artificial+Intelligence+Review&rft.atitle=Systematic+review+of+web+application+security+development+model&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=259-276&rft.date=2013-01-17&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10462-012-9375-6&rft.issn=0269-2821&rft.aulast=Shuaibu&rft.aufirst=Bala+Musa&rft.au=Norwawi%2C+Norita+Md&rft.au=Selamat%2C+Mohd+Hasan&rft.au=Al-Alwani%2C+Abdulkareem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+application+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/lists.webappsec.org\/pipermail\/wasc-whid_lists.webappsec.org\/2014-February\/000100.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"WHID Project is now a Joint WASC\/OWASP Project\"<\/a>. WASC. 18 February 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=WHID+Project+is+now+a+Joint+WASC%2FOWASP+Project&rft.pub=WASC&rft.date=2014-02-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flists.webappsec.org%2Fpipermail%2Fwasc-whid_lists.webappsec.org%2F2014-February%2F000100.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+application+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/samate.nist.gov\/index.php\/Web_Application_Vulnerability_Scanners.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Web Application Vulnerability Scanners\"<\/a>. NIST.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Web+Application+Vulnerability+Scanners&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsamate.nist.gov%2Findex.php%2FWeb_Application_Vulnerability_Scanners.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+application+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/samate.nist.gov\/index.php\/Source_Code_Security_Analyzers.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Source Code Security Analyzers\"<\/a>. NIST.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Source+Code+Security+Analyzers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsamate.nist.gov%2Findex.php%2FSource_Code_Security_Analyzers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+application+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.owasp.org\/index.php\/Fuzzing\" target=\"_blank\">\"Fuzzing\"<\/a>. OWASP.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Fuzzing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.owasp.org%2Findex.php%2FFuzzing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+application+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.testingxperts.com\/blog\/7-Crucial-Activities-to-Test-the-Security-of-your-Mobile-Applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Web application firewalls for security and regulatory compliance\"<\/a>. TestingXperts Blog. March 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Web+application+firewalls+for+security+and+regulatory+compliance&rft.date=2017-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.testingxperts.com%2Fblog%2F7-Crucial-Activities-to-Test-the-Security-of-your-Mobile-Applications%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeb+application+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1333\nCached time: 20190317074020\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.224 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.272 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 512\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 24227\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 3\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 2\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 34502\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 2\/400\nLua time usage: 0.142\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 3.22 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 226.015 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>46.18% 104.371 4 Template:Cite_web\n17.93% 40.535 2 Template:Cite_journal\n17.71% 40.032 1 Template:Information_security\n16.25% 36.727 1 Template:Sidebar\n12.17% 27.517 6 Template:Cite_news\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:23261748-1!canonical and timestamp 20190317074020 and revision id 881371578\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_application_security\" data-key=\"30b6d52e634fbfa0356365b751a5802e\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203009\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.009 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.149 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 142.602 1 - wikipedia:Web_application_security\n100.00% 142.602 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:9014-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203009 and revision id 26856\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Web_application_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Web_application_security<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","5d5150b04547e963d28d3ce7ffdae9c6_images":[],"5d5150b04547e963d28d3ce7ffdae9c6_timestamp":1554323409,"a0db670f35af23e832f81d0ff17778c4_type":"article","a0db670f35af23e832f81d0ff17778c4_title":"Single sign-on","a0db670f35af23e832f81d0ff17778c4_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Single_sign-on","a0db670f35af23e832f81d0ff17778c4_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tSingle sign-on\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tSingle sign-on (SSO) is a property of access control of multiple related, yet independent, software systems. With this property, a user logs in with a single ID and password to gain access to any of several related systems. It is often accomplished by using the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) and stored LDAP databases on (directory) servers.[1] A simple version of single sign-on can be achieved over IP networks using cookies but only if the sites share a common DNS parent domain.[2] \nFor clarity, it is best to refer to systems requiring authentication for each application but using the same credentials from a directory server as Directory Server Authentication and systems where a single authentication provides access to multiple applications by passing the authentication token seamlessly to configured applications as single sign-on.\nConversely, single sign-off is the property whereby a single action of signing out terminates access to multiple software systems.\nAs different applications and resources support different authentication mechanisms, single sign-on must internally store the credentials used for initial authentication and translate them to the credentials required for the different mechanisms.\nOther shared authentication schemes such as OpenID, and OpenID Connect offer other services that may require users to make choices during a sign-on to a resource, but can be configured for single sign-on if those other services (such as user consent) are disabled.[3] An increasing number of federated social logons, like Facebook Connect do require the user to enter consent choices at first registration with a new resource and so are not always single sign-on in the strictest sense.\n\nContents \n\n1 Benefits \n2 Criticism \n3 Security \n4 Privacy \n5 Common configurations \n\n5.1 Kerberos-based \n5.2 Smart-card-based \n5.3 Integrated Windows Authentication \n5.4 Security Assertion Markup Language \n\n\n6 Emerging configurations \n\n6.1 Mobile devices as access credentials \n\n\n7 See also \n8 References \n9 External links \n\n\nBenefits \nBenefits of using single sign-on include:\n\nMitigate risk for access to 3rd-party sites (user passwords not stored or managed externally)\nReduce password fatigue from different username and password combinations\nReduce time spent re-entering passwords for the same identity\nReduce IT costs due to lower number of IT help desk calls about passwords[4]\nSSO shares centralized authentication servers that all other applications and systems use for authentication purposes and combines this with techniques to ensure that users do not have to actively enter their credentials more than once.\n\nCriticism \nThe term reduced sign-on (RSO) has been used by some to reflect the fact that single sign-on is impractical in addressing the need for different levels of secure access in the enterprise, and as such more than one authentication server may be necessary.[5]\nAs single sign-on provides access to many resources once the user is initially authenticated (\"keys to the castle\"), it increases the negative impact in case the credentials are available to other people and misused. Therefore, single sign-on requires an increased focus on the protection of the user credentials, and should ideally be combined with strong authentication methods like smart cards and one-time password tokens.[5]\nSingle sign-on also makes the authentication systems highly critical; a loss of their availability can result in denial of access to all systems unified under the SSO. SSO can be configured with session failover capabilities in order to maintain the system operation.[6] Nonetheless, the risk of system failure may make single sign-on undesirable for systems to which access must be guaranteed at all times, such as security or plant-floor systems.\nFurthermore, the use of single-sign-on techniques utilizing social networking services such as Facebook may render third party websites unusable within libraries, schools, or workplaces that block social media sites for productivity reasons. It can also cause difficulties in countries with active censorship regimes, such as China and its \"Golden Shield Project,\" where the third party website may not be actively censored, but is effectively blocked if a user's social login is blocked.[7][8]\n\nSecurity \nIn March, 2012, a research paper[9] reported an extensive study on the security of social login mechanisms. The authors found 8 serious logic flaws in high-profile ID providers and relying party websites, such as OpenID (including Google ID and PayPal Access), Facebook, Janrain, Freelancer, FarmVille, and Sears.com. Because the researchers informed ID providers and relying party websites prior to public announcement of the discovery of the flaws, the vulnerabilities were corrected, and there have been no security breaches reported.[10]\nIn May 2014, a vulnerability named Covert Redirect was disclosed.[11] It was first reported \"Covert Redirect Vulnerability Related to OAuth 2.0 and OpenID\" by its discoverer Wang Jing, a Mathematical PhD student from Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.[12][13][14] In fact, almost all Single sign-on protocols are affected. Covert Redirect takes advantage of third-party clients susceptible to an XSS or Open Redirect.[15]\n\nPrivacy \nAs originally implemented in Kerberos and SAML, single sign-on did not give users any choices about releasing their personal information to each new resource that the user visited. This worked well enough within a single enterprise, like MIT where Kerberos was invented, or major corporations where all of the resources were internal sites. However, as federated services like Active Directory Federation Services proliferated, the user's private information was sent out to affiliated sites not under control of the enterprise that collected the data from the user. Since privacy regulations are now tightening with legislation like the GDPR the newer methods like OpenID Connect have started to become more attractive; for example MIT, the originator of Kerberos, now supports OpenID Connect.[16]\n\nCommon configurations \nKerberos-based \nInitial sign-on prompts the user for credentials, and gets a Kerberos ticket-granting ticket (TGT).\nAdditional software applications requiring authentication, such as email clients, wikis, and revision-control systems, use the ticket-granting ticket to acquire service tickets, proving the user's identity to the mailserver \/ wiki server \/ etc. without prompting the user to re-enter credentials.\nWindows environment - Windows login fetches TGT. Active Directory-aware applications fetch service tickets, so the user is not prompted to re-authenticate.\nUnix\/Linux environment - Log in via Kerberos PAM modules fetches TGT. Kerberized client applications such as Evolution, Firefox, and SVN use service tickets, so the user is not prompted to re-authenticate.\n\nSmart-card-based \nInitial sign-on prompts the user for the smart card. Additional software applications also use the smart card, without prompting the user to re-enter credentials. Smart-card-based single sign-on can either use certificates or passwords stored on the smart card.\n\nIntegrated Windows Authentication \nIntegrated Windows Authentication is a term associated with Microsoft products and refers to the SPNEGO, Kerberos, and NTLMSSP authentication protocols with respect to SSPI functionality introduced with Microsoft Windows 2000 and included with later Windows NT-based operating systems. The term is most commonly used to refer to the automatically authenticated connections between Microsoft Internet Information Services and Internet Explorer. Cross-platform Active Directory integration vendors have extended the Integrated Windows Authentication paradigm to Unix (including Mac) and GNU\/Linux systems.\n\nSecurity Assertion Markup Language \nSecurity Assertion Markup Language (SAML) is an XML-based solution for exchanging user security information between an SAML identity provider and a SAML service provider. SAML 2.0 supports W3C XML encryption and service provider initiated web browser single sign-on exchanges. A user wielding a user agent (usually a web browser) is called the subject in SAML-based single sign-on. The user requests a web resource protected by a SAML service provider. The service provider, wishing to know the identity of the user, issues an authentication request to a SAML identity provider through the user agent. The identity provider is the one that provides the user credentials. The service provider trusts the user information from the identity provider to provide access to its services or resources.\n\nEmerging configurations \nMobile devices as access credentials \nA newer variation of single-sign-on authentication has been developed using mobile devices as access credentials. Users' mobile devices can be used to automatically log them onto multiple systems, such as building-access-control systems and computer systems, through the use of authentication methods which include OpenID Connect and SAML,[17] in conjunction with an X.509 ITU-T cryptography certificate used to identify the mobile device to an access server.\n\nSee also \nCentral Authentication Service\nIdentity management\nIdentity management systems\nList of single sign-on implementations\nSecurity Assertion Markup Language\nUsability of web authentication systems\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"SSO and LDAP Authentication\". Authenticationworld.com. Archived from the original on 2014-05-23. Retrieved 2014-05-23 . \n\n^ \"OpenID versus Single-Sign-On Server\". alleged.org.uk. 2007-08-13. Retrieved 2014-05-23 . \n\n^ \"OpenID Connect Single Sign-On (SSO)\". \n\n^ \"Benefits of SSO\". University of Guelph. Retrieved 2014-05-23 . \n\n^ a b \"Single Sign On Authentication\". Authenticationworld.com. Archived from the original on 2014-03-15. Retrieved 2013-05-28 . \n\n^ \"Sun GlassFish Enterprise Server v2.1.1 High Availability Administration Guide\". Oracle.com. Retrieved 2013-05-28 . \n\n^ Laurenson, Lydia (3 May 2014). \"The Censorship Effect\". TechCrunch. Retrieved 27 February 2015 . \n\n^ Chester, Ken (12 August 2013). \"Censorship, external authentication, and other social media lessons from China's Great Firewall\". Tech in Asia. Retrieved 9 March 2016 . \n\n^ Rui Wang; Shuo Chen & XiaoFeng Wang. \"Signing Me onto Your Accounts through Facebook and Google: a Traffic-Guided Security Study of Commercially Deployed Single-Sign-On Web Services\". \n\n^ \"OpenID: Vulnerability report, Data confusion\" - OpenID Foundation, March 14, 2012 \n\n^ \"Facebook, Google Users Threatened by New Security Flaw\". Tom's Guide. 2 May 2014. Retrieved 11 November 2014 . \n\n^ \"Covert Redirect Vulnerability Related to OAuth 2.0 and OpenID\". Tetraph. 1 May 2014. Retrieved 10 November 2014 . \n\n^ \"Math student detects OAuth, OpenID security vulnerability\". Tech Xplore. 3 May 2014. Retrieved 10 November 2014 . \n\n^ \"Facebook, Google Users Threatened by New Security Flaw\". Yahoo. 2 May 2014. Retrieved 10 November 2014 . \n\n^ \"Covert Redirect Flaw in OAuth is Not the Next Heartbleed\". Symantec. 3 May 2014. Retrieved 10 November 2014 . \n\n^ MIT IST. \"OpenID Connect Authorization\". \n\n^ \"MicroStrategy's office of the future includes mobile identity and cybersecurity\". Washington Post. 2014-04-14. Retrieved 2014-03-30 . \n\n\nExternal links \nSingle sign-on intro with diagrams\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Single_sign-on\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Single_sign-on<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Computer securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 27 April 2018, at 16:27.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 352 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","a0db670f35af23e832f81d0ff17778c4_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Single_sign-on skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Single sign-on<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Single sign-on<\/b> (<b>SSO<\/b>) is a property of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authorization_(computer_access_control)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Authorization (computer access control)\" data-key=\"8e15b70c14d3267c535a3896bd3241c7\">access control<\/a> of multiple related, yet independent, software systems. With this property, a user <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Login\" title=\"Login\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe1ebc3f735c762d152d8b1bcc2c758f\">logs in<\/a> with a single ID and password to gain access to any of several related systems. It is often accomplished by using the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lightweight_Directory_Access_Protocol\" title=\"Lightweight Directory Access Protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73614b88ebb944abb2b190b96ec0d478\">Lightweight Directory Access Protocol<\/a> (LDAP) and stored LDAP databases on (directory) servers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> A simple version of single sign-on can be achieved over <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_protocol_suite\" title=\"Internet protocol suite\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a0e6b6ef689177f389dc4aac28dcb90\">IP networks<\/a> using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTTP_cookie\" title=\"HTTP cookie\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68e90a52d43ec5e9ce8291f91349f229\">cookies<\/a> but only if the sites share a common DNS parent domain.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>For clarity, it is best to refer to systems requiring authentication for each application but using the same credentials from a directory server as Directory Server Authentication and systems where a single authentication provides access to multiple applications by passing the authentication token seamlessly to configured applications as single sign-on.\n<\/p><p>Conversely, <b>single sign-off<\/b> is the property whereby a single action of signing out terminates access to multiple software systems.\n<\/p><p>As different applications and resources support different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication\" title=\"Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b74801c769bbf831b273b2d28e09b\">authentication<\/a> mechanisms, single sign-on must internally store the credentials used for initial authentication and translate them to the credentials required for the different mechanisms.\n<\/p><p>Other shared authentication schemes such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenID\" title=\"OpenID\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8694e9b5461b0474442387b7a47c3e5e\">OpenID<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenID_Connect\" title=\"OpenID Connect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a2a99cff3aecdceb217701f42bc1ab3\">OpenID Connect<\/a> offer other services that may require users to make choices during a sign-on to a resource, but can be configured for single sign-on if those other services (such as user consent) are disabled.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> An increasing number of federated social logons, like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facebook_Connect\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Facebook Connect\" data-key=\"f675b93a97d80231497f9ca7861ed346\">Facebook Connect<\/a> do require the user to enter consent choices at first registration with a new resource and so are not always single sign-on in the strictest sense.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Benefits\">Benefits<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Benefits of using single sign-on include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Mitigate risk for access to 3rd-party sites (user passwords not stored or managed externally)<\/li>\n<li>Reduce <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Password_fatigue\" title=\"Password fatigue\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c480057eb5d30be8ddf9c91d154ab39\">password fatigue<\/a> from different username and password combinations<\/li>\n<li>Reduce time spent re-entering passwords for the same identity<\/li>\n<li>Reduce IT costs due to lower number of IT <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Help_desk\" title=\"Help desk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b4905e2a4ec00c3bea97ea9a8d4033d\">help desk<\/a> calls about passwords<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>SSO shares centralized <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication_server\" title=\"Authentication server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1c856103ae294782a7b0fdfd61d99e0\">authentication servers<\/a> that all other applications and systems use for authentication purposes and combines this with techniques to ensure that users do not have to actively enter their credentials more than once.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Criticism\">Criticism<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The term <i>reduced sign-on<\/i> (RSO) has been used by some to reflect the fact that <i>single sign-on<\/i> is impractical in addressing the need for different levels of secure access in the enterprise, and as such more than one authentication server may be necessary.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-authenticationworld_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-authenticationworld-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As single sign-on provides access to many resources once the user is initially authenticated (\"keys to the castle\"), it increases the negative impact in case the credentials are available to other people and misused. Therefore, single sign-on requires an increased focus on the protection of the user credentials, and should ideally be combined with strong authentication methods like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_card\" title=\"Smart card\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56ccf00b9c7f1e26ad9be79e414f12d5\">smart cards<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/One-time_password\" title=\"One-time password\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b7d69152501d416e36750921b7530fd9\">one-time password<\/a> tokens.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-authenticationworld_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-authenticationworld-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Single sign-on also makes the authentication systems highly critical; a loss of their availability can result in denial of access to all systems unified under the SSO. SSO can be configured with session failover capabilities in order to maintain the system operation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> Nonetheless, the risk of system failure may make single sign-on undesirable for systems to which access must be guaranteed at all times, such as security or plant-floor systems.\n<\/p><p>Furthermore, the use of single-sign-on techniques utilizing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_networking_service\" title=\"Social networking service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85bf74e31808d6c6d4a202089bf28318\">social networking services<\/a> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facebook\" title=\"Facebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"452f745387ec551ed04005e53e079973\">Facebook<\/a> may render third party websites unusable within libraries, schools, or workplaces that block social media sites for productivity reasons. It can also cause difficulties in countries with active <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Censorship\" title=\"Censorship\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77ef0462dd42b52caca5cac4aa977c6b\">censorship<\/a> regimes, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/China\" title=\"China\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"31a299e4bd7efa2c7ceb9c96eaad6510\">China<\/a> and its \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Golden_Shield_Project\" title=\"Golden Shield Project\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14d6d079e143324606793dd164cae052\">Golden Shield Project<\/a>,\" where the third party website may not be actively censored, but is effectively blocked if a user's social login is blocked.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security\">Security<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In March, 2012, a research paper<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> reported an extensive study on the security of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_login\" title=\"Social login\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68f9506981b9992f14638fcf260e6073\">social login<\/a> mechanisms. The authors found 8 serious logic flaws in high-profile ID providers and relying party websites, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenID\" title=\"OpenID\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8694e9b5461b0474442387b7a47c3e5e\">OpenID<\/a> (including Google ID and PayPal Access), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facebook\" title=\"Facebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"452f745387ec551ed04005e53e079973\">Facebook<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Janrain\" title=\"Janrain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3eb96c33cf3a1de7e82d9aaabfc8bc66\">Janrain<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Freelancer.com\" title=\"Freelancer.com\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a2638f4125ca8419076d419bb378e1c7\">Freelancer<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FarmVille\" title=\"FarmVille\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"115ebe0b6c03182937a95405451eed15\">FarmVille<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sears.com\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sears.com\" data-key=\"0b08805b454b4011c5e5954e3f61e183\">Sears.com<\/a>. Because the researchers informed ID providers and relying party websites prior to public announcement of the discovery of the flaws, the vulnerabilities were corrected, and there have been no security breaches reported.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In May 2014, a vulnerability named <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Covert_Redirect\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Covert Redirect\" data-key=\"e7f68aca0927bcb4c747d753abaf0424\">Covert Redirect<\/a> was disclosed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TomsGuid_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TomsGuid-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> It was first reported \"Covert Redirect Vulnerability Related to OAuth 2.0 and OpenID\" by its discoverer Wang Jing, a Mathematical PhD student from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nanyang_Technological_University\" title=\"Nanyang Technological University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bce98a5827ce5b84aa68c4a9a3e9f02f\">Nanyang Technological University<\/a>, Singapore.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Covert_Redirect_OAuth_OpenID_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Covert_Redirect_OAuth_OpenID-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TechXplore_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TechXplore-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Yahoo_Report_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Yahoo_Report-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> In fact, almost all Single sign-on protocols are affected. Covert Redirect takes advantage of third-party clients susceptible to an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cross-site_scripting\" title=\"Cross-site scripting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"391f7d8887d885507dda342a5e19632b\">XSS<\/a> or Open Redirect.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Symantec_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Symantec-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Privacy\">Privacy<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>As originally implemented in Kerberos and SAML, single sign-on did not give users any choices about releasing their personal information to each new resource that the user visited. This worked well enough within a single enterprise, like MIT where Kerberos was invented, or major corporations where all of the resources were internal sites. However, as federated services like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Active_Directory_Federation_Services\" title=\"Active Directory Federation Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a8445a1c63543e1825a300fb143b7b8\">Active Directory Federation Services<\/a> proliferated, the user's private information was sent out to affiliated sites not under control of the enterprise that collected the data from the user. Since privacy regulations are now tightening with legislation like the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GDPR\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GDPR\" data-key=\"5c2e34e187a6edc9ec86f5667866a311\">GDPR<\/a> the newer methods like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenID_Connect\" title=\"OpenID Connect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a2a99cff3aecdceb217701f42bc1ab3\">OpenID Connect<\/a> have started to become more attractive; for example MIT, the originator of Kerberos, now supports <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenID_Connect\" title=\"OpenID Connect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a2a99cff3aecdceb217701f42bc1ab3\">OpenID Connect<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Common_configurations\">Common configurations<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Kerberos-based\">Kerberos-based<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Initial sign-on prompts the user for credentials, and gets a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kerberos_(protocol)\" title=\"Kerberos (protocol)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d030e1836409d375c5fd53ae3dd36e88\">Kerberos<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ticket-granting_ticket\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ticket-granting ticket\" data-key=\"8bb816a85b25508ee4d3f9daa13a1dde\">ticket-granting ticket<\/a> (TGT).<\/li>\n<li>Additional software applications requiring authentication, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Email_client\" title=\"Email client\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36bc6a6cc2ea3fb1b7e25a7db7520406\">email clients<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wiki\" title=\"Wiki\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41ffec41add635185ad1721682b0022b\">wikis<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Revision_control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Revision control\" data-key=\"f5187cd78a5d0dd95b9723a2743cf831\">revision-control<\/a> systems, use the ticket-granting ticket to acquire service tickets, proving the user's identity to the mailserver \/ wiki server \/ etc. without prompting the user to re-enter credentials.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Windows\" title=\"Microsoft Windows\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c181121bacd156ee0ddefde38acdb60a\">Windows<\/a> environment - Windows login fetches TGT. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Active_Directory\" title=\"Active Directory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e74fcba4266b0a53c31cf405f03edef7\">Active Directory<\/a>-aware applications fetch service tickets, so the user is not prompted to re-authenticate.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unix\" title=\"Unix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09c40606dbe75e9e93fcb36cd2d16c5f\">Unix<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linux\" title=\"Linux\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccfb1826b029961cb72ef84704ee2bcb\">Linux<\/a> environment - Log in via Kerberos <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pluggable_Authentication_Modules\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Pluggable Authentication Modules\" data-key=\"be4909f57ca3ba25787788801708c3c1\">PAM<\/a> modules fetches TGT. Kerberized client applications such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evolution_(software)\" title=\"Evolution (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"610c1c13d1f52e130d4253d0c6129724\">Evolution<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firefox\" title=\"Firefox\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faddc701654bbaec75f792e20fd8f498\">Firefox<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Subversion\" title=\"Apache Subversion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78161ad4b768b1dea94d76267e014319\">SVN<\/a> use service tickets, so the user is not prompted to re-authenticate.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Smart-card-based\">Smart-card-based<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Initial sign-on prompts the user for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_card\" title=\"Smart card\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56ccf00b9c7f1e26ad9be79e414f12d5\">smart card<\/a>. Additional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">software applications<\/a> also use the smart card, without prompting the user to re-enter credentials. Smart-card-based single sign-on can either use certificates or passwords stored on the smart card.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Integrated_Windows_Authentication\">Integrated Windows Authentication<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integrated_Windows_Authentication\" title=\"Integrated Windows Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee13b3c6f7d6f2241ce58bbec8f87b07\">Integrated Windows Authentication<\/a><\/i> is a term associated with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a> products and refers to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SPNEGO\" title=\"SPNEGO\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30d1a4f84ae141daf779ea180cc208c3\">SPNEGO<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kerberos_protocol\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Kerberos protocol\" data-key=\"9b2d9e82bada42ac53161c74a0dd286a\">Kerberos<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NTLMSSP\" title=\"NTLMSSP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3a35f1370f998f9f57efdb2b322f70f\">NTLMSSP<\/a> authentication protocols with respect to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_Support_Provider_Interface\" title=\"Security Support Provider Interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d56aad577b6bd6d9148a15d2b4083f90\">SSPI<\/a> functionality introduced with Microsoft <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Windows_2000\" title=\"Windows 2000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1403f2262204cbff6c14250aed552177\">Windows 2000<\/a> and included with later <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Windows_NT\" title=\"Windows NT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d55692c37f652187a051ae51b695e93\">Windows NT<\/a>-based operating systems. The term is most commonly used to refer to the automatically authenticated connections between Microsoft <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Information_Services\" title=\"Internet Information Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7cf4ad2a27df39e4d0f2030768ac42d9\">Internet Information Services<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Explorer\" title=\"Internet Explorer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"265a6a3d4765b4ac8ebc406cd1494033\">Internet Explorer<\/a>. Cross-platform <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Active_Directory\" title=\"Active Directory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e74fcba4266b0a53c31cf405f03edef7\">Active Directory<\/a> integration vendors have extended the Integrated Windows Authentication paradigm to Unix (including Mac) and GNU\/Linux systems.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_Assertion_Markup_Language\">Security Assertion Markup Language<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_Assertion_Markup_Language\" title=\"Security Assertion Markup Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76dbc3c383a7818c1ac299c4626346a4\">Security Assertion Markup Language<\/a> (SAML) is an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a>-based solution for exchanging user security information between an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_provider_(SAML)\" title=\"Identity provider (SAML)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b824aa3d0bf5bafe015b9fa7f2e86397\">SAML identity provider<\/a> and a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Service_provider_(SAML)\" title=\"Service provider (SAML)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a465e2365f3f59a14e4373ba3e5c8cfd\">SAML service provider<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SAML_2.0\" title=\"SAML 2.0\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f8372d8ef107d62a1200dffdc7b46f9\">SAML 2.0<\/a> supports <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Wide_Web_Consortium\" title=\"World Wide Web Consortium\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a7d6573e2fcfc286d41eac96c275923\">W3C<\/a> XML encryption and service provider initiated web browser single sign-on exchanges. A user wielding a user agent (usually a web browser) is called the subject in SAML-based single sign-on. The user requests a web resource protected by a SAML service provider. The service provider, wishing to know the identity of the user, issues an authentication request to a SAML identity provider through the user agent. The identity provider is the one that provides the user credentials. The service provider trusts the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_information\" title=\"User information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8dbe4f17bf62b07b9a57429b4ec3c604\">user information<\/a> from the identity provider to provide access to its services or resources.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Emerging_configurations\">Emerging configurations<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Mobile_devices_as_access_credentials\">Mobile devices as access credentials<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A newer variation of single-sign-on authentication has been developed using mobile devices as access credentials. Users' mobile devices can be used to automatically log them onto multiple systems, such as building-access-control systems and computer systems, through the use of authentication methods which include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenID_Connect\" title=\"OpenID Connect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a2a99cff3aecdceb217701f42bc1ab3\">OpenID Connect<\/a> and SAML,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> in conjunction with an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/X.509\" title=\"X.509\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f648e2c64d3015fa6683a02f43b03087\">X.509<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITU-T\" title=\"ITU-T\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66989984f04c650ca9f0770e4833a5d6\">ITU-T<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptography<\/a> certificate used to identify the mobile device to an access server.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Central_Authentication_Service\" title=\"Central Authentication Service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b1e7e7008ed32de7dee9c6baa33c84d\">Central Authentication Service<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_management\" title=\"Identity management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"139badee1fd59ef4622f94b49bf5228e\">Identity management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_management_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Identity management systems\" data-key=\"499cfbff179ba934adbd6064374ac8ed\">Identity management systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_single_sign-on_implementations\" title=\"List of single sign-on implementations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c5490140086ca31113eda1884207d14\">List of single sign-on implementations<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_Assertion_Markup_Language\" title=\"Security Assertion Markup Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76dbc3c383a7818c1ac299c4626346a4\">Security Assertion Markup Language<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Usability_of_web_authentication_systems\" title=\"Usability of web authentication systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e44265b92a5fef0aaabba52baff25d5f\">Usability of web authentication systems<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.is\/20140523114521\/http:\/\/www.authenticationworld.com\/Single-Sign-On-Authentication\/SSOandLDAP.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"SSO and LDAP Authentication\"<\/a>. Authenticationworld.com. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.authenticationworld.com\/Single-Sign-On-Authentication\/SSOandLDAP.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2014-05-23<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-05-23<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SSO+and+LDAP+Authentication&rft.pub=Authenticationworld.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.authenticationworld.com%2FSingle-Sign-On-Authentication%2FSSOandLDAP.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/alleged.org.uk\/pdc\/2007\/08\/13.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"OpenID versus Single-Sign-On Server\"<\/a>. alleged.org.uk. 2007-08-13<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-05-23<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=OpenID+versus+Single-Sign-On+Server&rft.pub=alleged.org.uk&rft.date=2007-08-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Falleged.org.uk%2Fpdc%2F2007%2F08%2F13.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.onelogin.com\/pages\/openid-connect\" target=\"_blank\">\"OpenID Connect Single Sign-On (SSO)\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=OpenID+Connect+Single+Sign-On+%28SSO%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.onelogin.com%2Fpages%2Fopenid-connect&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.uoguelph.ca\/ccs\/security\/internet\/single-sign-sso\/benefits\" target=\"_blank\">\"Benefits of SSO\"<\/a>. University of Guelph<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-05-23<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Benefits+of+SSO&rft.pub=University+of+Guelph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uoguelph.ca%2Fccs%2Fsecurity%2Finternet%2Fsingle-sign-sso%2Fbenefits&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-authenticationworld-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-authenticationworld_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-authenticationworld_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.is\/20140315095827\/http:\/\/www.authenticationworld.com\/Single-Sign-On-Authentication\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Single Sign On Authentication\"<\/a>. Authenticationworld.com. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.authenticationworld.com\/Single-Sign-On-Authentication\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2014-03-15<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-05-28<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Single+Sign+On+Authentication&rft.pub=Authenticationworld.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.authenticationworld.com%2FSingle-Sign-On-Authentication%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> <\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/docs.oracle.com\/cd\/E19879-01\/821-0182\/abdln\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Sun GlassFish Enterprise Server v2.1.1 High Availability Administration Guide\"<\/a>. Oracle.com<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-05-28<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sun+GlassFish+Enterprise+Server+v2.1.1+High+Availability+Administration+Guide&rft.pub=Oracle.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocs.oracle.com%2Fcd%2FE19879-01%2F821-0182%2Fabdln%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Laurenson, Lydia (3 May 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2014\/05\/03\/business-and-censorship\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Censorship Effect\"<\/a>. <i>TechCrunch<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 February<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TechCrunch&rft.atitle=The+Censorship+Effect&rft.date=2014-05-03&rft.aulast=Laurenson&rft.aufirst=Lydia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechcrunch.com%2F2014%2F05%2F03%2Fbusiness-and-censorship%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Chester, Ken (12 August 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.techinasia.com\/china-social-media-lessons-from-great-firewall\" target=\"_blank\">\"Censorship, external authentication, and other social media lessons from China's Great Firewall\"<\/a>. <i>Tech in Asia<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 March<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tech+in+Asia&rft.atitle=Censorship%2C+external+authentication%2C+and+other+social+media+lessons+from+China%E2%80%99s+Great+Firewall&rft.date=2013-08-12&rft.aulast=Chester&rft.aufirst=Ken&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.techinasia.com%2Fchina-social-media-lessons-from-great-firewall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Rui Wang; Shuo Chen & XiaoFeng Wang. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/research.microsoft.com\/apps\/pubs\/default.aspx?id=160659\" target=\"_blank\">\"Signing Me onto Your Accounts through Facebook and Google: a Traffic-Guided Security Study of Commercially Deployed Single-Sign-On Web Services\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Signing+Me+onto+Your+Accounts+through+Facebook+and+Google%3A+a+Traffic-Guided+Security+Study+of+Commercially+Deployed+Single-Sign-On+Web+Services&rft.au=Rui+Wang&rft.au=Shuo+Chen&rft.au=XiaoFeng+Wang&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresearch.microsoft.com%2Fapps%2Fpubs%2Fdefault.aspx%3Fid%3D160659&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/openid.net\/2012\/03\/14\/vulnerability-report-data-confusion\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"OpenID: Vulnerability report, Data confusion\"<\/a> - OpenID Foundation, March 14, 2012<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TomsGuid-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TomsGuid_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tomsguide.com\/us\/facebook-google-covert-redirect-flaw,news-18726.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Facebook, Google Users Threatened by New Security Flaw\"<\/a>. Tom's Guide. 2 May 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Facebook%2C+Google+Users+Threatened+by+New+Security+Flaw&rft.pub=Tom%27s+Guide&rft.date=2014-05-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tomsguide.com%2Fus%2Ffacebook-google-covert-redirect-flaw%2Cnews-18726.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Covert_Redirect_OAuth_OpenID-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Covert_Redirect_OAuth_OpenID_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/tetraph.com\/covert_redirect\/oauth2_openid_covert_redirect.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Covert Redirect Vulnerability Related to OAuth 2.0 and OpenID\"<\/a>. Tetraph. 1 May 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Covert+Redirect+Vulnerability+Related+to+OAuth+2.0+and+OpenID&rft.pub=Tetraph&rft.date=2014-05-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftetraph.com%2Fcovert_redirect%2Foauth2_openid_covert_redirect.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TechXplore-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TechXplore_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/techxplore.com\/news\/2014-05-math-student-oauth-openid-vulnerability.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Math student detects OAuth, OpenID security vulnerability\"<\/a>. Tech Xplore. 3 May 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Math+student+detects+OAuth%2C+OpenID+security+vulnerability&rft.pub=Tech+Xplore&rft.date=2014-05-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftechxplore.com%2Fnews%2F2014-05-math-student-oauth-openid-vulnerability.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Yahoo_Report-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Yahoo_Report_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/news.yahoo.com\/facebook-google-users-threatened-security-192547549.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Facebook, Google Users Threatened by New Security Flaw\"<\/a>. Yahoo. 2 May 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Facebook%2C+Google+Users+Threatened+by+New+Security+Flaw&rft.pub=Yahoo&rft.date=2014-05-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.yahoo.com%2Ffacebook-google-users-threatened-security-192547549.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Symantec-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Symantec_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.symantec.com\/connect\/blogs\/covert-redirect-flaw-oauth-not-next-heartbleed\" target=\"_blank\">\"Covert Redirect Flaw in OAuth is Not the Next Heartbleed\"<\/a>. Symantec. 3 May 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Covert+Redirect+Flaw+in+OAuth+is+Not+the+Next+Heartbleed&rft.pub=Symantec&rft.date=2014-05-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.symantec.com%2Fconnect%2Fblogs%2Fcovert-redirect-flaw-oauth-not-next-heartbleed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">MIT IST. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ist.mit.edu\/oidc\" target=\"_blank\">\"OpenID Connect Authorization\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=OpenID+Connect+Authorization&rft.au=MIT+IST&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fist.mit.edu%2Foidc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/business\/capitalbusiness\/microstrategys-office-of-the-future-includes-mobile-identity-and-cybersecurity\/2013\/04\/13\/eb82e074-a1e3-11e2-be47-b44febada3a8_story.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"MicroStrategy's office of the future includes mobile identity and cybersecurity\"<\/a>. Washington Post. 2014-04-14<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-03-30<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MicroStrategy%E2%80%99s+office+of+the+future+includes+mobile+identity+and+cybersecurity&rft.pub=Washington+Post&rft.date=2014-04-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fbusiness%2Fcapitalbusiness%2Fmicrostrategys-office-of-the-future-includes-mobile-identity-and-cybersecurity%2F2013%2F04%2F13%2Feb82e074-a1e3-11e2-be47-b44febada3a8_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASingle+sign-on\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.opengroup.org\/security\/sso\/sso_intro.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Single sign-on intro with diagrams<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1328\nCached time: 20190331010852\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.212 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.237 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 724\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 22876\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 78\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 7\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 47233\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\nLua time usage: 0.134\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 2.91 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 191.354 1 Template:Reflist\n100.00% 191.354 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>81.05% 155.085 14 Template:Cite_web\n 5.78% 11.051 2 Template:Cite_news\n 1.26% 2.403 1 Template:Main_other\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:927470-1!canonical and timestamp 20190331010852 and revision id 890230496\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Single_sign-on\" data-key=\"ff6ef9321be5735b208f36c02bfe8450\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203008\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.010 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.157 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 150.597 1 - wikipedia:Single_sign-on\n100.00% 150.597 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10542-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203008 and revision id 33014\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Single_sign-on\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Single_sign-on<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","a0db670f35af23e832f81d0ff17778c4_images":[],"a0db670f35af23e832f81d0ff17778c4_timestamp":1554323408,"c86c284ee804b9cc2dc5743b9e706120_type":"article","c86c284ee804b9cc2dc5743b9e706120_title":"Retention period","c86c284ee804b9cc2dc5743b9e706120_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Retention_period","c86c284ee804b9cc2dc5743b9e706120_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tRetention period\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tA retention period (associated with a retention schedule or retention program) is an aspect of records and information management (RIM) and the records life cycle that identifies the duration of time for which the information should be maintained or \"retained,\" irrespective of format (paper, electronic, or other). Retention periods vary with different types of information, based on content and a variety of other factors, including internal organizational need, regulatory requirements for inspection or audit, legal statutes of limitation, involvement in litigation, and taxation and financial reporting needs, as well as other factors as defined by local, regional, state, national, and\/or international governing entities.[1][2] \nOnce an applicable retention period has elapsed for a given type or series of information, and all holds\/moratoriums have been released, the information is typically destroyed using an approved and effective destruction method, which renders the information completely and irreversibly unusable via any means. Alternatively, it may be converted from one form to another (e.g. from paper to electronic), depending on the defined retention period per format. Information with historical value beyond its \"usable value\" may be accessioned to the custody of an archive organization for permanent or extended long-term preservation.[1][2]\n\nContents \n\n1 Defensible disposition \n2 Guidance and education organizations \n3 See also \n4 References \n\n\nDefensible disposition \nDefensible disposition refers to the ability of an identified and applied retention period to effectively provide for the defense of the record, and its eventual destruction or accessioning when scrutinized within a court of law or by other review.\nIt is commonly advised by records and information management (RIM) professionals that any and all retention periods applied to organizational information should be reviewed and approved for use by competent legal counsel, which represents the organization, and is familiar with the specific business needs and legal and regulatory requirements of the organization. Additionally, a practical approach to information assessment\/classification, proper documentation of the disposition program, strategic review of disposition policy over time for efficacy are required for proper defensible disposition.[3]\n\nGuidance and education organizations \nARMA International\nInformation and Records Management Society\nfilerskeepers records retention FAQ\nSee also \nRetention schedule\nReferences \n\n^ a b Cunningham, G.C.; Monta\u00f1a, J.C. (2006). \"Records Retention and Disposition\". The Lawyer's Guide to Records Management and Retention. American Bar Association. pp. 103\u2013118. ISBN 9781590314500. Retrieved 18 May 2018 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ a b Hamer, A.C. (2011). The ICSA Guide to Document Retention. ICSA Publishing Ltd. p. 338. ISBN 9781860724732. \n\n^ Kahn, R. (2014). \"Defensible Disposal: The Only Real Way to Manage Terabytes and Petabytes\". In Smallwood, R.F. Information Governance: Concepts, Strategies, and Best Practices. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 130\u2013137. ISBN 9781118218303. \n\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Retention_period\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Retention_period<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 18 May 2018, at 19:52.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 124 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","c86c284ee804b9cc2dc5743b9e706120_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Retention_period skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Retention period<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>A <b>retention period<\/b> (associated with a <b>retention schedule<\/b> or <b>retention program<\/b>) is an aspect of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Records_management\" title=\"Records management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"776f0cc59b663e870b7d26c6b5868575\">records and information management<\/a> (RIM) and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Records_life_cycle\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Records life cycle\" data-key=\"faf1a8fffc95c19bba3cfbc43287eaf5\">records life cycle<\/a> that identifies the duration of time for which the information should be maintained or \"retained,\" irrespective of format (paper, electronic, or other). Retention periods vary with different types of information, based on content and a variety of other factors, including internal organizational need, regulatory requirements for inspection or audit, legal statutes of limitation, involvement in litigation, and taxation and financial reporting needs, as well as other factors as defined by local, regional, state, national, and\/or international governing entities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CunninghamTheLaw06_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CunninghamTheLaw06-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HamerTheICSA11_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HamerTheICSA11-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Once an applicable retention period has elapsed for a given type or series of information, and all holds\/moratoriums have been released, the information is typically destroyed using an approved and effective destruction method, which renders the information completely and irreversibly unusable via any means. Alternatively, it may be converted from one form to another (e.g. from paper to electronic), depending on the defined retention period per format. Information with historical value beyond its \"usable value\" may be accessioned to the custody of an archive organization for permanent or extended long-term preservation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CunninghamTheLaw06_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CunninghamTheLaw06-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HamerTheICSA11_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HamerTheICSA11-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Defensible_disposition\">Defensible disposition<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Defensible disposition refers to the ability of an identified and applied retention period to effectively provide for the defense of the record, and its eventual destruction or accessioning when scrutinized within a court of law or by other review.\n<\/p><p>It is commonly advised by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Records_management\" title=\"Records management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"776f0cc59b663e870b7d26c6b5868575\">records and information management<\/a> (RIM) professionals that any and all retention periods applied to organizational information should be reviewed and approved for use by competent legal counsel, which represents the organization, and is familiar with the specific business needs and legal and regulatory requirements of the organization. Additionally, a practical approach to information assessment\/classification, proper documentation of the disposition program, strategic review of disposition policy over time for efficacy are required for proper defensible disposition.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SmallwoodInfo14_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SmallwoodInfo14-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Guidance_and_education_organizations\">Guidance and education organizations<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ARMA_International\" title=\"ARMA International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a147ff8f1e49c64eac9919b665690601\">ARMA International<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_and_Records_Management_Society\" title=\"Information and Records Management Society\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e38357733107b1f50e2b6a2a9751948\">Information and Records Management Society<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.filerskeepers.co\/records-retention-faq\/\" target=\"_blank\">filerskeepers records retention FAQ<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Retention_schedule\" title=\"Retention schedule\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84ae2dc46213ecd934c28a4c35569b25\">Retention schedule<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-CunninghamTheLaw06-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-CunninghamTheLaw06_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CunninghamTheLaw06_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Cunningham, G.C.; Monta\u00f1a, J.C. (2006). \"Records Retention and Disposition\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=4YIdn6lk7NoC&pg=PA103\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Lawyer's Guide to Records Management and Retention<\/i><\/a>. American Bar Association. pp. 103\u2013118. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781590314500<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Records+Retention+and+Disposition&rft.btitle=The+Lawyer%27s+Guide+to+Records+Management+and+Retention&rft.pages=103-118&rft.pub=American+Bar+Association&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781590314500&rft.au=Cunningham%2C+G.C.%3B+Monta%C3%B1a%2C+J.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4YIdn6lk7NoC%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetention+period\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HamerTheICSA11-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-HamerTheICSA11_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HamerTheICSA11_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Hamer, A.C. (2011). <i>The ICSA Guide to Document Retention<\/i>. ICSA Publishing Ltd. p. 338. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781860724732.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+ICSA+Guide+to+Document+Retention&rft.pages=338&rft.pub=ICSA+Publishing+Ltd&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781860724732&rft.au=Hamer%2C+A.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetention+period\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SmallwoodInfo14-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SmallwoodInfo14_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Kahn, R. (2014). \"Defensible Disposal: The Only Real Way to Manage Terabytes and Petabytes\". In Smallwood, R.F. <i>Information Governance: Concepts, Strategies, and Best Practices<\/i>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 130\u2013137. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781118218303.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Defensible+Disposal%3A+The+Only+Real+Way+to+Manage+Terabytes+and+Petabytes&rft.btitle=Information+Governance%3A+Concepts%2C+Strategies%2C+and+Best+Practices&rft.pages=130-137&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781118218303&rft.au=Kahn%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARetention+period\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1256\nCached time: 20190313213412\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.088 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.116 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 144\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 5328\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 3\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 9881\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\nLua time usage: 0.057\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 1.73 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 91.257 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>99.79% 91.069 3 Template:Cite_book\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:3544624-1!canonical and timestamp 20190313213412 and revision id 887288158\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Retention_period\" data-key=\"65492e79712d1788f3eba5d53c601619\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203008\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.008 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.147 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 141.510 1 - wikipedia:Retention_period\n100.00% 141.510 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10591-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203008 and revision id 33264\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Retention_period\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Retention_period<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","c86c284ee804b9cc2dc5743b9e706120_images":[],"c86c284ee804b9cc2dc5743b9e706120_timestamp":1554323408,"8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3_type":"article","8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3_title":"Network security","8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Network_security","8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tNetwork security\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThis article is part of a series onInformation security\nRelated security categories\nInternet security\nCyberwarfare\nComputer security\nMobile security\nNetwork security\n\nThreats\nComputer crime\nVulnerabilities\nEavesdropping\nMalware\nSpyware\nRansomware\nTrojans\nViruses\nWorms\nRootkits\nBootkits\nKeyloggers\nScreen scrapers\nExploits\nBackdoors\nLogic bombs\nPayloads\nDenial of service\nWeb shells\n\nDefenses\nComputer access control\nApplication security\nAntivirus software\nSecure coding\nSecure by default\nSecure by design\nSecure operating systems\nAuthentication\nMulti-factor authentication\nAuthorization\nData-centric security\nEncryption\nFirewall\nIntrusion detection system\nMobile secure gateway\nRuntime application self-protection (RASP)\nvte\nNetwork security consists of the policies and practices adopted to prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of a computer network and network-accessible resources. Network security involves the authorization of access to data in a network, which is controlled by the network administrator. Users choose or are assigned an ID and password or other authenticating information that allows them access to information and programs within their authority. Network security covers a variety of computer networks, both public and private, that are used in everyday jobs; conducting transactions and communications among businesses, government agencies and individuals. Networks can be private, such as within a company, and others which might be open to public access. Network security is involved in organizations, enterprises, and other types of institutions. It does as its title explains: It secures the network, as well as protecting and overseeing operations being done. The most common and simple way of protecting a network resource is by assigning it a unique name and a corresponding password.\n\nContents \n\n1 Network security concept \n2 Security management \n\n2.1 Types of attacks \n\n\n3 See also \n4 References \n5 Further reading \n\n\nNetwork security concept \nNetwork security starts with authentication, commonly with a username and a password. Since this requires just one detail authenticating the user name\u2014i.e., the password\u2014this is sometimes termed one-factor authentication. With two-factor authentication, something the user 'has' is also used (e.g., a security token or 'dongle', an ATM card, or a mobile phone); and with three-factor authentication, something the user 'is' is also used (e.g., a fingerprint or retinal scan).\nOnce authenticated, a firewall enforces access policies such as what services are allowed to be accessed by the network users.[1] Though effective to prevent unauthorized access, this component may fail to check potentially harmful content such as computer worms or Trojans being transmitted over the network. Anti-virus software or an intrusion prevention system (IPS)[2] help detect and inhibit the action of such malware. An anomaly-based intrusion detection system may also monitor the network like wireshark traffic and may be logged for audit purposes and for later high-level analysis. Newer systems combining unsupervised machine learning with full network traffic analysis can detect active network attackers from malicious insiders or targeted external attackers that have compromised a user machine or account.[3]\nCommunication between two hosts using a network may be encrypted to maintain privacy.\nHoneypots, essentially decoy network-accessible resources, may be deployed in a network as surveillance and early-warning tools, as the honeypots are not normally accessed for legitimate purposes. Techniques used by the attackers that attempt to compromise these decoy resources are studied during and after an attack to keep an eye on new exploitation techniques. Such analysis may be used to further tighten security of the actual network being protected by the honeypot. A honeypot can also direct an attacker's attention away from legitimate servers. A honeypot encourages attackers to spend their time and energy on the decoy server while distracting their attention from the data on the real server. Similar to a honeypot, a honeynet is a network set up with intentional vulnerabilities. Its purpose is also to invite attacks so that the attacker's methods can be studied and that information can be used to increase network security. A honeynet typically contains one or more honeypots.[4]\n\nSecurity management \nSecurity management for networks is different for all kinds of situations. A home or small office may only require basic security while large businesses may require high-maintenance and advanced software and hardware to prevent malicious attacks from hacking and spamming.\n\nTypes of attacks \nNetworks are subject to attacks from malicious sources. Attacks can be from two categories: \"Passive\" when a network intruder intercepts data traveling through the network, and \"Active\" in which an intruder initiates commands to disrupt the network's normal operation or to conduct reconnaissance and lateral movement to find and gain access to assets available via the network.[5]\nTypes of attacks include:[6]\n\nPassive\nNetwork\nWiretapping\nPort scanner\nIdle scan\nEncryption\nTraffic analysis\nActive: \nVirus\nEavesdropping\nData modification \nDenial-of-service attack\nDNS spoofing\nMan in the middle\nARP poisoning\nVLAN hopping\nSmurf attack\nBuffer overflow\nHeap overflow\nFormat string attack\nSQL injection\nPhishing\nCross-site scripting\nCSRF\nCyber-attack\nSee also \n\nCloud computing security\nCrimeware\nCyber security standards\nData loss prevention software\nGreynet\nIdentity-based security\nMetasploit Project\nMobile security\nNetsentron\nNetwork Security Toolkit\nTCP Gender Changer\nTCP sequence prediction attack\nTCP sequence prediction attack\nTimeline of computer security hacker history\nWireless security\nDynamic secrets\nLow Orbit Ion Cannon\nHigh Orbit Ion Cannon\nReferences \n\n\n^ A Role-Based Trusted Network Provides Pervasive Security and Compliance - interview with Jayshree Ullal, senior VP of Cisco \n\n^ Dave Dittrich, Network monitoring\/Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) Archived 2006-08-27 at the Wayback Machine, University of Washington. \n\n^ \"Dark Reading: Automating Breach Detection For The Way Security Professionals Think\". October 1, 2015. \n\n^ \"' 'Honeypots, Honeynets''\". Honeypots.net. 2007-05-26. Retrieved 2011-12-09 . \n\n^ Wright, Joe; Jim Harmening (2009) \"15\" Computer and Information Security Handbook Morgan Kaufmann Publications Elsevier Inc p. 257 \n\n^ \"BIG-IP logout page\" (PDF) . Cnss.gov. 1970-01-01. Retrieved 2018-09-24 . \n\n\nFurther reading \nCase Study: Network Clarity, SC Magazine 2014\nCisco. (2011). What is network security?. Retrieved from cisco.com\nSecurity of the Internet (The Froehlich\/Kent Encyclopedia of Telecommunications vol. 15. Marcel Dekker, New York, 1997, pp. 231\u2013255.)\nIntroduction to Network Security, Matt Curtin.\nMPLS, SD-WAN and Network Security', Yishay Yovel.\nSecurity Monitoring with Cisco Security MARS, Gary Halleen\/Greg Kellogg, Cisco Press, Jul. 6, 2007.\nSelf-Defending Networks: The Next Generation of Network Security, Duane DeCapite, Cisco Press, Sep. 8, 2006.\nSecurity Threat Mitigation and Response: Understanding CS-MARS, Dale Tesch\/Greg Abelar, Cisco Press, Sep. 26, 2006.\nSecuring Your Business with Cisco ASA and PIX Firewalls, Greg Abelar, Cisco Press, May 27, 2005.\nDeploying Zone-Based Firewalls, Ivan Pepelnjak, Cisco Press, Oct. 5, 2006.\nNetwork Security: PRIVATE Communication in a PUBLIC World, Charlie Kaufman | Radia Perlman | Mike Speciner, Prentice-Hall, 2002. ISBN .\nNetwork Infrastructure Security, Angus Wong and Alan Yeung, Springer, 2009.\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Network_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Network_security<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Computer securitySoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 21 June 2016, at 21:15.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 1,844 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Network_security skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Network security<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\">\n<p><b>Network security<\/b> consists of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Policies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Policies\" data-key=\"adf5daed653b9fd8d1acd1891817397c\">policies<\/a> and practices adopted to prevent and monitor <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unauthorized\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Unauthorized\" data-key=\"243abb37e8a152f216c9ba552cef8ff6\">unauthorized<\/a> access, misuse, modification, or denial of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">computer network<\/a> and network-accessible resources. Network security involves the authorization of access to data in a network, which is controlled by the network administrator. Users choose or are assigned an ID and password or other authenticating information that allows them access to information and programs within their authority. Network security covers a variety of computer networks, both public and private, that are used in everyday jobs; conducting transactions and communications among businesses, government agencies and individuals. Networks can be private, such as within a company, and others which might be open to public access. Network security is involved in organizations, enterprises, and other types of institutions. It does as its title explains: It secures the network, as well as protecting and overseeing operations being done. The most common and simple way of protecting a network resource is by assigning it a unique name and a corresponding password.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Network_security_concept\">Network security concept<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Network security starts with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication\" title=\"Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b74801c769bbf831b273b2d28e09b\">authentication<\/a>, commonly with a username and a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Password\" title=\"Password\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1a0d7ae6f26ce9e27f1556f4d98c342\">password<\/a>. Since this requires just one detail authenticating the user name\u2014i.e., the password\u2014this is sometimes termed one-factor authentication. With <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Two-factor_authentication\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Two-factor authentication\" data-key=\"28263c9f4956d6e78856db8d0162d23e\">two-factor authentication<\/a>, something the user 'has' is also used (e.g., a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_token\" title=\"Security token\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c9d3bbad457f10503b520c6c25215d3\">security token<\/a> or '<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dongle\" title=\"Dongle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab2024ebe71ccddfe89f210599143945\">dongle<\/a>', an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ATM_card\" title=\"ATM card\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98fcdae5a9232ea2c7d60094ab3507a5\">ATM card<\/a>, or a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_phone\" title=\"Mobile phone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f308160569b30fb9430217f73c172f7d\">mobile phone<\/a>); and with three-factor authentication, something the user 'is' is also used (e.g., a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fingerprint\" title=\"Fingerprint\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"467ce94e6e4a373eb01fa079a45609ff\">fingerprint<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Retinal_scan\" title=\"Retinal scan\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8f4ffd6da0ed8f82ca94975fa55b851\">retinal scan<\/a>).\n<\/p><p>Once authenticated, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewall_(networking)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Firewall (networking)\" data-key=\"7da6d7805097a24a8974213a1734d7b4\">firewall<\/a> enforces access policies such as what services are allowed to be accessed by the network users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Though effective to prevent unauthorized access, this component may fail to check potentially harmful content such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_worm\" title=\"Computer worm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a91f5f0c8645bb8a187c68b0ba5df098\">computer worms<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trojan_horse_(computing)\" title=\"Trojan horse (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a678695bce8d35b35440bc260712bbc\">Trojans<\/a> being transmitted over the network. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anti-virus_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Anti-virus software\" data-key=\"2ac619778c31e93ad6698ab294ea59fb\">Anti-virus software<\/a> or an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intrusion_prevention_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intrusion prevention system\" data-key=\"70b73bccbe78e7b69ffd100bae0e37c8\">intrusion prevention system<\/a> (IPS)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> help detect and inhibit the action of such <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malware\" title=\"Malware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed66ca98570d7dd0ef9f856c47815b11\">malware<\/a>. An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anomaly-based_intrusion_detection_system\" title=\"Anomaly-based intrusion detection system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64a55db406a178fb7c8d2a5f0265ea61\">anomaly-based intrusion detection system<\/a> may also monitor the network like wireshark <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deep_packet_inspection\" title=\"Deep packet inspection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4edd33f07bcf6b500eb846f2a2036e7d\">traffic<\/a> and may be logged for audit purposes and for later high-level analysis. Newer systems combining unsupervised <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_learning\" title=\"Machine learning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d1d26937b35eda04f56c4985eb62cde\">machine learning<\/a> with full network traffic analysis can detect active network attackers from malicious insiders or targeted external attackers that have compromised a user machine or account.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Communication between two hosts using a network may be encrypted to maintain privacy.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Honeypot_(computing)\" title=\"Honeypot (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc5119a0d71a1c65fbfd893097cd7b85\">Honeypots<\/a>, essentially <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decoy\" title=\"Decoy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"260e06e5c40220f633a9946b86f2c8cf\">decoy<\/a> network-accessible resources, may be deployed in a network as surveillance and early-warning tools, as the honeypots are not normally accessed for legitimate purposes. Techniques used by the attackers that attempt to compromise these decoy resources are studied during and after an attack to keep an eye on new <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploit_(computer_security)\" title=\"Exploit (computer security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f4ac5071aa2dbae29311466c786264c\">exploitation<\/a> techniques. Such analysis may be used to further tighten security of the actual network being protected by the honeypot. A honeypot can also direct an attacker's attention away from legitimate servers. A honeypot encourages attackers to spend their time and energy on the decoy server while distracting their attention from the data on the real server. Similar to a honeypot, a honeynet is a network set up with intentional vulnerabilities. Its purpose is also to invite attacks so that the attacker's methods can be studied and that information can be used to increase network security. A honeynet typically contains one or more honeypots.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_management\">Security management<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Security management for networks is different for all kinds of situations. A home or small office may only require basic security while large businesses may require high-maintenance and advanced software and hardware to prevent malicious attacks from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hacker_(computer_security)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hacker (computer security)\" data-key=\"451128bf11e718a1cc4e2e4e24e268cf\">hacking<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spamming\" title=\"Spamming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d03c7f999de3efea71c5d288f09f5b4b\">spamming<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_attacks\">Types of attacks<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Networks are subject to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attack_(computing)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Attack (computing)\" data-key=\"65af10c2d279bcbb392e72b46725835a\">attacks<\/a> from malicious sources. Attacks can be from two categories: \"Passive\" when a network intruder intercepts data traveling through the network, and \"Active\" in which an intruder initiates commands to disrupt the network's normal operation or to conduct reconnaissance and lateral movement to find and gain access to assets available via the network.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Types of attacks include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Passive\n<ul><li>Network\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telephone_tapping\" title=\"Telephone tapping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c721e7ff515b1e5d62025635def5859\">Wiretapping<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Port_scanner\" title=\"Port scanner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3368c1fa127e779ff93ef3e47ca57f8a\">Port scanner<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Idle_scan\" title=\"Idle scan\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d084d1e78a735fa0d8d6ed011a2f646b\">Idle scan<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" title=\"Encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">Encryption<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Traffic analysis<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Active:<span class=\"plainlinks\"><\/span>\n<ul><li>Virus<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eavesdropping\" title=\"Eavesdropping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25a9d311dae84400cfc4f641ee9b1628\">Eavesdropping<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Data modification <div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 22em; -webkit-column-width: 22em; column-width: 22em;\"><\/div><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denial-of-service_attack\" title=\"Denial-of-service attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60592f037a0652dd16c640127be8ca89\">Denial-of-service attack<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNS_spoofing\" title=\"DNS spoofing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"82a04d3e422c70e62694b291b29e2e68\">DNS spoofing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Man-in-the-middle_attack\" title=\"Man-in-the-middle attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46cba3aa9167508aa88cfa87f3a41a2d\">Man in the middle<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ARP_poisoning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ARP poisoning\" data-key=\"b8d93119f8fc2fc3b273f83a570bbe25\">ARP poisoning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/VLAN_hopping\" title=\"VLAN hopping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5781c777e537f01ec6db345842f7c17a\">VLAN hopping<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smurf_attack\" title=\"Smurf attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8f808f295050853103360ac25ef2b43\">Smurf attack<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Buffer_overflow\" title=\"Buffer overflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf438fc270f1a494ade76df74757bc25\">Buffer overflow<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heap_overflow\" title=\"Heap overflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"092774a57520e9b0b0802895cecf0660\">Heap overflow<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Format_string_attack\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Format string attack\" data-key=\"9bbe0511a72518a940c47fb72a5507e7\">Format string attack<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SQL_injection\" title=\"SQL injection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"241ac5083c3ddb380c01ac1166f0c108\">SQL injection<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phishing\" title=\"Phishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c8238cbe6d3bb4c5c9496327b378d3b\">Phishing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cross-site_scripting\" title=\"Cross-site scripting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"391f7d8887d885507dda342a5e19632b\">Cross-site scripting<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CSRF\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CSRF\" data-key=\"101d591863f1f7942e77a17d755d9172\">CSRF<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber-attack\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cyber-attack\" data-key=\"89d45257d6d0442e2abf9d9a231f1437\">Cyber-attack<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 22em; -webkit-column-width: 22em; column-width: 22em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing_security\" title=\"Cloud computing security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76abf4f9c445efd4445b612b97f4184a\">Cloud computing security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crimeware\" title=\"Crimeware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dbdc345fe278d93e27fecc7166aec58\">Crimeware<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber_security_standards\" title=\"Cyber security standards\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22324f72f27314d356ce64454a5e88fb\">Cyber security standards<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_loss_prevention_software\" title=\"Data loss prevention software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"985dd65bda1b5dea90cc63b4d899e124\">Data loss prevention software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Greynet\" title=\"Greynet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c6487e99ab1a64cb4b198b1c833b241\">Greynet<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity-based_security\" title=\"Identity-based security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d369fa224c1be047c7e2e3fdc2afbf0\">Identity-based security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metasploit_Project\" title=\"Metasploit Project\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d84f44d6dc3be3850ed942da7fd6dac\">Metasploit Project<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_security\" title=\"Mobile security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf32c339d351c1985e8b463b30752340\">Mobile security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Netsentron\" title=\"Netsentron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d6bc5e0aad51f9f87225e346cbc4be7\">Netsentron<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_Security_Toolkit\" title=\"Network Security Toolkit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f8e36e35e233397725145d1a4bda893\">Network Security Toolkit<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TCP_Gender_Changer\" title=\"TCP Gender Changer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1579dcb1070bcd3f04dc99ff4d975b8f\">TCP Gender Changer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TCP_sequence_prediction_attack\" title=\"TCP sequence prediction attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"694911426cb86221604b2edc4efc7f42\">TCP sequence prediction attack<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TCP_sequence_prediction_attack\" title=\"TCP sequence prediction attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"694911426cb86221604b2edc4efc7f42\">TCP sequence prediction attack<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Timeline_of_computer_security_hacker_history\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Timeline of computer security hacker history\" data-key=\"2d58e809876292b7efaaf7c02aa07120\">Timeline of computer security hacker history<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wireless_security\" title=\"Wireless security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"952c629baae95741b80cded455fbada8\">Wireless security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_secrets\" title=\"Dynamic secrets\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f46dca89908faedeb712e6e9d1ea43be\">Dynamic secrets<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Low_Orbit_Ion_Cannon\" title=\"Low Orbit Ion Cannon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a79d78adeb8e64f7dc8ecb6cd86f1be\">Low Orbit Ion Cannon<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High_Orbit_Ion_Cannon\" title=\"High Orbit Ion Cannon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a8bbe7b7706380958ab7dc550271fd3\">High Orbit Ion Cannon<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">A Role-Based Trusted Network Provides <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/newsroom.cisco.com\/dlls\/2008\/ts_010208b.html?sid=BAC-NewsWire\" target=\"_blank\">Pervasive Security and Compliance<\/a> - interview with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jayshree_Ullal\" title=\"Jayshree Ullal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"207a2ea1b33d328b37040986c1dce4a9\">Jayshree Ullal<\/a>, senior VP of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cisco\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cisco\" data-key=\"714ea563f93e753e4417dc5892775b94\">Cisco<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Dave Dittrich, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/staff.washington.edu\/dittrich\/network.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Network monitoring\/Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS)<\/i><\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20060827234520\/http:\/\/staff.washington.edu\/dittrich\/network.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2006-08-27 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, University of Washington.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.darkreading.com\/operations\/automating-breach-detection-for-the-way-security-professionals-think\/a\/d-id\/1322443\" target=\"_blank\">\"Dark Reading: Automating Breach Detection For The Way Security Professionals Think\"<\/a>. October 1, 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dark+Reading%3A+Automating+Breach+Detection+For+The+Way+Security+Professionals+Think&rft.date=2015-10-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.darkreading.com%2Foperations%2Fautomating-breach-detection-for-the-way-security-professionals-think%2Fa%2Fd-id%2F1322443&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANetwork+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.honeypots.net\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\">'<\/span>'Honeypots, Honeynets''\"<\/a>. Honeypots.net. 2007-05-26<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-12-09<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27%26%2339%3BHoneypots%2C+Honeynets%27%26%2339%3B&rft.pub=Honeypots.net&rft.date=2007-05-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.honeypots.net&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANetwork+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Wright, Joe; Jim Harmening (2009) \"15\" Computer and Information Security Handbook Morgan Kaufmann Publications Elsevier Inc p. 257<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cnss.gov\/Assets\/pdf\/cnssi_4009.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"BIG-IP logout page\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Cnss.gov. 1970-01-01<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-09-24<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BIG-IP+logout+page&rft.pub=Cnss.gov&rft.date=1970-01-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnss.gov%2FAssets%2Fpdf%2Fcnssi_4009.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANetwork+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scmagazine.com\/case-study-network-clarity\/article\/324988\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Case Study: Network Clarity<\/i><\/a>, SC Magazine 2014<\/li>\n<li>Cisco. (2011). What is network security?. Retrieved from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cisco.com\/cisco\/web\/solutions\/small_business\/resource_center\/articles\/secure_my_business\/what_is_network_security\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">cisco.com<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cert.org\/encyc_article\/tocencyc.html\" target=\"_blank\">Security of the Internet<\/a> (<i>The Froehlich\/Kent Encyclopedia of Telecommunications vol. 15<\/i>. Marcel Dekker, New York, 1997, pp. 231\u2013255.)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.interhack.net\/pubs\/network-security\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Introduction to Network Security<\/i><\/a>, Matt Curtin.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.catonetworks.com\/blog\/mpls-sdwan-and-network-security\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>MPLS, SD-WAN and Network Security'<\/i><\/a><i>, Yishay Yovel.<\/i><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ciscopress.com\/bookstore\/product.asp?isbn=1587052709\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Security Monitoring with Cisco Security MARS<\/i><\/a>, Gary Halleen\/Greg Kellogg, Cisco Press, Jul. 6, 2007.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ciscopress.com\/bookstore\/product.asp?isbn=1587052539\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Self-Defending Networks: The Next Generation of Network Security<\/i><\/a>, Duane DeCapite, Cisco Press, Sep. 8, 2006.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ciscopress.com\/bookstore\/product.asp?isbn=1587052601\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Security Threat Mitigation and Response: Understanding CS-MARS<\/i><\/a>, Dale Tesch\/<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ciscopress.com\/authors\/bio.asp?a=b411523c-c935-4708-a563-d24de8fcfc71\" target=\"_blank\">Greg Abelar<\/a>, Cisco Press, Sep. 26, 2006.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ciscopress.com\/bookstore\/product.asp?isbn=1587052148\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Securing Your Business with Cisco ASA and PIX Firewalls<\/i><\/a>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ciscopress.com\/authors\/bio.asp?a=b411523c-c935-4708-a563-d24de8fcfc71\" target=\"_blank\">Greg Abelar<\/a>, Cisco Press, May 27, 2005.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ciscopress.com\/bookstore\/product.asp?isbn=1587053101\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Deploying Zone-Based Firewalls<\/i><\/a>, Ivan Pepelnjak, Cisco Press, Oct. 5, 2006.<\/li>\n<li><i>Network Security: PRIVATE Communication in a PUBLIC World<\/i>, Charlie Kaufman | Radia Perlman | Mike Speciner, Prentice-Hall, 2002. ISBN .<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.springer.com\/computer\/communications\/book\/978-1-4419-0165-1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Network Infrastructure Security<\/i><\/a>, Angus Wong and Alan Yeung, Springer, 2009.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1271\nCached time: 20190316165402\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.168 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.225 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 548\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 17111\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 3722\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 9\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 9966\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\nLua time usage: 0.084\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 2.23 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 186.115 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>64.32% 119.700 1 Template:Reflist\n51.31% 95.504 3 Template:Cite_web\n21.34% 39.724 1 Template:Computer_security\n18.06% 33.619 1 Template:Sidebar\n11.72% 21.811 2 Template:Columns-list\n 8.06% 15.004 2 Template:Div_col\n 7.17% 13.349 1 Template:Webarchive\n 2.12% 3.950 5 Template:Main_other\n 1.39% 2.582 2 Template:Column-width\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:592687-1!canonical and timestamp 20190316165402 and revision id 887067869\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_security\" data-key=\"bd28fe06f1e45ea385d35225e5d4effc\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203008\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.010 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.355 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 348.697 1 - wikipedia:Network_security\n100.00% 348.697 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:8857-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203007 and revision id 25936\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Network_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Network_security<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3_images":[],"8cb5e340f8617180886fad5cf3c252f3_timestamp":1554323407,"f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8_type":"article","f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8_title":"Metadata","f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Metadata","f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tMetadata\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\n In the 2010s, metadata typically refers to digital forms, but traditional card catalogues contain metadata, with cards holding information about books in a library (author, title, subject, etc.).\nMetadata is \"data [information] that provides information about other data\".[1] Many distinct types of metadata exist, among these descriptive metadata, structural metadata, administrative metadata,[2] reference metadata and statistical metadata.[3]\n\nDescriptive metadata describes a resource for purposes such as discovery and identification. It can include elements such as title, abstract, author, and keywords.\nStructural metadata is metadata about containers of data and indicates how compound objects are put together, for example, how pages are ordered to form chapters. It describes the types, versions, relationships and other characteristics of digital materials.[4]\nAdministrative metadata provides information to help manage a resource, such as when and how it was created, file type and other technical information, and who can access it.[5]\nReference metadata describes the contents and quality of statistical data\nStatistical metadata may also describe processes that collect, process, or produce statistical data; such metadata are also called process data.[6]\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Definition \n3 Types \n4 Structures \n\n4.1 Syntax \n4.2 Hierarchical, linear and planar schemata \n4.3 Hypermapping \n4.4 Granularity \n\n\n5 Standards \n6 Use \n\n6.1 Photographs \n6.2 Telecommunications \n6.3 Video \n\n\n7 Creation \n\n7.1 Data virtualization \n7.2 Statistics and census services \n7.3 Library and information science \n7.4 In museums \n\n7.4.1 Usage \n7.4.2 Standards \n7.4.3 Cultural objects and art works \n7.4.4 Museums and the Internet \n\n\n7.5 Law \n\n7.5.1 United States \n7.5.2 Australia \n\n\n7.6 In legislation \n7.7 In healthcare \n7.8 In biomedical research \n7.9 Data warehousing \n7.10 On the Internet \n7.11 In broadcast industry \n7.12 Geospatial \n7.13 Ecological and environmental \n7.14 Digital music \n7.15 Cloud applications \n\n\n8 Administration and management \n\n8.1 Storage \n8.2 Database management \n\n\n9 In popular culture \n10 See also \n11 References \n12 Further reading \n13 External links \n\n\nHistory \nMetadata was traditionally used in the card catalogs of libraries until the 1980s, when libraries converted their catalog data to digital databases. In the 2000s, as digital formats were becoming the prevalent way of storing data and information, metadata was also used to describe digital data using metadata standards.\nThe first description of \"meta data\" for computer systems is purportedly noted by MIT's Center for International Studies experts David Griffel and Stuart McIntosh in 1967: \"In summary then, we have statements in an object language about subject descriptions of data and token codes for the data. We also have statements in a meta language describing the data relationships and transformations, and ought\/is relations between norm and data.\"[7]\nThere are different metadata standards for each different discipline (e.g., museum collections, digital audio files, websites, etc.). Describing the contents and context of data or data files increases its usefulness. For example, a web page may include metadata specifying what software language the page is written in (e.g., HTML), what tools were used to create it, what subjects the page is about, and where to find more information about the subject. This metadata can automatically improve the reader's experience and make it easier for users to find the web page online.[8] A CD may include metadata providing information about the musicians, singers and songwriters whose work appears on the disc.\nA principal purpose of metadata is to help users find relevant information and discover resources. Metadata also helps to organize electronic resources, provide digital identification, and support the archiving and preservation of resources. Metadata assists users in resource discovery by \"allowing resources to be found by relevant criteria, identifying resources, bringing similar resources together, distinguishing dissimilar resources, and giving location information.\"[9] Metadata of telecommunication activities including Internet traffic is very widely collected by various national governmental organizations. This data is used for the purposes of traffic analysis and can be used for mass surveillance.[10]\nIn many countries, the metadata relating to emails, telephone calls, web pages, video traffic, IP connections and cell phone locations are routinely stored by government organizations.[11]\n\nDefinition \nMetadata means \"data about data\". Although the \"meta\" prefix (from the Greek preposition and prefix \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac-) means \"after\" or \"beyond\", it is used to mean \"about\" in epistemology. Metadata is defined as the data providing information about one or more aspects of the data; it is used to summarize basic information about data which can make tracking and working with specific data easier.[12] Some examples include:\nMeans of creation of the data\nPurpose of the data\nTime and date of creation\nCreator or author of the data\nLocation on a computer network where the data was created\nStandards used\nFile size\nData quality\nSource of the data\nProcess used to create the data\nFor example, a digital image may include metadata that describes how large the picture is, the color depth, the image resolution, when the image was created, the shutter speed, and other data.[13] A text document's metadata may contain information about how long the document is, who the author is, when the document was written, and a short summary of the document. Metadata within web pages can also contain descriptions of page content, as well as key words linked to the content.[14] These links are often called \"Metatags\", which were used as the primary factor in determining order for a web search until the late 1990s.[14] The reliance of metatags in web searches was decreased in the late 1990s because of \"keyword stuffing\".[14] Metatags were being largely misused to trick search engines into thinking some websites had more relevance in the search than they really did.[14]\nMetadata can be stored and managed in a database, often called a metadata registry or metadata repository.[15] However, without context and a point of reference, it might be impossible to identify metadata just by looking at it.[16] For example: by itself, a database containing several numbers, all 13 digits long could be the results of calculations or a list of numbers to plug into an equation - without any other context, the numbers themselves can be perceived as the data. But if given the context that this database is a log of a book collection, those 13-digit numbers may now be identified as ISBNs - information that refers to the book, but is not itself the information within the book. The term \"metadata\" was coined in 1968 by Philip Bagley, in his book \"Extension of Programming Language Concepts\" where it is clear that he uses the term in the ISO 11179 \"traditional\" sense, which is \"structural metadata\" i.e. \"data about the containers of data\"; rather than the alternative sense \"content about individual instances of data content\" or metacontent, the type of data usually found in library catalogues.[17][18] Since then the fields of information management, information science, information technology, librarianship, and GIS have widely adopted the term. In these fields the word metadata is defined as \"data about data\".[19][page needed ] While this is the generally accepted definition, various disciplines have adopted their own more specific explanation and uses of the term.\n\nTypes \nWhile the metadata application is manifold, covering a large variety of fields, there are specialized and well-accepted models to specify types of metadata. Bretherton & Singley (1994) distinguish between two distinct classes: structural\/control metadata and guide metadata.[20] Structural metadata describes the structure of database objects such as tables, columns, keys and indexes. Guide metadata helps humans find specific items and are usually expressed as a set of keywords in a natural language. According to Ralph Kimball metadata can be divided into 2 similar categories: technical metadata and business metadata. Technical metadata corresponds to internal metadata, and business metadata corresponds to external metadata. Kimball adds a third category, process metadata. On the other hand, NISO distinguishes among three types of metadata: descriptive, structural, and administrative.[19]\nDescriptive metadata is typically used for discovery and identification, as information to search and locate an object, such as title, author, subjects, keywords, publisher. Structural metadata describes how the components of an object are organized. An example of structural metadata would be how pages are ordered to form chapters of a book. Finally, administrative metadata gives information to help manage the source. Administrative metadata refers to the technical information, including file type, or when and how the file was created. Two sub-types of administrative metadata are rights management metadata and preservation metadata. Rights management metadata explains intellectual property rights, while preservation metadata contains information to preserve and save a resource.[9][page needed ]\nStatistical data repositories have their own requirements for metadata in order to describe not only the source and quality of the data[3] but also what statistical processes were used to create the data, which is of particular importance to the statistical community in order to both validate and improve the process of statistical data production.[6]\nAn additional type of metadata beginning to be more developed is accessibility metadata. Accessibility metadata is not a new concept to libraries; however, advances in universal design have raised its profile.[21]:213-214 Projects like Cloud4All and GPII identified the lack of common terminologies and models to describe the needs and preferences of users and information that fits those needs as a major gap in providing universal access solutions.[21]:210-211 Those types of information are accessibility metadata.[21]:214 Schema.org has incorporated several accessibility properties based on IMS Global Access for All Information Model Data Element Specification.[21]:214 The Wiki page WebSchemas\/Accessibility lists several properties and their values.\nWhile the efforts to describe and standardize the varied accessibility needs of information seekers are beginning to become more robust their adoption into established metadata schemas has not been as developed. For example, while Dublin Core (DC)'s \u201caudience\u201d and MARC 21's \u201creading level\u201d could be used to identify resources suitable for users with dyslexia and DC's \u201cFormat\u201d could be used to identify resources available in braille, audio, or large print formats, there is more work to be done.[21]:214 \n\nStructures \nMetadata (metacontent) or, more correctly, the vocabularies used to assemble metadata (metacontent) statements, is typically structured according to a standardized concept using a well-defined metadata scheme, including: metadata standards and metadata models. Tools such as controlled vocabularies, taxonomies, thesauri, data dictionaries, and metadata registries can be used to apply further standardization to the metadata. Structural metadata commonality is also of paramount importance in data model development and in database design.\n\nSyntax \nMetadata (metacontent) syntax refers to the rules created to structure the fields or elements of metadata (metacontent).[22] A single metadata scheme may be expressed in a number of different markup or programming languages, each of which requires a different syntax. For example, Dublin Core may be expressed in plain text, HTML, XML, and RDF.[23]\nA common example of (guide) metacontent is the bibliographic classification, the subject, the Dewey Decimal class number. There is always an implied statement in any \"classification\" of some object. To classify an object as, for example, Dewey class number 514 (Topology) (i.e. books having the number 514 on their spine) the implied statement is: \"<book><subject heading><514>. This is a subject-predicate-object triple, or more importantly, a class-attribute-value triple. The first two elements of the triple (class, attribute) are pieces of some structural metadata having a defined semantic. The third element is a value, preferably from some controlled vocabulary, some reference (master) data. The combination of the metadata and master data elements results in a statement which is a metacontent statement i.e. \"metacontent = metadata + master data\". All of these elements can be thought of as \"vocabulary\". Both metadata and master data are vocabularies which can be assembled into metacontent statements. There are many sources of these vocabularies, both meta and master data: UML, EDIFACT, XSD, Dewey\/UDC\/LoC, SKOS, ISO-25964, Pantone, Linnaean Binomial Nomenclature, etc. Using controlled vocabularies for the components of metacontent statements, whether for indexing or finding, is endorsed by ISO 25964: \"If both the indexer and the searcher are guided to choose the same term for the same concept, then relevant documents will be retrieved.\"[24] This is particularly relevant when considering search engines of the internet, such as Google. The process indexes pages then matches text strings using its complex algorithm; there is no intelligence or \"inferencing\" occurring, just the illusion thereof.\n\n Hierarchical, linear and planar schemata \nMetadata schemata can be hierarchical in nature where relationships exist between metadata elements and elements are nested so that parent-child relationships exist between the elements.\nAn example of a hierarchical metadata schema is the IEEE LOM schema, in which metadata elements may belong to a parent metadata element.\nMetadata schemata can also be one-dimensional, or linear, where each element is completely discrete from other elements and classified according to one dimension only.\nAn example of a linear metadata schema is the Dublin Core schema, which is one dimensional.\nMetadata schemata are often two dimensional, or planar, where each element is completely discrete from other elements but classified according to two orthogonal dimensions.[25]\n\nHypermapping \nIn all cases where the metadata schemata exceed the planar depiction, some type of hypermapping is required to enable display and view of metadata according to chosen aspect and to serve special views. Hypermapping frequently applies to layering of geographical and geological information overlays.[26]\n\nGranularity \nThe degree to which the data or metadata is structured is referred to as its \"granularity\". \"Granularity\" refers to how much detail is provided. Metadata with a high granularity allows for deeper, more detailed, and more structured information and enables greater level of technical manipulation. A lower level of granularity means that metadata can be created for considerably lower costs but will not provide as detailed information. The major impact of granularity is not only on creation and capture, but moreover on maintenance costs. As soon as the metadata structures become outdated, so too is the access to the referred data. Hence granularity must take into account the effort to create the metadata as well as the effort to maintain it.\n\nStandards \nInternational standards apply to metadata. Much work is being accomplished in the national and international standards communities, especially ANSI (American National Standards Institute) and ISO (International Organization for Standardization) to reach consensus on standardizing metadata and registries. The core metadata registry standard is ISO\/IEC 11179 Metadata Registries (MDR), the framework for the standard is described in ISO\/IEC 11179-1:2004.[27] A new edition of Part 1 is in its final stage for publication in 2015 or early 2016. It has been revised to align with the current edition of Part 3, ISO\/IEC 11179-3:2013[28] which extends the MDR to support registration of Concept Systems.\n(see ISO\/IEC 11179). This standard specifies a schema for recording both the meaning and technical structure of the data for unambiguous usage by humans and computers. ISO\/IEC 11179 standard refers to metadata as information objects about data, or \"data about data\". In ISO\/IEC 11179 Part-3, the information objects are data about Data Elements, Value Domains, and other reusable semantic and representational information objects that describe the meaning and technical details of a data item. This standard also prescribes the details for a metadata registry, and for registering and administering the information objects within a Metadata Registry. ISO\/IEC 11179 Part 3 also has provisions for describing compound structures that are derivations of other data elements, for example through calculations, collections of one or more data elements, or other forms of derived data. While this standard describes itself originally as a \"data element\" registry, its purpose is to support describing and registering metadata content independently of any particular application, lending the descriptions to being discovered and reused by humans or computers in developing new applications, databases, or for analysis of data collected in accordance with the registered metadata content. This standard has become the general basis for other kinds of metadata registries, reusing and extending the registration and administration portion of the standard.\nThe Geospatial community has a tradition of specialized geospatial metadata standards, particularly building on traditions of map- and image-libraries and catalogues. Formal metadata is usually essential for geospatial data, as common text-processing approaches are not applicable.\nThe Dublin Core metadata terms are a set of vocabulary terms which can be used to describe resources for the purposes of discovery. The original set of 15 classic[29] metadata terms, known as the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set[30] are endorsed in the following standards documents:\n\nIETF RFC 5013[31]\nISO Standard 15836-2009[32]\nNISO Standard Z39.85.[33]\nAlthough not a standard, Microformat (also mentioned in the section metadata on the internet below) is a web-based approach to semantic markup which seeks to re-use existing HTML\/XHTML tags to convey metadata. Microformat follows XHTML and HTML standards but is not a standard in itself. One advocate of microformats, Tantek \u00c7elik, characterized a problem with alternative approaches: \n\n\n\n\u201c\n\nHere's a new language we want you to learn, and now you need to output these additional files on your server. It's a hassle. (Microformats) lower the barrier to entry.[34]\n\n\u201d\n\n\n\nUse \nPhotographs \nMetadata may be written into a digital photo file that will identify who owns it, copyright and contact information, what brand or model of camera created the file, along with exposure information (shutter speed, f-stop, etc.) and descriptive information, such as keywords about the photo, making the file or image searchable on a computer and\/or the Internet. Some metadata is created by the camera and some is input by the photographer and\/or software after downloading to a computer. Most digital cameras write metadata about model number, shutter speed, etc., and some enable you to edit it;[35] this functionality has been available on most Nikon DSLRs since the Nikon D3, on most new Canon cameras since the Canon EOS 7D, and on most Pentax DSLRs since the Pentax K-3. Metadata can be used to make organizing in post-production easier with the use of key-wording. Filters can be used to analyze a specific set of photographs and create selections on criteria like rating or capture time. On devices with geolocation capabilities like GPS (smartphones in particular), the location the photo was taken from may also be included.\nPhotographic Metadata Standards are governed by organizations that develop the following standards. They include, but are not limited to:\n\nIPTC Information Interchange Model IIM (International Press Telecommunications Council),\nIPTC Core Schema for XMP\nXMP \u2013 Extensible Metadata Platform (an ISO standard)\nExif \u2013 Exchangeable image file format, Maintained by CIPA (Camera & Imaging Products Association) and published by JEITA (Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Association)\nDublin Core (Dublin Core Metadata Initiative \u2013 DCMI)\nPLUS (Picture Licensing Universal System).\nVRA Core (Visual Resource Association)[36]\nTelecommunications \nInformation on the times, origins and destinations of phone calls, electronic messages, instant messages and other modes of telecommunication, as opposed to message content, is another form of metadata. Bulk collection of this call detail record metadata by intelligence agencies has proven controversial after disclosures by Edward Snowden of the fact that certain Intelligence agencies such as the NSA had been (and perhaps still are) keeping online metadata on millions of internet user for up to a year, regardless of whether or not they [ever] were persons of interest to the agency.\n\nVideo \nMetadata is particularly useful in video, where information about its contents (such as transcripts of conversations and text descriptions of its scenes) is not directly understandable by a computer, but where efficient search of the content is desirable. This is particularly useful in video applications such as Automatic Number Plate Recognition and Vehicle Recognition Identification software, wherein license plate data is saved and used to create reports and alerts.[37] There are two sources in which video metadata is derived: (1) operational gathered metadata, that is information about the content produced, such as the type of equipment, software, date, and location; (2) human-authored metadata, to improve search engine visibility, discoverability, audience engagement, and providing advertising opportunities to video publishers.[38] In today's society most professional video editing software has access to metadata. Avid's MetaSync and Adobe's Bridge are two prime examples of this.[39]\n\nCreation \nMetadata can be created either by automated information processing or by manual work. Elementary metadata captured by computers can include information about when an object was created, who created it, when it was last updated, file size, and file extension. In this context an object refers to any of the following:\n\nA physical item such as a book, CD, DVD, a paper map, chair, table, flower pot, etc.\nAn electronic file such as a digital image, digital photo, electronic document, program file, database table, etc.\nData virtualization \nMain article: Data virtualization\nData virtualization has emerged in the 2000s as the new software technology to complete the virtualization \"stack\" in the enterprise. Metadata is used in data virtualization servers which are enterprise infrastructure components, alongside database and application servers. Metadata in these servers is saved as persistent repository and describe business objects in various enterprise systems and applications. Structural metadata commonality is also important to support data virtualization.\n\nStatistics and census services \nStandardization and harmonization work has brought advantages to industry efforts to build metadata systems in the statistical community.[40][41] Several metadata guidelines and standards such as the European Statistics Code of Practice[42] and ISO 17369:2013 (Statistical Data and Metadata Exchange or SDMX)[40] provide key principles for how businesses, government bodies, and other entities should manage statistical data and metadata. Entities such as Eurostat[43], European System of Central Banks[43], and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency[44] have implemented these and other such standards and guidelines with the goal of improving \"efficiency when managing statistical business processes.\"[43]\n\nLibrary and information science \nMetadata has been used in various ways as a means of cataloging items in libraries in both digital and analog format. Such data helps classify, aggregate, identify, and locate a particular book, DVD, magazine or any object a library might hold in its collection. Until the 1980s, many library catalogues used 3x5 inch cards in file drawers to display a book's title, author, subject matter, and an abbreviated alpha-numeric string (call number) which indicated the physical location of the book within the library's shelves. The Dewey Decimal System employed by libraries for the classification of library materials by subject is an early example of metadata usage. Beginning in the 1980s and 1990s, many libraries replaced these paper file cards with computer databases. These computer databases make it much easier and faster for users to do keyword searches. Another form of older metadata collection is the use by US Census Bureau of what is known as the \"Long Form.\" The Long Form asks questions that are used to create demographic data to find patterns of distribution.[45] Libraries employ metadata in library catalogues, most commonly as part of an Integrated Library Management System. Metadata is obtained by cataloguing resources such as books, periodicals, DVDs, web pages or digital images. This data is stored in the integrated library management system, ILMS, using the MARC metadata standard. The purpose is to direct patrons to the physical or electronic location of items or areas they seek as well as to provide a description of the item\/s in question.\nMore recent and specialized instances of library metadata include the establishment of digital libraries including e-print repositories and digital image libraries. While often based on library principles, the focus on non-librarian use, especially in providing metadata, means they do not follow traditional or common cataloging approaches. Given the custom nature of included materials, metadata fields are often specially created e.g. taxonomic classification fields, location fields, keywords or copyright statement. Standard file information such as file size and format are usually automatically included.[46] Library operation has for decades been a key topic in efforts toward international standardization. Standards for metadata in digital libraries include Dublin Core, METS, MODS, DDI, DOI, URN, PREMIS schema, EML, and OAI-PMH. Leading libraries in the world give hints on their metadata standards strategies.[47][48]\n\nIn museums \nMetadata in a museum context is the information that trained cultural documentation specialists, such as archivists, librarians, museum registrars and curators, create to index, structure, describe, identify, or otherwise specify works of art, architecture, cultural objects and their images.[49][50][page needed ][51][page needed ] Descriptive metadata is most commonly used in museum contexts for object identification and resource recovery purposes.[50]\n\nUsage \nMetadata is developed and applied within collecting institutions and museums in order to:\n\nFacilitate resource discovery and execute search queries.[51]\nCreate digital archives that store information relating to various aspects of museum collections and cultural objects, and serves for archival and managerial purposes.[51]\nProvide public audiences access to cultural objects through publishing digital content online.[50][51]\nStandards \nMany museums and cultural heritage centers recognize that given the diversity of art works and cultural objects, no single model or standard suffices to describe and catalogue cultural works.[49][50][51] For example, a sculpted Indigenous artifact could be classified as an artwork, an archaeological artifact, or an Indigenous heritage item. The early stages of standardization in archiving, description and cataloging within the museum community began in the late 1990s with the development of standards such as Categories for the Description of Works of Art (CDWA), Spectrum, CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (CRM), Cataloging Cultural Objects (CCO) and the CDWA Lite XML schema.[50] These standards use HTML and XML markup languages for machine processing, publication and implementation.[50] The Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules (AACR), originally developed for characterizing books, have also been applied to cultural objects, works of art and architecture.[51] Standards, such as the CCO, are integrated within a Museum's Collections Management System (CMS), a database through which museums are able to manage their collections, acquisitions, loans and conservation.[51] Scholars and professionals in the field note that the \"quickly evolving landscape of standards and technologies\" create challenges for cultural documentarians, specifically non-technically trained professionals.[52][page needed ] Most collecting institutions and museums use a relational database to categorize cultural works and their images.[51] Relational databases and metadata work to document and describe the complex relationships amongst cultural objects and multi-faceted works of art, as well as between objects and places, people and artistic movements.[50][51] Relational database structures are also beneficial within collecting institutions and museums because they allow for archivists to make a clear distinction between cultural objects and their images; an unclear distinction could lead to confusing and inaccurate searches.[51]\n\nCultural objects and art works \nAn object's materiality, function and purpose, as well as the size (e.g., measurements, such as height, width, weight), storage requirements (e.g., climate-controlled environment) and focus of the museum and collection, influence the descriptive depth of the data attributed to the object by cultural documentarians.[51] The established institutional cataloging practices, goals and expertise of cultural documentarians and database structure also influence the information ascribed to cultural objects, and the ways in which cultural objects are categorized.[49][51] Additionally, museums often employ standardized commercial collection management software that prescribes and limits the ways in which archivists can describe artworks and cultural objects.[52] As well, collecting institutions and museums use Controlled Vocabularies to describe cultural objects and artworks in their collections.[50][51] Getty Vocabularies and the Library of Congress Controlled Vocabularies are reputable within the museum community and are recommended by CCO standards.[51] Museums are encouraged to use controlled vocabularies that are contextual and relevant to their collections and enhance the functionality of their digital information systems.[50][51] Controlled Vocabularies are beneficial within databases because they provide a high level of consistency, improving resource retrieval.[50][51] Metadata structures, including controlled vocabularies, reflect the ontologies of the systems from which they were created. Often the processes through which cultural objects are described and categorized through metadata in museums do not reflect the perspectives of the maker communities.[49][53]\n\nMuseums and the Internet \nMetadata has been instrumental in the creation of digital information systems and archives within museums, and has made it easier for museums to publish digital content online. This has enabled audiences who might not have had access to cultural objects due to geographic or economic barriers to have access to them.[50] In the 2000s, as more museums have adopted archival standards and created intricate databases, discussions about Linked Data between museum databases have come up in the museum, archival and library science communities.[52] Collection Management Systems (CMS) and Digital Asset Management tools can be local or shared systems.[51] Digital Humanities scholars note many benefits of interoperability between museum databases and collections, while also acknowledging the difficulties achieving such interoperability.[52]\n\nLaw \nUnited States \nThe examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (March 2015 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nProblems involving metadata in litigation in the United States are becoming widespread.[when? ] Courts have looked at various questions involving metadata, including the discoverability of metadata by parties. Although the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure have only specified rules about electronic documents, subsequent case law has elaborated on the requirement of parties to reveal metadata.[54] In October 2009, the Arizona Supreme Court has ruled that metadata records are public record.[55] Document metadata have proven particularly important in legal environments in which litigation has requested metadata, which can include sensitive information detrimental to a certain party in court. Using metadata removal tools to \"clean\" or redact documents can mitigate the risks of unwittingly sending sensitive data. This process partially (see data remanence) protects law firms from potentially damaging leaking of sensitive data through electronic discovery.\nOpinion polls have shown that 45% of Americans are \"not at all confident\" in the ability of social media sites ensure their personal data is secure and 40% say that social media sites should not be able to store any information on individuals. 76% of Americans say that they are not confident that the information advertising agencies collect on them is secure and 50% say that online advertising agencies should not be allowed to record any of their information at all.[56]\n\nAustralia \nIn Australia, the need to strengthen national security has resulted in the introduction of a new metadata storage law.[57] This new law means that both security and policing agencies will be allowed to access up to two years of an individual's metadata, with the aim of making it easier to stop any terrorist attacks and serious crimes from happening.\n\nIn legislation \nLegislative metadata has been the subject of some discussion in law.gov forums such as workshops held by the Legal Information Institute at the Cornell Law School on March 22 and 23, 2010. The documentation for these forums are titled, \"Suggested metadata practices for legislation and regulations.\"[58] \nA handful of key points have been outlined by these discussions, section headings of which are listed as follows:\n\nGeneral Considerations\nDocument Structure\nDocument Contents\nMetadata (elements of)\nLayering\nPoint-in-time versus post-hoc\nIn healthcare \nAustralian medical research pioneered the definition of metadata for applications in health care. That approach offers the first recognized attempt to adhere to international standards in medical sciences instead of defining a proprietary standard under the World Health Organization (WHO) umbrella. The medical community yet did not approve the need to follow metadata standards despite research that supported these standards.[59]\n\nIn biomedical research \nResearch studies in the fields of biomedicine and molecular biology frequently yield large quantities of data, including results of genome or meta-genome sequencing, proteomics data, and even notes or plans created during the course of research itself[60]. Each data type involves its own variety of metadata and the processes necessary to produce these metadata. General metadata standards, such as ISA-Tab[61], allow researchers to create and exchange experimental metadata in consistent formats. Specific experimental approaches frequently have their own metadata standards and systems: metadata standards for mass spectrometry include mzML[62] and SPLASH[63], while XML-based standard such as PDBML[64] and SRA XML[65] serve as standards for macromolecular structure and sequencing data, respectively.\nThe products of biomedical research are generally realized as peer-reviewed manuscripts and these publications are yet another source of data. Metadata for biomedical publications is often created by journal publishers and citation databases such as PubMed and Web of Science. The data contained within manuscripts or accompanying them as supplementary material is less often subject to metadata creation[66][67], though they may be submitted to biomedical databases after publication. The original authors and database curators then become responsible for metadata creation, with the assistance of automated processes. Comprehensive metadata for all experimental data is the foundation of the FAIR Guiding Principles, or the standards for ensuring research data are findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable.[68]\n\nData warehousing \nA data warehouse (DW) is a repository of an organization's electronically stored data. Data warehouses are designed to manage and store the data. Data warehouses differ from business intelligence (BI) systems, because BI systems are designed to use data to create reports and analyze the information, to provide strategic guidance to management.[69] Metadata is an important tool in how data is stored in data warehouses. The purpose of a data warehouse is to house standardized, structured, consistent, integrated, correct, \"cleaned\" and timely data, extracted from various operational systems in an organization. The extracted data are integrated in the data warehouse environment to provide an enterprise-wide perspective. Data are structured in a way to serve the reporting and analytic requirements. The design of structural metadata commonality using a data modeling method such as entity relationship model diagramming is important in any data warehouse development effort. They detail metadata on each piece of data in the data warehouse. An essential component of a data warehouse\/business intelligence system is the metadata and tools to manage and retrieve the metadata. Ralph Kimball[70][page needed ] describes metadata as the DNA of the data warehouse as metadata defines the elements of the data warehouse and how they work together.\nKimball et al.[71] refers to three main categories of metadata: Technical metadata, business metadata and process metadata. Technical metadata is primarily definitional, while business metadata and process metadata is primarily descriptive. The categories sometimes overlap.\n\nTechnical metadata defines the objects and processes in a DW\/BI system, as seen from a technical point of view. The technical metadata includes the system metadata, which defines the data structures such as tables, fields, data types, indexes and partitions in the relational engine, as well as databases, dimensions, measures, and data mining models. Technical metadata defines the data model and the way it is displayed for the users, with the reports, schedules, distribution lists, and user security rights.\nBusiness metadata is content from the data warehouse described in more user-friendly terms. The business metadata tells you what data you have, where they come from, what they mean and what their relationship is to other data in the data warehouse. Business metadata may also serve as a documentation for the DW\/BI system. Users who browse the data warehouse are primarily viewing the business metadata.\nProcess metadata is used to describe the results of various operations in the data warehouse. Within the ETL process, all key data from tasks is logged on execution. This includes start time, end time, CPU seconds used, disk reads, disk writes, and rows processed. When troubleshooting the ETL or query process, this sort of data becomes valuable. Process metadata is the fact measurement when building and using a DW\/BI system. Some organizations make a living out of collecting and selling this sort of data to companies - in that case the process metadata becomes the business metadata for the fact and dimension tables. Collecting process metadata is in the interest of business people who can use the data to identify the users of their products, which products they are using, and what level of service they are receiving.\nOn the Internet \nThe HTML format used to define web pages allows for the inclusion of a variety of types of metadata, from basic descriptive text, dates and keywords to further advanced metadata schemes such as the Dublin Core, e-GMS, and AGLS[72] standards. Pages can also be geotagged with coordinates. Metadata may be included in the page's header or in a separate file. Microformats allow metadata to be added to on-page data in a way that regular web users do not see, but computers, web crawlers and search engines can readily access. Many search engines are cautious about using metadata in their ranking algorithms due to exploitation of metadata and the practice of search engine optimization, SEO, to improve rankings. See Meta element article for further discussion. This cautious attitude may be justified as people, according to Doctorow,[73] are not executing care and diligence when creating their own metadata and that metadata is part of a competitive environment where the metadata is used to promote the metadata creators own purposes. Studies show that search engines respond to web pages with metadata implementations,[74] and Google has an announcement on its site showing the meta tags that its search engine understands.[75] Enterprise search startup Swiftype recognizes metadata as a relevance signal that webmasters can implement for their website-specific search engine, even releasing their own extension, known as Meta Tags 2.[76]\n\nIn broadcast industry \nIn broadcast industry, metadata is linked to audio and video broadcast media to:\n\nidentify the media: clip or playlist names, duration, timecode, etc.\ndescribe the content: notes regarding the quality of video content, rating, description (for example, during a sport event, keywords like goal, red card will be associated to some clips)\nclassify media: metadata allows producers to sort the media or to easily and quickly find a video content (a TV news could urgently need some archive content for a subject). For example, the BBC have a large subject classification system, Lonclass, a customized version of the more general-purpose Universal Decimal Classification.\nThis metadata can be linked to the video media thanks to the video servers. Most major broadcast sport events like FIFA World Cup or the Olympic Games use this metadata to distribute their video content to TV stations through keywords. It is often the host broadcaster[77] who is in charge of organizing metadata through its International Broadcast Centre and its video servers. This metadata is recorded with the images and are entered by metadata operators (loggers) who associate in live metadata available in metadata grids through software (such as Multicam(LSM) or IPDirector used during the FIFA World Cup or Olympic Games).[78][79]\n\nGeospatial \nMetadata that describes geographic objects in electronic storage or format (such as datasets, maps, features, or documents with a geospatial component) has a history dating back to at least 1994 (refer MIT Library page on FGDC Metadata). This class of metadata is described more fully on the geospatial metadata article.\n\nEcological and environmental \nEcological and environmental metadata is intended to document the \"who, what, when, where, why, and how\" of data collection for a particular study. This typically means which organization or institution collected the data, what type of data, which date(s) the data was collected, the rationale for the data collection, and the methodology used for the data collection. Metadata should be generated in a format commonly used by the most relevant science community, such as Darwin Core, Ecological Metadata Language,[80] or Dublin Core. Metadata editing tools exist to facilitate metadata generation (e.g. Metavist,[81] Mercury, Morpho[82]). Metadata should describe provenance of the data (where they originated, as well as any transformations the data underwent) and how to give credit for (cite) the data products.\n\nDigital music \nWhen first released in 1982, Compact Discs only contained a Table Of Contents (TOC) with the number of tracks on the disc and their length in samples.[83][dead link ] [84] Fourteen years later in 1996, a revision of the CD Red Book standard added CD-Text to carry additional metadata.[85] But CD-Text was not widely adopted. Shortly thereafter, it became common for personal computers to retrieve metadata from external sources (e.g. CDDB, Gracenote) based on the TOC.\nDigital audio formats such as digital audio files superseded music formats such as cassette tapes and CDs in the 2000s. Digital audio files could be labelled with more information than could be contained in just the file name. That descriptive information is called the audio tag or audio metadata in general. Computer programs specializing in adding or modifying this information are called tag editors. Metadata can be used to name, describe, catalogue and indicate ownership or copyright for a digital audio file, and its presence makes it much easier to locate a specific audio file within a group, typically through use of a search engine that accesses the metadata. As different digital audio formats were developed, attempts were made to standardize a specific location within the digital files where this information could be stored.\nAs a result, almost all digital audio formats, including mp3, broadcast wav and AIFF files, have similar standardized locations that can be populated with metadata. The metadata for compressed and uncompressed digital music is often encoded in the ID3 tag. Common editors such as TagLib support MP3, Ogg Vorbis, FLAC, MPC, Speex, WavPack TrueAudio, WAV, AIFF, MP4, and ASF file formats.\n\nCloud applications \nWith the availability of cloud applications, which include those to add metadata to content, metadata is increasingly available over the Internet.\n\nAdministration and management \nStorage \nMetadata can be stored either internally,[86] in the same file or structure as the data (this is also called embedded metadata), or externally, in a separate file or field from the described data. A data repository typically stores the metadata detached from the data, but can be designed to support embedded metadata approaches. Each option has advantages and disadvantages:\n\nInternal storage means metadata always travels as part of the data they describe; thus, metadata is always available with the data, and can be manipulated locally. This method creates redundancy (precluding normalization), and does not allow managing all of a system's metadata in one place. It arguably increases consistency, since the metadata is readily changed whenever the data is changed.\nExternal storage allows collocating metadata for all the contents, for example in a database, for more efficient searching and management. Redundancy can be avoided by normalizing the metadata's organization. In this approach, metadata can be united with the content when information is transferred, for example in Streaming media; or can be referenced (for example, as a web link) from the transferred content. On the down side, the division of the metadata from the data content, especially in standalone files that refer to their source metadata elsewhere, increases the opportunities for misalignments between the two, as changes to either may not be reflected in the other.\nMetadata can be stored in either human-readable or binary form. Storing metadata in a human-readable format such as XML can be useful because users can understand and edit it without specialized tools.[87] However, text-based formats are rarely optimized for storage capacity, communication time, or processing speed. A binary metadata format enables efficiency in all these respects, but requires special software to convert the binary information into human-readable content.\n\nDatabase management \nEach relational database system has its own mechanisms for storing metadata. Examples of relational-database metadata include:\n\nTables of all tables in a database, their names, sizes, and number of rows in each table.\nTables of columns in each database, what tables they are used in, and the type of data stored in each column.\nIn database terminology, this set of metadata is referred to as the catalog. The SQL standard specifies a uniform means to access the catalog, called the information schema, but not all databases implement it, even if they implement other aspects of the SQL standard. For an example of database-specific metadata access methods, see Oracle metadata. Programmatic access to metadata is possible using APIs such as JDBC, or SchemaCrawler.[88]\n\nIn popular culture \nOne of the first satirical examinations of the concept of Metadata as we understand it today is American Science Fiction author Hal Draper's short story, MS_Fnd_in_a_Lbry (1961).\nHere, the knowledge of all Mankind is condensed into an object the size of a desk drawer, however the magnitude of the metadata (e.g. catalog of catalogs of... , as well as indexes and histories) eventually leads to dire yet humorous consequence for the human race.\nThe story prefigures the modern consequences of allowing metadata to become more important than the real data it is concerned with, and the risks inherent in that eventuality as a cautionary tale.\n\nSee also \n\nAgris: International Information System for the Agricultural Sciences and Technology\nClassification scheme\nCrosswalk (metadata)\nDataONE\nData Dictionary (aka metadata repository)\nDublin Core\nFolksonomy\nGEOMS \u2013 Generic Earth Observation Metadata Standard\nGeospatial metadata\nIPDirector\nISO\/IEC 11179\nKnowledge tag\nMercury: Metadata Search System\nMeta element\nMetadata Access Point Interface\nMetadata discovery\nMetadata facility for Java\nMetadata from Wikiversity\nMetadata publishing\nMetadata registry\nMetamathematics\nMETAFOR Common Metadata for Climate Modelling Digital Repositories\nMicrocontent\nMicroformat\nMulticam (LSM)\nObservations and Measurements\nOntology (computer science)\nOfficial statistics\nParatext\nPreservation Metadata\nSDMX\nSemantic Web\nSGML\nThe Metadata Company\nUniversal Data Element Framework\nVocabulary OneSource\nXSD\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"Archived copy\". 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Archived from the original on 11 November 2011. \n\n^ De Sutter, Robbie; Notebaert, Stijn; Van de Walle, Rik (September 2006). \"Evaluation of Metadata Standards in the Context of Digital Audio-Visual Libraries\". In Gonzalo, Julio; Thanos, Constantino; Verdejo, M. Felisa; Carrasco, Rafael. Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries: 10th European Conference, EDCL 2006. Springer. p. 226. ISBN 978-3540446361. Archived from the original on 27 April 2016. \n\n^ Sualeh Fatehi. \"SchemaCrawler\". SourceForge. Archived from the original on 3 September 2009. \n\n\nFurther reading \nGartner, Richard. 2016. Metadata: Shaping Knowledge from Antiquity to the Semantic Web . Springer. ISBN 9783319408910.\nZeng, Marcia & Qin, Jian. 2016. Metadata . Facet. ISBN 9781783300525.\nExternal links \n\n\n\nLook up metadata in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\nUnderstanding Metadata: What is metadata, and what is it for? \u2014 NISO, 2017\n\"A Guardian guide to your metadata\" \u2014 The Guardian, Wednesday 12 June 2013.\nMetacrap: Putting the torch to seven straw-men of the meta-utopia \u2014 Cory Doctorow's opinion on the limitations of metadata on the Internet, 2001\nDataONE Investigator Toolkit\nJournal of Library Metadata, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, ISSN 1937-5034\nInternational Journal of Metadata, Semantics and Ontologies (IJMSO), Inderscience Publishers, ISSN 1744-263X\nMetadata and metacontent at the Wayback Machine (archived 26 January 2013) (PDF, archived version)\nLPR Standards, Department of Homeland Security (October 2012)\nvteSoftware engineeringFields\nComputer programming\nRequirements engineering\nSoftware deployment\nSoftware design\nSoftware maintenance\nSoftware testing\nSystems analysis\nFormal methods\nConcepts\nData modeling\nEnterprise architecture\nFunctional specification\nModeling language\nOrthogonality\nProgramming paradigm\nSoftware\nSoftware archaeology\nSoftware architecture\nSoftware configuration management\nSoftware development methodology\nSoftware development process\nSoftware quality\nSoftware quality assurance\nSoftware verification and validation\nStructured analysis\nOrientations\nAgile\nAspect-oriented\nObject orientation\nOntology\nService orientation\nSDLC\nModelsDevelopmental\nAgile\nEUP\nExecutable UML\nIncremental model\nIterative model\nPrototype model\nRAD\nUP\nScrum\nSpiral model\nV-Model\nWaterfall model\nXP\nOther\nSPICE\nCMMI\nData model\nER model\nFunction model\nInformation model\nMetamodeling\nObject model\nSystems model\nView model\nLanguages\nIDEF\nUML\nUSL\nSysML\nSoftware\r\nengineers\nVictor Basili\nKent Beck\nGrady Booch\nFred Brooks\nBarry Boehm\nPeter Chen\nDanese Cooper\nWard Cunningham\nTom DeMarco\nEdsger W. Dijkstra\nDelores M. Etter\nMartin Fowler\nAdele Goldstine\nMargaret Hamilton\nC. A. R. Hoare\nLois Haibt\nMary Jean Harrold\nGrace Hopper\nWatts Humphrey\nMichael A. Jackson\nIvar Jacobson\nAlan Kay\nNancy Leveson\nStephen J. Mellor\nBertrand Meyer\nDavid Parnas\nTrygve Reenskaug\nWinston W. Royce\nJames Rumbaugh\nMary Shaw\nPeri Tarr\nElaine Weyuker\nNiklaus Wirth\nEdward Yourdon\nRelated fields\nComputer science\nComputer engineering\nProject management\nRisk management\nSystems engineering\n\n Category\n Commons\n\nvteData warehousesCreating a data warehouseConcepts\nDatabase\nDimension\nDimensional modeling\nFact\nOLAP\nStar schema\nSnowflake schema\nReverse star schema\nAggregate\nVariants\nAnchor Modeling\nColumn-oriented DBMS\nData vault modeling\nHOLAP\nMOLAP\nROLAP\nOperational data store\nElements\nData dictionary\/Metadata\nData mart\nSixth normal form\nSurrogate key\nFact\nFact table\nEarly-arriving fact\nMeasure\nDimension\nDimension table\nDegenerate\nSlowly changing\nFilling\nExtract-Transform-Load (ETL)\nExtract\nTransform\nLoad\nUsing a data warehouseConcepts\nBusiness intelligence\nDashboard\nData mining\nDecision support system (DSS)\nOLAP cube\nData warehouse automation\nLanguages\nData Mining Extensions (DMX)\nMultiDimensional eXpressions (MDX)\nXML for Analysis (XMLA)\nTools\nBusiness intelligence software\nReporting software\nSpreadsheet\nRelatedPeople\nBill Inmon\nRalph Kimball\nProducts\nComparison of OLAP Servers\nData warehousing products and their producers\n\nvteSemantic WebBackground\nDatabases\nHypertext\nInternet\nOntologies\nSemantic networks\nWorld Wide Web\nSub-topics\nDataspaces\nHyperdata\nLinked data\nRule-based systems\nApplications\nSemantic analytics\nSemantic broker\nSemantic computing\nSemantic mapper\nSemantic matching\nSemantic publishing\nSemantic reasoner\nSemantic search\nSemantic service-oriented architecture\nSemantic wiki\nRelated topics\nCollective intelligence\nDescription logic\nFolksonomy\nGeotagging\nInformation architecture\nKnowledge extraction\nKnowledge management\nKnowledge representation and reasoning\nLibrary 2.0\nDigital library\nDigital humanities\nMetadata\nReferences\nTopic map\nWeb 2.0\nWeb engineering\nWeb Science Trust\nStandardsSyntax and supporting technologies\nHTTP\nIRI\nURI\nRDF\ntriples\nRDF\/XML\nJSON-LD\nTurtle\nTriG\nNotation3\nN-Triples\nTriX (no W3C standard)\nRRID\nSPARQL\nXML\nSchemas, ontologies and rules\nCommon Logic\nOWL\nRDFS\nRule Interchange Format\nSemantic Web Rule Language\nALPS\nSemantic annotation\neRDF\nGRDDL\nMicrodata\nMicroformats\nRDFa\nSAWSDL\nFacebook Platform\nCommon vocabularies\nDOAP\nDublin Core\nFOAF\nSchema.org\nSIOC\nSKOS\nMicroformat vocabularies\nhAtom\nhCalendar\nhCard\nhProduct\nhRecipe\nhResume\nhReview\n\nAuthority control \nGND: 4410512-5 \nLCCN: sh96000740 \nNDL: 00981806 \n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Metadata\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Metadata<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 18 May 2018, at 17:00.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 312 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Metadata skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Metadata<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:202px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Schlagwortkatalog.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"99e567c1d29e437ad0800cc3a8752be0\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7e\/Schlagwortkatalog.jpg\/200px-Schlagwortkatalog.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"200\" height=\"169\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Schlagwortkatalog.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"99e567c1d29e437ad0800cc3a8752be0\"><\/a><\/div>In the 2010s, metadata typically refers to digital forms, but traditional card catalogues contain metadata, with cards holding information about books in a library (author, title, subject, etc.).<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Metadata<\/b> is \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a> [information] that provides information about other data\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Many distinct types of metadata exist, among these <b>descriptive metadata<\/b>, <b>structural metadata<\/b>, <b>administrative metadata<\/b>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Metadata_Basics_Outline_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Metadata_Basics_Outline-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> <b>reference metadata<\/b> and <b>statistical metadata<\/b>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:4_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:4-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Descriptive metadata describes a resource for purposes such as discovery and identification. It can include elements such as title, abstract, author, and keywords.<\/li>\n<li>Structural metadata is metadata about containers of data and indicates how compound objects are put together, for example, how pages are ordered to form chapters. It describes the types, versions, relationships and other characteristics of digital materials.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Administrative metadata provides information to help manage a resource, such as when and how it was created, file type and other technical information, and who can access it.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Understanding_Metadata_(2)_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Understanding_Metadata_(2)-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Reference metadata describes the contents and quality of statistical data<\/li>\n<li>Statistical metadata may also describe processes that collect, process, or produce statistical data; such metadata are also called process data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:5_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:5-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Metadata was traditionally used in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_catalog\" title=\"Library catalog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e26503cbecc7eda19e2fa96ced322175\">card catalogs<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library\" title=\"Library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6f9d51f03e247e6e5f8f741be45c8f0\">libraries<\/a> until the 1980s, when libraries converted their catalog data to digital databases. In the 2000s, as digital formats were becoming the prevalent way of storing data and information, metadata was also used to describe digital data using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_standards\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Metadata standards\" data-key=\"e5c0aeaab6e5bb13a707297a255738ee\">metadata standards<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The first description of \"meta data\" for computer systems is purportedly noted by MIT's Center for International Studies experts David Griffel and Stuart McIntosh in 1967: \"In summary then, we have statements in an object language about subject descriptions of data and token codes for the data. We also have statements in a meta language describing the data relationships and transformations, and ought\/is relations between norm and data.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There are different metadata standards for each different discipline (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Museum\" title=\"Museum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9e253e162292da1ee5c0531983c8c4a\">museum<\/a> collections, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_audio_file\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital audio file\" data-key=\"0e8399d0df4324ccfe75b3b8613cbc63\">digital audio files<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Website\" title=\"Website\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baaafe699fb6fda8b6611a6b03e9f889\">websites<\/a>, etc.). Describing the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_(media)\" title=\"Content (media)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d0f50e5a295a66f4c4760b949412bb1\">contents<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Context_(computing)\" title=\"Context (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de08d527fbee4bdc5a785c8148b3f739\">context<\/a> of data or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_file\" title=\"Computer file\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99bce4432f1e311013bdcb5d3fb6c834\">data files<\/a> increases its usefulness. For example, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTML_editor\" title=\"HTML editor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5afc7edf0b90a5703d5b13e008581920\">web page<\/a> may include metadata specifying what software language the page is written in (e.g., HTML), what tools were used to create it, what subjects the page is about, and where to find more information about the subject. This metadata can automatically improve the reader's experience and make it easier for users to find the web page online.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Practices_in_Using_Metadata_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Practices_in_Using_Metadata-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CD\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CD\" data-key=\"a330c9220c2eb94384c4d2a7defde593\">CD<\/a> may include metadata providing information about the musicians, singers and songwriters whose work appears on the disc.\n<\/p><p>A principal purpose of metadata is to help users find relevant information and discover resources. Metadata also helps to organize electronic resources, provide digital identification, and support the archiving and preservation of resources. Metadata assists users in resource discovery by \"allowing resources to be found by relevant criteria, identifying resources, bringing similar resources together, distinguishing dissimilar resources, and giving location information.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Understanding_Metadata_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Understanding_Metadata-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> Metadata of telecommunication activities including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a> traffic is very widely collected by various national governmental organizations. This data is used for the purposes of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traffic_analysis\" title=\"Traffic analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5302f8a0d0efa33a738b78b9adbf6cbc\">traffic analysis<\/a> and can be used for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_surveillance\" title=\"Mass surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"061b28bcb7c5d34d04d8c26d44ca3916\">mass surveillance<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In many countries, the metadata relating to emails, telephone calls, web pages, video traffic, IP connections and cell phone locations are routinely stored by government organizations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NSA_Watching_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NSA_Watching-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Definition\">Definition<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol><li>Metadata means \"data about data\". Although the \"meta\" prefix (from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Greek_language\" title=\"Greek language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"070a1bb0b9e5bba3ef260f393bcc3837\">Greek<\/a> preposition and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prefix\" title=\"Prefix\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3f9f1c04a1987bc17f99d8c09b5692a\">prefix<\/a> \u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03ac-) means \"after\" or \"beyond\", it is used to mean \"about\" in epistemology. Metadata is defined as the data providing information about one or more aspects of the data; it is used to summarize basic information about data which can make tracking and working with specific data easier.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Some examples include:<\/li><\/ol>\n<ul><li>Means of creation of the data<\/li>\n<li>Purpose of the data<\/li>\n<li>Time and date of creation<\/li>\n<li>Creator or author of the data<\/li>\n<li>Location on a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">computer network<\/a> where the data was created<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technical_standard\" title=\"Technical standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"236f27b5a7367b86d988d1a879dbd6e6\">Standards<\/a> used<\/li>\n<li>File size<\/li>\n<li>Data quality<\/li>\n<li>Source of the data<\/li>\n<li>Process used to create the data<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>For example, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_image\" title=\"Digital image\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f694e632607071fbc71b2bc6131540a\">digital image<\/a> may include metadata that describes how large the picture is, the color depth, the image resolution, when the image was created, the shutter speed, and other data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> A text document's metadata may contain information about how long the document is, who the author is, when the document was written, and a short summary of the document. Metadata within web pages can also contain descriptions of page content, as well as key words linked to the content.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Rouse,_M_(2014)-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> These links are often called \"Metatags\", which were used as the primary factor in determining order for a web search until the late 1990s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Rouse,_M_(2014)-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> The reliance of metatags in web searches was decreased in the late 1990s because of \"keyword stuffing\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_14-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Rouse,_M_(2014)-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Metatags were being largely misused to trick search engines into thinking some websites had more relevance in the search than they really did.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_14-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Rouse,_M_(2014)-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Metadata can be stored and managed in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">database<\/a>, often called a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_registry\" title=\"Metadata registry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50b38acec4b504b2af8989879e047734\">metadata registry<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_repository\" title=\"Metadata repository\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"138c154e19783ae812a1395683ea5fc2\">metadata repository<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> However, without context and a point of reference, it might be impossible to identify metadata just by looking at it.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> For example: by itself, a database containing several numbers, all 13 digits long could be the results of calculations or a list of numbers to plug into an equation - without any other context, the numbers themselves can be perceived as the data. But if given the context that this database is a log of a book collection, those 13-digit numbers may now be identified as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISBN\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISBN\" data-key=\"f44f284ae4bdc3af0ca0e21675d6ce70\">ISBNs<\/a> - information that refers to the book, but is not itself the information within the book. The term \"metadata\" was coined in 1968 by Philip Bagley, in his book \"Extension of Programming Language Concepts\" where it is clear that he uses the term in the ISO 11179 \"traditional\" sense, which is \"structural metadata\" i.e. \"data about the containers of data\"; rather than the alternative sense \"content about individual instances of data content\" or metacontent, the type of data usually found in library catalogues.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bagley_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bagley-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> Since then the fields of information management, information science, information technology, librarianship, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GIS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GIS\" data-key=\"8430f29443a6416c1992fb723a86c49c\">GIS<\/a> have widely adopted the term. In these fields the word <i>metadata<\/i> is defined as \"data about data\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NISO_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NISO-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citing_sources\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citing sources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27db2d557ba5b9a353b953f4b640a66d\"><span title=\"This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2016)\">page needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> While this is the generally accepted definition, various disciplines have adopted their own more specific explanation and uses of the term.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types\">Types<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>While the metadata application is manifold, covering a large variety of fields, there are specialized and well-accepted models to specify types of metadata. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Francis_Bretherton\" title=\"Francis Bretherton\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bb87c42eedf35c39c5716aa68aae71b\">Bretherton<\/a> & Singley (1994) distinguish between two distinct classes: structural\/control metadata and guide metadata.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> <i>Structural metadata<\/i> describes the structure of database objects such as tables, columns, keys and indexes. <i>Guide metadata<\/i> helps humans find specific items and are usually expressed as a set of keywords in a natural language. According to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ralph_Kimball\" title=\"Ralph Kimball\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d99c9d22163377aa0674e688ecc15d4\">Ralph Kimball<\/a> metadata can be divided into 2 similar categories: technical metadata and business metadata. <i>Technical metadata<\/i> corresponds to internal metadata, and <i>business metadata<\/i> corresponds to external metadata. Kimball adds a third category, <i>process metadata<\/i>. On the other hand, NISO distinguishes among three types of metadata: descriptive, structural, and administrative.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NISO_19-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NISO-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><i>Descriptive metadata<\/i> is typically used for discovery and identification, as information to search and locate an object, such as title, author, subjects, keywords, publisher. <i>Structural metadata<\/i> describes how the components of an object are organized. An example of structural metadata would be how pages are ordered to form chapters of a book. Finally, <i>administrative metadata<\/i> gives information to help manage the source. Administrative metadata refers to the technical information, including file type, or when and how the file was created. Two sub-types of administrative metadata are rights management metadata and preservation metadata. <i>Rights management metadata<\/i> explains intellectual property rights, while <i>preservation metadata<\/i> contains information to preserve and save a resource.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Understanding_Metadata_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Understanding_Metadata-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citing_sources\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citing sources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27db2d557ba5b9a353b953f4b640a66d\"><span title=\"This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2016)\">page needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Statistical data repositories have their own requirements for metadata in order to describe not only the source and quality of the data<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:4_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:4-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> but also what statistical processes were used to create the data, which is of particular importance to the statistical community in order to both validate and improve the process of statistical data production.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:5_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:5-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An additional type of metadata beginning to be more developed is <i>accessibility metadata<\/i>. <i>Accessibility metadata<\/i> is not a new concept to libraries; however, advances in universal design have raised its profile.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Beyene_(2017)-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">:<span>213-214<\/span><\/sup> Projects like Cloud4All and GPII identified the lack of common terminologies and models to describe the needs and preferences of users and information that fits those needs as a major gap in providing universal access solutions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_21-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Beyene_(2017)-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">:<span>210-211<\/span><\/sup> Those types of information are accessibility metadata.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_21-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Beyene_(2017)-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">:<span>214<\/span><\/sup> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/Schema.org\" target=\"_blank\">Schema.org<\/a> has incorporated several accessibility properties based on IMS Global Access for All Information Model Data Element Specification.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_21-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Beyene_(2017)-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">:<span>214<\/span><\/sup> The Wiki page <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/wiki\/WebSchemas\/Accessibility\" target=\"_blank\">WebSchemas\/Accessibility<\/a> lists several properties and their values.\n<\/p><p>While the efforts to describe and standardize the varied accessibility needs of information seekers are beginning to become more robust their adoption into established metadata schemas has not been as developed. For example, while Dublin Core (DC)'s \u201caudience\u201d and MARC 21's \u201creading level\u201d could be used to identify resources suitable for users with dyslexia and DC's \u201cFormat\u201d could be used to identify resources available in braille, audio, or large print formats, there is more work to be done.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_21-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Beyene_(2017)-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">:<span>214<\/span><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structures\">Structures<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Metadata (metacontent) or, more correctly, the vocabularies used to assemble metadata (metacontent) statements, is typically structured according to a standardized concept using a well-defined metadata scheme, including: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_standards\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Metadata standards\" data-key=\"e5c0aeaab6e5bb13a707297a255738ee\">metadata standards<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_modeling\" title=\"Metadata modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ea0c8090c02582c862632ece255375d\">metadata models<\/a>. Tools such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Controlled_vocabulary\" title=\"Controlled vocabulary\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9aaec0a3d6e34a485af7fe68d68f39bf\">controlled vocabularies<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taxonomy_(general)\" title=\"Taxonomy (general)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4aaa26205adafdaaad56521acf7bbfb6\">taxonomies<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thesaurus_(information_retrieval)\" title=\"Thesaurus (information retrieval)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"358978c9f7b608e7474b34e385fbb88f\">thesauri<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Dictionary\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data Dictionary\" data-key=\"b67e6d368edeb74d4c4a7dc6bcea568f\">data dictionaries<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_registry\" title=\"Metadata registry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50b38acec4b504b2af8989879e047734\">metadata registries<\/a> can be used to apply further standardization to the metadata. Structural metadata commonality is also of paramount importance in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_model\" title=\"Data model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0d92c5cb69a9ec47cdd2ea65f864bf1\">data model<\/a> development and in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_design\" title=\"Database design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c0410b04d546f1cc2a149e14a76f2ee\">database design<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Syntax\">Syntax<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Metadata (metacontent) syntax refers to the rules created to structure the fields or elements of metadata (metacontent).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> A single metadata scheme may be expressed in a number of different markup or programming languages, each of which requires a different syntax. For example, Dublin Core may be expressed in plain text, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTML\" title=\"HTML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2129f27a9bbb49d279dab0e89f49c23c\">HTML<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource_Description_Framework\" title=\"Resource Description Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f84df3c8186c49293d7c93180e1489de\">RDF<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A common example of (guide) metacontent is the bibliographic classification, the subject, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_Dewey_Decimal_classes\" title=\"List of Dewey Decimal classes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e00f6fd2bfeadb7a755edfa1231bf53d\">Dewey Decimal class number<\/a>. There is always an implied statement in any \"classification\" of some object. To classify an object as, for example, Dewey class number 514 (Topology) (i.e. books having the number 514 on their spine) the implied statement is: \"<book><subject heading><514>. This is a subject-predicate-object triple, or more importantly, a class-attribute-value triple. The first two elements of the triple (class, attribute) are pieces of some structural metadata having a defined semantic. The third element is a value, preferably from some controlled vocabulary, some reference (master) data. The combination of the metadata and master data elements results in a statement which is a metacontent statement i.e. \"metacontent = metadata + master data\". All of these elements can be thought of as \"vocabulary\". Both metadata and master data are vocabularies which can be assembled into metacontent statements. There are many sources of these vocabularies, both meta and master data: UML, EDIFACT, XSD, Dewey\/UDC\/LoC, SKOS, ISO-25964, Pantone, Linnaean Binomial Nomenclature, etc. Using controlled vocabularies for the components of metacontent statements, whether for indexing or finding, is endorsed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_25964\" title=\"ISO 25964\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8163b48e8190ce2d86440c5bb5be502\">ISO 25964<\/a>: \"If both the indexer and the searcher are guided to choose the same term for the same concept, then relevant documents will be retrieved.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> This is particularly relevant when considering search engines of the internet, such as Google. The process indexes pages then matches text strings using its complex algorithm; there is no intelligence or \"inferencing\" occurring, just the illusion thereof.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Hierarchical.2C_linear_and_planar_schemata\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hierarchical,_linear_and_planar_schemata\">Hierarchical, linear and planar schemata<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Metadata schemata can be hierarchical in nature where relationships exist between metadata elements and elements are nested so that parent-child relationships exist between the elements.\nAn example of a hierarchical metadata schema is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Learning_object_metadata\" title=\"Learning object metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50b983c01cbde102df6f24cfc3789a7c\">IEEE LOM<\/a> schema, in which metadata elements may belong to a parent metadata element.\nMetadata schemata can also be one-dimensional, or linear, where each element is completely discrete from other elements and classified according to one dimension only.\nAn example of a linear metadata schema is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core_Metadata_Initiative\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dublin Core Metadata Initiative\" data-key=\"1e40c8a639d5522c07628e92f7bc3a78\">Dublin Core<\/a> schema, which is one dimensional.\nMetadata schemata are often two dimensional, or planar, where each element is completely discrete from other elements but classified according to two orthogonal dimensions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hypermapping\">Hypermapping<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In all cases where the metadata schemata exceed the planar depiction, some type of is required to enable display and view of metadata according to chosen aspect and to serve special views. Hypermapping frequently applies to layering of geographical and geological information overlays.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Granularity\">Granularity<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The degree to which the data or metadata is structured is referred to as its <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_granularity\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data granularity\" data-key=\"3ec70872bcdd2f76c61a4f2c2507c1e3\">\"granularity\"<\/a>. \"Granularity\" refers to how much detail is provided. Metadata with a high granularity allows for deeper, more detailed, and more structured information and enables greater level of technical manipulation. A lower level of granularity means that metadata can be created for considerably lower costs but will not provide as detailed information. The major impact of granularity is not only on creation and capture, but moreover on maintenance costs. As soon as the metadata structures become outdated, so too is the access to the referred data. Hence granularity must take into account the effort to create the metadata as well as the effort to maintain it.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standards\">Standards<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>International standards apply to metadata. Much work is being accomplished in the national and international standards communities, especially <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ANSI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ANSI\" data-key=\"9c4a01098b2145ef6236aac9daf871c0\">ANSI<\/a> (American National Standards Institute) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">ISO<\/a> (International Organization for Standardization) to reach consensus on standardizing metadata and registries. The core metadata registry standard is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">ISO<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Electrotechnical_Commission\" title=\"International Electrotechnical Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3365d94c8fd167fc59737ebfcb686d3e\">IEC<\/a> 11179 Metadata Registries (MDR), the framework for the standard is described in ISO\/IEC 11179-1:2004.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> A new edition of Part 1 is in its final stage for publication in 2015 or early 2016. It has been revised to align with the current edition of Part 3, ISO\/IEC 11179-3:2013<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> which extends the MDR to support registration of Concept Systems.\n(see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_11179\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 11179\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77c34eea440c5f765f97188bdc095b23\">ISO\/IEC 11179<\/a>). This standard specifies a schema for recording both the meaning and technical structure of the data for unambiguous usage by humans and computers. ISO\/IEC 11179 standard refers to metadata as information objects about data, or \"data about data\". In ISO\/IEC 11179 Part-3, the information objects are data about Data Elements, Value Domains, and other reusable semantic and representational information objects that describe the meaning and technical details of a data item. This standard also prescribes the details for a metadata registry, and for registering and administering the information objects within a Metadata Registry. ISO\/IEC 11179 Part 3 also has provisions for describing compound structures that are derivations of other data elements, for example through calculations, collections of one or more data elements, or other forms of derived data. While this standard describes itself originally as a \"data element\" registry, its purpose is to support describing and registering metadata content independently of any particular application, lending the descriptions to being discovered and reused by humans or computers in developing new applications, databases, or for analysis of data collected in accordance with the registered metadata content. This standard has become the general basis for other kinds of metadata registries, reusing and extending the registration and administration portion of the standard.\n<\/p><p>The Geospatial community has a tradition of specialized <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geospatial_metadata\" title=\"Geospatial metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f0c6da59cd230a351a5b21b8c86209a\">geospatial metadata<\/a> standards, particularly building on traditions of map- and image-libraries and catalogues. Formal metadata is usually essential for geospatial data, as common text-processing approaches are not applicable.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core\" title=\"Dublin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dee6f75bb503ebdcf3d3df5729d4a\">Dublin Core<\/a> metadata terms are a set of vocabulary terms which can be used to describe resources for the purposes of discovery. The original set of 15 classic<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> metadata terms, known as the Dublin Core Metadata Element Set<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> are endorsed in the following standards documents:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>IETF <a class=\"external mw-magiclink-rfc\" rel=\"external_link\" href=\"https:\/\/tools.ietf.org\/html\/rfc5013\" target=\"_blank\">RFC 5013<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ISO Standard 15836-2009<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>NISO Standard Z39.85.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Although not a standard, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microformat\" title=\"Microformat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b6d5559fae3fc79eac015bff6addd9c\">Microformat<\/a> (also mentioned in the section <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata#Metadata_on_the_Internet\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8cd54ef71c5b01ceb8a21182142a8b8\">metadata on the internet<\/a> below) is a web-based approach to semantic markup which seeks to re-use existing HTML\/XHTML tags to convey metadata. Microformat follows XHTML and HTML standards but is not a standard in itself. One advocate of microformats, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tantek_%C3%87elik\" title=\"Tantek \u00c7elik\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8668ca6eadd3aab04998fc5cb911c05\">Tantek \u00c7elik<\/a>, characterized a problem with alternative approaches: \n<\/p>\n<table class=\"cquote pullquote\" role=\"presentation\" style=\"margin:auto; border-collapse: collapse; border: none; background-color: transparent; width: auto;\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20px; vertical-align: top; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: left; padding: 10px 10px;\">\u201c\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"vertical-align: top; border: none; padding: 4px 10px;\">Here's a new language we want you to learn, and now you need to output these additional files on your server. It's a hassle. (Microformats) lower the barrier to entry.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Wharton000_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Wharton000-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 20px; vertical-align: bottom; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: right; padding: 10px 10px;\">\u201d\n<\/td><\/tr>\n\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Use\">Use<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Photographs\">Photographs<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Metadata may be written into a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_photo\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital photo\" data-key=\"13526837dbc130748a96003eb45b1f87\">digital photo<\/a> file that will identify who owns it, copyright and contact information, what brand or model of camera created the file, along with exposure information (shutter speed, f-stop, etc.) and descriptive information, such as keywords about the photo, making the file or image searchable on a computer and\/or the Internet. Some metadata is created by the camera and some is input by the photographer and\/or software after downloading to a computer. Most digital cameras write metadata about model number, shutter speed, etc., and some enable you to edit it;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> this functionality has been available on most Nikon DSLRs since the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nikon_D3\" title=\"Nikon D3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e755ff9ede2b84c87454856fd5b5c28d\">Nikon D3<\/a>, on most new Canon cameras since the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Canon_EOS_7D\" title=\"Canon EOS 7D\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9568e9ed06a29c707064fdafbc535b28\">Canon EOS 7D<\/a>, and on most Pentax DSLRs since the Pentax K-3. Metadata can be used to make organizing in post-production easier with the use of key-wording. Filters can be used to analyze a specific set of photographs and create selections on criteria like rating or capture time. On devices with geolocation capabilities like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Global_Positioning_System\" title=\"Global Positioning System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09edeece3c3764dbb35831ac0389f87d\">GPS<\/a> (smartphones in particular), the location the photo was taken from may also be included.\n<\/p><p>Photographic Metadata Standards are governed by organizations that develop the following standards. They include, but are not limited to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPTC_Information_Interchange_Model\" title=\"IPTC Information Interchange Model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd357ba66e2f5a65d5c3caadc6f02639\">IPTC Information Interchange Model<\/a> IIM (International Press Telecommunications Council),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Press_Telecommunications_Council\" title=\"International Press Telecommunications Council\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e17d69654fa44f17fbd43ab1ba370c4d\">IPTC<\/a> Core Schema for XMP<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extensible_Metadata_Platform\" title=\"Extensible Metadata Platform\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91b2ab6baaa7d6dd1fcd63c4759da6e5\">XMP<\/a> \u2013 Extensible Metadata Platform (an ISO standard)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exchangeable_image_file_format\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Exchangeable image file format\" data-key=\"8c2853d49843e0a19582156bc13e1c2b\">Exif<\/a> \u2013 Exchangeable image file format, Maintained by CIPA (Camera & Imaging Products Association) and published by JEITA (Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Association)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core\" title=\"Dublin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dee6f75bb503ebdcf3d3df5729d4a\">Dublin Core<\/a> (Dublin Core Metadata Initiative \u2013 DCMI)<\/li>\n<li>PLUS (Picture Licensing Universal System).<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/standards\/vracore\/schemas.html\" target=\"_blank\">VRA Core<\/a> (Visual Resource Association)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Telecommunications\">Telecommunications<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Information on the times, origins and destinations of phone calls, electronic messages, instant messages and other modes of telecommunication, as opposed to message content, is another form of metadata. Bulk collection of this <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Call_detail_record\" title=\"Call detail record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b71156ae806906621fc5bd9b039ec40c\">call detail record<\/a> metadata by intelligence agencies has proven controversial after disclosures by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_Snowden\" title=\"Edward Snowden\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e534e33ca161d9c70f94325947d8166\">Edward Snowden<\/a> of the fact that certain Intelligence agencies such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NSA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NSA\" data-key=\"9b5e14932437b8748821c59253100707\">NSA<\/a> had been (and perhaps still are) keeping online metadata on millions of internet user for up to a year, regardless of whether or not they [ever] were persons of interest to the agency.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Video\">Video<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Metadata is particularly useful in video, where information about its contents (such as transcripts of conversations and text descriptions of its scenes) is not directly understandable by a computer, but where efficient search of the content is desirable. This is particularly useful in video applications such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_number-plate_recognition\" title=\"Automatic number-plate recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"860d42b705d4c083b5c1b300f0d6ddb2\">Automatic Number Plate Recognition<\/a> and software, wherein license plate data is saved and used to create reports and alerts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> There are two sources in which video metadata is derived: (1) operational gathered metadata, that is information about the content produced, such as the type of equipment, software, date, and location; (2) human-authored metadata, to improve search engine visibility, discoverability, audience engagement, and providing advertising opportunities to video publishers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> In today's society most professional video editing software has access to metadata. Avid's MetaSync and Adobe's Bridge are two prime examples of this.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Creation\">Creation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Metadata can be created either by automated information processing or by manual work. Elementary metadata captured by computers can include information about when an object was created, who created it, when it was last updated, file size, and file extension. In this context an <i>object<\/i> refers to any of the following:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>A physical item such as a book, CD, DVD, a paper map, chair, table, flower pot, etc.<\/li>\n<li>An electronic file such as a digital image, digital photo, electronic document, program file, database table, etc.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_virtualization\">Data virtualization<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_virtualization\" title=\"Data virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b1db2c4812e3fe3eaa9cf97ae016468\">Data virtualization<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Data virtualization has emerged in the 2000s as the new software technology to complete the virtualization \"stack\" in the enterprise. Metadata is used in data virtualization servers which are enterprise infrastructure components, alongside database and application servers. Metadata in these servers is saved as persistent repository and describe <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_object\" title=\"Business object\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e5efc2e6e3957227d145190a31b8017\">business objects<\/a> in various enterprise systems and applications. Structural metadata commonality is also important to support data virtualization.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Statistics_and_census_services\">Statistics and census services<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Standardization and harmonization work has brought advantages to industry efforts to build metadata systems in the statistical community.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gl\u00f8ersenImprov11_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gl\u00f8ersenImprov11-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LaurilaMetadata12_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LaurilaMetadata12-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> Several metadata guidelines and standards such as the European Statistics Code of Practice<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ECEuropeanStat_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ECEuropeanStat-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> and ISO 17369:2013 (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SDMX\" title=\"SDMX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d50a8fc8177e4138aac708f790c7d060\">Statistical Data and Metadata Exchange<\/a> or SDMX)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gl\u00f8ersenImprov11_40-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gl\u00f8ersenImprov11-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup> provide key principles for how businesses, government bodies, and other entities should manage statistical data and metadata. Entities such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eurostat\" title=\"Eurostat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93646c0d14de583cee01e360061fdc50\">Eurostat<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UNReportOn15_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UNReportOn15-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_System_of_Central_Banks\" title=\"European System of Central Banks\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"807d7543902b1b0d9c2ac2467fc7c11a\">European System of Central Banks<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UNReportOn15_43-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UNReportOn15-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup>, and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency\" title=\"United States Environmental Protection Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3e4c58eca1cdd38b19280e2fe2ec728\">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPAMetadata17_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPAMetadata17-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> have implemented these and other such standards and guidelines with the goal of improving \"efficiency when managing statistical business processes.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UNReportOn15_43-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UNReportOn15-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Library_and_information_science\">Library and information science<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Metadata has been used in various ways as a means of cataloging items in libraries in both digital and analog format. Such data helps classify, aggregate, identify, and locate a particular book, DVD, magazine or any object a library might hold in its collection. Until the 1980s, many library catalogues used 3x5 inch cards in file drawers to display a book's title, author, subject matter, and an abbreviated <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alphanumeric\" title=\"Alphanumeric\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44e729f30e613afcbd2b5f31c5d11505\">alpha-numeric<\/a> string (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Call_number\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Call number\" data-key=\"9ae0fde14dca4d4eafdb2b1c718795bf\">call number<\/a>) which indicated the physical location of the book within the library's shelves. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dewey_Decimal_Classification\" title=\"Dewey Decimal Classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3700197890027de04a6dc3560744c5bb\">Dewey Decimal System<\/a> employed by libraries for the classification of library materials by subject is an early example of metadata usage. Beginning in the 1980s and 1990s, many libraries replaced these paper file cards with computer databases. These computer databases make it much easier and faster for users to do keyword searches. Another form of older metadata collection is the use by US Census Bureau of what is known as the \"Long Form.\" The Long Form asks questions that are used to create demographic data to find patterns of distribution.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library\" title=\"Library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6f9d51f03e247e6e5f8f741be45c8f0\">Libraries<\/a> employ metadata in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_catalog\" title=\"Library catalog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e26503cbecc7eda19e2fa96ced322175\">library catalogues<\/a>, most commonly as part of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Library management system\" data-key=\"e6f25816de04157d6c0a56e1f02c8d54\">Integrated Library Management System<\/a>. Metadata is obtained by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_cataloguing#Cataloging_rules\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Library cataloguing\" data-key=\"53d20e019c3b912973e2a0264a030e11\">cataloguing<\/a> resources such as books, periodicals, DVDs, web pages or digital images. This data is stored in the integrated library management system, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Library management system\" data-key=\"e6f25816de04157d6c0a56e1f02c8d54\">ILMS<\/a>, using the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MARC_standards\" title=\"MARC standards\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a4b4f70cec8e9f63c4ec567e0d51387\">MARC<\/a> metadata standard. The purpose is to direct patrons to the physical or electronic location of items or areas they seek as well as to provide a description of the item\/s in question.\n<\/p><p>More recent and specialized instances of library metadata include the establishment of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_library\" title=\"Digital library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a9dd2517ea26d96e7c2e68d6e58bf13\">digital libraries<\/a> including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eprint\" title=\"Eprint\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d90aaa07dd2396a3ce5936b368b7dc2\">e-print<\/a> repositories and digital image libraries. While often based on library principles, the focus on non-librarian use, especially in providing metadata, means they do not follow traditional or common cataloging approaches. Given the custom nature of included materials, metadata fields are often specially created e.g. taxonomic classification fields, location fields, keywords or copyright statement. Standard file information such as file size and format are usually automatically included.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-solodovnik_46-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-solodovnik-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> Library operation has for decades been a key topic in efforts toward <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_standardization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"International standardization\" data-key=\"f0c92e579f6a0a268fd513e742c3e12a\">international standardization<\/a>. Standards for metadata in digital libraries include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core\" title=\"Dublin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dee6f75bb503ebdcf3d3df5729d4a\">Dublin Core<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_Encoding_and_Transmission_Standard\" title=\"Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab0ff82392b259711fae69792838d294\">METS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_Object_Description_Schema\" title=\"Metadata Object Description Schema\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d11a843c0ef7ce10409ed3a3d9ffd1d\">MODS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Documentation_Initiative\" title=\"Data Documentation Initiative\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99efa5a332e211fedcd0b94e6a3cc897\">DDI<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">DOI<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uniform_Resource_Name\" title=\"Uniform Resource Name\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7a9bebacade1cd9237191437b15a1f50\">URN<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Preservation_Metadata:_Implementation_Strategies\" title=\"Preservation Metadata: Implementation Strategies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a5816518b3dccc1bbacc2be89414049\">PREMIS<\/a> schema, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecological_Metadata_Language\" title=\"Ecological Metadata Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5acb3b52d6c44549fa46c257c6666e3c\">EML<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protocol_for_Metadata_Harvesting\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Protocol for Metadata Harvesting\" data-key=\"a7f865bc685b073a3a9f663fc9856130\">OAI-PMH<\/a>. Leading libraries in the world give hints on their metadata standards strategies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_museums\">In museums<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Metadata in a museum context is the information that trained cultural documentation specialists, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archivist\" title=\"Archivist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de87e6c610ddf4bedcd5be1afca682ea\">archivists<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Librarian\" title=\"Librarian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee8c37c6d1882b6f84a685c43f28a0ea\">librarians<\/a>, museum <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Registrar_(museum)\" title=\"Registrar (museum)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2252de0b46194353ef74af37daccf1ff\">registrars<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curator\" title=\"Curator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe3d2c0edd5c9c03c2055d921f42d324\">curators<\/a>, create to index, structure, describe, identify, or otherwise specify works of art, architecture, cultural objects and their images.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citing_sources\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citing sources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27db2d557ba5b9a353b953f4b640a66d\"><span title=\"This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2016)\">page needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citing_sources\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citing sources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27db2d557ba5b9a353b953f4b640a66d\"><span title=\"This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2016)\">page needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Descriptive metadata is most commonly used in museum contexts for object identification and resource recovery purposes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_50-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Usage\">Usage<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Metadata is developed and applied within collecting institutions and museums in order to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Facilitate resource discovery and execute search queries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Create digital archives that store information relating to various aspects of museum collections and cultural objects, and serves for archival and managerial purposes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Provide public audiences access to cultural objects through publishing digital content online.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_50-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standards_2\">Standards<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Many museums and cultural heritage centers recognize that given the diversity of art works and cultural objects, no single model or standard suffices to describe and catalogue cultural works.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_49-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_50-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> For example, a sculpted Indigenous artifact could be classified as an artwork, an archaeological artifact, or an Indigenous heritage item. The early stages of standardization in archiving, description and cataloging within the museum community began in the late 1990s with the development of standards such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Categories_for_the_Description_of_Works_of_Art\" title=\"Categories for the Description of Works of Art\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1182fd619d81e3c3fae450a30e5d5f69\">Categories for the Description of Works of Art<\/a> (CDWA), Spectrum, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CIDOC_Conceptual_Reference_Model\" title=\"CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a2969ef1b21d71ff7961262d470a7fe\">CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model<\/a> (CRM), and the .<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_50-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup> These standards use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTML\" title=\"HTML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2129f27a9bbb49d279dab0e89f49c23c\">HTML<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a> markup languages for machine processing, publication and implementation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_50-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anglo-American_Cataloguing_Rules\" title=\"Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27f1dd8e6860c5b14aceb442a17fb017\">Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules<\/a> (AACR), originally developed for characterizing books, have also been applied to cultural objects, works of art and architecture.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> Standards, such as the CCO, are integrated within a Museum's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Collections_Management_System\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Collections Management System\" data-key=\"c2ff5eac796ba98acc66dce259bb6364\">Collections Management System<\/a> (CMS), a database through which museums are able to manage their collections, acquisitions, loans and conservation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> Scholars and professionals in the field note that the \"quickly evolving landscape of standards and technologies\" create challenges for cultural documentarians, specifically non-technically trained professionals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citing_sources\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citing sources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27db2d557ba5b9a353b953f4b640a66d\"><span title=\"This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2016)\">page needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Most collecting institutions and museums use a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relational_database\" title=\"Relational database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86b6b5174c671988f4e5dba65702a9c0\">relational database<\/a> to categorize cultural works and their images.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> Relational databases and metadata work to document and describe the complex relationships amongst cultural objects and multi-faceted works of art, as well as between objects and places, people and artistic movements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_50-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> Relational database structures are also beneficial within collecting institutions and museums because they allow for archivists to make a clear distinction between cultural objects and their images; an unclear distinction could lead to confusing and inaccurate searches.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cultural_objects_and_art_works\">Cultural objects and art works<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>An object's materiality, function and purpose, as well as the size (e.g., measurements, such as height, width, weight), storage requirements (e.g., climate-controlled environment) and focus of the museum and collection, influence the descriptive depth of the data attributed to the object by cultural documentarians.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> The established institutional cataloging practices, goals and expertise of cultural documentarians and database structure also influence the information ascribed to cultural objects, and the ways in which cultural objects are categorized.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_49-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, museums often employ standardized commercial collection management software that prescribes and limits the ways in which archivists can describe artworks and cultural objects.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_52-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup> As well, collecting institutions and museums use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Controlled_vocabulary\" title=\"Controlled vocabulary\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9aaec0a3d6e34a485af7fe68d68f39bf\">Controlled Vocabularies<\/a> to describe cultural objects and artworks in their collections.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_50-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> and the are reputable within the museum community and are recommended by CCO standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> Museums are encouraged to use controlled vocabularies that are contextual and relevant to their collections and enhance the functionality of their digital information systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_50-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> Controlled Vocabularies are beneficial within databases because they provide a high level of consistency, improving resource retrieval.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_50-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> Metadata structures, including controlled vocabularies, reflect the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(information_science)\" title=\"Ontology (information science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6cd018caae9a0c95e80b08c71758343\">ontologies<\/a> of the systems from which they were created. Often the processes through which cultural objects are described and categorized through metadata in museums do not reflect the perspectives of the maker communities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_49-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Museums_and_the_Internet\">Museums and the Internet<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Metadata has been instrumental in the creation of digital information systems and archives within museums, and has made it easier for museums to publish digital content online. This has enabled audiences who might not have had access to cultural objects due to geographic or economic barriers to have access to them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_50-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup> In the 2000s, as more museums have adopted archival standards and created intricate databases, discussions about <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linked_data\" title=\"Linked data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c04964a561b87834172a8168ec27872\">Linked Data<\/a> between museum databases have come up in the museum, archival and library science communities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_52-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup> Collection Management Systems (CMS) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_asset_management\" title=\"Digital asset management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67180976fc37adbd3f686b6a21e67f2b\">Digital Asset Management<\/a> tools can be local or shared systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:2_51-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:2-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_humanities\" title=\"Digital humanities\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa7f30bb428277818a54387b7073ee63\">Digital Humanities<\/a> scholars note many benefits of interoperability between museum databases and collections, while also acknowledging the difficulties achieving such interoperability.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:3_52-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:3-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Law\">Law<\/span><\/h3>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"United_States\">United States<\/span><\/h4>\n\n<p>Problems involving metadata in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Litigation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Litigation\" data-key=\"ec89ff8d369ad0a09102201e9096abf6\">litigation<\/a> in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States\" title=\"United States\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f44266ab2da9382e3764bac08cfb4076\">United States<\/a> are becoming widespread.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style\/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items\" title=\"Wikipedia:Manual of Style\/Dates and numbers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4cfbab771e1d842adb00b68f8cdf8bd\"><span title=\"The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (February 2011)\">when?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Courts have looked at various questions involving metadata, including the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discovery_(law)\" title=\"Discovery (law)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a161cfaa1cf6ececce7a2d8647437aa6\">discoverability<\/a> of metadata by parties. Although the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure have only specified rules about electronic documents, subsequent case law has elaborated on the requirement of parties to reveal metadata.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup> In October 2009, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arizona_Supreme_Court\" title=\"Arizona Supreme Court\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fec63848f94739942409e5237d40a263\">Arizona Supreme Court<\/a> has ruled that metadata records are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_record\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Public record\" data-key=\"d522e1c17ffc14b157396fab9ef8e8ad\">public record<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup> Document metadata have proven particularly important in legal environments in which litigation has requested metadata, which can include sensitive information detrimental to a certain party in court. Using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_removal_tool\" title=\"Metadata removal tool\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58b6ca2a90d25d5133d9df580f5156b5\">metadata removal tools<\/a> to \"clean\" or redact documents can mitigate the risks of unwittingly sending sensitive data. This process partially (see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_remanence\" title=\"Data remanence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37d1b875138cd143379a52d3b4f0af3c\">data remanence<\/a>) protects law firms from potentially damaging leaking of sensitive data through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_discovery\" title=\"Electronic discovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"941a35e9aad4a891b5fbe4cfecc213bd\">electronic discovery<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Opinion polls have shown that 45% of Americans are \"not at all confident\" in the ability of social media sites ensure their personal data is secure and 40% say that social media sites should not be able to store any information on individuals. 76% of Americans say that they are not confident that the information advertising agencies collect on them is secure and 50% say that online advertising agencies should not be allowed to record any of their information at all.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Australia\">Australia<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In Australia, the need to strengthen national security has resulted in the introduction of a new metadata storage law.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup> This new law means that both security and policing agencies will be allowed to access up to two years of an individual's metadata, with the aim of making it easier to stop any terrorist attacks and serious crimes from happening.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_legislation\">In legislation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Legislative metadata has been the subject of some discussion in <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/public.resource.org\/law.gov\/\" target=\"_blank\">law.gov<\/a> forums such as workshops held by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Legal_Information_Institute\" title=\"Legal Information Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e448049901f396ec1b9dbc4ca75dbb2\">Legal Information Institute<\/a> at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cornell_Law_School\" title=\"Cornell Law School\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7da1ed986d87191652fd14265f5aa742\">Cornell Law School<\/a> on March 22 and 23, 2010. The documentation for these forums are titled, \"Suggested metadata practices for legislation and regulations.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>A handful of key points have been outlined by these discussions, section headings of which are listed as follows:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>General Considerations<\/li>\n<li>Document Structure<\/li>\n<li>Document Contents<\/li>\n<li>Metadata (elements of)<\/li>\n<li>Layering<\/li>\n<li>Point-in-time versus post-hoc<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_healthcare\">In healthcare<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Australian medical research pioneered the definition of metadata for applications in health care. That approach offers the first recognized attempt to adhere to international standards in medical sciences instead of defining a proprietary standard under the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Health_Organization\" title=\"World Health Organization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a894d3a42428adfbcd4eec3f8ecabd8a\">World Health Organization<\/a> (WHO) umbrella. The medical community yet did not approve the need to follow metadata standards despite research that supported these standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_biomedical_research\">In biomedical research<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Research studies in the fields of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biomedicine\" title=\"Biomedicine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e76c3e327cbb5b73df8cfa0127dcf96c\">biomedicine<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Molecular_biology\" title=\"Molecular biology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"270ee524191aa1e43ece5b545558882c\">molecular biology<\/a> frequently yield large quantities of data, including results of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genome\" title=\"Genome\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3323eb7c4073b3dcc6a1275242b3881e\">genome<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metagenomics\" title=\"Metagenomics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e08963531a6386bb7e17818647b7630\">meta-genome<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sequencing\" title=\"Sequencing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba664aa2138569abe3c9dc1702822339\">sequencing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proteomics\" title=\"Proteomics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6bf4355d03d35ee0cf147a6c0ab2cf16\">proteomics<\/a> data, and even notes or plans created during the course of research itself<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup>. Each data type involves its own variety of metadata and the processes necessary to produce these metadata. General metadata standards, such as ISA-Tab<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup>, allow researchers to create and exchange experimental metadata in consistent formats. Specific experimental approaches frequently have their own metadata standards and systems: metadata standards for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_spectrometry\" title=\"Mass spectrometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9e8497cbfaef220fa14d9ab192c29a9\">mass spectrometry<\/a> include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MzML\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MzML\" data-key=\"0a4ae540f2eff571d13df28f63308ce8\">mzML<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup> and SPLASH<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup>, while <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a>-based standard such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protein_Data_Bank\" title=\"Protein Data Bank\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55c1ff4cd4dad4b10c7bf8a3b133d61a\">PDBML<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup> and SRA XML<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup> serve as standards for macromolecular structure and sequencing data, respectively.\n<\/p><p>The products of biomedical research are generally realized as peer-reviewed manuscripts and these publications are yet another source of data. Metadata for biomedical publications is often created by journal publishers and citation databases such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed\" title=\"PubMed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64d682816c7aa9858110cad79e07e0cb\">PubMed<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_of_Science\" title=\"Web of Science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebd947fd855b4cddc0b0248413d4aff1\">Web of Science<\/a>. The data contained within manuscripts or accompanying them as supplementary material is less often subject to metadata creation<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup>, though they may be submitted to biomedical databases after publication. The original authors and database curators then become responsible for metadata creation, with the assistance of automated processes. Comprehensive metadata for all experimental data is the foundation of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FAIR_data\" title=\"FAIR data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f576cfd143cdd45d80212c2bd22e303\">FAIR Guiding Principles<\/a>, or the standards for ensuring research data are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Findability\" title=\"Findability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb369826db29d66dd50fbc3a923c6f5f\">findable<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accessibility\" title=\"Accessibility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b03a29f12fb22a58105751f50b00570\">accessible<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interoperability\" title=\"Interoperability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38415d24cde633d18de0c69db5a6d400\">interoperable<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reusability\" title=\"Reusability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3258fed5130db609bae052faf30587c0\">reusable<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_warehousing\">Data warehousing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0ea3ce49e6688a8ec1616b9f0927fea\">data warehouse<\/a> (DW) is a repository of an organization's electronically stored data. Data warehouses are designed to manage and store the data. Data warehouses differ from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" title=\"Business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">business intelligence<\/a> (BI) systems, because BI systems are designed to use data to create reports and analyze the information, to provide strategic guidance to management.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-69\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup> Metadata is an important tool in how data is stored in data warehouses. The purpose of a data warehouse is to house standardized, structured, consistent, integrated, correct, \"cleaned\" and timely data, extracted from various operational systems in an organization. The extracted data are integrated in the data warehouse environment to provide an enterprise-wide perspective. Data are structured in a way to serve the reporting and analytic requirements. The design of structural metadata commonality using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_modeling\" title=\"Data modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eeb367af0f28dde6b5d2b55e69b02ddb\">data modeling<\/a> method such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Entity_relationship_model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Entity relationship model\" data-key=\"85cae279731a76b0ce100b39eb53632a\">entity relationship model<\/a> diagramming is important in any data warehouse development effort. They detail metadata on each piece of data in the data warehouse. An essential component of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0ea3ce49e6688a8ec1616b9f0927fea\">data warehouse<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" title=\"Business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">business intelligence<\/a> system is the metadata and tools to manage and retrieve the metadata. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ralph_Kimball\" title=\"Ralph Kimball\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d99c9d22163377aa0674e688ecc15d4\">Ralph Kimball<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citing_sources\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citing sources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27db2d557ba5b9a353b953f4b640a66d\"><span title=\"This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2016)\">page needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> describes metadata as the DNA of the data warehouse as metadata defines the elements of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0ea3ce49e6688a8ec1616b9f0927fea\">data warehouse<\/a> and how they work together.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ralph_Kimball\" title=\"Ralph Kimball\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d99c9d22163377aa0674e688ecc15d4\">Kimball<\/a> et al.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup> refers to three main categories of metadata: Technical metadata, business metadata and process metadata. Technical metadata is primarily <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Definition\" title=\"Definition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fb93132b899f961f7a6c699fe159f32\">definitional<\/a>, while business metadata and process metadata is primarily <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Description\" title=\"Description\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9f1f72b0f96de39ff9d1fd5afa2c1ba\">descriptive<\/a>. The categories sometimes overlap.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><b>Technical metadata<\/b> defines the objects and processes in a DW\/BI system, as seen from a technical point of view. The technical metadata includes the system metadata, which defines the data structures such as tables, fields, data types, indexes and partitions in the relational engine, as well as databases, dimensions, measures, and data mining models. Technical metadata defines the data model and the way it is displayed for the users, with the reports, schedules, distribution lists, and user security rights.<\/li>\n<li><b>Business metadata<\/b> is content from the data warehouse described in more user-friendly terms. The business metadata tells you what data you have, where they come from, what they mean and what their relationship is to other data in the data warehouse. Business metadata may also serve as a documentation for the DW\/BI system. Users who browse the data warehouse are primarily viewing the business metadata.<\/li>\n<li><b>Process metadata<\/b> is used to describe the results of various operations in the data warehouse. Within the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extract,_transform,_load\" title=\"Extract, transform, load\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1dd08fd33b5feacc8f3e7d140a4ab5d7\">ETL<\/a> process, all key data from tasks is logged on execution. This includes start time, end time, CPU seconds used, disk reads, disk writes, and rows processed. When troubleshooting the ETL or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_retrieval\" title=\"Information retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0faaa582e57a2d62bc65c5c191a810c0\">query<\/a> process, this sort of data becomes valuable. Process metadata is the fact measurement when building and using a DW\/BI system. Some organizations make a living out of collecting and selling this sort of data to companies - in that case the process metadata becomes the business metadata for the fact and dimension tables. Collecting process metadata is in the interest of business people who can use the data to identify the users of their products, which products they are using, and what level of service they are receiving.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"On_the_Internet\">On the Internet<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTML\" title=\"HTML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2129f27a9bbb49d279dab0e89f49c23c\">HTML<\/a> format used to define web pages allows for the inclusion of a variety of types of metadata, from basic descriptive text, dates and keywords to further advanced metadata schemes such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core\" title=\"Dublin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dee6f75bb503ebdcf3d3df5729d4a\">Dublin Core<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-GMS\" title=\"E-GMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd70c20f0ac7b13ef6e43aa03bd4cef0\">e-GMS<\/a>, and AGLS<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup> standards. Pages can also be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geotagging\" title=\"Geotagging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4d3405781f1b70b25c8f7941519b1ac\">geotagged<\/a> with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geographic_coordinate_system\" title=\"Geographic coordinate system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcc7344c097211de68af846da8ea8eef\">coordinates<\/a>. Metadata may be included in the page's header or in a separate file. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microformat\" title=\"Microformat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b6d5559fae3fc79eac015bff6addd9c\">Microformats<\/a> allow metadata to be added to on-page data in a way that regular web users do not see, but computers, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_crawler\" title=\"Web crawler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9282c25312a2624cec349b1e23f26e1\">web crawlers<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_engine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Search engine\" data-key=\"9a7410cc9fe974d160ffa9f497903732\">search engines<\/a> can readily access. Many search engines are cautious about using metadata in their ranking algorithms due to exploitation of metadata and the practice of search engine optimization, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Search_engine_optimization\" title=\"Search engine optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f4336c3fdfe3a47308f1dc757f88840\">SEO<\/a>, to improve rankings. See <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meta_element\" title=\"Meta element\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"078272c5f5f336d51994bedb0e7bdc0b\">Meta element<\/a> article for further discussion. This cautious attitude may be justified as people, according to Doctorow,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-73\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup> are not executing care and diligence when creating their own metadata and that metadata is part of a competitive environment where the metadata is used to promote the metadata creators own purposes. Studies show that search engines respond to web pages with metadata implementations,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-74\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> and Google has an announcement on its site showing the meta tags that its search engine understands.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup> Enterprise search startup <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swiftype\" title=\"Swiftype\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79a9ffeed1735184cff047ff7c493c20\">Swiftype<\/a> recognizes metadata as a relevance signal that webmasters can implement for their website-specific search engine, even releasing their own extension, known as Meta Tags 2.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-76\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-76\">[76]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_broadcast_industry\">In broadcast industry<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Broadcast\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Broadcast\" data-key=\"96e5ae5b1e98be639cc426cce796dad6\">broadcast<\/a> industry, metadata is linked to audio and video <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Broadcast_media\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Broadcast media\" data-key=\"7d220cf0b7ad1a4650a78598e14ce75a\">broadcast media<\/a> to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i>identify<\/i> the media: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Media_clip\" title=\"Media clip\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4123f5d68ef3b43d0d6add50846ef2e4\">clip<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Playlist\" title=\"Playlist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96cef2de11f7afd96d4d6cd4216f555b\">playlist<\/a> names, duration, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Timecode\" title=\"Timecode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00eadd0f20beb64bae71da15dde8cad2\">timecode<\/a>, etc.<\/li>\n<li><i>describe<\/i> the content: notes regarding the quality of video content, rating, description (for example, during a sport event, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Index_term\" title=\"Index term\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49092377d14bd41f1d14eff9ec9b843d\">keywords<\/a> like <i>goal<\/i>, <i>red card<\/i> will be associated to some clips)<\/li>\n<li><i>classify<\/i> media: metadata allows producers to sort the media or to easily and quickly find a video content (a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TV_news\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"TV news\" data-key=\"40ee8dc876e303a854ebeb45df3ef4aa\">TV news<\/a> could urgently need some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archiving\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Archiving\" data-key=\"4fbc6dd4e1d2a702dfc0937b9d8e302e\">archive content<\/a> for a subject). For example, the BBC have a large subject classification system, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lonclass\" title=\"Lonclass\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea914c4091a7c543a2a4791fccb2ed54\">Lonclass<\/a>, a customized version of the more general-purpose <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Decimal_Classification\" title=\"Universal Decimal Classification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ff5ef9691825896e7e71d080bd59f19\">Universal Decimal Classification<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>This metadata can be linked to the video media thanks to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Video_server#Broadcast_automation\" title=\"Video server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"165393f450e57f667347bd1b34d21f03\">video servers<\/a>. Most major broadcast sport events like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FIFA_World_Cup\" title=\"FIFA World Cup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca9914b8300d7884858c6d17c95c5ff\">FIFA World Cup<\/a> or the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Olympic_Games\" title=\"Olympic Games\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b78b2cae20965a63966cc3bcd8d8b2d2\">Olympic Games<\/a> use this metadata to distribute their video content to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TV_station\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"TV station\" data-key=\"bcd1ba0cd840f31119106c6d54c856f1\">TV stations<\/a> through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Index_term\" title=\"Index term\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49092377d14bd41f1d14eff9ec9b843d\">keywords<\/a>. It is often the host broadcaster<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">[77]<\/a><\/sup> who is in charge of organizing metadata through its <i>International Broadcast Centre<\/i> and its video servers. This metadata is recorded with the images and are entered by metadata operators (<i>loggers<\/i>) who associate in live metadata available in <i>metadata grids<\/i> through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a> (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multicam(LSM)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Multicam(LSM)\" data-key=\"02a62971d9d2da4f07cf9aa1e3e1f04a\">Multicam(LSM)<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPDirector\" title=\"IPDirector\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4acb49bba25410c15968e65614f1422\">IPDirector<\/a> used during the FIFA World Cup or Olympic Games).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[78]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Geospatial\">Geospatial<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Metadata that describes geographic objects in electronic storage or format (such as datasets, maps, features, or documents with a geospatial component) has a history dating back to at least 1994 (refer <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20061018013240\/http:\/\/libraries.mit.edu\/guides\/subjects\/metadata\/standards\/fgdc.html\" target=\"_blank\">MIT Library page on FGDC Metadata<\/a>). This class of metadata is described more fully on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geospatial_metadata\" title=\"Geospatial metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f0c6da59cd230a351a5b21b8c86209a\">geospatial metadata<\/a> article.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ecological_and_environmental\">Ecological and environmental<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Ecological and environmental metadata is intended to document the \"who, what, when, where, why, and how\" of data collection for a particular study. This typically means which organization or institution collected the data, what type of data, which date(s) the data was collected, the rationale for the data collection, and the methodology used for the data collection. Metadata should be generated in a format commonly used by the most relevant science community, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Darwin_Core\" title=\"Darwin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df19fa34d93481e102978e66d87d7566\">Darwin Core<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecological_Metadata_Language\" title=\"Ecological Metadata Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5acb3b52d6c44549fa46c257c6666e3c\">Ecological Metadata Language<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[80]<\/a><\/sup> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core\" title=\"Dublin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dee6f75bb503ebdcf3d3df5729d4a\">Dublin Core<\/a>. Metadata editing tools exist to facilitate metadata generation (e.g. Metavist,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-81\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mercury_(metadata_search_system)\" title=\"Mercury (metadata search system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6eb31915ef2d0c159a49a3ebc8f6b54\">Mercury<\/a>, Morpho<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-82\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-82\">[82]<\/a><\/sup>). Metadata should describe <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_provenance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data provenance\" data-key=\"d6ba0933dc2d8772ad315631a28361bd\">provenance<\/a> of the data (where they originated, as well as any transformations the data underwent) and how to give credit for (cite) the data products.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Digital_music\">Digital music<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>When first released in 1982, Compact Discs only contained a Table Of Contents (TOC) with the number of tracks on the disc and their length in samples.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-83\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-83\">[83]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" title=\"Wikipedia:Link rot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\" Dead link since June 2017\">dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/span><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Pohlmann1989_84-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Pohlmann1989-84\">[84]<\/a><\/sup> Fourteen years later in 1996, a revision of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Compact_Disc_Digital_Audio\" title=\"Compact Disc Digital Audio\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4775d95061c9a46ebb372a75427a2d30\">CD Red Book<\/a> standard added <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CD-Text\" title=\"CD-Text\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a616a9ea7c4d1d28ab28ae02a97da16\">CD-Text<\/a> to carry additional metadata.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-85\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-85\">[85]<\/a><\/sup> But CD-Text was not widely adopted. Shortly thereafter, it became common for personal computers to retrieve metadata from external sources (e.g. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CDDB\" title=\"CDDB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8ae30c48a4e3f94a174aaff22576a37\">CDDB<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gracenote\" title=\"Gracenote\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec3512f4bfdd249cead56cb255db46c8\">Gracenote<\/a>) based on the TOC.\n<\/p><p>Digital <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sound_recording_and_reproduction\" title=\"Sound recording and reproduction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6437ea68777dd3874056d684502c87e4\">audio<\/a> formats such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_audio_file\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital audio file\" data-key=\"0e8399d0df4324ccfe75b3b8613cbc63\">digital audio files<\/a> superseded music formats such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cassette_tape\" title=\"Cassette tape\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c657cb8af60cc87ab4654fc25befca74\">cassette tapes<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CDs\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CDs\" data-key=\"52adaad1d6c55e98d32a70650acc70f1\">CDs<\/a> in the 2000s. Digital audio files could be labelled with more information than could be contained in just the file name. That descriptive information is called the <b>audio tag<\/b> or audio metadata in general. Computer programs specializing in adding or modifying this information are called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tag_editor\" title=\"Tag editor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04d27790eff35cadfcfa141f28238860\">tag editors<\/a>. Metadata can be used to name, describe, catalogue and indicate ownership or copyright for a digital audio file, and its presence makes it much easier to locate a specific audio file within a group, typically through use of a search engine that accesses the metadata. As different digital audio formats were developed, attempts were made to standardize a specific location within the digital files where this information could be stored.\n<\/p><p>As a result, almost all digital audio formats, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mp3\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mp3\" data-key=\"16a15ddf3addf1aa5c468ac8597e77ad\">mp3<\/a>, broadcast wav and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AIFF\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"AIFF\" data-key=\"1fa832e08907db4059323d2adfc46678\">AIFF<\/a> files, have similar standardized locations that can be populated with metadata. The metadata for compressed and uncompressed digital music is often encoded in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ID3\" title=\"ID3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b2fb908d9529d25cd06376ff7e1e7077\">ID3<\/a> tag. Common editors such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TagLib\" title=\"TagLib\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5df6869a3b1f7e78bebfa5e1dee52d22\">TagLib<\/a> support MP3, Ogg Vorbis, FLAC, MPC, Speex, WavPack TrueAudio, WAV, AIFF, MP4, and ASF file formats.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cloud_applications\">Cloud applications<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>With the availability of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b28cb3c1977d5c04401506e9b991f1\">cloud<\/a> applications, which include those to add metadata to content, metadata is increasingly available over the Internet.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Administration_and_management\">Administration and management<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Storage\">Storage<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Metadata can be stored either <i>internally<\/i>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-id3_86-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-id3-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup> in the same file or structure as the data (this is also called <i>embedded metadata<\/i>), or <i>externally<\/i>, in a separate file or field from the described data. A data repository typically stores the metadata <i>detached<\/i> from the data, but can be designed to support embedded metadata approaches. Each option has advantages and disadvantages:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Internal storage means metadata always travels as part of the data they describe; thus, metadata is always available with the data, and can be manipulated locally. This method creates redundancy (precluding normalization), and does not allow managing all of a system's metadata in one place. It arguably increases consistency, since the metadata is readily changed whenever the data is changed.<\/li>\n<li>External storage allows collocating metadata for all the contents, for example in a database, for more efficient searching and management. Redundancy can be avoided by normalizing the metadata's organization. In this approach, metadata can be united with the content when information is transferred, for example in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Streaming_media\" title=\"Streaming media\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"676ba674185beed3120116af75bec9d8\">Streaming media<\/a>; or can be referenced (for example, as a web link) from the transferred content. On the down side, the division of the metadata from the data content, especially in standalone files that refer to their source metadata elsewhere, increases the opportunities for misalignments between the two, as changes to either may not be reflected in the other.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Metadata can be stored in either human-readable or binary form. Storing metadata in a human-readable format such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a> can be useful because users can understand and edit it without specialized tools.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Sutter_87-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Sutter-87\">[87]<\/a><\/sup> However, text-based formats are rarely optimized for storage capacity, communication time, or processing speed. A binary metadata format enables efficiency in all these respects, but requires special software to convert the binary information into human-readable content.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Database_management\">Database management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Each relational database system has its own mechanisms for storing metadata. Examples of relational-database metadata include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Tables of all tables in a database, their names, sizes, and number of rows in each table.<\/li>\n<li>Tables of columns in each database, what tables they are used in, and the type of data stored in each column.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In database terminology, this set of metadata is referred to as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_catalog\" title=\"Database catalog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a819f889f6be9701d8be898613ef6d13\">catalog<\/a>. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SQL\" title=\"SQL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f35b2b4bc8a913c4c71802a7c2f39b88\">SQL<\/a> standard specifies a uniform means to access the catalog, called the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_schema\" title=\"Information schema\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfa1d4a4ce7a17fcc02dcb6eded57dc0\">information schema<\/a>, but not all databases implement it, even if they implement other aspects of the SQL standard. For an example of database-specific metadata access methods, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_metadata\" title=\"Oracle metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7cedd619d814b47d46b93f139bf6b487\">Oracle metadata<\/a>. Programmatic access to metadata is possible using APIs such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JDBC\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JDBC\" data-key=\"6e82fa8ca5eccab74b65438504682dad\">JDBC<\/a>, or SchemaCrawler.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-schemacrawler_88-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-schemacrawler-88\">[88]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_popular_culture\">In popular culture<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>One of the first satirical examinations of the concept of Metadata as we understand it today is American Science Fiction author <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hal_Draper\" title=\"Hal Draper\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ff514a53dea1c9b6fe222e5240db851\">Hal Draper<\/a>'s short story, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MS_Fnd_in_a_Lbry\" title=\"MS Fnd in a Lbry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c850642e92192c69de4a56c9e3028040\">MS_Fnd_in_a_Lbry<\/a> (1961).\nHere, the knowledge of all Mankind is condensed into an object the size of a desk drawer, however the magnitude of the metadata (e.g. catalog of catalogs of... , as well as indexes and histories) eventually leads to dire yet humorous consequence for the human race.\nThe story prefigures the modern consequences of allowing metadata to become more important than the real data it is concerned with, and the risks inherent in that eventuality as a cautionary tale.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 25em; -webkit-column-width: 25em; column-width: 25em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agris:_International_Information_System_for_the_Agricultural_Sciences_and_Technology\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Agris: International Information System for the Agricultural Sciences and Technology\" data-key=\"47f7a3190b9c45a4fcab1c4b168c4231\">Agris: International Information System for the Agricultural Sciences and Technology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classification_scheme\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Classification scheme\" data-key=\"f22d27a7236314222ba55139794bab33\">Classification scheme<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crosswalk_(metadata)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Crosswalk (metadata)\" data-key=\"4458d6a0ad1d3607e4cf112f0603ec5d\">Crosswalk (metadata)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DataONE\" title=\"DataONE\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c120436503fc6b486657feca51fa48ec\">DataONE<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Dictionary\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data Dictionary\" data-key=\"b67e6d368edeb74d4c4a7dc6bcea568f\">Data Dictionary<\/a> (aka metadata repository)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core\" title=\"Dublin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dee6f75bb503ebdcf3d3df5729d4a\">Dublin Core<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Folksonomy\" title=\"Folksonomy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09248b03e8b25b20864a817008f5975e\">Folksonomy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GEOMS_%E2%80%93_Generic_Earth_Observation_Metadata_Standard\" title=\"GEOMS \u2013 Generic Earth Observation Metadata Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1bc27cced3669c7dfe089930842087b\">GEOMS \u2013 Generic Earth Observation Metadata Standard<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geospatial_metadata\" title=\"Geospatial metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1f0c6da59cd230a351a5b21b8c86209a\">Geospatial metadata<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IPDirector\" title=\"IPDirector\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4acb49bba25410c15968e65614f1422\">IPDirector<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_11179\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 11179\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77c34eea440c5f765f97188bdc095b23\">ISO\/IEC 11179<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_tag\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Knowledge tag\" data-key=\"8b3e50f8b2919cd9d09abb023f1766bc\">Knowledge tag<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mercury:_Metadata_Search_System\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mercury: Metadata Search System\" data-key=\"30c09904faa4ca8b07844a400d985bbb\">Mercury: Metadata Search System<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Meta_element\" title=\"Meta element\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"078272c5f5f336d51994bedb0e7bdc0b\">Meta element<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IF-MAP\" title=\"IF-MAP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30810d5d8f1be099e85d5f535c3f4bcf\">Metadata Access Point Interface<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_discovery\" title=\"Metadata discovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fed34f88435997072bf8d8b7b511606b\">Metadata discovery<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_facility_for_Java\" title=\"Metadata facility for Java\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10bb01c6c0328cc66493365fb916bfdb\">Metadata facility for Java<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikiversity.org\/wiki\/4-b:_Metadata\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"v:4-b: Metadata\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">Metadata from Wikiversity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_publishing\" title=\"Metadata publishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71c50092f3be4d2c99c0ba1fadad5e1d\">Metadata publishing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_registry\" title=\"Metadata registry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50b38acec4b504b2af8989879e047734\">Metadata registry<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metamathematics\" title=\"Metamathematics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ce8a5edcca7778773a375d89919bd27\">Metamathematics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/METAFOR\" title=\"METAFOR\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df38c6023bde2bbac8459e86da1463c5\">METAFOR<\/a> Common Metadata for Climate Modelling Digital Repositories<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microcontent\" title=\"Microcontent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c863292b4cf70cdf4cbc773975ae830d\">Microcontent<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microformat\" title=\"Microformat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b6d5559fae3fc79eac015bff6addd9c\">Microformat<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multicam_(LSM)\" title=\"Multicam (LSM)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49e09c4faa243503a374e495d1907cee\">Multicam (LSM)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Observations_and_Measurements\" title=\"Observations and Measurements\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f160e567567a995bd2f1f55a33f731a\">Observations and Measurements<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ontology (computer science)\" data-key=\"2cf14c9076764ffc3f7426754d3c4730\">Ontology (computer science)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Official_statistics\" title=\"Official statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b1fc443ae7872061849451da549e768\">Official statistics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paratext\" title=\"Paratext\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6da79e232afa6e17272a4eb730f7d81\">Paratext<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Preservation_Metadata\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Preservation Metadata\" data-key=\"462eb2a0fd8182fdc547d7cf33d15961\">Preservation Metadata<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SDMX\" title=\"SDMX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d50a8fc8177e4138aac708f790c7d060\">SDMX<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_Web\" title=\"Semantic Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9ae7ad3bff2f083332c721eff5ad88f\">Semantic Web<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SGML\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SGML\" data-key=\"6fa72787891c8e22713dd6da7ae205be\">SGML<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Metadata_Company\" title=\"The Metadata Company\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1fdca66ac3974488aaf63da9dbf9792\">The Metadata Company<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Data_Element_Framework\" title=\"Universal Data Element Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68b721c8f6c07880b1d1f4b1cf155122\">Universal Data Element Framework<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vocabulary_OneSource\" title=\"Vocabulary OneSource\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f75b6071bc0af7bef4993dd64f9e885d\">Vocabulary OneSource<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XSD\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"XSD\" data-key=\"22e51e1546ca112b175a724f0e9ef252\">XSD<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/metadata\" target=\"_blank\">\"Archived copy\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150227084709\/http:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/metadata\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 February 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 February<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fmetadata&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Archived_copy_as_title\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Archived copy as title\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed2e57b0642742d0fcc92214dc138a5f\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Metadata_Basics_Outline-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Metadata_Basics_Outline_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Zeng, Marcia (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/marciazeng.slis.kent.edu\/metadatabasics\/types.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metadata Types and Functions\"<\/a>. NISO. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161007120833\/http:\/\/marciazeng.slis.kent.edu\/metadatabasics\/types.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 October 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 October<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Metadata+Types+and+Functions&rft.pub=NISO&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Zeng%2C+Marcia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmarciazeng.slis.kent.edu%2Fmetadatabasics%2Ftypes.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:4-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:4_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:4_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Directorate, OECD Statistics. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/stats.oecd.org\/glossary\/detail.asp?ID=7076\" target=\"_blank\">\"OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Reference metadata Definition\"<\/a>. <i>stats.oecd.org<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-05-24<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=stats.oecd.org&rft.atitle=OECD+Glossary+of+Statistical+Terms+-+Reference+metadata+Definition&rft.aulast=Directorate&rft.aufirst=OECD+Statistics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstats.oecd.org%2Fglossary%2Fdetail.asp%3FID%3D7076&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dlib.org\/dlib\/february97\/cnri\/02arms1.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Archived copy\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170327015501\/http:\/\/www.dlib.org\/dlib\/february97\/cnri\/02arms1.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 March 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 May<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dlib.org%2Fdlib%2Ffebruary97%2Fcnri%2F02arms1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Archived_copy_as_title\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Archived copy as title\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed2e57b0642742d0fcc92214dc138a5f\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Understanding_Metadata_(2)-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Understanding_Metadata_(2)_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">National Information Standards Organization (NISO) (2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.niso.org\/publications\/press\/UnderstandingMetadata.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Understanding Metadata<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. NISO Press. p. 1. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-880124-62-8. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141107022958\/http:\/\/www.niso.org\/publications\/press\/UnderstandingMetadata.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 7 November 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Metadata&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=NISO+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-880124-62-8&rft.au=National+Information+Standards+Organization+%28NISO%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.niso.org%2Fpublications%2Fpress%2FUnderstandingMetadata.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:5-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:5_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:5_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bls.gov\/ore\/pdf\/st000040.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Role of Metadata in Statistics\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Bureau of Labor Statistics<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bureau+of+Labor+Statistics&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Metadata+in+Statistics&rft.aulast=Dippo&rft.aufirst=Cathryn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bls.gov%2Fore%2Fpdf%2Fst000040.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Steiner, Tobias (2017-11-23). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hcommons.org\/deposits\/item\/hc:16929\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metadaten und OER: Geschichte einer Beziehung (Metadata and OER: [hi]story of a relationship)\"<\/a>. <i>Synergie. Fachmagazin f\u00fcr Digitalisierung in der Lehre<\/i> (in German). <b>04<\/b>: 54. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.17613%2Fm6p81g\" target=\"_blank\">10.17613\/m6p81g<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2509-3096\" target=\"_blank\">2509-3096<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Synergie.+Fachmagazin+f%C3%BCr+Digitalisierung+in+der+Lehre&rft.atitle=Metadaten+und+OER%3A+Geschichte+einer+Beziehung+%28Metadata+and+OER%3A+%5Bhi%5Dstory+of+a+relationship%29&rft.volume=04&rft.pages=54&rft.date=2017-11-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17613%2Fm6p81g&rft.issn=2509-3096&rft.aulast=Steiner&rft.aufirst=Tobias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhcommons.org%2Fdeposits%2Fitem%2Fhc%3A16929%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Practices_in_Using_Metadata-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Practices_in_Using_Metadata_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.library.illinois.edu\/dcc\/bestpractices\/chapter_11_structuralmetadata.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Best Practices for Structural Metadata\"<\/a>. University of Illinois. 15 December 2010. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160624011712\/http:\/\/www.library.illinois.edu\/dcc\/bestpractices\/chapter_11_structuralmetadata.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 24 June 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Best+Practices+for+Structural+Metadata&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois&rft.date=2010-12-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.library.illinois.edu%2Fdcc%2Fbestpractices%2Fchapter_11_structuralmetadata.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Understanding_Metadata-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Understanding_Metadata_9-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Understanding_Metadata_9-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">National Information Standards Organization; Rebecca Guenther; Jaqueline Radebaugh (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.niso.org\/publications\/press\/UnderstandingMetadata.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Understanding Metadata<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Bethesda, MD: NISO Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-880124-62-8. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141107022958\/http:\/\/www.niso.org\/publications\/press\/UnderstandingMetadata.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 7 November 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 April<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Metadata&rft.place=Bethesda%2C+MD&rft.pub=NISO+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-880124-62-8&rft.au=National+Information+Standards+Organization&rft.au=Rebecca+Guenther&rft.au=Jaqueline+Radebaugh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.niso.org%2Fpublications%2Fpress%2FUnderstandingMetadata.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.schneier.com\/essays\/archives\/2014\/03\/metadata_surveillanc.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Archived copy\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160621225840\/https:\/\/www.schneier.com\/essays\/archives\/2014\/03\/metadata_surveillanc.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 21 June 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.schneier.com%2Fessays%2Farchives%2F2014%2F03%2Fmetadata_surveillanc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Archived_copy_as_title\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Archived copy as title\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed2e57b0642742d0fcc92214dc138a5f\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NSA_Watching-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NSA_Watching_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.washingtonsblog.com\/2014\/03\/nsa-recorded-every-single-call-one-country-country-america.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Archived copy\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161222081255\/http:\/\/www.washingtonsblog.com\/2014\/03\/nsa-recorded-every-single-call-one-country-country-america.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonsblog.com%2F2014%2F03%2Fnsa-recorded-every-single-call-one-country-country-america.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Archived_copy_as_title\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Archived copy as title\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed2e57b0642742d0fcc92214dc138a5f\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#meta=0000000\">\"A Guardian Guide to your Metadata\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theguardian.com\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Theguardian.com\" data-key=\"5fecf9bd16c376c3e2d6dd92a04f2eef\">theguardian.com<\/a><\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Guardian_News_and_Media_Limited\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Guardian News and Media Limited\" data-key=\"d7002d9586eb017917e3de76bd9db72a\">Guardian News and Media Limited<\/a>. 12 June 2013. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#meta=0000000\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 March 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=theguardian.com&rft.atitle=A+Guardian+Guide+to+your+Metadata&rft.date=2013-06-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2Finteractive%2F2013%2Fjun%2F12%2Fwhat-is-metadata-nsa-surveillance%23meta%3D0000000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.adeoimaging.com\" target=\"_blank\">\"ADEO Imaging: TIFF Metadata\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130517055358\/http:\/\/www.adeoimaging.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 May 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 May<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ADEO+Imaging%3A+TIFF+Metadata&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adeoimaging.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Rouse,_M_(2014)-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_14-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_14-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_14-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Rouse,_M_(2014)_14-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Rouse, Margaret (July 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/whatis.techtarget.com\/definition\/metadata\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metadata\"<\/a>. <i>WhatIs<\/i>. TechTarget. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151029154730\/http:\/\/whatis.techtarget.com\/definition\/metadata\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 October 2015.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WhatIs&rft.atitle=Metadata&rft.date=2014-07&rft.aulast=Rouse&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhatis.techtarget.com%2Fdefinition%2Fmetadata&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">H\u00fcner, K.; Otto, B.; \u00d6sterle, H.: Collaborative management of business metadata, in: <i>International Journal of Information Management<\/i>, 2011<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bls.gov\/ore\/pdf\/st000010.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metadata Standards And Metadata Registries: An Overview\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110629082434\/http:\/\/www.bls.gov\/ore\/pdf\/st000010.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 29 June 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 December<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Metadata+Standards+And+Metadata+Registries%3A+An+Overview&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bls.gov%2Fore%2Fpdf%2Fst000010.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bagley-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Bagley_17-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Philip Bagley (November 1968). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dtic.mil\/dtic\/tr\/fulltext\/u2\/680815.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Extension of programming language concepts\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Philadelphia: University City Science Center. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121130091053\/http:\/\/www.dtic.mil\/dtic\/tr\/fulltext\/u2\/680815.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 30 November 2012.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Extension+of+programming+language+concepts&rft.date=1968-11&rft.au=Philip+Bagley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dtic.mil%2Fdtic%2Ftr%2Ffulltext%2Fu2%2F680815.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\"The notion of \"metadata\" introduced by Bagley\". <cite class=\"citation journal\">Solntseff, N+1; Yezerski, A (1974). \"A survey of extensible programming languages\". Annual Review in Automatic Programming. <b>7<\/b>. Elsevier Science Ltd: 267\u2013307. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2F0066-4138%2874%2990001-9\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/0066-4138(74)90001-9<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=A+survey+of+extensible+programming+languages&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=267-307&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0066-4138%2874%2990001-9&rft.aulast=Solntseff&rft.aufirst=N%2B1&rft.au=Yezerski%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NISO-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-NISO_19-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-NISO_19-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NISO\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NISO\" data-key=\"2b517e1d3bc8256f665a695a501a6356\">NISO<\/a> (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.niso.org\/publications\/press\/UnderstandingMetadata.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Understanding Metadata<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. NISO Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-880124-62-8. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141107022958\/http:\/\/www.niso.org\/publications\/press\/UnderstandingMetadata.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 7 November 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 January<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Metadata&rft.pub=NISO+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-880124-62-8&rft.au=NISO&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.niso.org%2Fpublications%2Fpress%2FUnderstandingMetadata.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation conference\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Francis_Bretherton\" title=\"Francis Bretherton\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bb87c42eedf35c39c5716aa68aae71b\">Bretherton, F. P.<\/a>; Singley, P.T. (1994). <i>Metadata: A User's View, Proceedings of the International Conference on Very Large Data Bases (VLDB)<\/i>. pp. 1091\u20131094.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Metadata%3A+A+User%27s+View%2C+Proceedings+of+the+International+Conference+on+Very+Large+Data+Bases+%28VLDB%29&rft.pages=1091-1094&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Bretherton&rft.aufirst=F.+P.&rft.au=Singley%2C+P.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Beyene_(2017)-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_21-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_21-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_21-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_21-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Beyene_(2017)_21-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Beyene, Wondwossen Mulualem (2017). \"Metadata and universal access in digital library environments\". <i>Library Hi Tech<\/i>. <b>35<\/b> (2): 210\u2013221. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108%2FLHT-06-2016-0074\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/LHT-06-2016-0074<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Library+Hi+Tech&rft.atitle=Metadata+and+universal+access+in+digital+library+environments&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=210-221&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2FLHT-06-2016-0074&rft.aulast=Beyene&rft.aufirst=Wondwossen+Mulualem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Warwick_Cathro\" title=\"Warwick Cathro\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee6bc6176d993fb5afdec3933722e02f\">Cathro, Warwick<\/a> (1997). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nla.gov.au\/nla\/staffpaper\/cathro3.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metadata: an overview\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091222232625\/http:\/\/www.nla.gov.au\/nla\/staffpaper\/cathro3.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 December 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 January<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Metadata%3A+an+overview&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Cathro&rft.aufirst=Warwick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nla.gov.au%2Fnla%2Fstaffpaper%2Fcathro3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core_Metadata_Initiative\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dublin Core Metadata Initiative\" data-key=\"1e40c8a639d5522c07628e92f7bc3a78\">DCMI<\/a> (5 October 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dublincore.org\/specifications\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Semantic Recommendations\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091231035647\/http:\/\/dublincore.org\/specifications\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 31 December 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 January<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Semantic+Recommendations&rft.date=2009-10-05&rft.au=DCMI&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdublincore.org%2Fspecifications%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free\" href=\"#iso:std:iso:25964:-1:ed-1:v1:en\">https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso:25964:-1:ed-1:v1:en<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160617031837\/https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 17 June 2016 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091024112353\/http:\/\/www.infodiv.unimelb.edu.au\/metadata\/add_info.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Types of Metadata\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_Melbourne\" title=\"University of Melbourne\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"132a866a46f61be4f7e64d057d3eaeff\">University of Melbourne<\/a>. 15 August 2006. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infodiv.unimelb.edu.au\/metadata\/add_info.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2009-10-24<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=EPA+Metadata+Technical+Specification&rft.pub=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft.date=2017-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fgeospatial%2Fepa-metadata-technical-specification&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">National Archives of Australia (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.naa.gov.au\/records-management\/publications\/agls-element.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"AGLS Metadata Element Set - Part 2: Usage Guide - A non-technical guide to using AGLS metadata for describing resources\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100330095200\/http:\/\/www.naa.gov.au\/records-management\/publications\/agls-element.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 March 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 March<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AGLS+Metadata+Element+Set+-+Part+2%3A+Usage+Guide+-+A+non-technical+guide+to+using+AGLS+metadata+for+describing+resources&rft.date=2002&rft.au=National+Archives+of+Australia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.naa.gov.au%2Frecords-management%2Fpublications%2Fagls-element.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-solodovnik-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-solodovnik_46-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Solodovnik, Iryna (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/leo.cilea.it\/index.php\/jlis\/article\/view\/4663\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metadata issues in Digital Libraries: key concepts and perspectives\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JLIS.it\" title=\"JLIS.it\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a80d3934473875a2d92e1fa9607efb25\">JLIS.it: Italian Journal of Library, Archives and Information Science<\/a><\/i>. University of Florence. <b>2<\/b> (2). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4403%2Fjlis.it-4663\" target=\"_blank\">10.4403\/jlis.it-4663<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130616093855\/http:\/\/leo.cilea.it\/index.php\/jlis\/article\/view\/4663\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 16 June 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Loc.gov. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111215031826\/http:\/\/www.loc.gov\/standards\/metadata.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 15 December 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 December<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Library+of+Congress+Washington+DC+on+metadata&rft.pub=Loc.gov&rft.date=2005-09-08&rft.au=Library+of+Congress+Network+Development+and+MARC+Standards+Office&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fstandards%2Fmetadata.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dnb.de\/DE\/Netzpublikationen\/Ablieferung\/MetadatenKernset\/metadatenkernset_node.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Frankfurt on metadata\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121024122607\/http:\/\/www.dnb.de\/DE\/Netzpublikationen\/Ablieferung\/MetadatenKernset\/metadatenkernset_node.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 24 October 2012.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Deutsche+Nationalbibliothek+Frankfurt+on+metadata&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dnb.de%2FDE%2FNetzpublikationen%2FAblieferung%2FMetadatenKernset%2Fmetadatenkernset_node.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_49-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_49-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_49-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_49-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Zange, Charles S. (31 January 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/mw2015.museumsandtheweb.com\/paper\/community-makers-major-museums-and-the-keet-saaxw-learning-about-the-role-of-museums-in-interpreting-cultural-objects\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Community makers, major museums, and the Keet S'aaxw: Learning about the role of museums in interpreting cultural objects\"<\/a>. Museums and the Web. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161104005603\/http:\/\/mw2015.museumsandtheweb.com\/paper\/community-makers-major-museums-and-the-keet-saaxw-learning-about-the-role-of-museums-in-interpreting-cultural-objects\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 November 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Community+makers%2C+major+museums%2C+and+the+Keet+S%27aaxw%3A+Learning+about+the+role+of+museums+in+interpreting+cultural+objects&rft.date=2015-01-31&rft.aulast=Zange&rft.aufirst=Charles+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmw2015.museumsandtheweb.com%2Fpaper%2Fcommunity-makers-major-museums-and-the-keet-saaxw-learning-about-the-role-of-museums-in-interpreting-cultural-objects%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:1-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_50-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_50-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_50-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_50-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_50-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_50-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_50-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_50-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_50-8\"><sup><i><b>i<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_50-9\"><sup><i><b>j<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_50-10\"><sup><i><b>k<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Baca, Murtha (2006). <i>Cataloging cultural objects: a guide to describing cultural works and their images. 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Visual Resources Association.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cataloging+cultural+objects%3A+a+guide+to+describing+cultural+works+and+their+images.+Visual+Resources+Association&rft.pub=Visual+Resources+Association&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Baca&rft.aufirst=Murtha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:2-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-8\"><sup><i><b>i<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-9\"><sup><i><b>j<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-10\"><sup><i><b>k<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-11\"><sup><i><b>l<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-12\"><sup><i><b>m<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-13\"><sup><i><b>n<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-14\"><sup><i><b>o<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-15\"><sup><i><b>p<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:2_51-16\"><sup><i><b>q<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Baca, Murtha (2008). <i>Introduction to Metadata: Second Edition. Los Angeles: Getty Information Institute<\/i>. 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L\u00f6be, M. Knuth, R. M\u00fccke <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ceur-ws.org\/Vol-559\/Paper1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">TIM: A Semantic Web Application for the Specification of Metadata Items in Clinical Research<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120511114907\/http:\/\/ceur-ws.org\/Vol-559\/Paper1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 11 May 2012 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, CEUR-WS.org, <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external free wiki-link\" href=\"urn:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/nbn:de:0074-559-9\" data-key=\"1c8f26411301cee8c0ddf9f3bd94d40c\">urn:nbn:de:0074-559-9<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Myneni, Sahiti; Patel, Vimla L. 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(2016-05-18). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/stm.sciencemag.org\/content\/8\/339\/339ed7\" target=\"_blank\">\"Reproducibility will only come with data liberation\"<\/a>. <i>Science Translational Medicine<\/i>. <b>8<\/b> (339): 339ed7. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126%2Fscitranslmed.aaf0968\" target=\"_blank\">10.1126\/scitranslmed.aaf0968<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1946-6234\" target=\"_blank\">1946-6234<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" title=\"PubMed Central\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63771bf92616f7746c20a676c8bc36e6\">PMC<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5084089\" target=\"_blank\">5084089<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/27194726\" target=\"_blank\">27194726<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Translational+Medicine&rft.atitle=Reproducibility+will+only+come+with+data+liberation&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=339&rft.pages=339ed7&rft.date=2016-05-18&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5084089&rft.issn=1946-6234&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27194726&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscitranslmed.aaf0968&rft.aulast=AlQuraishi&rft.aufirst=Mohammed&rft.au=Sorger%2C+Peter+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstm.sciencemag.org%2Fcontent%2F8%2F339%2F339ed7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-68\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-68\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Wilkinson, Mark D.; Dumontier, Michel; Aalbersberg, IJsbrand Jan; Appleton, Gabrielle; Axton, Myles; Baak, Arie; Blomberg, Niklas; Boiten, Jan-Willem; da Silva Santos, Luiz Bonino (2016-03-15). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/sdata201618\" target=\"_blank\">\"The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific Data<\/i>. <b>3<\/b>: 160018. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fsdata.2016.18\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/sdata.2016.18<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2052-4463\" target=\"_blank\">2052-4463<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" title=\"PubMed Central\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63771bf92616f7746c20a676c8bc36e6\">PMC<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4792175\" target=\"_blank\">4792175<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/26978244\" target=\"_blank\">26978244<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Data&rft.atitle=The+FAIR+Guiding+Principles+for+scientific+data+management+and+stewardship&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=160018&rft.date=2016-03-15&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4792175&rft.issn=2052-4463&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26978244&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsdata.2016.18&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Mark+D.&rft.au=Dumontier%2C+Michel&rft.au=Aalbersberg%2C+IJsbrand+Jan&rft.au=Appleton%2C+Gabrielle&rft.au=Axton%2C+Myles&rft.au=Baak%2C+Arie&rft.au=Blomberg%2C+Niklas&rft.au=Boiten%2C+Jan-Willem&rft.au=da+Silva+Santos%2C+Luiz+Bonino&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fsdata201618&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-69\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-69\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Inmon, W.H. Tech Topic: What is a Data Warehouse? Prism Solutions. Volume 1. 1995.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-70\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-70\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKimball2008\" class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ralph_Kimball\" title=\"Ralph Kimball\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7d99c9d22163377aa0674e688ecc15d4\">Kimball, Ralph<\/a> (2008). <i>The Data Warehouse Lifecycle Toolkit<\/i> (Second ed.). New York: Wiley. pp. 10, 115\u2013117, 131\u2013132, 140, 154\u2013155. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-470-14977-5.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Data+Warehouse+Lifecycle+Toolkit&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=10%2C+115-117%2C+131-132%2C+140%2C+154-155&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-470-14977-5&rft.aulast=Kimball&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-71\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-71\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFKimball2008\">Kimball 2008<\/a>, pp. 116\u2013117<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-72\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-72\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">National Archives of Australia, AGLS Metadata Standard, accessed 7 January 2010, <cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.naa.gov.au\/records-management\/create-capture-describe\/describe\/AGLS\/index.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Archived copy\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100110054051\/http:\/\/www.naa.gov.au\/records-management\/create-capture-describe\/describe\/AGLS\/index.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 January 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 January<\/span> 2010<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.naa.gov.au%2Frecords-management%2Fcreate-capture-describe%2Fdescribe%2FAGLS%2Findex.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Archived_copy_as_title\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Archived copy as title\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed2e57b0642742d0fcc92214dc138a5f\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-73\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-73\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Metacrap: Putting the torch to seven straw-men of the meta-utopia <cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.well.com\/~doctorow\/metacrap.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Archived copy\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070508200721\/http:\/\/www.well.com\/~doctorow\/metacrap.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 8 May 2007<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2007<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.well.com%2F~doctorow%2Fmetacrap.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Archived_copy_as_title\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Archived copy as title\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed2e57b0642742d0fcc92214dc138a5f\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-74\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-74\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">The impact of webpage content characteristics on webpage visibility in search engine results <cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.simmons.edu\/~braun\/467\/part_1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Archived copy\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120907012709\/http:\/\/web.simmons.edu\/~braun\/467\/part_1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 7 September 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 April<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.simmons.edu%2F~braun%2F467%2Fpart_1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Archived_copy_as_title\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Archived copy as title\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed2e57b0642742d0fcc92214dc138a5f\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-75\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-75\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/support.google.com\/webmasters\/answer\/79812?hl=en\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Meta tags that Google understands\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140522161805\/https:\/\/support.google.com\/webmasters\/answer\/79812?hl=en%2F\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 May 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 May<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Meta+tags+that+Google+understands&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupport.google.com%2Fwebmasters%2Fanswer%2F79812%3Fhl%3Den%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-76\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-76\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/swiftype.com\/documentation\/meta_tags2\" target=\"_blank\">\"Swiftype-specific Meta Tags\"<\/a>. <i>Swiftype Documentation<\/i>. Swiftype. 3 October 2014. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141006113157\/https:\/\/swiftype.com\/documentation\/meta_tags2\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 October 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Swiftype+Documentation&rft.atitle=Swiftype-specific+Meta+Tags&rft.date=2014-10-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fswiftype.com%2Fdocumentation%2Fmeta_tags2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-77\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120117194534\/http:\/\/www.hbs.tv\/hostbroadcasting\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"HBS is the FIFA host broadcaster\"<\/a>. Hbs.tv. 6 August 2011. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hbs.tv\/hostbroadcasting\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 17 January 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 December<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=HBS+is+the+FIFA+host+broadcaster&rft.pub=Hbs.tv&rft.date=2011-08-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hbs.tv%2Fhostbroadcasting%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-78\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-78\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111102235256\/http:\/\/www.evs-global.com\/01\/MyDocuments\/CS_BOB_EVScontributon_0808_ENG.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Host Broadcast Media Server and Related Applications\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.evs-global.com\/01\/MyDocuments\/CS_BOB_EVScontributon_0808_ENG.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 2 November 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-08-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Host+Broadcast+Media+Server+and+Related+Applications&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.evs-global.com%2F01%2FMyDocuments%2FCS_BOB_EVScontributon_0808_ENG.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-79\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111116191929\/http:\/\/broadcastengineering.com\/worldcup\/fifa-world-cup-techonlogy-0610\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"logs during sport events\"<\/a>. Broadcastengineering.com. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 December<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=logs+during+sport+events&rft.pub=Broadcastengineering.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbroadcastengineering.com%2Fworldcup%2Ffifa-world-cup-techonlogy-0610%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-80\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http:\/\/knb.ecoinformatics.org\/software\/eml\/eml-2.0.1\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">[1]<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110423161141\/http:\/\/knb.ecoinformatics.org\/software\/eml\/eml-2.0.1\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 23 April 2011 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-81\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/metavist.djames.net\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metavist 2\"<\/a>. Metavist.djames.net. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110821202734\/http:\/\/metavist.djames.net\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 21 August 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 December<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Metavist+2&rft.pub=Metavist.djames.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmetavist.djames.net%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-82\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-82\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120113143228\/http:\/\/knb.ecoinformatics.org\/morphoportal.jsp\" target=\"_blank\">\"KNB Data :: Morpho\"<\/a>. Knb.ecoinformatics.org. 20 May 2009. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/knb.ecoinformatics.org\/morphoportal.jsp\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 13 January 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 December<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=KNB+Data+%3A%3A+Morpho&rft.pub=Knb.ecoinformatics.org&rft.date=2009-05-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fknb.ecoinformatics.org%2Fmorphoportal.jsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-83\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-83\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/s3.amazonaws.com\/academia.edu.documents\/32801641\/Morris_2012_-_Making_Music_Behave.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJ56TQJRTWSMTNPEA&Expires=1477195681&Signature=2TLmhapcR0M5eYsfMQ8FgG2TZa0%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DMaking_music_behave_Metadata_and_the_dig.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/s3.amazonaws.com\/academia.edu.documents\/32801641\/Morris_2012_-_Making_Music_Behave.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJ56TQJRTWSMTNPEA&Expires=1477195681&Signature=2TLmhapcR0M5eYsfMQ8FgG2TZa0%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DMaking_music_behave_Metadata_and_the_dig.pdf<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Pohlmann1989-84\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Pohlmann1989_84-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Ken C. Pohlmann (1989). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GkIaGZ0HWcMC&pg=PA48\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Compact Disc: A Handbook of Theory and Use<\/i><\/a>. A-R Editions, Inc. pp. 48\u2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-89579-228-0.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Compact+Disc%3A+A+Handbook+of+Theory+and+Use&rft.pages=48-&rft.pub=A-R+Editions%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-89579-228-0&rft.au=Ken+C.+Pohlmann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGkIaGZ0HWcMC%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-85\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-85\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/web.ncf.ca\/aa571\/cdtext.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/web.ncf.ca\/aa571\/cdtext.htm<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-id3-86\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-id3_86-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">O'Neill, Dan. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/id3.org\" target=\"_blank\">\"ID3.org\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111111055609\/http:\/\/www.id3.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 11 November 2011.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ID3.org&rft.aulast=O%27Neill&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fid3.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Sutter-87\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Sutter_87-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">De Sutter, Robbie; Notebaert, Stijn; Van de Walle, Rik (September 2006). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#v=onepage\">\"Evaluation of Metadata Standards in the Context of Digital Audio-Visual Libraries\"<\/a>. In Gonzalo, Julio; Thanos, Constantino; Verdejo, M. Felisa; Carrasco, Rafael. <i>Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries: 10th European Conference, EDCL 2006<\/i>. Springer. p. 226. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-3540446361. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#v=onepage\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 April 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evaluation+of+Metadata+Standards+in+the+Context+of+Digital+Audio-Visual+Libraries&rft.btitle=Research+and+Advanced+Technology+for+Digital+Libraries%3A+10th+European+Conference%2C+EDCL+2006&rft.pages=226&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006-09&rft.isbn=978-3540446361&rft.aulast=De+Sutter&rft.aufirst=Robbie&rft.au=Notebaert%2C+Stijn&rft.au=Van+de+Walle%2C+Rik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkU7Lqqowp54C%26pg%3DPA226%26cad%3D4%23v%3Donepage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-schemacrawler-88\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-schemacrawler_88-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Sualeh Fatehi. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/schemacrawler.sourceforge.net\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"SchemaCrawler\"<\/a>. <i>SourceForge<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090903054127\/http:\/\/schemacrawler.sourceforge.net\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 3 September 2009.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SourceForge&rft.atitle=SchemaCrawler&rft.au=Sualeh+Fatehi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fschemacrawler.sourceforge.net%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMetadata\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><cite class=\"citation wikicite\" id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGartner2016\">Gartner, Richard. 2016. <i>Metadata: Shaping Knowledge from Antiquity to the Semantic Web<\/i> . Springer. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783319408910.<\/cite><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation wikicite\" id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFZeng_&_Qin2016\">Zeng, Marcia & Qin, Jian. 2016. <i>Metadata<\/i> . Facet. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781783300525.<\/cite><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.niso.org\/apps\/group_public\/download.php\/17446\/Understanding%20Metadata\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Understanding Metadata: What is metadata, and what is it for?<\/i><\/a> \u2014 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NISO\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NISO\" data-key=\"2b517e1d3bc8256f665a695a501a6356\">NISO<\/a>, 2017<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140522165110\/http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/interactive\/2013\/jun\/12\/what-is-metadata-nsa-surveillance#meta=1111111\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Guardian guide to your metadata\"<\/a> \u2014 <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Guardian\" title=\"The Guardian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c1524bb31f0ee6ff14f8f44c7f3595d\">The Guardian<\/a><\/i>, Wednesday 12 June 2013.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.well.com\/~doctorow\/metacrap.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Metacrap: Putting the torch to seven straw-men of the meta-utopia<\/a> \u2014 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cory_Doctorow\" title=\"Cory Doctorow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e75764cddf6ed5998cf4a9745facf2fb\">Cory Doctorow<\/a>'s opinion on the limitations of metadata on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a>, 2001<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dataone.org\" target=\"_blank\">DataONE<\/a> Investigator Toolkit<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.informaworld.com\/openurl?genre=journal&issn=1938-6389\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Journal of Library Metadata<\/i><\/a>, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, ISSN 1937-5034<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.inderscience.com\/ijmso\" target=\"_blank\"><i>International Journal of Metadata, Semantics and Ontologies<\/i> (<i>IJMSO<\/i>)<\/a>, Inderscience Publishers, ISSN 1744-263X<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130126101115\/http:\/\/www.metalounge.org\/_literature_52579\/Stephen_Machin_%E2%80%93_ON_METADATA_AND_METACONTENT\" target=\"_blank\">Metadata and metacontent<\/a> at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> (archived 26 January 2013) (PDF, archived version)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dhs.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/publications\/LPRStandards-TN_1012-508.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">LPR Standards<\/a>, Department of Homeland Security (October 2012)<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1320\nCached time: 20190327175402\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 1.148 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.355 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 6612\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 252024\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 5973\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 12\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 263657\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 4\/400\nLua time usage: 0.639\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6.53 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 1127.754 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>58.10% 655.200 1 Template:Reflist\n25.65% 289.224 50 Template:Cite_web\n14.92% 168.267 17 Template:Cite_journal\n10.55% 118.999 8 Template:Fix\n10.33% 116.499 6 Template:Page_needed\n 5.24% 59.136 7 Template:Delink\n 5.10% 57.553 9 Template:Cite_book\n 4.78% 53.918 16 Template:Category_handler\n 4.67% 52.611 2 Template:Wikicite\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:18933632-1!canonical and timestamp 20190327175400 and revision id 889740672\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203007\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.027 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.191 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 175.475 1 - wikipedia:Metadata\n100.00% 175.475 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10588-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203007 and revision id 33261\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Metadata\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Metadata<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7e\/Schlagwortkatalog.jpg\/400px-Schlagwortkatalog.jpg"],"f872d4d6272811392bafe802f3edf2d8_timestamp":1554323407,"451b3270b33d5e9d8d2b3bc7e3516dc8_type":"article","451b3270b33d5e9d8d2b3bc7e3516dc8_title":"Master data","451b3270b33d5e9d8d2b3bc7e3516dc8_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Master_data","451b3270b33d5e9d8d2b3bc7e3516dc8_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tMaster data\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tMaster data represents the business objects that contain the most valuable, agreed upon information shared across an organization.[1] It can cover relatively static reference data, transactional, unstructured, analytical, hierarchical and metadata.[2] It is the primary focus of the information technology (IT) discipline of master data management (MDM). \nMaster data is usually non-transactional in nature, but in some cases gray areas exist where transactional processes and operations may be considered master data by an organization. For example, master data may contain information about customers, products, employees, materials, suppliers, and vendors. Though rare, if that information is only contained within transactional data such as orders and receipts and is not housed separately, it may be considered master data.[3]\n\nContents \n\n1 Types of data \n2 Master data management \n3 See also \n4 References \n\n\nTypes of data \nAs previously stated, master data is a single source of common business data used across multiple systems, applications, and\/or processes. Yet other data types and distinctions exist[3][4]:\n\nReference data represents the set of permissible values to be used by other (master or transaction) data fields. Reference data classifies and describes data and normally changes slowly, reflecting changes in the modes of operation of the business, rather than changing in the normal course of business.\nEnterprise master data represents the single source of basic business data used across the entire enterprise, regardless of location.\nMarket master data represents the single source of basic business data used across a marketplace, regardless of location. This stands in contrast from enterprise master data in that it can be used by multiple enterprises within a value chain, facilitating \"integration of multiple data sources and literally [putting] everyone in the market on the same page.\"[4] An example of market master data is the UPC (Universal Product Code) found on consumer products.\nMaster data management \nMain article: Master data management\nCurating and managing master data is key to ensuring master data quality. Analysis and reporting is greatly dependent on the quality of an organization's master data. Master data may either be stored in a central repository, sourced from one or more systems, or referenced centrally using an index. However, when it is used by several functional groups it may be distributed and redundantly stored in different applications across an organization and this copy data may be inconsistent (and if so, inaccurate).[5] Thus, master data should have an agreed-upon view that is shared across the organization. Care should be taken to properly version master data, if the need arises to modify it, to avoid issues with distributed copies.[6]\n\nSee also \nMaster data management\nCustomer data integration\nProduct information management\nData governance\nReferences \n\n\n^ Dreibelbis, A.; Hechler, E.; Milman, I.; et al. (2008). \"Chapter 1: Introducing Master Data Management\". Enterprise Master Data Management: An SOA Approach to Managing Core Information. Pearson Education. pp. 1\u20133. ISBN 9780132704274. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Wolter, R.; Haselden, K. (November 2006). \"The What, Why, and How of Master Data Management\". Microsoft Corporation. Archived from the original on 14 July 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2017 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ a b van der Lans, R. (2012). Data Virtualization for Business Intelligence Systems: Revolutionizing Data Integration for Data Warehouses. Elsevier. pp. 119\u2013121. ISBN 9780123978172. \n\n^ a b Taylor, S.; Laylin, R. (2010). \"Master Data Management for Media\". SlideShare. Microsoft Corporation. Retrieved 27 July 2018 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ \"The Elephant in the Room \u2013 Master Data and Application Data\", Andrew White, Gartner, 14 January 2014 \n\n^ Dreibelbis, A.; Hechler, E.; Milman, I.; et al. (2008). \"Chapter 3: MDM Reference Architecture\". Enterprise Master Data Management: An SOA Approach to Managing Core Information. Pearson Education. pp. PT207\u201309. ISBN 9780132704274. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Master_data\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Master_data<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest 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\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 2 March 2019, at 21:54.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 19 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","451b3270b33d5e9d8d2b3bc7e3516dc8_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Master_data skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Master data<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Master data<\/b> represents the business objects that contain the most valuable, agreed upon information shared across an organization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DreibelbisEnterprise08_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DreibelbisEnterprise08-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> It can cover relatively static reference data, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamic_data\" title=\"Dynamic data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08da05837f8cd348a42b293a91ab1c78\">transactional<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unstructured_data\" title=\"Unstructured data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2cf4a063df1dfbf948f0824b167984c\">unstructured<\/a>, analytical, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchical_database_model\" title=\"Hierarchical database model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe077d4bf560ed5ba05afe4d7ec410d4\">hierarchical<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">metadata<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WolterTheWhat06_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WolterTheWhat06-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> It is the primary focus of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">information technology<\/a> (IT) discipline of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Master_data_management\" title=\"Master data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbc1f348e81fafbc88842099f72d742c\">master data management<\/a> (MDM). \n<\/p><p>Master data is usually non-transactional in nature, but in some cases gray areas exist where transactional processes and operations may be considered master data by an organization. For example, master data may contain information about customers, products, employees, materials, suppliers, and vendors. Though rare, if that information is only contained within transactional data such as orders and receipts and is not housed separately, it may be considered master data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VanDerLansData12_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VanDerLansData12-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_data\">Types of data<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>As previously stated, master data is a single source of common business data used across multiple systems, applications, and\/or processes. Yet other data types and distinctions exist<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VanDerLansData12_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VanDerLansData12-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TaylorMaster10_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TaylorMaster10-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i>Reference data<\/i> represents the set of permissible values to be used by other (master or transaction) data fields. Reference data classifies and describes data and normally changes slowly, reflecting changes in the modes of operation of the business, rather than changing in the normal course of business.<\/li>\n<li><i>Enterprise master data<\/i> represents the single source of basic business data used across the entire enterprise, regardless of location.<\/li>\n<li><i>Market master data<\/i> represents the single source of basic business data used across a marketplace, regardless of location. This stands in contrast from enterprise master data in that it can be used by multiple enterprises within a value chain, facilitating \"integration of multiple data sources and literally [putting] everyone in the market on the same page.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TaylorMaster10_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TaylorMaster10-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> An example of market master data is the UPC (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Product_Code\" title=\"Universal Product Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5db82c178bc58440cafb52148a1f0acd\">Universal Product Code<\/a>) found on consumer products.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Master_data_management\">Master data management<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Master_data_management\" title=\"Master data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbc1f348e81fafbc88842099f72d742c\">Master data management<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Curating and managing master data is key to ensuring master data quality. Analysis and reporting is greatly dependent on the quality of an organization's master data. Master data may either be stored in a central repository, sourced from one or more systems, or referenced centrally using an index. However, when it is used by several functional groups it may be distributed and redundantly stored in different applications across an organization and this copy data may be inconsistent (and if so, inaccurate).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Thus, master data should have an agreed-upon view that is shared across the organization. Care should be taken to properly version master data, if the need arises to modify it, to avoid issues with distributed copies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DreibelbisEnterprise08-3_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DreibelbisEnterprise08-3-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Master_data_management\" title=\"Master data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbc1f348e81fafbc88842099f72d742c\">Master data management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_data_integration\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Customer data integration\" data-key=\"6a92778888154516732209a8b97857d3\">Customer data integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_information_management\" title=\"Product information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2698319c7268799cd11172f0c1b1ff11\">Product information management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_governance\" title=\"Data governance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43c48aa22b82686dee4ceb030a82935d\">Data governance<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-DreibelbisEnterprise08-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DreibelbisEnterprise08_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Dreibelbis, A.; Hechler, E.; Milman, I.; et al. (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=7AHxq-INaeIC&pg=PT37\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Introducing Master Data Management\"<\/a>. <i>Enterprise Master Data Management: An SOA Approach to Managing Core Information<\/i>. Pearson Education. pp. 1\u20133. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780132704274.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introducing+Master+Data+Management&rft.btitle=Enterprise+Master+Data+Management%3A+An+SOA+Approach+to+Managing+Core+Information&rft.pages=1-3&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780132704274&rft.au=Dreibelbis%2C+A.%3B+Hechler%2C+E.%3B+Milman%2C+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7AHxq-INaeIC%26pg%3DPT37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaster+data\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WolterTheWhat06-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WolterTheWhat06_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Wolter, R.; Haselden, K. (November 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170714193734\/http:\/\/msdn.microsoft.com\/en-us\/library\/bb190163.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"The What, Why, and How of Master Data Management\"<\/a>. Microsoft Corporation. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/msdn.microsoft.com\/en-us\/library\/bb190163.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 14 July 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 December<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+What%2C+Why%2C+and+How+of+Master+Data+Management&rft.pub=Microsoft+Corporation&rft.date=2006-11&rft.au=Wolter%2C+R.%3B+Haselden%2C+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmsdn.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Flibrary%2Fbb190163.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaster+data\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-VanDerLansData12-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-VanDerLansData12_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-VanDerLansData12_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">van der Lans, R. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=7eMd-46wXdMC&pg=PA219\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Data Virtualization for Business Intelligence Systems: Revolutionizing Data Integration for Data Warehouses<\/i><\/a>. Elsevier. pp. 119\u2013121. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780123978172.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+Virtualization+for+Business+Intelligence+Systems%3A+Revolutionizing+Data+Integration+for+Data+Warehouses&rft.pages=119-121&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780123978172&rft.au=van+der+Lans%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7eMd-46wXdMC%26pg%3DPA219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaster+data\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TaylorMaster10-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-TaylorMaster10_4-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-TaylorMaster10_4-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Taylor, S.; Laylin, R. (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.slideshare.net\/ScottTaylor6\/microsoft-mdm-for-media-by-scott-taylor\" target=\"_blank\">\"Master Data Management for Media\"<\/a>. <i>SlideShare<\/i>. Microsoft Corporation<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">27 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SlideShare&rft.atitle=Master+Data+Management+for+Media&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Taylor%2C+S.%3B+Laylin%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slideshare.net%2FScottTaylor6%2Fmicrosoft-mdm-for-media-by-scott-taylor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaster+data\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#comments\">\"The Elephant in the Room \u2013 Master Data and Application Data\"<\/a>, Andrew White, Gartner, 14 January 2014<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DreibelbisEnterprise08-3-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DreibelbisEnterprise08-3_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Dreibelbis, A.; Hechler, E.; Milman, I.; et al. (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=7AHxq-INaeIC&pg=PT207\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 3: MDM Reference Architecture\"<\/a>. <i>Enterprise Master Data Management: An SOA Approach to Managing Core Information<\/i>. Pearson Education. pp. PT207\u201309. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780132704274.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+MDM+Reference+Architecture&rft.btitle=Enterprise+Master+Data+Management%3A+An+SOA+Approach+to+Managing+Core+Information&rft.pages=PT207-09&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780132704274&rft.au=Dreibelbis%2C+A.%3B+Hechler%2C+E.%3B+Milman%2C+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7AHxq-INaeIC%26pg%3DPT207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMaster+data\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1324\nCached time: 20190403181746\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.164 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.209 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 321\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 11543\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 107\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 7\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 17383\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\nLua time usage: 0.098\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 2.46 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 182.196 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>79.37% 144.617 1 Template:Reflist\n57.76% 105.239 3 Template:Cite_book\n19.50% 35.523 1 Template:Main\n 7.94% 14.475 2 Template:Cite_web\n 1.79% 3.269 1 Template:Main_other\n 1.39% 2.526 1 Template:Column-width\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:7617930-1!canonical and timestamp 20190403181746 and revision id 883638047\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Master_data\" data-key=\"b30fdf975abae63ec9e339747f34a146\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203006\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.009 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.129 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 123.392 1 - wikipedia:Master_data\n100.00% 123.392 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10925-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203006 and revision id 35078\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Master_data\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Master_data<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","451b3270b33d5e9d8d2b3bc7e3516dc8_images":[],"451b3270b33d5e9d8d2b3bc7e3516dc8_timestamp":1554323406,"153292309f5cd4eddf76eeb79c7f51a8_type":"article","153292309f5cd4eddf76eeb79c7f51a8_title":"Information security management","153292309f5cd4eddf76eeb79c7f51a8_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security_management","153292309f5cd4eddf76eeb79c7f51a8_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tInformation security management\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tInformation security management (ISM) describes controls that an organization needs to implement to ensure that it is sensibly protecting the confidentiality, availability, and integrity of assets from threats and vulnerabilities. By extension, ISM includes information risk management, a process which involves the assessment of the risks an organization must deal with in the management and protection of assets, as well as the dissemination of the risks to all appropriate stakeholders.[1] This of course requires proper asset identification and valuation steps, including evaluating the value of confidentiality, integrity, availability, and replacement of assets.[2] As part of information security management, an organization may implement an information security management system and other best practices found in the ISO\/IEC 27001, ISO\/IEC 27002, and ISO\/IEC 27035 standards on information security.[3][4]\n\nContents \n\n1 Risk management and mitigation \n\n1.1 Information security management system \n\n\n2 Implementation and education strategy components \n3 Relevant standards \n4 See also \n5 References \n6 External links \n\n\nRisk management and mitigation \nManaging information security in essence means managing and mitigating the various threats and vulnerabilities to assets, while at the same time balancing the management effort expended on potential threats and vulnerabilities by gauging the probability of them actually occurring.[1][5][6] A meteorite crashing into a server room is certainly a threat, for example, but an information security officer will likely put little effort into preparing for such a threat.\nAfter appropriate asset identification and valuation has occurred[2], risk management and mitigation of those assets involves the analysis of the following issues[5][6][7]:\n\nThreats: Unwanted events that could cause the deliberate or accidental loss, damage, or misuse of information assets\nVulnerabilities: How susceptible information assets and associated controls are to exploitation by one or more threats\nImpact and likelihood: The magnitude of potential damage to information assets from threats and vulnerabilities and how serious of a risk they pose to the assets; cost\u2013benefit analysis may also be part of the impact assessment or separate from it\nMitigation: The proposed method(s) for minimizing the impact and likelihood of potential threats and vulnerabilities\nOnce a threat and\/or vulnerability has been identified and assessed as having sufficient impact\/likelihood to information assets, a mitigation plan can be enacted. The mitigation method chosen largely depends on which of the seven information technology (IT) domains the threat and\/or vulnerability resides in. The threat of user apathy toward security policies (the user domain) will require a much different mitigation plan than one used to limit the threat of unauthorized probing and scanning of a network (the LAN-to-WAN domain).[7]\n\nInformation security management system \nThe information security management system (ISMS) represents the collation of all the interrelated\/interacting information security elements of an organization so as to ensure policies, procedures, and objectives can be created, implemented, communicated, and evaluated to better guarantee an organization's overall information security. This system is typically influenced by organization's needs, objectives, security requirements, size, and processes.[8] An ISMS includes and lends to effective risk management and mitigation strategies. Additionally, an organization's adoption of an ISMS largely indicates that it is systematically identifying, assessing, and managing information security risks and \"will be capable of successfully addressing information confidentiality, integrity, and availability requirements.\"[9] However, the human factors associated with ISMS development, implementation, and practice (the user domain[7]) must also be considered to best ensure the ISMS' ultimate success.[10]\n\nImplementation and education strategy components \nImplementing effective information security management (including risk management and mitigation) requires a management strategy that takes note of the following[11]:\n\nUpper-level management must strongly support information security initiatives, allowing information security officers the opportunity \"to obtain the resources necessary to have a fully functional and effective education program\" and, by extension, information security management system.\nInformation security strategy and training must be integrated into and communicated through departmental strategies to ensure all personnel are positively affected by the organization's information security plan.\nA privacy training and awareness \"risk assessment\" can help an organization identify critical gaps in stakeholder knowledge and attitude towards security.\nProper evaluation methods for \"measuring the overall effectiveness of the training and awareness program\" ensure policies, procedures, and training materials remain relevant.\nPolicies and procedures that are appropriately developed, implemented, communicated, and enforced \"mitigate risk and ensure not only risk reduction, but also ongoing compliance with applicable laws, regulations, standards, and policies.\"\nMilestones and timelines for all aspects of information security management help ensure future success.\nWithout sufficient budgetary considerations for all the above\u2014in addition to the money allotted to standard regulatory, IT, privacy, and security issues\u2014an information security management plan\/system can not fully succeed.\n\nRelevant standards \nStandards that are available to assist organizations with implementing the appropriate programs and controls to mitigate threats and vulnerabilities include the ISO\/IEC 27000 family of standards, the ITIL framework, the COBIT framework, and O-ISM3 2.0. The ISO\/IEC 27000 family represent some of the most well-known standards governing information security management and the ISMS and are based on global expert opinion. They lay out the requirements for best \"establishing, implementing, deploying, monitoring, reviewing, maintaining, updating, and improving information security management systems.\"[3][4] ITIL acts as a collection of concepts, policies, and best practices for the effective management of information technology infrastructure, service, and security, differing from ISO\/IEC 27001 in only a few ways.[12][13] COBIT, developed by ISACA, is a framework for helping information security personnel develop and implement strategies for information management and governance while minimizing negative impacts and controlling information security and risk management[4][12][14], and O-ISM3 2.0 is The Open Group's technology-neutral information security model for enterprise.[15]\n\nSee also \nCertified Information Systems Security Professional\nChief information security officer\nSecurity information management\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b Campbell, T. (2016). \"Chapter 1: Evolution of a Profession\". Practical Information Security Management: A Complete Guide to Planning and Implementation. APress. pp. 1\u201314. ISBN 9781484216859. \n\n^ a b Tipton, H.F.; Krause, M. (2003). Information Security Management Handbook (5th ed.). CRC Press. pp. 810\u201311. ISBN 9780203325438. \n\n^ a b Humphreys, E. (2016). \"Chapter 2: ISO\/IEC 27001 ISMS Family\". Implementing the ISO\/IEC 27001:2013 ISMS Standard. Artech House. pp. 11\u201326. ISBN 9781608079315. \n\n^ a b c Campbell, T. (2016). \"Chapter 6: Standards, Frameworks, Guidelines, and Legislation\". Practical Information Security Management: A Complete Guide to Planning and Implementation. APress. pp. 71\u201394. ISBN 9781484216859. \n\n^ a b Watts, S. (21 June 2017). \"IT Security Vulnerability vs Threat vs Risk: What's the Difference?\". BMC Blogs. BMC Software, Inc. Retrieved 16 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b Campbell, T. (2016). \"Chapter 4: Organizational Security\". Practical Information Security Management: A Complete Guide to Planning and Implementation. APress. pp. 43\u201361. ISBN 9781484216859. \n\n^ a b c Kim, D.; Solomon, M.G. (2016). \"Chapter 1: Information Systems Security\". Fundamentals of Information Systems Security. Jones & Bartlett Learning. pp. 2\u201346. ISBN 9781284128239. \n\n^ Terroza, A.K.S. (12 May 2015). \"Information Security Management System (ISMS) Overview\" (PDF) . The Institute of Internal Auditors. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 August 2016. Retrieved 16 June 2018 . \n\n^ \"Need: The Need for ISMS\". Threat and Risk Management. European Union Agency for Network and Information Security. Retrieved 16 June 2018 . \n\n^ Alavi, R.; Islam, S.; Mouratidis, H. (2014). \"A Conceptual Framework to Analyze Human Factors of Information Security Management System (ISMS) in Organizations\". Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Human Aspects of Information Security, Privacy, and Trust. 8533: 297\u2013305. doi:10.1007\/978-3-319-07620-1_26. \n\n^ Tipton, H.F.; Krause, M. (2010). Information Security Management Handbook. 3 (6th ed.). CRC Press. pp. 100\u201302. ISBN 9781420090956. \n\n^ a b Kim, D.; Solomon, M.G. (2016). Fundamentals of Information Systems Security. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 225. ISBN 9781284128239. \n\n^ Leal, R. (7 March 2016). \"ISO 27001 vs. ITIL: Similarities and differences\". The ISO 27001 & ISO 22301 Blog. Advisera Expert Solutions Ltd. Retrieved 16 June 2018 . \n\n^ White, S.K. (22 December 2017). \"What is COBIT? A framework for alignment and governance\". CIO. IDG Communications, Inc. Retrieved 16 June 2018 . \n\n^ \"Open Information Security Management Maturity Model (O-ISM3), Version 2.0\". The Open Group. 21 September 2017. Retrieved 16 June 2018 . \n\n\nExternal links \nISACA\nThe Open Group\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security_management\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security_management<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Computer securityData securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 21 June 2016, at 21:49.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 451 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","153292309f5cd4eddf76eeb79c7f51a8_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Information_security_management skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Information security management<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Information security management<\/b> (<b>ISM<\/b>) describes controls that an organization needs to implement to ensure that it is sensibly protecting the confidentiality, availability, and integrity of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Asset\" title=\"Asset\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4a8041c9a815146a1f22ab77ddf3e87f\">assets<\/a> from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Threat_(computer)\" title=\"Threat (computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d5165b429cff5ef72f0996f714d481\">threats<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_(computing)\" title=\"Vulnerability (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba3eca3995690776a2ec5d3a458bb68e\">vulnerabilities<\/a>. By extension, ISM includes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_risk_management\" title=\"IT risk management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6858ce8f0824db4ea3e85b51fabdbbd\">information risk management<\/a>, a process which involves the assessment of the risks an organization must deal with in the management and protection of assets, as well as the dissemination of the risks to all appropriate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_(corporate)\" title=\"Stakeholder (corporate)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ca00d64d7f7af3b41dfe409fa5af06e\">stakeholders<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CampbellPractical16-1_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CampbellPractical16-1-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> This of course requires proper asset identification and valuation steps, including evaluating the value of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Confidentiality\" title=\"Confidentiality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d847e78525549bfa02450d9bb2d16144\">confidentiality<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42abdc13351f50028f23f899197d3349\">integrity<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability_(system)\" title=\"Availability (system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfca73d06b9ce26b4682d0318bd2f379\">availability<\/a>, and replacement of assets.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TiptonInfo03_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TiptonInfo03-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> As part of information security management, an organization may implement an information security management system and other best practices found in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_27001\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 27001\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd3902db4bbaf0270cab9cb14d0f326e\">ISO\/IEC 27001<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_27002\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 27002\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc28eaa3c6396ef0cb40ec8a4bc4ab2e\">ISO\/IEC 27002<\/a>, and ISO\/IEC 27035 standards on information security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HumphreysImplement16_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HumphreysImplement16-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CampbellPractical16-6_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CampbellPractical16-6-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Risk_management_and_mitigation\">Risk management and mitigation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Managing information security in essence means managing and mitigating the various threats and vulnerabilities to assets, while at the same time balancing the management effort expended on potential threats and vulnerabilities by gauging the probability of them actually occurring.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CampbellPractical16-1_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CampbellPractical16-1-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WattsITSec17_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WattsITSec17-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CampbellPractical16-4_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CampbellPractical16-4-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> A meteorite crashing into a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Server_room\" title=\"Server room\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5db7348d8667d8cec04dc4019ba68558\">server room<\/a> is certainly a threat, for example, but an information security officer will likely put little effort into preparing for such a threat.\n<\/p><p>After appropriate asset identification and valuation has occurred<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TiptonInfo03_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TiptonInfo03-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>, risk management and mitigation of those assets involves the analysis of the following issues<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WattsITSec17_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WattsITSec17-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CampbellPractical16-4_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CampbellPractical16-4-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KimFundament16_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KimFundament16-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Threats: Unwanted events that could cause the deliberate or accidental loss, damage, or misuse of information assets<\/li>\n<li>Vulnerabilities: How susceptible information assets and associated controls are to exploitation by one or more threats<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Impact_evaluation\" title=\"Impact evaluation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc8cf7c529cfdebb291eb1f796a1f9d4\">Impact<\/a> and likelihood: The magnitude of potential damage to information assets from threats and vulnerabilities and how serious of a risk they pose to the assets; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis\" title=\"Cost\u2013benefit analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6130771c7c37a0a2eb5ef13087185dbf\">cost\u2013benefit analysis<\/a> may also be part of the impact assessment or separate from it<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_management\" title=\"Vulnerability management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c157872e47c254570df23270a4a86fc3\">Mitigation<\/a>: The proposed method(s) for minimizing the impact and likelihood of potential threats and vulnerabilities<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Once a threat and\/or vulnerability has been identified and assessed as having sufficient impact\/likelihood to information assets, a mitigation plan can be enacted. The mitigation method chosen largely depends on which of the seven information technology (IT) domains the threat and\/or vulnerability resides in. The threat of user apathy toward security policies (the user domain) will require a much different mitigation plan than one used to limit the threat of unauthorized probing and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Port_scanning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Port scanning\" data-key=\"745ee4ad5ccd19f5d1dbf4c1a130c656\">scanning<\/a> of a network (the LAN-to-WAN domain).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KimFundament16_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KimFundament16-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Information_security_management_system\">Information security management system<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information security management system\" data-key=\"610bb063695e5d143669fc5402e22e8d\">information security management system<\/a> (ISMS) represents the collation of all the interrelated\/interacting information security elements of an organization so as to ensure policies, procedures, and objectives can be created, implemented, communicated, and evaluated to better guarantee an organization's overall information security. This system is typically influenced by organization's needs, objectives, security requirements, size, and processes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TerrozaInfo15_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TerrozaInfo15-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> An ISMS includes and lends to effective risk management and mitigation strategies. Additionally, an organization's adoption of an ISMS largely indicates that it is systematically identifying, assessing, and managing information security risks and \"will be capable of successfully addressing information confidentiality, integrity, and availability requirements.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ENISANeed_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ENISANeed-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> However, the human factors associated with ISMS development, implementation, and practice (the user domain<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KimFundament16_7-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KimFundament16-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>) must also be considered to best ensure the ISMS' ultimate success.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AlaviAConcept14_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AlaviAConcept14-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Implementation_and_education_strategy_components\">Implementation and education strategy components<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Implementing effective information security management (including risk management and mitigation) requires a management strategy that takes note of the following<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TiptonInfo10_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TiptonInfo10-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Upper-level management must strongly support information security initiatives, allowing information security officers the opportunity \"to obtain the resources necessary to have a fully functional and effective education program\" and, by extension, information security management system.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Information security strategy and training must be integrated into and communicated through departmental strategies to ensure all personnel are positively affected by the organization's information security plan.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_privacy\" title=\"Information privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dbb3588f4b4f0d68b7d7359daea67bb\">privacy<\/a> training and awareness \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_assessment\" title=\"Risk assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"011cb1c8b0a87fcbb22deb8c265f5410\">risk assessment<\/a>\" can help an organization identify critical gaps in stakeholder knowledge and attitude towards security.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Proper evaluation methods for \"measuring the overall effectiveness of the training and awareness program\" ensure policies, procedures, and training materials remain relevant.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li>Policies and procedures that are appropriately developed, implemented, communicated, and enforced \"mitigate risk and ensure not only risk reduction, but also ongoing compliance with applicable laws, regulations, standards, and policies.\"<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Milestone_(project_management)\" title=\"Milestone (project management)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"033855729007ca2b2a7422db145c9ea1\">Milestones<\/a> and timelines for all aspects of information security management help ensure future success.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Without sufficient budgetary considerations for all the above\u2014in addition to the money allotted to standard regulatory, IT, privacy, and security issues\u2014an information security management plan\/system can not fully succeed.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Relevant_standards\">Relevant standards<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Standards that are available to assist organizations with implementing the appropriate programs and controls to mitigate threats and vulnerabilities include the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_27000\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 27000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6f15758752d9ab47e4410e01dcb2cb3\">ISO\/IEC 27000<\/a> family of standards, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITIL\" title=\"ITIL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ecb066fc21e166ca22e8a9091e3791d\">ITIL framework<\/a>, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/COBIT\" title=\"COBIT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d26ff34a68e7a0ff8c85cde8e7fde21\">COBIT framework<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_Information_Security_Maturity_Model\" title=\"Open Information Security Maturity Model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66b7bad7e42161d96a6b4b66d5bfde4c\">O-ISM3 2.0<\/a>. The ISO\/IEC 27000 family represent some of the most well-known standards governing information security management and the ISMS and are based on global expert opinion. They lay out the requirements for best \"establishing, implementing, deploying, monitoring, reviewing, maintaining, updating, and improving information security management systems.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HumphreysImplement16_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HumphreysImplement16-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CampbellPractical16-6_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CampbellPractical16-6-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> ITIL acts as a collection of concepts, policies, and best practices for the effective management of information technology infrastructure, service, and security, differing from ISO\/IEC 27001 in only a few ways.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KimFundament16-225_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KimFundament16-225-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LealISO16_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LealISO16-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> COBIT, developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISACA\" title=\"ISACA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"010a2ea5096a87c89e1bcf76f74cce67\">ISACA<\/a>, is a framework for helping information security personnel develop and implement strategies for information management and governance while minimizing negative impacts and controlling information security and risk management<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CampbellPractical16-6_4-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CampbellPractical16-6-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KimFundament16-225_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KimFundament16-225-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WhiteWhat17_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WhiteWhat17-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>, and O-ISM3 2.0 is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Open_Group\" title=\"The Open Group\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed26d19e0fe33a6405308223795d6307\">The Open Group<\/a>'s technology-neutral information security model for enterprise.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OGISM3_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OGISM3-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Certified_Information_Systems_Security_Professional\" title=\"Certified Information Systems Security Professional\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8148937cb3f2439434b6d6e04529910\">Certified Information Systems Security Professional<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chief_information_security_officer\" title=\"Chief information security officer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"062fe90a1e9c5d599bfdf1eb10a7b330\">Chief information security officer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_information_management\" title=\"Security information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05eb1ff1c2e95447bbc894f070a84d1d\">Security information management<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-CampbellPractical16-1-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-CampbellPractical16-1_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CampbellPractical16-1_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Campbell, T. (2016). \"Chapter 1: Evolution of a Profession\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=sbWiDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Practical Information Security Management: A Complete Guide to Planning and Implementation<\/i><\/a>. APress. pp. 1\u201314. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781484216859.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Evolution+of+a+Profession&rft.btitle=Practical+Information+Security+Management%3A+A+Complete+Guide+to+Planning+and+Implementation&rft.pages=1-14&rft.pub=APress&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781484216859&rft.au=Campbell%2C+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsbWiDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security+management\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TiptonInfo03-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-TiptonInfo03_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-TiptonInfo03_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Tipton, H.F.; Krause, M. (2003). <i>Information Security Management Handbook<\/i> (5th ed.). 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CIO&rft.atitle=What+is+COBIT%3F+A+framework+for+alignment+and+governance&rft.date=2017-12-22&rft.au=White%2C+S.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cio.com%2Farticle%2F3243684%2Fmethodology-frameworks%2Fwhat-is-cobit-a-framework-for-alignment-and-governance.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security+management\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OGISM3-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-OGISM3_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/publications.opengroup.org\/c17b\" target=\"_blank\">\"Open Information Security Management Maturity Model (O-ISM3), Version 2.0\"<\/a>. The Open Group. 21 September 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Open+Information+Security+Management+Maturity+Model+%28O-ISM3%29%2C+Version+2.0&rft.pub=The+Open+Group&rft.date=2017-09-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublications.opengroup.org%2Fc17b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security+management\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.isaca.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">ISACA<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.opengroup.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">The Open Group<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1272\nCached time: 20190403024808\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.228 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.263 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 727\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 27023\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 95\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 7\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 49672\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\nLua time usage: 0.142\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 2.85 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 215.431 1 Template:Reflist\n100.00% 215.431 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>56.30% 121.289 8 Template:Cite_book\n15.49% 33.368 6 Template:Cite_web\n14.06% 30.286 1 Template:Cite_journal\n 1.36% 2.931 1 Template:Main_other\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:11185636-1!canonical and timestamp 20190403024808 and revision id 869186094\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_management\" data-key=\"965dd2c20d37321146f7748f8a080d52\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203006\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.009 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.142 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 136.134 1 - wikipedia:Information_security_management\n100.00% 136.134 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:8868-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203006 and revision id 25947\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security_management\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security_management<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","153292309f5cd4eddf76eeb79c7f51a8_images":[],"153292309f5cd4eddf76eeb79c7f51a8_timestamp":1554323406,"9eff362d944224ff1d4ffe3a149d7cff_type":"article","9eff362d944224ff1d4ffe3a149d7cff_title":"Information security","9eff362d944224ff1d4ffe3a149d7cff_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security","9eff362d944224ff1d4ffe3a149d7cff_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tInformation security\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThis article is part of a series onInformation security\nRelated security categories\nInternet security\nCyberwarfare\nComputer security\nMobile security\nNetwork security\n\nThreats\nComputer crime\nVulnerabilities\nEavesdropping\nMalware\nSpyware\nRansomware\nTrojans\nViruses\nWorms\nRootkits\nBootkits\nKeyloggers\nScreen scrapers\nExploits\nBackdoors\nLogic bombs\nPayloads\nDenial of service\nWeb shells\n\nDefenses\nComputer access control\nApplication security\nAntivirus software\nSecure coding\nSecure by default\nSecure by design\nSecure operating systems\nAuthentication\nMulti-factor authentication\nAuthorization\nData-centric security\nEncryption\nFirewall\nIntrusion detection system\nMobile secure gateway\nRuntime application self-protection (RASP)\nvte\nInformation security, sometimes shortened to InfoSec, is the practice of preventing unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, inspection, recording or destruction of information. The information or data may take any form, e.g. electronic or physical.[1] Information security's primary focus is the balanced protection of the confidentiality, integrity and availability of data (also known as the CIA triad) while maintaining a focus on efficient policy implementation, all without hampering organization productivity.[2] This is largely achieved through a multi-step risk management process that identifies assets, threat sources, vulnerabilities, potential impacts, and possible controls, followed by assessment of the effectiveness of the risk management plan.\nTo standardize this discipline, academics and professionals collaborate and seek to set basic guidance, policies, and industry standards on password, antivirus software, firewall, encryption software, legal liability and user\/administrator training standards.[3] This standardization may be further driven by a wide variety of laws and regulations that affect how data is accessed, processed, stored, and transferred. However, the implementation of any standards and guidance within an entity may have limited effect if a culture of continual improvement isn't adopted.[4]\n\nContents \n\n1 Overview \n\n1.1 Threats \n\n1.1.1 Responses to threats \n\n\n\n\n2 History \n3 Definitions \n4 Basic principles \n\n4.1 Key concepts \n\n4.1.1 Confidentiality \n4.1.2 Integrity \n4.1.3 Availability \n4.1.4 Non-repudiation \n\n\n\n\n5 Risk management \n\n5.1 Security controls \n\n5.1.1 Administrative \n5.1.2 Logical \n5.1.3 Physical \n\n\n5.2 Defense in depth \n5.3 Security classification for information \n5.4 Access control \n\n5.4.1 Identification \n5.4.2 Authentication \n5.4.3 Authorization \n\n\n5.5 Cryptography \n\n\n6 Process \n\n6.1 Security governance \n6.2 Incident response plans \n6.3 Change management \n\n\n7 Business continuity \n8 Laws and regulations \n9 Information security culture \n10 Sources of standards \n11 See also \n12 References \n13 Further reading \n\n13.1 Bibliography \n\n\n14 External links \n\n\nOverview \nAt the core of information security is information assurance, the act of maintaining the confidentiality, integrity and availability (CIA) of information, ensuring that information is not compromised in any way when critical issues arise.[5] These issues include but are not limited to natural disasters, computer\/server malfunction, and physical theft. While paper-based business operations are still prevalent, requiring their own set of information security practices, enterprise digital initiatives are increasingly being emphasized,[6][7] with information assurance now typically being dealt with by information technology (IT) security specialists. These specialists apply information security to technology (most often some form of computer system). It is worthwhile to note that a computer does not necessarily mean a home desktop. A computer is any device with a processor and some memory. Such devices can range from non-networked standalone devices as simple as calculators, to networked mobile computing devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. IT security specialists are almost always found in any major enterprise\/establishment due to the nature and value of the data within larger businesses. They are responsible for keeping all of the technology within the company secure from malicious cyber attacks that often attempt to acquire critical private information or gain control of the internal systems.\nThe field of information security has grown and evolved significantly in recent years. It offers many areas for specialization, including securing networks and allied infrastructure, securing applications and databases, security testing, information systems auditing, business continuity planning, electronic record discovery, and digital forensics. Information security professionals are very stable in their employment. As of 2013[update] more than 80 percent of professionals had no change in employer or employment over a period of a year, and the number of professionals is projected to continuously grow more than 11 percent annually from 2014 to 2019.[8]\n\nThreats \nInformation security threats come in many different forms. Some of the most common threats today are software attacks, theft of intellectual property, identity theft, theft of equipment or information, sabotage, and information extortion. Most people have experienced software attacks of some sort. Viruses,[9] worms, phishing attacks, and Trojan horses are a few common examples of software attacks. The theft of intellectual property has also been an extensive issue for many businesses in the IT field. Identity theft is the attempt to act as someone else usually to obtain that person's personal information or to take advantage of their access to vital information. Theft of equipment or information is becoming more prevalent today due to the fact that most devices today are mobile,[10] are prone to theft and have also become far more desirable as the amount of data capacity increases. Sabotage usually consists of the destruction of an organization's website in an attempt to cause loss of confidence on the part of its customers. Information extortion consists of theft of a company's property or information as an attempt to receive a payment in exchange for returning the information or property back to its owner, as with ransomware. There are many ways to help protect yourself from some of these attacks but one of the most functional precautions is user carefulness.\nGovernments, military, corporations, financial institutions, hospitals and private businesses amass a great deal of confidential information about their employees, customers, products, research and financial status. Should confidential information about a business' customers or finances or new product line fall into the hands of a competitor or a black hat hacker, a business and its customers could suffer widespread, irreparable financial loss, as well as damage to the company's reputation. From a business perspective, information security must be balanced against cost; the Gordon-Loeb Model provides a mathematical economic approach for addressing this concern.[11]\nFor the individual, information security has a significant effect on privacy, which is viewed very differently in various cultures.\n\nResponses to threats \nPossible responses to a security threat or risk are:[12]\n\nreduce\/mitigate \u2013 implement safeguards and countermeasures to eliminate vulnerabilities or block threats\nassign\/transfer \u2013 place the cost of the threat onto another entity or organization such as purchasing insurance or outsourcing\naccept \u2013 evaluate if the cost of the countermeasure outweighs the possible cost of loss due to the threat\nHistory \nSince the early days of communication, diplomats and military commanders understood that it was necessary to provide some mechanism to protect the confidentiality of correspondence and to have some means of detecting tampering. Julius Caesar is credited with the invention of the Caesar cipher c. 50 B.C., which was created in order to prevent his secret messages from being read should a message fall into the wrong hands; however, for the most part protection was achieved through the application of procedural handling controls.[13][14] Sensitive information was marked up to indicate that it should be protected and transported by trusted persons, guarded and stored in a secure environment or strong box. As postal services expanded, governments created official organizations to intercept, decipher, read and reseal letters (e.g., the U.K.'s Secret Office, founded in 1653[15]).\nIn the mid-nineteenth century more complex classification systems were developed to allow governments to manage their information according to the degree of sensitivity. For example, the British Government codified this, to some extent, with the publication of the Official Secrets Act in 1889.[16] By the time of the First World War, multi-tier classification systems were used to communicate information to and from various fronts, which encouraged greater use of code making and breaking sections in diplomatic and military headquarters. Encoding became more sophisticated between the wars as machines were employed to scramble and unscramble information. The volume of information shared by the Allied countries during the Second World War necessitated formal alignment of classification systems and procedural controls. An arcane range of markings evolved to indicate who could handle documents (usually officers rather than enlisted troops) and where they should be stored as increasingly complex safes and storage facilities were developed. The Enigma Machine, which was employed by the Germans to encrypt the data of warfare and was successfully decrypted by Alan Turing, can be regarded as a striking example of creating and using secured information.[17] Procedures evolved to ensure documents were destroyed properly, and it was the failure to follow these procedures which led to some of the greatest intelligence coups of the war (e.g., the capture of U-570[17]).\nThe end of the twentieth century and the early years of the twenty-first century saw rapid advancements in telecommunications, computing hardware and software, and data encryption. The availability of smaller, more powerful and less expensive computing equipment made electronic data processing within the reach of small business and the home user. These computers quickly became interconnected through the internet.\nThe rapid growth and widespread use of electronic data processing and electronic business conducted through the internet, along with numerous occurrences of international terrorism, fueled the need for better methods of protecting the computers and the information they store, process and transmit.[18] The academic disciplines of computer security and information assurance emerged along with numerous professional organizations, all sharing the common goals of ensuring the security and reliability of information systems.\n\nDefinitions \n Information Security Attributes: or qualities, i.e., Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability (CIA). Information Systems are composed in three main portions, hardware, software and communications with the purpose to help identify and apply information security industry standards, as mechanisms of protection and prevention, at three levels or layers: physical, personal and organizational. Essentially, procedures or policies are implemented to tell administrators, users and operators how to use products to ensure information security within the organizations.[19]\nVarious definitions of information security are suggested below, summarized from different sources:\n\n\"Preservation of confidentiality, integrity and availability of information. Note: In addition, other properties, such as authenticity, accountability, non-repudiation and reliability can also be involved.\" (ISO\/IEC 27000:2009)[20]\n\"The protection of information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction in order to provide confidentiality, integrity, and availability.\" (CNSS, 2010)[21]\n\"Ensures that only authorized users (confidentiality) have access to accurate and complete information (integrity) when required (availability).\" (ISACA, 2008)[22]\n\"Information Security is the process of protecting the intellectual property of an organisation.\" (Pipkin, 2000)[23]\n\"...information security is a risk management discipline, whose job is to manage the cost of information risk to the business.\" (McDermott and Geer, 2001)[24]\n\"A well-informed sense of assurance that information risks and controls are in balance.\" (Anderson, J., 2003)[25]\n\"Information security is the protection of information and minimizes the risk of exposing information to unauthorized parties.\" (Venter and Eloff, 2003)[26]\n\"Information Security is a multidisciplinary area of study and professional activity which is concerned with the development and implementation of security mechanisms of all available types (technical, organizational, human-oriented and legal) in order to keep information in all its locations (within and outside the organization's perimeter) and, consequently, information systems, where information is created, processed, stored, transmitted and destroyed, free from threats.Threats to information and information systems may be categorized and a corresponding security goal may be defined for each category of threats. A set of security goals, identified as a result of a threat analysis, should be revised periodically to ensure its adequacy and conformance with the evolving environment. The currently relevant set of security goals may include: confidentiality, integrity, availability, privacy, authenticity & trustworthiness, non-repudiation, accountability and auditability.\" (Cherdantseva and Hilton, 2013)[19]\nBasic principles \nKey concepts \n Poster promoting information security by the Russian Ministry of Defence\nThe CIA triad of confidentiality, integrity, and availability is at the heart of information security.[27] (The members of the classic InfoSec triad\u2014confidentiality, integrity and availability\u2014are interchangeably referred to in the literature as security attributes, properties, security goals, fundamental aspects, information criteria, critical information characteristics and basic building blocks.) However, debate continues about whether or not this CIA triad is sufficient to address rapidly changing technology and business requirements, with recommendations to consider expanding on the intersections between availability and confidentiality, as well as the relationship between security and privacy.[5] Other principles such as \"accountability\" have sometimes been proposed; it has been pointed out that issues such as non-repudiation do not fit well within the three core concepts.[28]\nIn 1992 and revised in 2002, the OECD's Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems and Networks[29] proposed the nine generally accepted principles: awareness, responsibility, response, ethics, democracy, risk assessment, security design and implementation, security management, and reassessment. Building upon those, in 2004 the NIST's Engineering Principles for Information Technology Security[28] proposed 33 principles. From each of these derived guidelines and practices.\nIn 1998, Donn Parker proposed an alternative model for the classic CIA triad that he called the six atomic elements of information. The elements are confidentiality, possession, integrity, authenticity, availability, and utility. The merits of the Parkerian Hexad are a subject of debate amongst security professionals.[30]\nIn 2011, The Open Group published the information security management standard O-ISM3.[31] This standard proposed an operational definition of the key concepts of security, with elements called \"security objectives\", related to access control (9), availability (3), data quality (1), compliance and technical (4). In 2009, DoD Software Protection Initiative released the Three Tenets of Cybersecurity which are System Susceptibility, Access to the Flaw, and Capability to Exploit the Flaw.[32][33][34] Neither of these models are widely adopted.\n\nConfidentiality \nIn information security, confidentiality \"is the property, that information is not made available or disclosed to unauthorized individuals, entities, or processes.\"[35] While similar to \"privacy,\" the two words aren't interchangeable. Rather, confidentiality is a component of privacy that implements to protect our data from unauthorized viewers. Examples of confidentiality of electronic data being compromised include laptop theft, password theft, or sensitive emails being sent to the incorrect individuals.[2]\n\nIntegrity \nIn information security, data integrity means maintaining and assuring the accuracy and completeness of data over its entire lifecycle.[36] This means that data cannot be modified in an unauthorized or undetected manner. This is not the same thing as referential integrity in databases, although it can be viewed as a special case of consistency as understood in the classic ACID model of transaction processing. Information security systems typically provide message integrity along side to confidentiality.\n\nAvailability \nFor any information system to serve its purpose, the information must be available when it is needed. This means the computing systems used to store and process the information, the security controls used to protect it, and the communication channels used to access it must be functioning correctly. High availability systems aim to remain available at all times, preventing service disruptions due to power outages, hardware failures, and system upgrades. Ensuring availability also involves preventing denial-of-service attacks, such as a flood of incoming messages to the target system, essentially forcing it to shut down.[37]\nIn the realm of information security, availability can often be viewed as one of the most important parts of a successful information security program. Ultimately end-users need to be able to perform job functions; by ensuring availability an organization is able to perform to the standards that an organization's stakeholders expect. This can involve topics such as proxy configurations, outside web access, the ability to access shared drives and the ability to send emails. Executives oftentimes do not understand the technical side of information security and look at availability as an easy fix, but this often requires collaboration from many different organizational teams, such as network operations, development operations, incident response and policy\/change management. A successful information security team involves many different key roles to mesh and align for the CIA triad to be provided effectively.\n\n CIA triad methodology\nNon-repudiation \nIn law, non-repudiation implies one's intention to fulfill their obligations to a contract. It also implies that one party of a transaction cannot deny having received a transaction, nor can the other party deny having sent a transaction.[38]\nIt is important to note that while technology such as cryptographic systems can assist in non-repudiation efforts, the concept is at its core a legal concept transcending the realm of technology. It is not, for instance, sufficient to show that the message matches a digital signature signed with the sender's private key, and thus only the sender could have sent the message, and nobody else could have altered it in transit (data integrity). The alleged sender could in return demonstrate that the digital signature algorithm is vulnerable or flawed, or allege or prove that his signing key has been compromised. The fault for these violations may or may not lie with the sender, and such assertions may or may not relieve the sender of liability, but the assertion would invalidate the claim that the signature necessarily proves authenticity and integrity. As such, the sender may repudiate the message (because authenticity and integrity are pre-requisites for non-repudiation).\n\nRisk management \nMain article: Risk management\nThe Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) Review Manual 2006 provides the following definition of risk management: \"Risk management is the process of identifying vulnerabilities and threats to the information resources used by an organization in achieving business objectives, and deciding what countermeasures, if any, to take in reducing risk to an acceptable level, based on the value of the information resource to the organization.\"[39]\nThere are two things in this definition that may need some clarification. First, the process of risk management is an ongoing, iterative process. It must be repeated indefinitely. The business environment is constantly changing and new threats and vulnerabilities emerge every day. Second, the choice of countermeasures (controls) used to manage risks must strike a balance between productivity, cost, effectiveness of the countermeasure, and the value of the informational asset being protected.\nRisk analysis and risk evaluation processes have their limitations since, when security incidents occur, they emerge in a context, and their rarity and uniqueness give rise to unpredictable threats. The analysis of these phenomena, which are characterized by breakdowns, surprises and side-effects, requires a theoretical approach that is able to examine and interpret subjectively the detail of each incident.[40]\nRisk is the likelihood that something bad will happen that causes harm to an informational asset (or the loss of the asset). A vulnerability is a weakness that could be used to endanger or cause harm to an informational asset. A threat is anything (man-made or act of nature) that has the potential to cause harm.\nThe likelihood that a threat will use a vulnerability to cause harm creates a risk. When a threat does use a vulnerability to inflict harm, it has an impact. In the context of information security, the impact is a loss of availability, integrity, and confidentiality, and possibly other losses (lost income, loss of life, loss of real property).[41] It should be pointed out that it is not possible to identify all risks, nor is it possible to eliminate all risk. The remaining risk is called \"residual risk.\"\nA risk assessment is carried out by a team of people who have knowledge of specific areas of the business. Membership of the team may vary over time as different parts of the business are assessed. The assessment may use a subjective qualitative analysis based on informed opinion, or where reliable dollar figures and historical information is available, the analysis may use quantitative analysis.\nResearch has shown that the most vulnerable point in most information systems is the human user, operator, designer, or other human.[42] The ISO\/IEC 27002:2005 Code of practice for information security management recommends the following be examined during a risk assessment:\n\nsecurity policy,\norganization of information security,\nasset management,\nhuman resources security,\nphysical and environmental security,\ncommunications and operations management,\naccess control,\ninformation systems acquisition, development and maintenance,\ninformation security incident management,\nbusiness continuity management, and\nregulatory compliance.\nIn broad terms, the risk management process consists of:[43][44]\n\nIdentification of assets and estimating their value. Include: people, buildings, hardware, software, data (electronic, print, other), supplies.\nConduct a threat assessment. Include: Acts of nature, acts of war, accidents, malicious acts originating from inside or outside the organization.\nConduct a vulnerability assessment, and for each vulnerability, calculate the probability that it will be exploited. Evaluate policies, procedures, standards, training, physical security, quality control, technical security.\nCalculate the impact that each threat would have on each asset. Use qualitative analysis or quantitative analysis.\nIdentify, select and implement appropriate controls. Provide a proportional response. Consider productivity, cost effectiveness, and value of the asset.\nEvaluate the effectiveness of the control measures. Ensure the controls provide the required cost effective protection without discernible loss of productivity.\nFor any given risk, management can choose to accept the risk based upon the relative low value of the asset, the relative low frequency of occurrence, and the relative low impact on the business. Or, leadership may choose to mitigate the risk by selecting and implementing appropriate control measures to reduce the risk. In some cases, the risk can be transferred to another business by buying insurance or outsourcing to another business.[45] The reality of some risks may be disputed. In such cases leadership may choose to deny the risk.\n\nSecurity controls \nMain article: security controls\nSelecting and implementing proper security controls will initially help an organization bring down risk to acceptable levels. Control selection should follow and should be based on the risk assessment. Controls can vary in nature, but fundamentally they are ways of protecting the confidentiality, integrity or availability of information. ISO\/IEC 27001 has defined controls in different areas. Organizations can implement additional controls according to requirement of the organization.[46] ISO\/IEC 27002 offers a guideline for organizational information security standards.\n\nAdministrative \nAdministrative controls consist of approved written policies, procedures, standards and guidelines. Administrative controls form the framework for running the business and managing people. They inform people on how the business is to be run and how day-to-day operations are to be conducted. Laws and regulations created by government bodies are also a type of administrative control because they inform the business. Some industry sectors have policies, procedures, standards and guidelines that must be followed \u2013 the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard[1] (PCI DSS) required by Visa and MasterCard is such an example. Other examples of administrative controls include the corporate security policy, password policy, hiring policies, and disciplinary policies.\nAdministrative controls form the basis for the selection and implementation of logical and physical controls. Logical and physical controls are manifestations of administrative controls, which are of paramount importance.\n\nLogical \nLogical controls (also called technical controls) use software and data to monitor and control access to information and computing systems. Passwords, network and host-based firewalls, network intrusion detection systems, access control lists, and data encryption are examples of logical controls.\nAn important logical control that is frequently overlooked is the principle of least privilege, which requires that an individual, program or system process not be granted any more access privileges than are necessary to perform the task.[47] A blatant example of the failure to adhere to the principle of least privilege is logging into Windows as user Administrator to read email and surf the web. Violations of this principle can also occur when an individual collects additional access privileges over time. This happens when employees' job duties change, employees are promoted to a new position, or employees are transferred to another department. The access privileges required by their new duties are frequently added onto their already existing access privileges, which may no longer be necessary or appropriate.\n\nPhysical \nPhysical controls monitor and control the environment of the work place and computing facilities. They also monitor and control access to and from such facilities and include doors, locks, heating and air conditioning, smoke and fire alarms, fire suppression systems, cameras, barricades, fencing, security guards, cable locks, etc. Separating the network and workplace into functional areas are also physical controls.\nAn important physical control that is frequently overlooked is separation of duties, which ensures that an individual can not complete a critical task by himself. For example, an employee who submits a request for reimbursement should not also be able to authorize payment or print the check. An applications programmer should not also be the server administrator or the database administrator; these roles and responsibilities must be separated from one another.[48]\n\nDefense in depth \n The onion model of defense in depth\nMain article: Defense in depth (computing)\nInformation security must protect information throughout its lifespan, from the initial creation of the information on through to the final disposal of the information. The information must be protected while in motion and while at rest. During its lifetime, information may pass through many different information processing systems and through many different parts of information processing systems. There are many different ways the information and information systems can be threatened. To fully protect the information during its lifetime, each component of the information processing system must have its own protection mechanisms. The building up, layering on and overlapping of security measures is called \"defense in depth.\" In contrast to a metal chain, which is famously only as strong as its weakest link, the defense in depth strategy aims at a structure where, should one defensive measure fail, other measures will continue to provide protection.[49]\nRecall the earlier discussion about administrative controls, logical controls, and physical controls. The three types of controls can be used to form the basis upon which to build a defense in depth strategy. With this approach, defense in depth can be conceptualized as three distinct layers or planes laid one on top of the other. Additional insight into defense in depth can be gained by thinking of it as forming the layers of an onion, with data at the core of the onion, people the next outer layer of the onion, and network security, host-based security and application security forming the outermost layers of the onion. Both perspectives are equally valid, and each provides valuable insight into the implementation of a good defense in depth strategy.\n\nSecurity classification for information \nAn important aspect of information security and risk management is recognizing the value of information and defining appropriate procedures and protection requirements for the information. Not all information is equal and so not all information requires the same degree of protection. This requires information to be assigned a security classification. The first step in information classification is to identify a member of senior management as the owner of the particular information to be classified. Next, develop a classification policy. The policy should describe the different classification labels, define the criteria for information to be assigned a particular label, and list the required security controls for each classification.[50]\nSome factors that influence which classification information should be assigned include how much value that information has to the organization, how old the information is and whether or not the information has become obsolete. Laws and other regulatory requirements are also important considerations when classifying information. The Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA) and its Business Model for Information Security also serves as a tool for security professionals to examine security from a systems perspective, creating an environment where security can be managed holistically, allowing actual risks to be addressed.[51]\nThe type of information security classification labels selected and used will depend on the nature of the organization, with examples being:[50]\n\nIn the business sector, labels such as: Public, Sensitive, Private, Confidential.\nIn the government sector, labels such as: Unclassified, Unofficial, Protected, Confidential, Secret, Top Secret and their non-English equivalents.\nIn cross-sectoral formations, the Traffic Light Protocol, which consists of: White, Green, Amber, and Red.\nAll employees in the organization, as well as business partners, must be trained on the classification schema and understand the required security controls and handling procedures for each classification. The classification of a particular information asset that has been assigned should be reviewed periodically to ensure the classification is still appropriate for the information and to ensure the security controls required by the classification are in place and are followed in their right procedures.\n\nAccess control \nAccess to protected information must be restricted to people who are authorized to access the information. The computer programs, and in many cases the computers that process the information, must also be authorized. This requires that mechanisms be in place to control the access to protected information. The sophistication of the access control mechanisms should be in parity with the value of the information being protected; the more sensitive or valuable the information the stronger the control mechanisms need to be. The foundation on which access control mechanisms are built start with identification and authentication.\nAccess control is generally considered in three steps: identification, authentication, and authorization.[2]\n\nIdentification \nIdentification is an assertion of who someone is or what something is. If a person makes the statement \"Hello, my name is John Doe\" they are making a claim of who they are. However, their claim may or may not be true. Before John Doe can be granted access to protected information it will be necessary to verify that the person claiming to be John Doe really is John Doe. Typically the claim is in the form of a username. By entering that username you are claiming \"I am the person the username belongs to\".\n\nAuthentication \nAuthentication is the act of verifying a claim of identity. When John Doe goes into a bank to make a withdrawal, he tells the bank teller he is John Doe, a claim of identity. The bank teller asks to see a photo ID, so he hands the teller his driver's license. The bank teller checks the license to make sure it has John Doe printed on it and compares the photograph on the license against the person claiming to be John Doe. If the photo and name match the person, then the teller has authenticated that John Doe is who he claimed to be. Similarly, by entering the correct password, the user is providing evidence that he\/she is the person the username belongs to.\nThere are three different types of information that can be used for authentication:\n\nSomething you know: things such as a PIN, a password, or your mother's maiden name\nSomething you have: a driver's license or a magnetic swipe card\nSomething you are: biometrics, including palm prints, fingerprints, voice prints and retina (eye) scans\nStrong authentication requires providing more than one type of authentication information (two-factor authentication). The username is the most common form of identification on computer systems today and the password is the most common form of authentication. Usernames and passwords have served their purpose, but they are increasingly inadequate.[52] Usernames and passwords are slowly being replaced or supplemented with more sophisticated authentication mechanisms such as Time-based One-time Password algorithms.\n\nAuthorization \nAfter a person, program or computer has successfully been identified and authenticated then it must be determined what informational resources they are permitted to access and what actions they will be allowed to perform (run, view, create, delete, or change). This is called authorization. Authorization to access information and other computing services begins with administrative policies and procedures. The policies prescribe what information and computing services can be accessed, by whom, and under what conditions. The access control mechanisms are then configured to enforce these policies. Different computing systems are equipped with different kinds of access control mechanisms. Some may even offer a choice of different access control mechanisms. The access control mechanism a system offers will be based upon one of three approaches to access control, or it may be derived from a combination of the three approaches.[2]\nThe non-discretionary approach consolidates all access control under a centralized administration. The access to information and other resources is usually based on the individuals function (role) in the organization or the tasks the individual must perform. The discretionary approach gives the creator or owner of the information resource the ability to control access to those resources. In the mandatory access control approach, access is granted or denied basing upon the security classification assigned to the information resource.\nExamples of common access control mechanisms in use today include role-based access control, available in many advanced database management systems; simple file permissions provided in the UNIX and Windows operating systems; Group Policy Objects provided in Windows network systems; and Kerberos, RADIUS, TACACS, and the simple access lists used in many firewalls and routers.\nTo be effective, policies and other security controls must be enforceable and upheld. Effective policies ensure that people are held accountable for their actions. The U.S. Treasury's guidelines for systems processing sensitive or proprietary information, for example, states that all failed and successful authentication and access attempts must be logged, and all access to information must leave some type of audit trail.[53]\nAlso, the need-to-know principle needs to be in effect when talking about access control. This principle gives access rights to a person to perform their job functions. This principle is used in the government when dealing with difference clearances. Even though two employees in different departments have a top-secret clearance, they must have a need-to-know in order for information to be exchanged. Within the need-to-know principle, network administrators grant the employee the least amount of privileges to prevent employees from accessing more than what they are supposed to. Need-to-know helps to enforce the confidentiality-integrity-availability triad. Need-to-know directly impacts the confidential area of the triad.\n\nCryptography \nMain article: Cryptography\nInformation security uses cryptography to transform usable information into a form that renders it unusable by anyone other than an authorized user; this process is called encryption. Information that has been encrypted (rendered unusable) can be transformed back into its original usable form by an authorized user who possesses the cryptographic key, through the process of decryption. Cryptography is used in information security to protect information from unauthorized or accidental disclosure while the information is in transit (either electronically or physically) and while information is in storage.[2]\nCryptography provides information security with other useful applications as well, including improved authentication methods, message digests, digital signatures, non-repudiation, and encrypted network communications. Older, less secure applications such as Telnet and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) are slowly being replaced with more secure applications such as Secure Shell (SSH) that use encrypted network communications. Wireless communications can be encrypted using protocols such as WPA\/WPA2 or the older (and less secure) WEP. Wired communications (such as ITU\u2011T G.hn) are secured using AES for encryption and X.1035 for authentication and key exchange. Software applications such as GnuPG or PGP can be used to encrypt data files and email.\nCryptography can introduce security problems when it is not implemented correctly. Cryptographic solutions need to be implemented using industry-accepted solutions that have undergone rigorous peer review by independent experts in cryptography. The length and strength of the encryption key is also an important consideration. A key that is weak or too short will produce weak encryption. The keys used for encryption and decryption must be protected with the same degree of rigor as any other confidential information. They must be protected from unauthorized disclosure and destruction and they must be available when needed. Public key infrastructure (PKI) solutions address many of the problems that surround key management.[2]\n\nProcess \nThe terms \"reasonable and prudent person,\" \"due care\" and \"due diligence\" have been used in the fields of finance, securities, and law for many years. In recent years these terms have found their way into the fields of computing and information security.[44] U.S. Federal Sentencing Guidelines now make it possible to hold corporate officers liable for failing to exercise due care and due diligence in the management of their information systems.[54]\nIn the business world, stockholders, customers, business partners and governments have the expectation that corporate officers will run the business in accordance with accepted business practices and in compliance with laws and other regulatory requirements. This is often described as the \"reasonable and prudent person\" rule. A prudent person takes due care to ensure that everything necessary is done to operate the business by sound business principles and in a legal, ethical manner. A prudent person is also diligent (mindful, attentive, ongoing) in their due care of the business.\nIn the field of information security, Harris[55]\noffers the following definitions of due care and due diligence:\n\n<\/p>\n\"Due care are steps that are taken to show that a company has taken responsibility for the activities that take place within the corporation and has taken the necessary steps to help protect the company, its resources, and employees.\" And, [Due diligence are the] \"continual activities that make sure the protection mechanisms are continually maintained and operational.\"\n\nAttention should be made to two important points in these definitions. First, in due care, steps are taken to show; this means that the steps can be verified, measured, or even produce tangible artifacts. Second, in due diligence, there are continual activities; this means that people are actually doing things to monitor and maintain the protection mechanisms, and these activities are ongoing.\nOrganizations have a responsibility with practicing duty of care when applying information security. The Duty of Care Risk Analysis Standard (DoCRA)[56] provides principles and practices for evaluating risk. It considers all parties that could be affected by those risks. DoCRA helps evaluate safeguards if they are appropriate in protecting others from harm while presenting a reasonable burden. With increased data breach litigation, companies must balance security controls, compliance, and its mission.\n\nSecurity governance \nSee also: Information Security Governance\nThe Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University, in a publication titled Governing for Enterprise Security (GES) Implementation Guide, defines characteristics of effective security governance. These include:[57]\n\nAn enterprise-wide issue\nLeaders are accountable\nViewed as a business requirement\nRisk-based\nRoles, responsibilities, and segregation of duties defined\nAddressed and enforced in policy\nAdequate resources committed\nStaff aware and trained\nA development life cycle requirement\nPlanned, managed, measurable, and measured\nReviewed and audited\nIncident response plans \nThis section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2018 )\nAn incident response plan that addresses how discovered breaches in security is also vital. It should include:\n\nSelection of team members\nDefinition of roles, responsibilities and lines of authority\nDefinition of a security incident\nDefinition of a reportable incident\nTraining\nDetection\nClassification\nEscalation\nContainment\nEradication\nDocumentation\nChange management \nMain article: Change Management (ITSM)\nThis section may have been copied and pasted from another location, possibly in violation of Wikipedia's copyright policy. Please review https:\/\/employment.blurtit.com\/1335625\/how-information-system-changing-the-management-process (DupDet  · CopyVios ) and remedy this by editing this article to remove any non-free copyrighted content and attributing free content correctly, or flagging the content for deletion. Please be sure that the supposed source of the copyright violation is not itself a Wikipedia mirror. (April 2018 )\nChange management is a formal process for directing and controlling alterations to the information processing environment. This includes alterations to desktop computers, the network, servers and software. The objectives of change management are to reduce the risks posed by changes to the information processing environment and improve the stability and reliability of the processing environment as changes are made. It is not the objective of change management to prevent or hinder necessary changes from being implemented.[58]\nAny change to the information processing environment introduces an element of risk. Even apparently simple changes can have unexpected effects. One of management's many responsibilities is the management of risk. Change management is a tool for managing the risks introduced by changes to the information processing environment. Part of the change management process ensures that changes are not implemented at inopportune times when they may disrupt critical business processes or interfere with other changes being implemented.\nNot every change needs to be managed. Some kinds of changes are a part of the everyday routine of information processing and adhere to a predefined procedure, which reduces the overall level of risk to the processing environment. Creating a new user account or deploying a new desktop computer are examples of changes that do not generally require change management. However, relocating user file shares, or upgrading the Email server pose a much higher level of risk to the processing environment and are not a normal everyday activity. The critical first steps in change management are (a) defining change (and communicating that definition) and (b) defining the scope of the change system.\nChange management is usually overseen by a change review board composed of representatives from key business areas, security, networking, systems administrators, database administration, application developers, desktop support and the help desk. The tasks of the change review board can be facilitated with the use of automated work flow application. The responsibility of the change review board is to ensure the organization's documented change management procedures are followed. The change management process is as follows[59]\n\nRequest: Anyone can request a change. The person making the change request may or may not be the same person that performs the analysis or implements the change. When a request for change is received, it may undergo a preliminary review to determine if the requested change is compatible with the organizations business model and practices, and to determine the amount of resources needed to implement the change.\nApprove: Management runs the business and controls the allocation of resources therefore, management must approve requests for changes and assign a priority for every change. Management might choose to reject a change request if the change is not compatible with the business model, industry standards or best practices. Management might also choose to reject a change request if the change requires more resources than can be allocated for the change.\nPlan: Planning a change involves discovering the scope and impact of the proposed change; analyzing the complexity of the change; allocation of resources and, developing, testing and documenting both implementation and back-out plans. Need to define the criteria on which a decision to back out will be made.\nTest: Every change must be tested in a safe test environment, which closely reflects the actual production environment, before the change is applied to the production environment. The backout plan must also be tested.\nSchedule: Part of the change review board's responsibility is to assist in the scheduling of changes by reviewing the proposed implementation date for potential conflicts with other scheduled changes or critical business activities.\nCommunicate: Once a change has been scheduled it must be communicated. The communication is to give others the opportunity to remind the change review board about other changes or critical business activities that might have been overlooked when scheduling the change. The communication also serves to make the help desk and users aware that a change is about to occur. Another responsibility of the change review board is to ensure that scheduled changes have been properly communicated to those who will be affected by the change or otherwise have an interest in the change.\nImplement: At the appointed date and time, the changes must be implemented. Part of the planning process was to develop an implementation plan, testing plan and, a back out plan. If the implementation of the change should fail or, the post implementation testing fails or, other \"drop dead\" criteria have been met, the back out plan should be implemented.\nDocument: All changes must be documented. The documentation includes the initial request for change, its approval, the priority assigned to it, the implementation, testing and back out plans, the results of the change review board critique, the date\/time the change was implemented, who implemented it, and whether the change was implemented successfully, failed or postponed.\nPost-change review: The change review board should hold a post-implementation review of changes. It is particularly important to review failed and backed out changes. The review board should try to understand the problems that were encountered, and look for areas for improvement.\nChange management procedures that are simple to follow and easy to use can greatly reduce the overall risks created when changes are made to the information processing environment. Good change management procedures improve the overall quality and success of changes as they are implemented. This is accomplished through planning, peer review, documentation and communication.\nISO\/IEC 20000, The Visible OPS Handbook: Implementing ITIL in 4 Practical and Auditable Steps[60] (Full book summary),[61] and Information Technology Infrastructure Library all provide valuable guidance on implementing an efficient and effective change management program information security.\n\nBusiness continuity \nBusiness continuity management (BCM) concerns arrangements aiming to protect an organization's critical business functions from interruption due to incidents, or at least minimize the effects. BCM is essential to any organization to keep technology and business in line with current threats to the continuation of business as usual. The BCM should be included in an organizations risk analysis plan to ensure that all of the necessary business functions have what they need to keep going in the event of any type of threat to any business function.[62]\nIt encompasses:\n\nAnalysis of requirements, e.g., identifying critical business functions, dependencies and potential failure points, potential threats and hence incidents or risks of concern to the organization;\nSpecification, e.g., maximum tolerable outage periods; recovery point objectives (maximum acceptable periods of data loss);\nArchitecture and design, e.g., an appropriate combination of approaches including resilience (e.g. engineering IT systems and processes for high availability, avoiding or preventing situations that might interrupt the business), incident and emergency management (e.g., evacuating premises, calling the emergency services, triage\/situation assessment and invoking recovery plans), recovery (e.g., rebuilding) and contingency management (generic capabilities to deal positively with whatever occurs using whatever resources are available);\nImplementation, e.g., configuring and scheduling backups, data transfers, etc., duplicating and strengthening critical elements; contracting with service and equipment suppliers;\nTesting, e.g., business continuity exercises of various types, costs and assurance levels;\nManagement, e.g., defining strategies, setting objectives and goals; planning and directing the work; allocating funds, people and other resources; prioritization relative to other activities; team building, leadership, control, motivation and coordination with other business functions and activities (e.g., IT, facilities, human resources, risk management, information risk and security, operations); monitoring the situation, checking and updating the arrangements when things change; maturing the approach through continuous improvement, learning and appropriate investment;\nAssurance, e.g., testing against specified requirements; measuring, analyzing and reporting key parameters; conducting additional tests, reviews and audits for greater confidence that the arrangements will go to plan if invoked.\nWhereas BCM takes a broad approach to minimizing disaster-related risks by reducing both the probability and the severity of incidents, a disaster recovery plan (DRP) focuses specifically on resuming business operations as quickly as possible after a disaster. A disaster recovery plan, invoked soon after a disaster occurs, lays out the steps necessary to recover critical information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure. Disaster recovery planning includes establishing a planning group, performing risk assessment, establishing priorities, developing recovery strategies, preparing inventories and documentation of the plan, developing verification criteria and procedure, and lastly implementing the plan.[63]\n\nLaws and regulations \n Privacy International 2007 privacy ranking\r\ngreen: Protections and safeguards\r\nred: Endemic surveillance societies\nBelow is a partial listing of governmental laws and regulations in various parts of the world that have, had, or will have, a significant effect on data processing and information security. Important industry sector regulations have also been included when they have a significant impact on information security.\n\nThe U.K. Data Protection Act 1998 makes new provisions for the regulation of the processing of information relating to individuals, including the obtaining, holding, use or disclosure of such information. The European Union Data Protection Directive (EUDPD) requires that all E.U. members adopt national regulations to standardize the protection of data privacy for citizens throughout the E.U.[64]\nThe Computer Misuse Act 1990 is an Act of the U.K. Parliament making computer crime (e.g., hacking) a criminal offense. The act has become a model upon which several other countries, including Canada and the Republic of Ireland, have drawn inspiration from when subsequently drafting their own information security laws.[65]\nThe E.U.'s Data Retention Directive (annulled) required internet service providers and phone companies to keep data on every electronic message sent and phone call made for between six months and two years.[66]\nThe Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) (20 U.S.C. \u00a7 1232 g; 34 CFR Part 99) is a U.S. Federal law that protects the privacy of student education records. The law applies to all schools that receive funds under an applicable program of the U.S. Department of Education. Generally, schools must have written permission from the parent or eligible student in order to release any information from a student's education record.[67]\nThe Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council's (FFIEC) security guidelines for auditors specifies requirements for online banking security.[68]\nThe Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 requires the adoption of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers. Additionally, it requires health care providers, insurance providers and employers to safeguard the security and privacy of health data.[69]\nThe Gramm\u2013Leach\u2013Bliley Act of 1999 (GLBA), also known as the Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999, protects the privacy and security of private financial information that financial institutions collect, hold, and process.[70]\nSection 404 of the Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX) requires publicly traded companies to assess the effectiveness of their internal controls for financial reporting in annual reports they submit at the end of each fiscal year. Chief information officers are responsible for the security, accuracy and the reliability of the systems that manage and report the financial data. The act also requires publicly traded companies to engage with independent auditors who must attest to, and report on, the validity of their assessments.[71]\nThe Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) establishes comprehensive requirements for enhancing payment account data security. It was developed by the founding payment brands of the PCI Security Standards Council \u2014 including American Express, Discover Financial Services, JCB, MasterCard Worldwide and Visa International \u2014 to help facilitate the broad adoption of consistent data security measures on a global basis. The PCI DSS is a multifaceted security standard that includes requirements for security management, policies, procedures, network architecture, software design and other critical protective measures.[72]\nState security breach notification laws (California and many others) require businesses, nonprofits, and state institutions to notify consumers when unencrypted \"personal information\" may have been compromised, lost, or stolen.[73]\nThe Personal Information Protection and Electronics Document Act (PIPEDA) of Canada supports and promotes electronic commerce by protecting personal information that is collected, used or disclosed in certain circumstances, by providing for the use of electronic means to communicate or record information or transactions and by amending the Canada Evidence Act, the Statutory Instruments Act and the Statute Revision Act.[74]\nGreece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 165\/2011) establishes and describes the minimum information security controls that should be deployed by every company which provides electronic communication networks and\/or services in Greece in order to protect customers' confidentiality. These include both managerial and technical controls (e.g., log records should be stored for two years).[75]\nGreece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 205\/2013) concentrates around the protection of the integrity and availability of the services and data offered by Greek telecommunication companies. The law forces these and other related companies to build, deploy and test appropriate business continuity plans and redundant infrastructures.[76]\nInformation security culture \nDescribing more than simply how security aware employees are, information security culture is the ideas, customs, and social behaviors of an organization that impact information security in both positive and negative ways.[77] Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness towards information security within an organization. The way employees think and feel about security and the actions they take can have a big impact on information security in organizations. Roer & Petric (2017) identify seven core dimensions of information security culture in organizations:[78]\n\nAttitudes: Employees\u2019 feelings and emotions about the various activities that pertain to the organizational security of information.\nBehaviors: Actual or intended activities and risk-taking actions of employees that have direct or indirect impact on information security.\nCognition: Employees' awareness, verifiable knowledge, and beliefs regarding practices, activities, and self-efficacy relation that are related to information security.\nCommunication: Ways employees communicate with each other, sense of belonging, support for security issues, and incident reporting.\nCompliance: Adherence to organizational security policies, awareness of the existence of such policies and the ability to recall the substance of such policies.\nNorms: Perceptions of security-related organizational conduct and practices that are informally deemed either normal or deviant by employees and their peers, e.g. hidden expectations regarding security behaviors and unwritten rules regarding uses of information-communication technologies.\nResponsibilities: Employees' understanding of the roles and responsibilities they have as a critical factor in sustaining or endangering the security of information, and thereby the organization.\nAndersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of the organization Information Security \"effort\" and often take actions that ignore organizational information security best interests.[79] Research shows information security culture needs to be improved continuously. In Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change, authors commented, \"It's a never ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance.\" To manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation.[4]\n\nPre-Evaluation: to identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analyze current security policy\nStrategic Planning: to come up a better awareness-program, we need to set clear targets. Clustering people is helpful to achieve it\nOperative Planning: create a good security culture based on internal communication, management buy-in, security awareness and training programs\nImplementation: should feature commitment of management, communication with organizational members, courses for all organizational members, and commitment of the employees[4]\nPost-evaluation: to better gauge the effectiveness of the prior steps and build on continuous improvement\nSources of standards \nMain article: Cyber Security Standards\nThe International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a consortium of national standards institutes from 157 countries, coordinated through a secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland. ISO is the world's largest developer of standards. ISO 15443: \"Information technology \u2013 Security techniques \u2013 A framework for IT security assurance\", ISO\/IEC 27002: \"Information technology \u2013 Security techniques \u2013 Code of practice for information security management\", ISO-20000: \"Information technology \u2013 Service management\", and ISO\/IEC 27001: \"Information technology \u2013 Security techniques \u2013 Information security management systems \u2013 Requirements\" are of particular interest to information security professionals.\nThe US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is a non-regulatory federal agency within the U.S. Department of Commerce. The NIST Computer Security Division\ndevelops standards, metrics, tests and validation programs as well as publishes standards and guidelines to increase secure IT planning, implementation, management and operation. NIST is also the custodian of the U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard publications (FIPS).\n\n<\/p>The Internet Society is a professional membership society with more than 100 organizations and over 20,000 individual members in over 180 countries. It provides leadership in addressing issues that confront the future of the internet, and it is the organizational home for the groups responsible for internet infrastructure standards, including the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Architecture Board (IAB). The ISOC hosts the Requests for Comments (RFCs) which includes the Official Internet Protocol Standards and the RFC-2196 Site Security Handbook.\nThe Information Security Forum (ISF) is a global nonprofit organization of several hundred leading organizations in financial services, manufacturing, telecommunications, consumer goods, government, and other areas. It undertakes research into information security practices and offers advice in its biannual Standard of Good Practice and more detailed advisories for members.\nThe Institute of Information Security Professionals (IISP) is an independent, non-profit body governed by its members, with the principal objective of advancing the professionalism of information security practitioners and thereby the professionalism of the industry as a whole. The institute developed the IISP Skills Framework. This framework describes the range of competencies expected of information security and information assurance professionals in the effective performance of their roles. It was developed through collaboration between both private and public sector organizations and world-renowned academics and security leaders.[80]\nThe German Federal Office for Information Security (in German Bundesamt f\u00fcr Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik (BSI)) BSI-Standards 100-1 to 100-4 are a set of recommendations including \"methods, processes, procedures, approaches and measures relating to information security\".[81] The BSI-Standard 100-2 IT-Grundschutz Methodology describes how information security management can be implemented and operated. The standard includes a very specific guide, the IT Baseline Protection Catalogs (also known as IT-Grundschutz Catalogs). Before 2005, the catalogs were formerly known as \"IT Baseline Protection Manual\". The Catalogs are a collection of documents useful for detecting and combating security-relevant weak points in the IT environment (IT cluster). The collection encompasses as of September 2013 over 4,400 pages with the introduction and catalogs. The IT-Grundschutz approach is aligned with to the ISO\/IEC 2700x family.\nThe European Telecommunications Standards Institute standardized a catalog of information security indicators, headed by the Industrial Specification Group (ISG) ISI.\n\nSee also \n\n\n Computer security portal \n\nBackup\nData breach\nData-centric security\nEnterprise information security architecture\nIdentity-based security\nInformation infrastructure\nInformation security audit\nInformation security indicators\nInformation security management\nInformation security standards\nInformation technology security audit\nIT risk\nITIL security management\nKill chain\nList of Computer Security Certifications\nMobile security\nNetwork Security Services\nPrivacy engineering\nPrivacy software\nPrivacy-enhancing technologies\nSecurity bug\nSecurity convergence\nSecurity information management\nSecurity level management\nSecurity of Information Act\nSecurity service (telecommunication)\nSingle sign-on\nVerification and validation\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b 44 U.S.C. \u00a7 3542(b)(1) \n\n^ a b c d e f Andress, J. (2014). The Basics of Information Security: Understanding the Fundamentals of InfoSec in Theory and Practice. Syngress. p. 240. ISBN 9780128008126. \n\n^ \"What is Information Security? (with pictures)\". wiseGEEK. Retrieved 2017-10-06 . \n\n^ a b c Schlienger, Thomas; Teufel, Stephanie (December 2003). \"Information security culture - from analysis to change\". South African Computer Society (SAICSIT). 2003 (31): 46\u201352. hdl:10520\/EJC27949. \n\n^ a b Samonas, S.; Coss, D. (2014). \"The CIA Strikes Back: Redefining Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability in Security\". Journal of Information System Security. 10 (3): 21\u201345. \n\n^ \"Gartner Says Digital Disruptors Are Impacting All Industries; Digital KPIs Are Crucial to Measuring Success\". Gartner. 2 October 2017. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Gartner Survey Shows 42 Percent of CEOs Have Begun Digital Business Transformation\". Gartner. 24 April 2017. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Information Security Qualifications Fact Sheet\" (PDF) . IT Governance. Retrieved 16 March 2018 . \n\n^ Stewart, James (2012). CISSP Study Guide. Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 255\u2013257. ISBN 978-1-118-31417-3. \n\n^ Enge, Eric. \"Stone Temple\". Cell phones \n\n^ Gordon, Lawrence; Loeb, Martin (November 2002). \"The Economics of Information Security Investment\". ACM Transactions on Information and System Security. 5 (4): 438\u2013457. doi:10.1145\/581271.581274. \n\n^ Stewart, James (2012). CISSP Certified Information Systems Security Professional Study Guide Sixth Edition. Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 255\u2013257. ISBN 978-1-118-31417-3. \n\n^ Suetonius Tranquillus, Gaius (2008). Lives of the Caesars (Oxford World's Classics). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-19-953756-3. \n\n^ Singh, Simon (2000). The Code Book. Anchor. pp. 289\u2013290. ISBN 978-0-385-49532-5. \n\n^ Johnson, John (1997). The Evolution of British Sigint: 1653\u20131939. Her Majesty's Stationery Office. ASIN B00GYX1GX2. \n\n^ Ruppert, K. (2011). \"Official Secrets Act (1889; New 1911; Amended 1920, 1939, 1989)\". In Hastedt, G.P. Spies, Wiretaps, and Secret Operations: An Encyclopedia of American Espionage. 2. ABC-CLIO. pp. 589\u2013590. ISBN 9781851098088. \n\n^ a b Sebag\u2013Montefiore, H. (2011). Enigma: The Battle for the Code. Orion. p. 576. ISBN 9781780221236. \n\n^ DeNardis, L. (2007). \"Chapter 24: A History of Internet Security\". In de Leeuw, K.M.M.; Bergstra, J. The History of Information Security: A Comprehensive Handbook. Elsevier. pp. 681\u2013704. ISBN 9780080550589. \n\n^ a b Cherdantseva Y. and Hilton J.: \"Information Security and Information Assurance. The Discussion about the Meaning, Scope and Goals\". In: Organizational, Legal, and Technological Dimensions of Information System Administrator. Almeida F., Portela, I. (eds.). IGI Global Publishing. (2013) \n\n^ ISO\/IEC 27000:2009 (E). (2009). Information technology \u2013 Security techniques \u2013 Information security management systems \u2013 Overview and vocabulary. ISO\/IEC. \n\n^ Committee on National Security Systems: National Information Assurance (IA) Glossary, CNSS Instruction No. 4009, 26 April 2010. \n\n^ ISACA. (2008). Glossary of terms, 2008. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.isaca.org\/Knowledge-Center\/Documents\/Glossary\/glossary.pdf \n\n^ Pipkin, D. (2000). Information security: Protecting the global enterprise. New York: Hewlett-Packard Company. \n\n^ B., McDermott, E., & Geer, D. (2001). Information security is information risk management. In Proceedings of the 2001 Workshop on New Security Paradigms NSPW \u201801, (pp. 97 \u2013 104). ACM. doi:10.1145\/508171.508187 \n\n^ Anderson, J. M. (2003). \"Why we need a new definition of information security\". Computers & Security. 22 (4): 308\u2013313. doi:10.1016\/S0167-4048(03)00407-3. \n\n^ Venter, H. S.; Eloff, J. H. P. (2003). \"A taxonomy for information security technologies\". Computers & Security. 22 (4): 299\u2013307. doi:10.1016\/S0167-4048(03)00406-1. \n\n^ Perrin, Chad. \"The CIA Triad\". Retrieved 31 May 2012 . \n\n^ a b \"Engineering Principles for Information Technology Security\" (PDF) . csrc.nist.gov. \n\n^ \"oecd.org\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on May 16, 2011. Retrieved 2014-01-17 . \n\n^ Slade, Rob. \"(ICS)2 Blog\". \n\n^ Aceituno, Vicente. \"Open Information Security Maturity Model\". Retrieved 12 February 2017 . \n\n^ http:\/\/www.dartmouth.edu\/~gvc\/ThreeTenetsSPIE.pdf \n\n^ Hughes, Jeff; Cybenko, George (21 June 2018). \"Quantitative Metrics and Risk Assessment: The Three Tenets Model of Cybersecurity\". Technology Innovation Management Review. 3 (8). \n\n^ Teplow, Lily. \"Are Your Clients Falling for These IT Security Myths? [CHART]\". continuum.net. \n\n^ Beckers, K. (2015). Pattern and Security Requirements: Engineering-Based Establishment of Security Standards. Springer. p. 100. ISBN 9783319166643. \n\n^ Boritz, J. Efrim (2005). \"IS Practitioners' Views on Core Concepts of Information Integrity\". International Journal of Accounting Information Systems. Elsevier. 6 (4): 260\u2013279. doi:10.1016\/j.accinf.2005.07.001. Retrieved 12 August 2011 . \n\n^ Loukas, G.; Oke, G. (September 2010) [August 2009]. \"Protection Against Denial of Service Attacks: A Survey\" (PDF) . Comput. J. 53 (7): 1020\u20131037. doi:10.1093\/comjnl\/bxp078. \n\n^ McCarthy, C. (2006). \"Digital Libraries: Security and Preservation Considerations\". In Bidgoli, H. Handbook of Information Security, Threats, Vulnerabilities, Prevention, Detection, and Management. 3. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 49\u201376. ISBN 9780470051214. \n\n^ ISACA (2006). CISA Review Manual 2006. Information Systems Audit and Control Association. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-933284-15-6. \n\n^ Spagnoletti, Paolo; Resca A. (2008). \"The duality of Information Security Management: fighting against predictable and unpredictable threats\". Journal of Information System Security. 4 (3): 46\u201362. \n\n^ Grama, J.L. (2014). Legal Issues in Information Security. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 550. ISBN 9781284151046. \n\n^ Kiountouzis, E.A.; Kokolakis, S.A. (1996-05-31). Information systems security: facing the information society of the 21st century. London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd. ISBN 978-0-412-78120-9. \n\n^ Newsome, B. (2013). A Practical Introduction to Security and Risk Management. SAGE Publications. p. 208. ISBN 9781483324852. \n\n^ a b Whitman, M.E.; Mattord, H.J. (2016). Management of Information Security (5th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 592. ISBN 9781305501256. \n\n^ \"NIST SP 800-30 Risk Management Guide for Information Technology Systems\" (PDF) . Retrieved 2014-01-17 . \n\n^ Johnson, L. (2015). Security Controls Evaluation, Testing, and Assessment Handbook. Syngress. p. 678. ISBN 9780128025642. \n\n^ Ransome, J.; Misra, A. (2013). Core Software Security: Security at the Source. CRC Press. pp. 40\u201341. ISBN 9781466560956. \n\n^ \"Segregation of Duties Control matrix\". ISACA. 2008. Archived from the original on 3 July 2011. Retrieved 2008-09-30 . \n\n^ Kakareka, A. (2013). \"Chapter 31: What is Vulnerability Assessment?\". In Vacca, J.R. Computer and Information Security Handbook (2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 541\u2013552. ISBN 9780123946126. \n\n^ a b Bayuk, J. (2009). \"Chapter 4: Information Classification\". In Axelrod, C.W.; Bayuk, J.L.; Schutzer, D. Enterprise Information Security and Privacy. Artech House. pp. 59\u201370. ISBN 9781596931916. \n\n^ \"Business Model for Information Security (BMIS)\". ISACA. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ Akpeninor, James Ohwofasa (2013). Modern Concepts of Security. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-4817-8232-6. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"The Use of Audit Trails to Monitor Key Networks and Systems Should Remain Part of the Computer Security Material Weakness\". www.treasury.gov. Retrieved 2017-10-06 . \n\n^ Vallabhaneni, S.R. (2008). Corporate Management, Governance, and Ethics Best Practices. John Wiley & Sons. p. 288. ISBN 9780470255803. \n\n^ Shon Harris (2003). All-in-one CISSP Certification Exam Guide (2nd ed.). Emeryville, California: McGraw-Hill\/Osborne. ISBN 978-0-07-222966-0. \n\n^ \"The Duty of Care Risk Analysis Standard\". DoCRA. \n\n^ Westby, J.R.; Allen, J.H. (August 2007). \"Governing for Enterprise Security (GES) Implementation Guide\" (PDF) . Software Engineering Institute. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ Campbell, T. (2016). \"Chapter 14: Secure Systems Development\". Practical Information Security Management: A Complete Guide to Planning and Implementation. Apress. p. 218. ISBN 9781484216859. \n\n^ Taylor, J. (2008). \"Chapter 10: Understanding the Project Change Process\". Project Scheduling and Cost Control: Planning, Monitoring and Controlling the Baseline. J. Ross Publishing. pp. 187\u2013214. ISBN 9781932159110. \n\n^ itpi.org Archived December 10, 2013, at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ \"book summary of The Visible Ops Handbook: Implementing ITIL in 4 Practical and Auditable Steps\". wikisummaries.org. Retrieved 2016-06-22 . \n\n^ Hotchkiss, Stuart. Business Continuity Management : In Practice, British Informatics Society Limited, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central, https:\/\/ebookcentral.proquest.com\/lib\/pensu\/detail.action?docID=634527. \n\n^ \"The Disaster Recovery Plan\". Sans Institute. Retrieved 7 February 2012 . \n\n^ \"Data Protection Act 1998\". legislation.gov.uk. The National Archives. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Computer Misuse Act 1990\". legislation.gov.uk. The National Archives. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Directive 2006\/24\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 March 2006\". EUR-Lex. European Union. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ Codified at 20 U.S.C. \u00a7 1232g, with implementing regulations in title 34, part 99 of the Code of Federal Regulations \n\n^ \"Audit Booklet\". Information Technology Examination Handbook. FFIEC. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Public Law 104 - 191 - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996\". U.S. Government Publishing Office. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Public Law 106 - 102 - Gramm\u2013Leach\u2013Bliley Act of 1999\" (PDF) . U.S. Government Publishing Office. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Public Law 107 - 204 - Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002\". U.S. Government Publishing Office. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Payment Card Industry (PCI) Data Security Standard: Requirements and Security Assessment Procedures - Version 3.2\" (PDF) . Security Standards Council. April 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Security Breach Notification Laws\". National Conference of State Legislatures. 12 April 2017. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act\" (PDF) . Canadian Minister of Justice. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Regulation for the Assurance of Confidentiality in Electronic Communications\" (PDF) . Government Gazette of the Hellenic Republic. Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy. 17 November 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"\u0391\u03c1\u03b9\u03b8\u03bc. \u03b1\u03c0\u03cc\u03c6. 205\/2013\" (PDF) . Government Gazette of the Hellenic Republic. Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy. 15 July 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2018 . \n\n^ https:\/\/securitycultureframework.net (09\/04\/2014). \"Definition of Security Culture\". The Security Culture Framework. Check date values in: |date= (help) \n\n^ Roer, Kai; Petric, Gregor (2017). The 2017 Security Culture Report - In depth insights into the human factor. CLTRe North America, Inc. pp. 42\u201343. ISBN 978-1544933948. \n\n^ Anderson, D., Reimers, K. and Barretto, C. (March 2014). Post-Secondary Education Network Security: Results of Addressing the End-User Challenge.publication date Mar 11, 2014 publication description INTED2014 (International Technology, Education, and Development Conference) \n\n^ \"IISP Skills Framework\". \n\n^ \"BSI-Standards\". BSI. Retrieved 29 November 2013 . \n\n\nFurther reading \nAnderson, K., \"IT Security Professionals Must Evolve for Changing Market\", SC Magazine, October 12, 2006.\nAceituno, V., \"On Information Security Paradigms\", ISSA Journal, September 2005.\nDhillon, G., Principles of Information Systems Security: text and cases, John Wiley & Sons, 2007.\nEasttom, C., Computer Security Fundamentals (2nd Edition) Pearson Education, 2011.\nLambo, T., \"ISO\/IEC 27001: The future of infosec certification\", ISSA Journal, November 2006.\nDustin, D., \" Awareness of How Your Data is Being Used and What to Do About It\", \"CDR Blog\", May 2017.\nBibliography \nAllen, Julia H. (2001). The CERT Guide to System and Network Security Practices. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-73723-3. \nKrutz, Ronald L.; Russell Dean Vines (2003). The CISSP Prep Guide (Gold ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-26802-4. \nLayton, Timothy P. (2007). Information Security: Design, Implementation, Measurement, and Compliance. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach publications. ISBN 978-0-8493-7087-8. \nMcNab, Chris (2004). Network Security Assessment. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly. ISBN 978-0-596-00611-2. \nPeltier, Thomas R. (2001). Information Security Risk Analysis. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach publications. ISBN 978-0-8493-0880-2. \nPeltier, Thomas R. (2002). Information Security Policies, Procedures, and Standards: guidelines for effective information security management. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach publications. ISBN 978-0-8493-1137-6. \nWhite, Gregory (2003). All-in-one Security+ Certification Exam Guide. Emeryville, CA: McGraw-Hill\/Osborne. ISBN 978-0-07-222633-1. \nDhillon, Gurpreet (2007). Principles of Information Systems Security: text and cases. NY: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-45056-6. \nExternal links \n\n\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Information security.\nDoD IA Policy Chart on the DoD Information Assurance Technology Analysis Center web site.\npatterns & practices Security Engineering Explained\nOpen Security Architecture- Controls and patterns to secure IT systems\nIWS \u2013 Information Security Chapter\nRoss Anderson's book \"Security Engineering\"\nvteComputer scienceNote: This template roughly follows the 2012 ACM Computing Classification System.Hardware\nPrinted circuit board\nPeripheral\nIntegrated circuit\nVery Large Scale Integration\nSystems on Chip (SoCs)\nEnergy consumption (Green computing)\nElectronic design automation\nHardware acceleration\nComputer systems\r\norganization\nComputer architecture\nEmbedded system\nReal-time computing\nDependability\nNetworks\nNetwork architecture\nNetwork protocol\nNetwork components\nNetwork scheduler\nNetwork performance evaluation\nNetwork service\nSoftware organization\nInterpreter\nMiddleware\nVirtual machine\nOperating system\nSoftware quality\nSoftware notations\r\nand tools\nProgramming paradigm\nProgramming language\nCompiler\nDomain-specific language\nModeling language\nSoftware framework\nIntegrated development environment\nSoftware configuration management\nSoftware library\nSoftware repository\nSoftware development\nSoftware development process\nRequirements analysis\nSoftware design\nSoftware construction\nSoftware deployment\nSoftware maintenance\nProgramming team\nOpen-source model\nTheory of computation\nModel of computation\nFormal language\nAutomata theory\nComputational complexity theory\nLogic\nSemantics\nAlgorithms\nAlgorithm design\nAnalysis of algorithms\nAlgorithmic efficiency\nRandomized algorithm\nComputational geometry\nMathematics\r\nof computing\nDiscrete mathematics\nProbability\nStatistics\nMathematical software\nInformation theory\nMathematical analysis\nNumerical analysis\nInformation\r\nsystems\nDatabase management system\nInformation storage systems\nEnterprise information system\nSocial information systems\nGeographic information system\nDecision support system\nProcess control system\nMultimedia information system\nData mining\nDigital library\nComputing platform\nDigital marketing\nWorld Wide Web\nInformation retrieval\nSecurity\nCryptography\nFormal methods\nSecurity services\nIntrusion detection system\nHardware security\nNetwork security\nInformation security\nApplication security\nHuman\u2013computer\r\ninteraction\nInteraction design\nSocial computing\nUbiquitous computing\nVisualization\nAccessibility\nConcurrency\nConcurrent computing\nParallel computing\nDistributed computing\nMultithreading\nMultiprocessing\nArtificial\r\nintelligence\nNatural language processing\nKnowledge representation and reasoning\nComputer vision\nAutomated planning and scheduling\nSearch methodology\nControl method\nPhilosophy of artificial intelligence\nDistributed artificial intelligence\nMachine learning\nSupervised learning\nUnsupervised learning\nReinforcement learning\nMulti-task learning\nCross-validation\nGraphics\nAnimation\nRendering\nImage manipulation\nGraphics processing unit\nMixed reality\nVirtual reality\nImage compression\nSolid modeling\nApplied\r\ncomputing\nE-commerce\nEnterprise software\nComputational mathematics\nComputational physics\nComputational chemistry\nComputational biology\nComputational social science\nComputational engineering\nComputational healthcare\nDigital art\nElectronic publishing\nCyberwarfare\nElectronic voting\nVideo games\nWord processing\nOperations research\nEducational technology\nDocument management\n\n Book\n Category\n Portal\nWikiProject\n Commons\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Computer securityData securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom 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\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 21 June 2016, at 21:21.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 809 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","9eff362d944224ff1d4ffe3a149d7cff_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Information_security skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Information security<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\">\n<p><b>Information security<\/b>, sometimes shortened to <b>InfoSec<\/b>, is the practice of preventing unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, inspection, recording or destruction of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a>. The information or data may take any form, e.g. electronic or physical.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Information security's primary focus is the balanced protection of the confidentiality, integrity and availability of data (also known as the CIA triad) while maintaining a focus on efficient policy implementation, all without hampering organization productivity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AndressTheBasics14-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> This is largely achieved through a multi-step risk management process that identifies assets, threat sources, vulnerabilities, potential impacts, and possible controls, followed by assessment of the effectiveness of the risk management plan.\n<\/p><p>To standardize this discipline, academics and professionals collaborate and seek to set basic guidance, policies, and industry standards on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Password\" title=\"Password\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1a0d7ae6f26ce9e27f1556f4d98c342\">password<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antivirus_software\" title=\"Antivirus software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc170f9654f68c67e02265c8874eab4d\">antivirus software<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewall_(computing)\" title=\"Firewall (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"853725a035c106719dbf2660d8eca0b8\">firewall<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption_software\" title=\"Encryption software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19339b1351f44aa407dbb5cc599b597b\">encryption software<\/a>, legal liability and user\/administrator training standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> This standardization may be further driven by a wide variety of laws and regulations that affect how data is accessed, processed, stored, and transferred. However, the implementation of any standards and guidance within an entity may have limited effect if a culture of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Continual_improvement_process\" title=\"Continual improvement process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0c083e85a0c6a14719294c23bdaf2cd\">continual improvement<\/a> isn't adopted.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Overview\">Overview<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>At the core of information security is information assurance, the act of maintaining the confidentiality, integrity and availability (CIA) of information, ensuring that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a> is not compromised in any way when critical issues arise.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SamonasTheCIA14_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SamonasTheCIA14-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> These issues include but are not limited to natural disasters, computer\/server malfunction, and physical theft. While paper-based business operations are still prevalent, requiring their own set of information security practices, enterprise digital initiatives are increasingly being emphasized,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GartnerSays17_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GartnerSays17-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GartnerSurvey17_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GartnerSurvey17-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> with information assurance now typically being dealt with by information technology (IT) security specialists. These specialists apply information security to technology (most often some form of computer system). It is worthwhile to note that a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer\" title=\"Computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90ce149db23a6fc17d1d225fac611846\">computer<\/a> does not necessarily mean a home desktop. A computer is any device with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Central_processing_unit\" title=\"Central processing unit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff175b7e455c4ae2a5ee0c4d09618f06\">processor<\/a> and some memory. Such devices can range from non-networked standalone devices as simple as calculators, to networked mobile computing devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. IT security specialists are almost always found in any major enterprise\/establishment due to the nature and value of the data within larger businesses. They are responsible for keeping all of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technology\" title=\"Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"826a00bce65740132769609e46bf6515\">technology<\/a> within the company secure from malicious cyber attacks that often attempt to acquire critical private information or gain control of the internal systems.\n<\/p><p>The field of information security has grown and evolved significantly in recent years. It offers many areas for specialization, including securing networks and allied <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrastructure\" title=\"Infrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb70668db4564897263976d0920fec5\">infrastructure<\/a>, securing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">applications<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">databases<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_testing\" title=\"Security testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6542ac1447b6c6424f809c53adbced89\">security testing<\/a>, information systems <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology_audit\" title=\"Information technology audit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73cc451bbda159f450fed912409dfa8b\">auditing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_continuity_planning\" title=\"Business continuity planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0314e0ebb69a83f82d4925a81373f7f2\">business continuity planning<\/a>, electronic record discovery, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_forensics\" title=\"Digital forensics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8e27fcf2f4e8602135a2f06eed97d23\">digital forensics<\/a>. Information security professionals are very stable in their employment. As of 2013<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup> more than 80 percent of professionals had no change in employer or employment over a period of a year, and the number of professionals is projected to continuously grow more than 11 percent annually from 2014 to 2019.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Threats\">Threats<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Information security <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Threat_(computer)\" title=\"Threat (computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d5165b429cff5ef72f0996f714d481\">threats<\/a> come in many different forms. Some of the most common threats today are software attacks, theft of intellectual property, identity theft, theft of equipment or information, sabotage, and information extortion. Most people have experienced software attacks of some sort. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_virus\" title=\"Computer virus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91d7100dd3499b98a5308377a38a7b58\">Viruses<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_worm\" title=\"Computer worm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a91f5f0c8645bb8a187c68b0ba5df098\">worms<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phishing\" title=\"Phishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c8238cbe6d3bb4c5c9496327b378d3b\">phishing attacks<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trojan_horse_(computing)\" title=\"Trojan horse (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a678695bce8d35b35440bc260712bbc\">Trojan horses<\/a> are a few common examples of software attacks. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intellectual_property_infringement\" title=\"Intellectual property infringement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17b35f2269b08b626a517cc44ef8ff09\">theft of intellectual property<\/a> has also been an extensive issue for many businesses in the IT field. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_theft\" title=\"Identity theft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb9eb8acee1ea77f10451b7488ead058\">Identity theft<\/a> is the attempt to act as someone else usually to obtain that person's personal information or to take advantage of their access to vital information. Theft of equipment or information is becoming more prevalent today due to the fact that most devices today are mobile,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> are prone to theft and have also become far more desirable as the amount of data capacity increases. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sabotage\" title=\"Sabotage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65b6b6844e35009bede55acb924314c8\">Sabotage<\/a> usually consists of the destruction of an organization's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Website\" title=\"Website\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baaafe699fb6fda8b6611a6b03e9f889\">website<\/a> in an attempt to cause loss of confidence on the part of its customers. Information extortion consists of theft of a company's property or information as an attempt to receive a payment in exchange for returning the information or property back to its owner, as with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ransomware\" title=\"Ransomware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9920028b76940c5bc43f59920d1c4eb\">ransomware<\/a>. There are many ways to help protect yourself from some of these attacks but one of the most functional precautions is user carefulness.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Governments\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Governments\" data-key=\"aa36df8fc4d6c5d89862c672544689e8\">Governments<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Military\" title=\"Military\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de82354cbb71572ffd905508c51d13c4\">military<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Corporation\" title=\"Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a470ff12898a235c6f10225303ce1053\">corporations<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_institution\" title=\"Financial institution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef7ff1361e62469d9f8f94564fef25b3\">financial institutions<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hospital\" title=\"Hospital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01a6e094952d7c96dd9fcaaaea949170\">hospitals<\/a> and private <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Businesses\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Businesses\" data-key=\"e6d9945fde342b5624daa88fcf4209cd\">businesses<\/a> amass a great deal of confidential information about their employees, customers, products, research and financial status. Should confidential information about a business' customers or finances or new product line fall into the hands of a competitor or a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Black_hat_hacker\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Black hat hacker\" data-key=\"0ff59de9b1ff5c6acd757b524186529f\">black hat hacker<\/a>, a business and its customers could suffer widespread, irreparable financial loss, as well as damage to the company's reputation. From a business perspective, information security must be balanced against cost; the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gordon-Loeb_Model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gordon-Loeb Model\" data-key=\"7fb8f8a8b3a501927bdb2af9be0810c6\">Gordon-Loeb Model<\/a> provides a mathematical economic approach for addressing this concern.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>For the individual, information security has a significant effect on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy\" title=\"Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c0e284f1b9cc1e2e6e7c31286443366\">privacy<\/a>, which is viewed very differently in various <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cultures\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cultures\" data-key=\"f64e38a1fe3d9be2096c9803a3a73333\">cultures<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Responses_to_threats\">Responses to threats<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Possible responses to a security threat or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_risk_management\" title=\"IT risk management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6858ce8f0824db4ea3e85b51fabdbbd\">risk<\/a> are:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>reduce\/mitigate \u2013 implement safeguards and countermeasures to eliminate vulnerabilities or block threats<\/li>\n<li>assign\/transfer \u2013 place the cost of the threat onto another entity or organization such as purchasing insurance or outsourcing<\/li>\n<li>accept \u2013 evaluate if the cost of the countermeasure outweighs the possible cost of loss due to the threat<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Since the early days of communication, diplomats and military commanders understood that it was necessary to provide some mechanism to protect the confidentiality of correspondence and to have some means of detecting <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tamper-evident\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Tamper-evident\" data-key=\"3a05d9c0b9dcb43807273cfd6b4e31f2\">tampering<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Julius_Caesar\" title=\"Julius Caesar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"136fed784316b42110978101903b657a\">Julius Caesar<\/a> is credited with the invention of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caesar_cipher\" title=\"Caesar cipher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1b45ef9dfee199f79d30ae510300e5e\">Caesar cipher<\/a> c. 50 B.C., which was created in order to prevent his secret messages from being read should a message fall into the wrong hands; however, for the most part protection was achieved through the application of procedural handling controls.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Sensitive information was marked up to indicate that it should be protected and transported by trusted persons, guarded and stored in a secure environment or strong box. As postal services expanded, governments created official organizations to intercept, decipher, read and reseal letters (e.g., the U.K.'s Secret Office, founded in 1653<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JohnsonTheEvo97_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JohnsonTheEvo97-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>).\n<\/p><p>In the mid-nineteenth century more complex <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classified_information\" title=\"Classified information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0ff0b737ab31c45d7e5a4047bfb82a7\">classification systems<\/a> were developed to allow governments to manage their information according to the degree of sensitivity. For example, the British Government codified this, to some extent, with the publication of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Official_Secrets_Act_1889\" title=\"Official Secrets Act 1889\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f73db55a72684d2eb11690918c80cd5\">Official Secrets Act<\/a> in 1889.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HastedtSpies11_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HastedtSpies11-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> By the time of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/First_World_War\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"First World War\" data-key=\"e053beb5bdf71bdf3729b03867e64914\">First World War<\/a>, multi-tier classification systems were used to communicate information to and from various fronts, which encouraged greater use of code making and breaking sections in diplomatic and military headquarters. Encoding became more sophisticated between the wars as machines were employed to scramble and unscramble information. The volume of information shared by the Allied countries during the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Second_World_War\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Second World War\" data-key=\"b55151af96172d88e112bc1291c7c684\">Second World War<\/a> necessitated formal alignment of classification systems and procedural controls. An arcane range of markings evolved to indicate who could handle documents (usually officers rather than enlisted troops) and where they should be stored as increasingly complex safes and storage facilities were developed. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enigma_Machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Enigma Machine\" data-key=\"cb2dd0a96ec20a76f625ba6b27a97fb8\">Enigma Machine<\/a>, which was employed by the Germans to encrypt the data of warfare and was successfully decrypted by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Turing\" title=\"Alan Turing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48468f77ba0cf295402108f0dd72c040\">Alan Turing<\/a>, can be regarded as a striking example of creating and using secured information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Sebag-MontefioreEnigma11_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Sebag-MontefioreEnigma11-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> Procedures evolved to ensure documents were destroyed properly, and it was the failure to follow these procedures which led to some of the greatest intelligence coups of the war (e.g., the capture of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/U-570\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"U-570\" data-key=\"fb51908bd8e5927715c990e1ae955434\">U-570<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Sebag-MontefioreEnigma11_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Sebag-MontefioreEnigma11-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>).\n<\/p><p>The end of the twentieth century and the early years of the twenty-first century saw rapid advancements in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telecommunications\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Telecommunications\" data-key=\"6c6b66a3f44e091a8ccba63659266923\">telecommunications<\/a>, computing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_hardware\" title=\"Computer hardware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3af5473d082dc42736a8f0e670ebb91\">hardware<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a>, and data <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" title=\"Encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">encryption<\/a>. The availability of smaller, more powerful and less expensive computing equipment made <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_processing\" title=\"Data processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b36e7bb8fd1d63549fc55ba60d8729fe\">electronic data processing<\/a> within the reach of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Small_business\" title=\"Small business\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4fffb3656f995a8907bf12298d69ed6\">small business<\/a> and the home user. These computers quickly became interconnected through the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">internet<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The rapid growth and widespread use of electronic data processing and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_business\" title=\"Electronic business\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"434db26912da8a9300608c10d3c8b44c\">electronic business<\/a> conducted through the internet, along with numerous occurrences of international <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Terrorism\" title=\"Terrorism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff765bf66c2389435634c236c9d096cd\">terrorism<\/a>, fueled the need for better methods of protecting the computers and the information they store, process and transmit.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeLeeuwTheHist07_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeLeeuwTheHist07-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> The academic disciplines of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security\" title=\"Computer security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c2aa75aadd7f77c4f5ad26205c4c77b\">computer security<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_assurance\" title=\"Information assurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7b0a4f40d633e51fcc2dfa55fdb8529\">information assurance<\/a> emerged along with numerous professional organizations, all sharing the common goals of ensuring the security and reliability of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_system\" title=\"Information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142b46020d5e573e81dabce3b59c33ec\">information systems<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Definitions\">Definitions<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:CIAJMK1209.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"77759782b09e432f2f2374a5f4dff03a\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9a\/CIAJMK1209.png\/220px-CIAJMK1209.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"216\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:CIAJMK1209.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"77759782b09e432f2f2374a5f4dff03a\"><\/a><\/div><b>Information Security Attributes<\/b>: or qualities, i.e., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Confidentiality\" title=\"Confidentiality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d847e78525549bfa02450d9bb2d16144\">Confidentiality<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42abdc13351f50028f23f899197d3349\">Integrity<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability\" title=\"Availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"852165c687e5f61ae873818e8645f987\">Availability<\/a> (CIA). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information Systems\" data-key=\"ac6dfde0c91540fd5d2847fe7510e21c\">Information Systems<\/a> are composed in three main portions, hardware, software and communications with the purpose to help identify and apply information security industry standards, as mechanisms of protection and prevention, at three levels or layers: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_information_security\" title=\"Physical information security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d210dd5809fbbd0fd8f918fd20a90369\">physical<\/a>, personal and organizational. Essentially, procedures or policies are implemented to tell administrators, users and operators how to use products to ensure information security within the organizations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cherdantseva_Y_2013_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cherdantseva_Y_2013-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Various definitions of information security are suggested below, summarized from different sources:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>\"Preservation of confidentiality, integrity and availability of information. Note: In addition, other properties, such as authenticity, accountability, non-repudiation and reliability can also be involved.\" (ISO\/IEC 27000:2009)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"The protection of information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction in order to provide confidentiality, integrity, and availability.\" (CNSS, 2010)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"Ensures that only authorized users (confidentiality) have access to accurate and complete information (integrity) when required (availability).\" (ISACA, 2008)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"Information Security is the process of protecting the intellectual property of an organisation.\" (Pipkin, 2000)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"...information security is a risk management discipline, whose job is to manage the cost of information risk to the business.\" (McDermott and Geer, 2001)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"A well-informed sense of assurance that information risks and controls are in balance.\" (Anderson, J., 2003)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"Information security is the protection of information and minimizes the risk of exposing information to unauthorized parties.\" (Venter and Eloff, 2003)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>\"Information Security is a multidisciplinary area of study and professional activity which is concerned with the development and implementation of security mechanisms of all available types (technical, organizational, human-oriented and legal) in order to keep information in all its locations (within and outside the organization's perimeter) and, consequently, information systems, where information is created, processed, stored, transmitted and destroyed, free from threats.Threats to information and information systems may be categorized and a corresponding security goal may be defined for each category of threats. A set of security goals, identified as a result of a threat analysis, should be revised periodically to ensure its adequacy and conformance with the evolving environment. The currently relevant set of security goals may include: <i>confidentiality, integrity, availability, privacy, authenticity & trustworthiness, non-repudiation, accountability and auditability.<\/i>\" (Cherdantseva and Hilton, 2013)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cherdantseva_Y_2013_19-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cherdantseva_Y_2013-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Basic_principles\">Basic principles<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Key_concepts\">Key concepts<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Posters_for_information_security_for_the_Ministry_of_Defense_of_the_Russian_Federation.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3d6f061169bbaccf47156fbc4c46053\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a1\/Posters_for_information_security_for_the_Ministry_of_Defense_of_the_Russian_Federation.jpg\/220px-Posters_for_information_security_for_the_Ministry_of_Defense_of_the_Russian_Federation.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"312\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Posters_for_information_security_for_the_Ministry_of_Defense_of_the_Russian_Federation.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"a3d6f061169bbaccf47156fbc4c46053\"><\/a><\/div>Poster promoting information security by the Russian <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ministry_of_Defence_(Russia)\" title=\"Ministry of Defence (Russia)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5eb50d17ddd282d07f873f629fc02bcb\">Ministry of Defence<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The CIA triad of confidentiality, integrity, and availability is at the heart of information security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> (The members of the classic InfoSec triad\u2014confidentiality, integrity and availability\u2014are interchangeably referred to in the literature as security attributes, properties, security goals, fundamental aspects, information criteria, critical information characteristics and basic building blocks.) However, debate continues about whether or not this CIA triad is sufficient to address rapidly changing technology and business requirements, with recommendations to consider expanding on the intersections between availability and confidentiality, as well as the relationship between security and privacy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SamonasTheCIA14_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SamonasTheCIA14-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Other principles such as \"accountability\" have sometimes been proposed; it has been pointed out that issues such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-repudiation\" title=\"Non-repudiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"626625acb28e081c4e58d7fb46a4b9f5\">non-repudiation<\/a> do not fit well within the three core concepts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NIST_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NIST-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 1992 and revised in 2002, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OECD\" title=\"OECD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54f18718f83debb05ba3bed03728c89b\">OECD<\/a>'s <i>Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems and Networks<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> proposed the nine generally accepted principles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_awareness\" title=\"Information security awareness\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72fc08974e96d08809fd9516d8e883df\">awareness<\/a>, responsibility, response, ethics, democracy, risk assessment, security design and implementation, security management, and reassessment. Building upon those, in 2004 the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NIST\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NIST\" data-key=\"2c5730fa123ebb7598290eb8137b243f\">NIST<\/a>'s <i>Engineering Principles for Information Technology Security<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NIST_28-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NIST-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> proposed 33 principles. From each of these derived guidelines and practices.\n<\/p><p>In 1998, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Donn_Parker\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Donn Parker\" data-key=\"b142283cc24f5c4b85ea5c31cabff24d\">Donn Parker<\/a> proposed an alternative model for the classic CIA triad that he called the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parkerian_Hexad\" title=\"Parkerian Hexad\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eed96e5d998436c90b004cad583b76e1\">six atomic elements of information<\/a>. The elements are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Confidentiality\" title=\"Confidentiality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d847e78525549bfa02450d9bb2d16144\">confidentiality<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ownership\" title=\"Ownership\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8aa14294d82818297cdff88ca8088396\">possession<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integrity\" title=\"Integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f3641502bb975111af957dade22b840a\">integrity<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication\" title=\"Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b74801c769bbf831b273b2d28e09b\">authenticity<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability\" title=\"Availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"852165c687e5f61ae873818e8645f987\">availability<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Utility\" title=\"Utility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"317210b0c67c2128db183f39aa610e39\">utility<\/a>. The merits of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parkerian_Hexad\" title=\"Parkerian Hexad\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eed96e5d998436c90b004cad583b76e1\">Parkerian Hexad<\/a> are a subject of debate amongst security professionals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 2011, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Open_Group\" title=\"The Open Group\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed26d19e0fe33a6405308223795d6307\">The Open Group<\/a> published the information security management standard <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_Information_Security_Maturity_Model\" title=\"Open Information Security Maturity Model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66b7bad7e42161d96a6b4b66d5bfde4c\">O-ISM3<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> This standard proposed an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_definition\" title=\"Operational definition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"76875458195604543b0ca5ea75ff2e23\">operational definition<\/a> of the key concepts of security, with elements called \"security objectives\", related to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control\" title=\"Access control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f978f594d7eee9299dbb3da18ee80a8c\">access control<\/a> (9), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability\" title=\"Availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"852165c687e5f61ae873818e8645f987\">availability<\/a> (3), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_quality\" title=\"Data quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8771428f8ff5b31246abf8b197186672\">data quality<\/a> (1), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Standards-compliant\" title=\"Standards-compliant\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34491cbb9ef85b8df6191602c31b2e50\">compliance<\/a> and technical (4). In 2009, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DoD\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"DoD\" data-key=\"08fd2cf924191ca62618a56f11658eab\">DoD<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/spi.dod.mil\/\" target=\"_blank\">Software Protection Initiative<\/a> released the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/spi.dod.mil\/threat.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Three Tenets of Cybersecurity<\/a> which are System Susceptibility, Access to the Flaw, and Capability to Exploit the Flaw.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup> Neither of these models are widely adopted.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Confidentiality\">Confidentiality<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In information security, confidentiality \"is the property, that information is not made available or disclosed to unauthorized individuals, entities, or processes.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BeckersPattern15_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BeckersPattern15-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> While similar to \"privacy,\" the two words aren't interchangeable. Rather, confidentiality is a component of privacy that implements to protect our data from unauthorized viewers. Examples of confidentiality of electronic data being compromised include laptop theft, password theft, or sensitive emails being sent to the incorrect individuals.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AndressTheBasics14-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Integrity\">Integrity<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In information security, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42abdc13351f50028f23f899197d3349\">data integrity<\/a> means maintaining and assuring the accuracy and completeness of data over its entire lifecycle.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> This means that data cannot be modified in an unauthorized or undetected manner. This is not the same thing as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Referential_integrity\" title=\"Referential integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff357b46cedfef3587d99400e530e6c5\">referential integrity<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Databases\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Databases\" data-key=\"4ff0b40b476e847fb7b4f18428ec64ad\">databases<\/a>, although it can be viewed as a special case of consistency as understood in the classic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ACID\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ACID\" data-key=\"49a2ed92a6f8e7d2959db4830195557a\">ACID<\/a> model of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transaction_processing\" title=\"Transaction processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc4654ebea47d9f14e7ebe49367c965c\">transaction processing<\/a>. Information security systems typically provide message integrity along side to confidentiality.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Availability\">Availability<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>For any information system to serve its purpose, the information must be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Availability\" title=\"Availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"852165c687e5f61ae873818e8645f987\">available<\/a> when it is needed. This means the computing systems used to store and process the information, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_controls\" title=\"Security controls\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"967bf01beac3187ddde94c106f7e5db3\">security controls<\/a> used to protect it, and the communication channels used to access it must be functioning correctly. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High_availability\" title=\"High availability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6acdd44b498040284e564f149f928f24\">High availability<\/a> systems aim to remain available at all times, preventing service disruptions due to power outages, hardware failures, and system upgrades. Ensuring availability also involves preventing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denial-of-service_attack\" title=\"Denial-of-service attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60592f037a0652dd16c640127be8ca89\">denial-of-service attacks<\/a>, such as a flood of incoming messages to the target system, essentially forcing it to shut down.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the realm of information security, availability can often be viewed as one of the most important parts of a successful information security program. Ultimately end-users need to be able to perform job functions; by ensuring availability an organization is able to perform to the standards that an organization's stakeholders expect. This can involve topics such as proxy configurations, outside web access, the ability to access shared drives and the ability to send emails. Executives oftentimes do not understand the technical side of information security and look at availability as an easy fix, but this often requires collaboration from many different organizational teams, such as network operations, development operations, incident response and policy\/change management. A successful information security team involves many different key roles to mesh and align for the CIA triad to be provided effectively.\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:CIAJMK1209.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"77759782b09e432f2f2374a5f4dff03a\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9a\/CIAJMK1209.png\/220px-CIAJMK1209.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"216\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:CIAJMK1209.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"77759782b09e432f2f2374a5f4dff03a\"><\/a><\/div>CIA triad methodology<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Non-repudiation\">Non-repudiation<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In law, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-repudiation\" title=\"Non-repudiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"626625acb28e081c4e58d7fb46a4b9f5\">non-repudiation<\/a> implies one's intention to fulfill their obligations to a contract. It also implies that one party of a transaction cannot deny having received a transaction, nor can the other party deny having sent a transaction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BidgoliHandbook06_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BidgoliHandbook06-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>It is important to note that while technology such as cryptographic systems can assist in non-repudiation efforts, the concept is at its core a legal concept transcending the realm of technology. It is not, for instance, sufficient to show that the message matches a digital signature signed with the sender's private key, and thus only the sender could have sent the message, and nobody else could have altered it in transit (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42abdc13351f50028f23f899197d3349\">data integrity<\/a>). The alleged sender could in return demonstrate that the digital signature algorithm is vulnerable or flawed, or allege or prove that his signing key has been compromised. The fault for these violations may or may not lie with the sender, and such assertions may or may not relieve the sender of liability, but the assertion would invalidate the claim that the signature necessarily proves authenticity and integrity. As such, the sender may repudiate the message (because authenticity and integrity are pre-requisites for non-repudiation).\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Risk_management\">Risk management<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_management\" title=\"Risk management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8dfffb6fe8cc680af34e88ec60c1c92\">Risk management<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Certified_Information_Systems_Auditor\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Certified Information Systems Auditor\" data-key=\"f8dcd7a7d7bf8bb62bba49dc5fd0a9a2\">Certified Information Systems Auditor<\/a> (CISA) Review Manual 2006<\/i> provides the following definition of risk management: \"Risk management is the process of identifying <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_(computing)\" title=\"Vulnerability (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba3eca3995690776a2ec5d3a458bb68e\">vulnerabilities<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Threat_(computer)\" title=\"Threat (computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d5165b429cff5ef72f0996f714d481\">threats<\/a> to the information resources used by an organization in achieving business objectives, and deciding what <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Countermeasure_(computer)\" title=\"Countermeasure (computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"786c1827cd50ca51d3c796640418a445\">countermeasures<\/a>, if any, to take in reducing risk to an acceptable level, based on the value of the information resource to the organization.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There are two things in this definition that may need some clarification. First, the <i>process<\/i> of risk management is an ongoing, iterative <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">process<\/a>. It must be repeated indefinitely. The business environment is constantly changing and new <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Threat_(computer)\" title=\"Threat (computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59d5165b429cff5ef72f0996f714d481\">threats<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_(computing)\" title=\"Vulnerability (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba3eca3995690776a2ec5d3a458bb68e\">vulnerabilities<\/a> emerge every day. Second, the choice of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Countermeasure_(computer)\" title=\"Countermeasure (computer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"786c1827cd50ca51d3c796640418a445\">countermeasures<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_controls\" title=\"Security controls\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"967bf01beac3187ddde94c106f7e5db3\">controls<\/a>) used to manage risks must strike a balance between productivity, cost, effectiveness of the countermeasure, and the value of the informational asset being protected.\n<\/p><p>Risk analysis and risk evaluation processes have their limitations since, when security incidents occur, they emerge in a context, and their rarity and uniqueness give rise to unpredictable threats. The analysis of these phenomena, which are characterized by breakdowns, surprises and side-effects, requires a theoretical approach that is able to examine and interpret subjectively the detail of each incident.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Risk is the likelihood that something bad will happen that causes harm to an informational asset (or the loss of the asset). A vulnerability is a weakness that could be used to endanger or cause harm to an informational asset. A threat is anything (man-made or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Natural_disaster\" title=\"Natural disaster\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ace129743c79a6eb9942600c17f6fdf\">act of nature<\/a>) that has the potential to cause harm.\n<\/p><p>The likelihood that a threat will use a vulnerability to cause harm creates a risk. When a threat does use a vulnerability to inflict harm, it has an impact. In the context of information security, the impact is a loss of availability, integrity, and confidentiality, and possibly other losses (lost income, loss of life, loss of real property).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GramaLegal14_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GramaLegal14-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> It should be pointed out that it is not possible to identify all risks, nor is it possible to eliminate all risk. The remaining risk is called \"residual risk.\"\n<\/p><p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_assessment\" title=\"Risk assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"011cb1c8b0a87fcbb22deb8c265f5410\">risk assessment<\/a> is carried out by a team of people who have knowledge of specific areas of the business. Membership of the team may vary over time as different parts of the business are assessed. The assessment may use a subjective qualitative analysis based on informed opinion, or where reliable dollar figures and historical information is available, the analysis may use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistics\" title=\"Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b33a2c126f998dcb96c31a065f1cf984\">quantitative<\/a> analysis.\n<\/p><p>Research has shown that the most vulnerable point in most information systems is the human user, operator, designer, or other human.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_17799\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17799\" data-key=\"f22acb53c5d3e8ff1295edd089585782\">ISO\/IEC 27002:2005<\/a> Code of practice for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_management\" title=\"Information security management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"965dd2c20d37321146f7748f8a080d52\">information security management<\/a> recommends the following be examined during a risk assessment:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_policy\" title=\"Security policy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"240c40608a1fa03fb94728756d41b1db\">security policy<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organization\" title=\"Organization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3f46954c79f7a1fafc5e803bd654e8\">organization<\/a> of information security,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Asset_management\" title=\"Asset management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1390a11e683d0eff107c334424ba9a71\">asset management<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_resources\" title=\"Human resources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efc1600cf27dd94c0c671f2b4c618ab5\">human resources<\/a> security,<\/li>\n<li>physical and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_security\" title=\"Environmental security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bab62bbe39a38cf0527ff518b6b68cfd\">environmental security<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communications\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Communications\" data-key=\"5c9aec456fcd38abe3c81cdab4f7f5b1\">communications<\/a> and operations management,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control\" title=\"Access control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f978f594d7eee9299dbb3da18ee80a8c\">access control<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li>information systems acquisition, development and maintenance,<\/li>\n<li>information security <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Incident_management\" title=\"Incident management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc3b95f332502327588aadeffb21282b\">incident management<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li>business continuity management, and<\/li>\n<li>regulatory compliance.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In broad terms, the risk management process consists of:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NewsomeAPract13_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NewsomeAPract13-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WhitmanManage16_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WhitmanManage16-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Identification of assets and estimating their value. Include: people, buildings, hardware, software, data (electronic, print, other), supplies.<\/li>\n<li>Conduct a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Threat_assessment\" title=\"Threat assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0a1bfa8a8bfeae97434bb3990cdcd5e\">threat assessment<\/a>. Include: Acts of nature, acts of war, accidents, malicious acts originating from inside or outside the organization.<\/li>\n<li>Conduct a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vulnerability_assessment\" title=\"Vulnerability assessment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ece2090b891dcf65af4cc398ef400633\">vulnerability assessment<\/a>, and for each vulnerability, calculate the probability that it will be exploited. Evaluate policies, procedures, standards, training, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physical_security\" title=\"Physical security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f5638e30bd1ab1ce1c42482d33a335b\">physical security<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_control\" title=\"Quality control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53081160bfedb3363868fc07b231ab5c\">quality control<\/a>, technical security.<\/li>\n<li>Calculate the impact that each threat would have on each asset. Use qualitative analysis or quantitative analysis.<\/li>\n<li>Identify, select and implement appropriate controls. Provide a proportional response. Consider productivity, cost effectiveness, and value of the asset.<\/li>\n<li>Evaluate the effectiveness of the control measures. Ensure the controls provide the required cost effective protection without discernible loss of productivity.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>For any given risk, management can choose to accept the risk based upon the relative low value of the asset, the relative low frequency of occurrence, and the relative low impact on the business. Or, leadership may choose to mitigate the risk by selecting and implementing appropriate control measures to reduce the risk. In some cases, the risk can be transferred to another business by buying insurance or outsourcing to another business.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SP80030_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SP80030-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> The reality of some risks may be disputed. In such cases leadership may choose to deny the risk.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_controls\">Security controls<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_controls\" title=\"Security controls\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"967bf01beac3187ddde94c106f7e5db3\">security controls<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Selecting and implementing proper security controls will initially help an organization bring down risk to acceptable levels. Control selection should follow and should be based on the risk assessment. Controls can vary in nature, but fundamentally they are ways of protecting the confidentiality, integrity or availability of information. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_27001\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 27001\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd3902db4bbaf0270cab9cb14d0f326e\">ISO\/IEC 27001<\/a> has defined controls in different areas. Organizations can implement additional controls according to requirement of the organization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JohnsonSecurity15_46-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JohnsonSecurity15-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_27002\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 27002\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc28eaa3c6396ef0cb40ec8a4bc4ab2e\">ISO\/IEC 27002<\/a> offers a guideline for organizational information security standards.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Administrative\">Administrative<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Administrative controls consist of approved written policies, procedures, standards and guidelines. Administrative controls form the framework for running the business and managing people. They inform people on how the business is to be run and how day-to-day operations are to be conducted. Laws and regulations created by government bodies are also a type of administrative control because they inform the business. Some industry sectors have policies, procedures, standards and guidelines that must be followed \u2013 the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Payment_Card_Industry_Data_Security_Standard\" title=\"Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7349f5e00d4d43437e99087117caf84\">Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> (PCI DSS) required by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visa_Inc.\" title=\"Visa Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17c5c7efa3b8a11bb0981f3b7e1d24b7\">Visa<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MasterCard\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MasterCard\" data-key=\"800930ed966ced433aa04bbc3482c041\">MasterCard<\/a> is such an example. Other examples of administrative controls include the corporate security policy, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Password_policy\" title=\"Password policy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"222b7c7d2fd9f738bac2ff84dda06491\">password policy<\/a>, hiring policies, and disciplinary policies.\n<\/p><p>Administrative controls form the basis for the selection and implementation of logical and physical controls. Logical and physical controls are manifestations of administrative controls, which are of paramount importance.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Logical\">Logical<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Logical controls (also called technical controls) use software and data to monitor and control access to information and computing systems. Passwords, network and host-based firewalls, network <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intrusion_detection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Intrusion detection\" data-key=\"1bc8a7889354f177551215bcbb759cc1\">intrusion detection<\/a> systems, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control_list\" title=\"Access control list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c0bf561208bb893140c82316c072372\">access control lists<\/a>, and data encryption are examples of logical controls.\n<\/p><p>An important logical control that is frequently overlooked is the principle of least privilege, which requires that an individual, program or system process not be granted any more access privileges than are necessary to perform the task.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RansomeCore13_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RansomeCore13-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup> A blatant example of the failure to adhere to the principle of least privilege is logging into Windows as user Administrator to read email and surf the web. Violations of this principle can also occur when an individual collects additional access privileges over time. This happens when employees' job duties change, employees are promoted to a new position, or employees are transferred to another department. The access privileges required by their new duties are frequently added onto their already existing access privileges, which may no longer be necessary or appropriate.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Physical\">Physical<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Physical controls monitor and control the environment of the work place and computing facilities. They also monitor and control access to and from such facilities and include doors, locks, heating and air conditioning, smoke and fire alarms, fire suppression systems, cameras, barricades, fencing, security guards, cable locks, etc. Separating the network and workplace into functional areas are also physical controls.\n<\/p><p>An important physical control that is frequently overlooked is separation of duties, which ensures that an individual can not complete a critical task by himself. For example, an employee who submits a request for reimbursement should not also be able to authorize payment or print the check. An applications programmer should not also be the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_administrator\" title=\"System administrator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86ed88f966bb45921ef615e89161da11\">server administrator<\/a> or the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_administrator\" title=\"Database administrator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8e2b2bd10401dfbb829692fdc8df46a\">database administrator<\/a>; these roles and responsibilities must be separated from one another.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Defense_in_depth\">Defense in depth<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Defense_In_Depth_-_Onion_Model.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8398aef9f8eb1c69f5a990d7f569cc7\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/4c\/Defense_In_Depth_-_Onion_Model.svg\/220px-Defense_In_Depth_-_Onion_Model.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Defense_In_Depth_-_Onion_Model.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"a8398aef9f8eb1c69f5a990d7f569cc7\"><\/a><\/div>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Onion_model\" title=\"Onion model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"693151511ed57412cd8089b02c6a6123\">onion model<\/a> of defense in depth<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Defense_in_depth_(computing)\" title=\"Defense in depth (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f19c946c8f3003cd31960f9b5665cfbc\">Defense in depth (computing)<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Information security must protect information throughout its lifespan, from the initial creation of the information on through to the final disposal of the information. The information must be protected while in motion and while at rest. During its lifetime, information may pass through many different information processing systems and through many different parts of information processing systems. There are many different ways the information and information systems can be threatened. To fully protect the information during its lifetime, each component of the information processing system must have its own protection mechanisms. The building up, layering on and overlapping of security measures is called \"defense in depth.\" In contrast to a metal chain, which is famously only as strong as its weakest link, the defense in depth strategy aims at a structure where, should one defensive measure fail, other measures will continue to provide protection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VaccaComputer13_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VaccaComputer13-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Recall the earlier discussion about administrative controls, logical controls, and physical controls. The three types of controls can be used to form the basis upon which to build a defense in depth strategy. With this approach, defense in depth can be conceptualized as three distinct layers or planes laid one on top of the other. Additional insight into defense in depth can be gained by thinking of it as forming the layers of an onion, with data at the core of the onion, people the next outer layer of the onion, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_security\" title=\"Network security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd28fe06f1e45ea385d35225e5d4effc\">network security<\/a>, host-based security and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_security\" title=\"Application security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58af074101b32ff0ed2601987d6030d0\">application security<\/a> forming the outermost layers of the onion. Both perspectives are equally valid, and each provides valuable insight into the implementation of a good defense in depth strategy.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_classification_for_information\">Security classification for information<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An important aspect of information security and risk management is recognizing the value of information and defining appropriate procedures and protection requirements for the information. Not all information is equal and so not all information requires the same degree of protection. This requires information to be assigned a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classified_information\" title=\"Classified information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0ff0b737ab31c45d7e5a4047bfb82a7\">security classification<\/a>. The first step in information classification is to identify a member of senior management as the owner of the particular information to be classified. Next, develop a classification policy. The policy should describe the different classification labels, define the criteria for information to be assigned a particular label, and list the required <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_controls\" title=\"Security controls\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"967bf01beac3187ddde94c106f7e5db3\">security controls<\/a> for each classification.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BayukEnterprise09_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BayukEnterprise09-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Some factors that influence which classification information should be assigned include how much value that information has to the organization, how old the information is and whether or not the information has become obsolete. Laws and other regulatory requirements are also important considerations when classifying information. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISACA\" title=\"ISACA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"010a2ea5096a87c89e1bcf76f74cce67\">Information Systems Audit and Control Association<\/a> (ISACA) and its <i>Business Model for Information Security<\/i> also serves as a tool for security professionals to examine security from a systems perspective, creating an environment where security can be managed holistically, allowing actual risks to be addressed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ISACA-BMIS_51-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ISACA-BMIS-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The type of information security classification labels selected and used will depend on the nature of the organization, with examples being:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BayukEnterprise09_50-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BayukEnterprise09-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>In the business sector, labels such as: Public, Sensitive, Private, Confidential.<\/li>\n<li>In the government sector, labels such as: Unclassified, Unofficial, Protected, Confidential, Secret, Top Secret and their non-English equivalents.<\/li>\n<li>In cross-sectoral formations, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traffic_Light_Protocol\" title=\"Traffic Light Protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66bdb08e5fc2228e139b10bea7398999\">Traffic Light Protocol<\/a>, which consists of: White, Green, Amber, and Red.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>All employees in the organization, as well as business partners, must be trained on the classification schema and understand the required security controls and handling procedures for each classification. The classification of a particular information asset that has been assigned should be reviewed periodically to ensure the classification is still appropriate for the information and to ensure the security controls required by the classification are in place and are followed in their right procedures.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Access_control\">Access control<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Access to protected information must be restricted to people who are authorized to access the information. The computer programs, and in many cases the computers that process the information, must also be authorized. This requires that mechanisms be in place to control the access to protected information. The sophistication of the access control mechanisms should be in parity with the value of the information being protected; the more sensitive or valuable the information the stronger the control mechanisms need to be. The foundation on which access control mechanisms are built start with identification and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication\" title=\"Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b74801c769bbf831b273b2d28e09b\">authentication<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Access control is generally considered in three steps: identification, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication\" title=\"Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b74801c769bbf831b273b2d28e09b\">authentication<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authorization\" title=\"Authorization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e448453704ea5be3cefe1e1593364217\">authorization<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AndressTheBasics14-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Identification\">Identification<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Identification is an assertion of who someone is or what something is. If a person makes the statement \"Hello, my name is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Doe\" title=\"John Doe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30fed3344a61fccdbce47e1f90ab11a2\">John Doe<\/a>\" they are making a claim of who they are. However, their claim may or may not be true. Before John Doe can be granted access to protected information it will be necessary to verify that the person claiming to be John Doe really is John Doe. Typically the claim is in the form of a username. By entering that username you are claiming \"I am the person the username belongs to\".\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Authentication\">Authentication<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Authentication is the act of verifying a claim of identity. When John Doe goes into a bank to make a withdrawal, he tells the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bank_teller\" title=\"Bank teller\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"43414f7f536b05ebb48c0f4b91a93d38\">bank teller<\/a> he is John Doe, a claim of identity. The bank teller asks to see a photo ID, so he hands the teller his <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Driver%27s_license\" title=\"Driver's license\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7a79f51dceb5346d0448c148020d1f1c\">driver's license<\/a>. The bank teller checks the license to make sure it has John Doe printed on it and compares the photograph on the license against the person claiming to be John Doe. If the photo and name match the person, then the teller has authenticated that John Doe is who he claimed to be. Similarly, by entering the correct password, the user is providing evidence that he\/she is the person the username belongs to.\n<\/p><p>There are three different types of information that can be used for authentication:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Something you know: things such as a PIN, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Password\" title=\"Password\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1a0d7ae6f26ce9e27f1556f4d98c342\">password<\/a>, or your mother's <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maiden_name\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Maiden name\" data-key=\"e5bcfd60a794e6ba37fa596ec5d14b6b\">maiden name<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Something you have: a driver's license or a magnetic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swipe_card\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Swipe card\" data-key=\"d80cad37d0858f4645a845ccf0d7ef6a\">swipe card<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Something you are: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biometrics\" title=\"Biometrics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4f35a99c6e99677482bfa536211b504\">biometrics<\/a>, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Palm_print\" title=\"Palm print\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45c895ec915797b82533a3482ad1ad2c\">palm prints<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fingerprint\" title=\"Fingerprint\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"467ce94e6e4a373eb01fa079a45609ff\">fingerprints<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speaker_recognition\" title=\"Speaker recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49a5cd75e4e5ece8e506ae2f09e75f11\">voice prints<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Retina_scan\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Retina scan\" data-key=\"a39a274997307b549ccce693061793d5\">retina (eye) scans<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Strong authentication requires providing more than one type of authentication information (two-factor authentication). The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Username\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Username\" data-key=\"83b88effc872d757b09098aa05ee9160\">username<\/a> is the most common form of identification on computer systems today and the password is the most common form of authentication. Usernames and passwords have served their purpose, but they are increasingly inadequate.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup> Usernames and passwords are slowly being replaced or supplemented with more sophisticated authentication mechanisms such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time-based_One-time_Password_Algorithm\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Time-based One-time Password Algorithm\" data-key=\"c2f2b3ca9d1e38e4a8ae783b545fb987\">Time-based One-time Password algorithms<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Authorization\">Authorization<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>After a person, program or computer has successfully been identified and authenticated then it must be determined what informational resources they are permitted to access and what actions they will be allowed to perform (run, view, create, delete, or change). This is called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authorization\" title=\"Authorization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e448453704ea5be3cefe1e1593364217\">authorization<\/a>. Authorization to access information and other computing services begins with administrative policies and procedures. The policies prescribe what information and computing services can be accessed, by whom, and under what conditions. The access control mechanisms are then configured to enforce these policies. Different computing systems are equipped with different kinds of access control mechanisms. Some may even offer a choice of different access control mechanisms. The access control mechanism a system offers will be based upon one of three approaches to access control, or it may be derived from a combination of the three approaches.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AndressTheBasics14-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The non-discretionary approach consolidates all access control under a centralized administration. The access to information and other resources is usually based on the individuals function (role) in the organization or the tasks the individual must perform. The discretionary approach gives the creator or owner of the information resource the ability to control access to those resources. In the mandatory access control approach, access is granted or denied basing upon the security classification assigned to the information resource.\n<\/p><p>Examples of common access control mechanisms in use today include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Role-Based_Access_Control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Role-Based Access Control\" data-key=\"2e1497ec02152335e6e9339e79b15bc9\">role-based access control<\/a>, available in many advanced database management systems; simple <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_system_permissions\" title=\"File system permissions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd2cd7ba46400951982f63715bcc08c7\">file permissions<\/a> provided in the UNIX and Windows operating systems; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Group_Policy_Object\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Group Policy Object\" data-key=\"aae55913161c0e1fca1388a3b9dcf56e\">Group Policy Objects<\/a> provided in Windows network systems; and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kerberos_(protocol)\" title=\"Kerberos (protocol)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d030e1836409d375c5fd53ae3dd36e88\">Kerberos<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RADIUS\" title=\"RADIUS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38d1ecc9dd9ff46be4907a1af7090c9c\">RADIUS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TACACS\" title=\"TACACS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c30c0970e022bea7217b780ec18c3a3\">TACACS<\/a>, and the simple access lists used in many <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Firewall_(networking)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Firewall (networking)\" data-key=\"7da6d7805097a24a8974213a1734d7b4\">firewalls<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Router_(computing)\" title=\"Router (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46947797897d69ee68e26743409f5b0d\">routers<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>To be effective, policies and other security controls must be enforceable and upheld. Effective policies ensure that people are held accountable for their actions. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury\" title=\"United States Department of the Treasury\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca637dddb909c91302330bde6ab587d2\">U.S. Treasury<\/a>'s guidelines for systems processing sensitive or proprietary information, for example, states that all failed and successful authentication and access attempts must be logged, and all access to information must leave some type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20dda7b1dead7c17c90c4498b0afe092\">audit trail<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Also, the need-to-know principle needs to be in effect when talking about access control. This principle gives access rights to a person to perform their job functions. This principle is used in the government when dealing with difference clearances. Even though two employees in different departments have a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classified_information\" title=\"Classified information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0ff0b737ab31c45d7e5a4047bfb82a7\">top-secret clearance<\/a>, they must have a need-to-know in order for information to be exchanged. Within the need-to-know principle, network administrators grant the employee the least amount of privileges to prevent employees from accessing more than what they are supposed to. Need-to-know helps to enforce the confidentiality-integrity-availability triad. Need-to-know directly impacts the confidential area of the triad.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cryptography\">Cryptography<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">Cryptography<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Information security uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptography<\/a> to transform usable information into a form that renders it unusable by anyone other than an authorized user; this process is called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" title=\"Encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">encryption<\/a>. Information that has been encrypted (rendered unusable) can be transformed back into its original usable form by an authorized user who possesses the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_(cryptography)\" title=\"Key (cryptography)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f386cde7c8c131fd3ca8b2e725775fcd\">cryptographic key<\/a>, through the process of decryption. Cryptography is used in information security to protect information from unauthorized or accidental disclosure while the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a> is in transit (either electronically or physically) and while information is in storage.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_2-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AndressTheBasics14-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Cryptography provides information security with other useful applications as well, including improved authentication methods, message digests, digital signatures, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-repudiation\" title=\"Non-repudiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"626625acb28e081c4e58d7fb46a4b9f5\">non-repudiation<\/a>, and encrypted network communications. Older, less secure applications such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telnet\" title=\"Telnet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"885d05aadabd58ef57bcebde9d7f8509\">Telnet<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_Transfer_Protocol\" title=\"File Transfer Protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"02c256429868d5a2ea279ac6ccb336a6\">File Transfer Protocol<\/a> (FTP) are slowly being replaced with more secure applications such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure_Shell\" title=\"Secure Shell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"985ea9b990df466e020a3f536bdce306\">Secure Shell<\/a> (SSH) that use encrypted network communications. Wireless communications can be encrypted using protocols such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wi-Fi_Protected_Access\" title=\"Wi-Fi Protected Access\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63eab7b4dc4136f5ef1d614d03ebf686\">WPA\/WPA2<\/a> or the older (and less secure) <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wired_Equivalent_Privacy\" title=\"Wired Equivalent Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01b5a3f371cd38c2b221f0b591897dd0\">WEP<\/a>. Wired communications (such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITU-T\" title=\"ITU-T\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66989984f04c650ca9f0770e4833a5d6\">ITU\u2011T<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/G.hn\" title=\"G.hn\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47f628c02e510aecefa4c3d64ea0d6ab\">G.hn<\/a>) are secured using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_Encryption_Standard\" title=\"Advanced Encryption Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0411feeb59e8eb26837d638e589e3fb6\">AES<\/a> for encryption and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/X.1035\" title=\"X.1035\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b3b670e0ff2978c6957bdc5e164baa0\">X.1035<\/a> for authentication and key exchange. Software applications such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GnuPG\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GnuPG\" data-key=\"d0b18a53bd68c9e39ba2a9ec9ac509c6\">GnuPG<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pretty_Good_Privacy\" title=\"Pretty Good Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53b603ea3a39ecc964d1c8035196d426\">PGP<\/a> can be used to encrypt data files and email.\n<\/p><p>Cryptography can introduce security problems when it is not implemented correctly. Cryptographic solutions need to be implemented using industry-accepted solutions that have undergone rigorous peer review by independent experts in cryptography. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_size\" title=\"Key size\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"891c5be28796575e5d9741067ba79f63\">length and strength<\/a> of the encryption key is also an important consideration. A key that is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weak_key\" title=\"Weak key\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18f11c6e348a0be274cdeaa72bb676d4\">weak<\/a> or too short will produce weak encryption. The keys used for encryption and decryption must be protected with the same degree of rigor as any other confidential information. They must be protected from unauthorized disclosure and destruction and they must be available when needed. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_key_infrastructure\" title=\"Public key infrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe01ccfdd85622bf9528e8428b3b5897\">Public key infrastructure<\/a> (PKI) solutions address many of the problems that surround <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_management\" title=\"Key management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9c068d4680b0ef256209228831e12d2\">key management<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_2-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AndressTheBasics14-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Process\">Process<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The terms \"reasonable and prudent person,\" \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Due_care\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Due care\" data-key=\"24563707232bae0ff4b38f069723112d\">due care<\/a>\" and \"due diligence\" have been used in the fields of finance, securities, and law for many years. In recent years these terms have found their way into the fields of computing and information security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WhitmanManage16_44-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WhitmanManage16-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Sentencing_Guidelines\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Federal Sentencing Guidelines\" data-key=\"b78b3347c9c53ca0b352f5d29a541ffb\">Federal Sentencing Guidelines<\/a> now make it possible to hold corporate officers liable for failing to exercise due care and due diligence in the management of their information systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VallabhaneniCorporate08_54-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VallabhaneniCorporate08-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the business world, stockholders, customers, business partners and governments have the expectation that corporate officers will run the business in accordance with accepted business practices and in compliance with laws and other regulatory requirements. This is often described as the \"reasonable and prudent person\" rule. A prudent person takes due care to ensure that everything necessary is done to operate the business by sound business principles and in a legal, ethical manner. A prudent person is also diligent (mindful, attentive, ongoing) in their due care of the business.\n<\/p><p>In the field of information security, Harris<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>offers the following definitions of due care and due diligence:\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<blockquote><p><i>\"Due care are steps that are taken to show that a company has taken responsibility for the activities that take place within the corporation and has taken the necessary steps to help protect the company, its resources, and employees.\"<\/i> And, [Due diligence are the] <i>\"continual activities that make sure the protection mechanisms are continually maintained and operational.\"<\/i>\n<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Attention should be made to two important points in these definitions. First, in due care, steps are taken to show; this means that the steps can be verified, measured, or even produce tangible artifacts. Second, in due diligence, there are continual activities; this means that people are actually doing things to monitor and maintain the protection mechanisms, and these activities are ongoing.\n<\/p><p>Organizations have a responsibility with practicing duty of care when applying information security. The Duty of Care Risk Analysis Standard (DoCRA)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup> provides principles and practices for evaluating risk. It considers all parties that could be affected by those risks. DoCRA helps evaluate safeguards if they are appropriate in protecting others from harm while presenting a reasonable burden. With increased data breach litigation, companies must balance security controls, compliance, and its mission.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_governance\">Security governance<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Security_Governance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information Security Governance\" data-key=\"c5cab2657bb7974a04ccd3e69b18740d\">Information Security Governance<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_Engineering_Institute\" title=\"Software Engineering Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1071582bb3392ccef646ca4577971ea5\">Software Engineering Institute<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Mellon_University\" title=\"Carnegie Mellon University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edc1e7b9266be3eeab86296d0abca43b\">Carnegie Mellon University<\/a>, in a publication titled <i>Governing for Enterprise Security (GES) Implementation Guide<\/i>, defines characteristics of effective security governance. These include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WestbyGovern07_57-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WestbyGovern07-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>An enterprise-wide issue<\/li>\n<li>Leaders are accountable<\/li>\n<li>Viewed as a business requirement<\/li>\n<li>Risk-based<\/li>\n<li>Roles, responsibilities, and segregation of duties defined<\/li>\n<li>Addressed and enforced in policy<\/li>\n<li>Adequate resources committed<\/li>\n<li>Staff aware and trained<\/li>\n<li>A development life cycle requirement<\/li>\n<li>Planned, managed, measurable, and measured<\/li>\n<li>Reviewed and audited<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Incident_response_plans\">Incident response plans<\/span><\/h3>\n\n<p>An incident response plan that addresses how discovered breaches in security is also vital. It should include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Selection of team members<\/li>\n<li>Definition of roles, responsibilities and lines of authority<\/li>\n<li>Definition of a security incident<\/li>\n<li>Definition of a reportable incident<\/li>\n<li>Training<\/li>\n<li>Detection<\/li>\n<li>Classification<\/li>\n<li>Escalation<\/li>\n<li>Containment<\/li>\n<li>Eradication<\/li>\n<li>Documentation<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Change_management\">Change management<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_Management_(ITSM)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Change Management (ITSM)\" data-key=\"ebdec2e0e105ce65cce340abd56877af\">Change Management (ITSM)<\/a><\/div>\n\n<p>Change management is a formal process for directing and controlling alterations to the information processing environment. This includes alterations to desktop computers, the network, servers and software. The objectives of change management are to reduce the risks posed by changes to the information processing environment and improve the stability and reliability of the processing environment as changes are made. It is not the objective of change management to prevent or hinder necessary changes from being implemented.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CampbellPractical16_58-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CampbellPractical16-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Any change to the information processing environment introduces an element of risk. Even apparently simple changes can have unexpected effects. One of management's many responsibilities is the management of risk. Change management is a tool for managing the risks introduced by changes to the information processing environment. Part of the change management process ensures that changes are not implemented at inopportune times when they may disrupt critical business processes or interfere with other changes being implemented.\n<\/p><p>Not every change needs to be managed. Some kinds of changes are a part of the everyday routine of information processing and adhere to a predefined procedure, which reduces the overall level of risk to the processing environment. Creating a new user account or deploying a new desktop computer are examples of changes that do not generally require change management. However, relocating user file shares, or upgrading the Email server pose a much higher level of risk to the processing environment and are not a normal everyday activity. The critical first steps in change management are (a) defining change (and communicating that definition) and (b) defining the scope of the change system.\n<\/p><p>Change management is usually overseen by a change review board composed of representatives from key business areas, security, networking, systems administrators, database administration, application developers, desktop support and the help desk. The tasks of the change review board can be facilitated with the use of automated work flow application. The responsibility of the change review board is to ensure the organization's documented change management procedures are followed. The change management process is as follows<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TaylorProject08_59-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TaylorProject08-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><b>Request:<\/b> Anyone can request a change. The person making the change request may or may not be the same person that performs the analysis or implements the change. When a request for change is received, it may undergo a preliminary review to determine if the requested change is compatible with the organizations <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_model\" title=\"Business model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2688ecba2105e5229b85377e94392f3e\">business model<\/a> and practices, and to determine the amount of resources needed to implement the change.<\/li>\n<li><b>Approve:<\/b> Management runs the business and controls the allocation of resources therefore, management must approve requests for changes and assign a priority for every change. Management might choose to reject a change request if the change is not compatible with the business model, industry standards or best practices. Management might also choose to reject a change request if the change requires more resources than can be allocated for the change.<\/li>\n<li><b>Plan:<\/b> Planning a change involves discovering the scope and impact of the proposed change; analyzing the complexity of the change; allocation of resources and, developing, testing and documenting both implementation and back-out plans. Need to define the criteria on which a decision to back out will be made.<\/li>\n<li><b>Test:<\/b> Every change must be tested in a safe test environment, which closely reflects the actual production environment, before the change is applied to the production environment. The backout plan must also be tested.<\/li>\n<li><b>Schedule:<\/b> Part of the change review board's responsibility is to assist in the scheduling of changes by reviewing the proposed implementation date for potential conflicts with other scheduled changes or critical business activities.<\/li>\n<li><b>Communicate:<\/b> Once a change has been scheduled it must be communicated. The communication is to give others the opportunity to remind the change review board about other changes or critical business activities that might have been overlooked when scheduling the change. The communication also serves to make the help desk and users aware that a change is about to occur. Another responsibility of the change review board is to ensure that scheduled changes have been properly communicated to those who will be affected by the change or otherwise have an interest in the change.<\/li>\n<li><b>Implement:<\/b> At the appointed date and time, the changes must be implemented. Part of the planning process was to develop an implementation plan, testing plan and, a back out plan. If the implementation of the change should fail or, the post implementation testing fails or, other \"drop dead\" criteria have been met, the back out plan should be implemented.<\/li>\n<li><b>Document:<\/b> All changes must be documented. The documentation includes the initial request for change, its approval, the priority assigned to it, the implementation, testing and back out plans, the results of the change review board critique, the date\/time the change was implemented, who implemented it, and whether the change was implemented successfully, failed or postponed.<\/li>\n<li><b>Post-change review:<\/b> The change review board should hold a post-implementation review of changes. It is particularly important to review failed and backed out changes. The review board should try to understand the problems that were encountered, and look for areas for improvement.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Change management procedures that are simple to follow and easy to use can greatly reduce the overall risks created when changes are made to the information processing environment. Good change management procedures improve the overall quality and success of changes as they are implemented. This is accomplished through planning, peer review, documentation and communication.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_20000\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 20000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46bbc6f69ef65963c3574045ff6379f8\">ISO\/IEC 20000<\/a>, The Visible OPS Handbook: Implementing ITIL in 4 Practical and Auditable Steps<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup> (Full book summary),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Technology_Infrastructure_Library\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information Technology Infrastructure Library\" data-key=\"cf8d1b6a09a55a9c7489338c800fd869\">Information Technology Infrastructure Library<\/a> all provide valuable guidance on implementing an efficient and effective change management program information security.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Business_continuity\">Business continuity<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Business continuity management (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_continuity_planning\" title=\"Business continuity planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0314e0ebb69a83f82d4925a81373f7f2\">BCM<\/a>) concerns arrangements aiming to protect an organization's critical business functions from interruption due to incidents, or at least minimize the effects. BCM is essential to any organization to keep technology and business in line with current threats to the continuation of business as usual. The BCM should be included in an organizations <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Risk analysis\" data-key=\"df1f083529f7408563140a1abeda3bf4\">risk analysis<\/a> plan to ensure that all of the necessary business functions have what they need to keep going in the event of any type of threat to any business function.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>It encompasses:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Analysis of requirements, e.g., identifying critical business functions, dependencies and potential failure points, potential threats and hence incidents or risks of concern to the organization;<\/li>\n<li>Specification, e.g., maximum tolerable outage periods; recovery point objectives (maximum acceptable periods of data loss);<\/li>\n<li>Architecture and design, e.g., an appropriate combination of approaches including resilience (e.g. engineering IT systems and processes for high availability, avoiding or preventing situations that might interrupt the business), incident and emergency management (e.g., evacuating premises, calling the emergency services, triage\/situation assessment and invoking recovery plans), recovery (e.g., rebuilding) and contingency management (generic capabilities to deal positively with whatever occurs using whatever resources are available);<\/li>\n<li>Implementation, e.g., configuring and scheduling backups, data transfers, etc., duplicating and strengthening critical elements; contracting with service and equipment suppliers;<\/li>\n<li>Testing, e.g., business continuity exercises of various types, costs and assurance levels;<\/li>\n<li>Management, e.g., defining strategies, setting objectives and goals; planning and directing the work; allocating funds, people and other resources; prioritization relative to other activities; team building, leadership, control, motivation and coordination with other business functions and activities (e.g., IT, facilities, human resources, risk management, information risk and security, operations); monitoring the situation, checking and updating the arrangements when things change; maturing the approach through continuous improvement, learning and appropriate investment;<\/li>\n<li>Assurance, e.g., testing against specified requirements; measuring, analyzing and reporting key parameters; conducting additional tests, reviews and audits for greater confidence that the arrangements will go to plan if invoked.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Whereas BCM takes a broad approach to minimizing disaster-related risks by reducing both the probability and the severity of incidents, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disaster_recovery_plan\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Disaster recovery plan\" data-key=\"087866b7ea43f9f22ab1207694e81b93\">disaster recovery plan<\/a> (DRP) focuses specifically on resuming business operations as quickly as possible after a disaster. A disaster recovery plan, invoked soon after a disaster occurs, lays out the steps necessary to recover critical <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_and_communications_technology\" title=\"Information and communications technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"595b230f45aac8af1e3004fad0f14cf0\">information and communications technology<\/a> (ICT) infrastructure. Disaster recovery planning includes establishing a planning group, performing risk assessment, establishing priorities, developing recovery strategies, preparing inventories and documentation of the plan, developing verification criteria and procedure, and lastly implementing the plan.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laws_and_regulations\">Laws and regulations<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"c86601bbce88581b408b01caa8dd5376\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2c\/Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png\/220px-Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"102\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"c86601bbce88581b408b01caa8dd5376\"><\/a><\/div><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_International\" title=\"Privacy International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5871c91334e4a46ac82f987ff205c62e\">Privacy International<\/a> 2007 privacy ranking<br \/>green: Protections and safeguards<br \/>red: Endemic surveillance societies<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Below is a partial listing of governmental laws and regulations in various parts of the world that have, had, or will have, a significant effect on data processing and information security. Important industry sector regulations have also been included when they have a significant impact on information security.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The U.K. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Protection_Act_1984\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data Protection Act 1984\" data-key=\"21b3ec37c87ae98a4b124345dcb0ba66\">Data Protection Act 1998<\/a> makes new provisions for the regulation of the processing of information relating to individuals, including the obtaining, holding, use or disclosure of such information. The European Union Data Protection Directive (EUDPD) requires that all E.U. members adopt national regulations to standardize the protection of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_privacy\" title=\"Information privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7dbb3588f4b4f0d68b7d7359daea67bb\">data privacy<\/a> for citizens throughout the E.U.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UKDataProtAct_64-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UKDataProtAct-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_Misuse_Act\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer Misuse Act\" data-key=\"031f6e4f5c2d28e8fe8a7a36cdb2dd90\">Computer Misuse Act<\/a> 1990 is an Act of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom\" title=\"Parliament of the United Kingdom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"28abbf09cedf0ab1c7e4d188ee06f606\">U.K. Parliament<\/a> making computer crime (e.g., hacking) a criminal offense. The act has become a model upon which several other countries, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Canada\" title=\"Canada\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d2d285670d9ceeca776b202248af2f2\">Canada<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Republic_of_Ireland\" title=\"Republic of Ireland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5380a9d5ba49fae68060f38bd3b50297\">Republic of Ireland<\/a>, have drawn inspiration from when subsequently drafting their own information security laws.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UKCompMisAct_65-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UKCompMisAct-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The E.U.'s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Retention_Directive\" title=\"Data Retention Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97dcc4c879c13050f302a7e7873fa6e9\">Data Retention Directive<\/a> (annulled) required internet service providers and phone companies to keep data on every electronic message sent and phone call made for between six months and two years.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EU24EC06_66-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EU24EC06-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Family_Educational_Rights_and_Privacy_Act\" title=\"Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca10926de917212e4d97b79d64a41232\">Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act<\/a> (FERPA) (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Title_20_of_the_United_States_Code\" title=\"Title 20 of the United States Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52ad536444c760308c076d17939c6eab\">20 U.S.C.<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/uscode\/text\/20\/1232\" target=\"_blank\">\u00a7 1232<\/a> g; 34 CFR Part 99) is a U.S. Federal law that protects the privacy of student education records. The law applies to all schools that receive funds under an applicable program of the U.S. Department of Education. Generally, schools must have written permission from the parent or eligible student in order to release any information from a student's education record.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FERPA_67-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FERPA-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council's (FFIEC) security guidelines for auditors specifies requirements for online banking security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FFIECAudit_68-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FFIECAudit-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"651fe0fa5498890d1a29b4c1e21db2db\">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act<\/a> (HIPAA) of 1996 requires the adoption of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers. Additionally, it requires health care providers, insurance providers and employers to safeguard the security and privacy of health data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HIPAAGPO_69-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HIPAAGPO-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gramm%E2%80%93Leach%E2%80%93Bliley_Act\" title=\"Gramm\u2013Leach\u2013Bliley Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"883c5a526cf8e5d63388b682f058a36b\">Gramm\u2013Leach\u2013Bliley Act<\/a> of 1999 (GLBA), also known as the Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999, protects the privacy and security of private financial information that financial institutions collect, hold, and process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GLBAGPO_70-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GLBAGPO-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Section 404 of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sarbanes%E2%80%93Oxley_Act\" title=\"Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bc225a8cadba29f9f88c2930c3a91b9\">Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX)<\/a> requires publicly traded companies to assess the effectiveness of their internal controls for financial reporting in annual reports they submit at the end of each fiscal year. Chief information officers are responsible for the security, accuracy and the reliability of the systems that manage and report the financial data. The act also requires publicly traded companies to engage with independent auditors who must attest to, and report on, the validity of their assessments.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SOAGPO_71-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SOAGPO-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Payment_Card_Industry_Data_Security_Standard\" title=\"Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7349f5e00d4d43437e99087117caf84\">Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS)<\/a> establishes comprehensive requirements for enhancing payment account data security. It was developed by the founding payment brands of the PCI Security Standards Council \u2014 including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/American_Express\" title=\"American Express\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e0c2d212bea869912e330567c5e91e6\">American Express<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Discover_Card\" title=\"Discover Card\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fce884382c359f2a0d87b09153287ff8\">Discover Financial Services<\/a>, JCB, MasterCard Worldwide and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visa_Inc.\" title=\"Visa Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17c5c7efa3b8a11bb0981f3b7e1d24b7\">Visa International<\/a> \u2014 to help facilitate the broad adoption of consistent <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_security\" title=\"Data security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7e9e5ee008f52b19272642e6cf8fb9\">data security<\/a> measures on a global basis. The PCI DSS is a multifaceted security standard that includes requirements for security management, policies, procedures, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_architecture\" title=\"Network architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a2dd983cb372f51ca551b0426078134\">network architecture<\/a>, software design and other critical protective measures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PCIDSS3.2_72-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PCIDSS3.2-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>State <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_breach_notification_laws\" title=\"Security breach notification laws\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"836a6f4563df66fb4e12aa8c9572410d\">security breach notification laws<\/a> (California and many others) require businesses, nonprofits, and state institutions to notify consumers when unencrypted \"personal information\" may have been compromised, lost, or stolen.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NCSLStateSecBreach17_73-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NCSLStateSecBreach17-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The Personal Information Protection and Electronics Document Act (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_Information_Protection_and_Electronic_Documents_Act\" title=\"Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"281123a74d6f255d572e17bafd2474fe\">PIPEDA<\/a>) of Canada supports and promotes electronic commerce by protecting personal information that is collected, used or disclosed in certain circumstances, by providing for the use of electronic means to communicate or record information or transactions and by amending the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Canada_Evidence_Act\" title=\"Canada Evidence Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb37f370d9e19709795d4bc80ed3df8e\">Canada Evidence Act<\/a>, the Statutory Instruments Act and the Statute Revision Act.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PIPEDA_74-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PIPEDA-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Greece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 165\/2011) establishes and describes the minimum information security controls that should be deployed by every company which provides electronic communication networks and\/or services in Greece in order to protect customers' confidentiality. These include both managerial and technical controls (e.g., log records should be stored for two years).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RACEC_75-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RACEC-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Greece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 205\/2013) concentrates around the protection of the integrity and availability of the services and data offered by Greek telecommunication companies. The law forces these and other related companies to build, deploy and test appropriate business continuity plans and redundant infrastructures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-205\/2013_76-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-205\/2013-76\">[76]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Information_security_culture\">Information security culture<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Describing more than simply how security aware employees are, information security culture is the ideas, customs, and social behaviors of an organization that impact information security in both positive and negative ways.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">[77]<\/a><\/sup> Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness towards information security within an organization. The way employees think and feel about security and the actions they take can have a big impact on information security in organizations. Roer & Petric (2017) identify seven core dimensions of information security culture in organizations:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[78]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Attitudes: Employees\u2019 feelings and emotions about the various activities that pertain to the organizational security of information.<\/li>\n<li>Behaviors: Actual or intended activities and risk-taking actions of employees that have direct or indirect impact on information security.<\/li>\n<li>Cognition: Employees' awareness, verifiable knowledge, and beliefs regarding practices, activities, and self-efficacy relation that are related to information security.<\/li>\n<li>Communication: Ways employees communicate with each other, sense of belonging, support for security issues, and incident reporting.<\/li>\n<li>Compliance: Adherence to organizational security policies, awareness of the existence of such policies and the ability to recall the substance of such policies.<\/li>\n<li>Norms: Perceptions of security-related organizational conduct and practices that are informally deemed either normal or deviant by employees and their peers, e.g. hidden expectations regarding security behaviors and unwritten rules regarding uses of information-communication technologies.<\/li>\n<li>Responsibilities: Employees' understanding of the roles and responsibilities they have as a critical factor in sustaining or endangering the security of information, and thereby the organization.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Andersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of the organization Information Security \"effort\" and often take actions that ignore organizational information security best interests.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Andersson_&_Reimers_2014_79-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Andersson_&_Reimers_2014-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup> Research shows information security culture needs to be improved continuously. In <i>Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change<\/i>, authors commented, \"It's a never ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance.\" To manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Pre-Evaluation: to identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analyze current security policy<\/li>\n<li>Strategic Planning: to come up a better awareness-program, we need to set clear targets. Clustering people is helpful to achieve it<\/li>\n<li>Operative Planning: create a good security culture based on internal communication, management buy-in, security awareness and training programs<\/li>\n<li>Implementation: should feature commitment of management, communication with organizational members, courses for all organizational members, and commitment of the employees<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_4-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Post-evaluation: to better gauge the effectiveness of the prior steps and build on continuous improvement<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sources_of_standards\">Sources of standards<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyber_Security_Standards\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cyber Security Standards\" data-key=\"abd04a349a425fc6dd4ffe53d10cc604\">Cyber Security Standards<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">International Organization for Standardization<\/a> (ISO) is a consortium of national standards institutes from 157 countries, coordinated through a secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland. ISO is the world's largest developer of standards. ISO 15443: \"Information technology \u2013 Security techniques \u2013 A framework for IT security assurance\", <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_27002\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 27002\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc28eaa3c6396ef0cb40ec8a4bc4ab2e\">ISO\/IEC 27002<\/a>: \"Information technology \u2013 Security techniques \u2013 Code of practice for information security management\", <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_20000\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 20000\" data-key=\"363700996393430d6cb57d23794ed33f\">ISO-20000<\/a>: \"Information technology \u2013 Service management\", and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_27001\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 27001\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd3902db4bbaf0270cab9cb14d0f326e\">ISO\/IEC 27001<\/a>: \"Information technology \u2013 Security techniques \u2013 Information security management systems \u2013 Requirements\" are of particular interest to information security professionals.\n<\/p><p>The US <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology\" title=\"National Institute of Standards and Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"420abb4c176d79852b635ba1191578a1\">National Institute of Standards and Technology<\/a> (NIST) is a non-regulatory federal agency within the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/U.S._Department_of_Commerce\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"U.S. Department of Commerce\" data-key=\"bebed447447884350f4e51a0aef3af6d\">U.S. Department of Commerce<\/a>. The NIST Computer Security Division\n<p>develops standards, metrics, tests and validation programs as well as publishes standards and guidelines to increase secure IT planning, implementation, management and operation. NIST is also the custodian of the U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Information_Processing_Standard\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Federal Information Processing Standard\" data-key=\"fb42dc27b7635c7b5e49bde5b9a0029e\">Federal Information Processing Standard<\/a> publications (FIPS).\n<\/p>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Internet_Society\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"The Internet Society\" data-key=\"cb8dd3a3553d2de4563e4cc36ed6f7b9\">The Internet Society<\/a> is a professional membership society with more than 100 organizations and over 20,000 individual members in over 180 countries. It provides leadership in addressing issues that confront the future of the internet, and it is the organizational home for the groups responsible for internet infrastructure standards, including the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force\" title=\"Internet Engineering Task Force\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88d05b50307366450526102068246161\">Internet Engineering Task Force<\/a> (IETF) and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Architecture_Board\" title=\"Internet Architecture Board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"487acd15ae9dcacae2795cd1c55bd68d\">Internet Architecture Board<\/a> (IAB). The ISOC hosts the Requests for Comments (RFCs) which includes the Official Internet Protocol Standards and the RFC-2196 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Site_Security_Handbook\" title=\"Site Security Handbook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f63185b98a29e901898d8ad3f2a12a3a\">Site Security Handbook<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Security_Forum\" title=\"Information Security Forum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b23a7618101e56ee5c288c920e48e86c\">Information Security Forum<\/a> (ISF) is a global nonprofit organization of several hundred leading organizations in financial services, manufacturing, telecommunications, consumer goods, government, and other areas. It undertakes research into information security practices and offers advice in its biannual <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Standard_of_Good_Practice\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Standard of Good Practice\" data-key=\"41cb9c2bedd9000a053c0915994000ac\">Standard of Good Practice<\/a> and more detailed advisories for members.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Institute_of_Information_Security_Professionals\" title=\"Institute of Information Security Professionals\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9e090f7f9591cbcfdf1e613da9211f7\">Institute of Information Security Professionals<\/a> (IISP) is an independent, non-profit body governed by its members, with the principal objective of advancing the professionalism of information security practitioners and thereby the professionalism of the industry as a whole. The institute developed the IISP Skills Framework. This framework describes the range of competencies expected of information security and information assurance professionals in the effective performance of their roles. It was developed through collaboration between both private and public sector organizations and world-renowned academics and security leaders.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[80]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The German <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Office_for_Information_Security\" title=\"Federal Office for Information Security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7031f1b30ce0534a0850ebadcf42735d\">Federal Office for Information Security<\/a> (in German <i>Bundesamt f\u00fcr Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik (BSI)<\/i>) BSI-Standards 100-1 to 100-4 are a set of recommendations including \"methods, processes, procedures, approaches and measures relating to information security\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-81\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup> The BSI-Standard 100-2 <i>IT-Grundschutz Methodology<\/i> describes how information security management can be implemented and operated. The standard includes a very specific guide, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_Baseline_Protection_Catalogs\" title=\"IT Baseline Protection Catalogs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0f520153dee84e89ddf92009cff7323\">IT Baseline Protection Catalogs<\/a> (also known as IT-Grundschutz Catalogs). Before 2005, the catalogs were formerly known as \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_baseline_protection\" title=\"IT baseline protection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dbd75ca5685bac717cfa9738425d2eb8\">IT Baseline Protection<\/a> Manual\". The Catalogs are a collection of documents useful for detecting and combating security-relevant weak points in the IT environment (IT cluster). The collection encompasses as of September 2013 over 4,400 pages with the introduction and catalogs. The IT-Grundschutz approach is aligned with to the ISO\/IEC 2700x family.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Telecommunications_Standards_Institute\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"European Telecommunications Standards Institute\" data-key=\"50ca573812ddcd1848e305041321eb4c\">European Telecommunications Standards Institute<\/a> standardized a catalog of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_indicators\" title=\"Information security indicators\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b860ef785a8e89bb7e50d9a4b8b208d\">information security indicators<\/a>, headed by the Industrial Specification Group (ISG) ISI.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"navigation\" aria-label=\"Portals\" class=\"noprint portal plainlist tright\" style=\"margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px\">\n<ul style=\"display:table;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0.1em;max-width:175px;background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold\">\n<li style=\"display:table-row\"><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Monitor_padlock.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"0426af03b6266422696d47876054a62d\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/73\/Monitor_padlock.svg\/31px-Monitor_padlock.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"31\" height=\"28\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/a><\/span><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Computer_security\" title=\"Portal:Computer security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9aa802c077f04f5c56bc4152d2015d3b\">Computer security portal<\/a><\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa4b45de245f1a05a108097855baf547\">Backup<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_breach\" title=\"Data breach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"611c0b2099532a287e0e8fe5b0c95f57\">Data breach<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data-centric_security\" title=\"Data-centric security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"feedeb7bbd576ad9a332a705aff195ff\">Data-centric security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_information_security_architecture\" title=\"Enterprise information security architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb446f05bbe936305384d67c8c315c8f\">Enterprise information security architecture<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity-based_security\" title=\"Identity-based security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d369fa224c1be047c7e2e3fdc2afbf0\">Identity-based security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_infrastructure\" title=\"Information infrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8027e41333cc7d18b82989cd35af1314\">Information infrastructure<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_audit\" title=\"Information security audit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54b78415e2cd54db9b44910817ad9ce4\">Information security audit<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_indicators\" title=\"Information security indicators\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b860ef785a8e89bb7e50d9a4b8b208d\">Information security indicators<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_management\" title=\"Information security management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"965dd2c20d37321146f7748f8a080d52\">Information security management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security_standards\" title=\"Information security standards\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4ba975b6b283fc00c2e33f0afee4635\">Information security standards<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology_security_audit\" title=\"Information technology security audit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7135277757379a18b0456060e566c670\">Information technology security audit<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_risk\" title=\"IT risk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce3ce8706cab9a53b087faec87be3e38\">IT risk<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITIL_security_management\" title=\"ITIL security management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe7522d2e4c01c76d2ff011a70706cbf\">ITIL security management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kill_chain\" title=\"Kill chain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd364217b33226afd8de5c0917cb4a06\">Kill chain<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_Computer_Security_Certifications\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"List of Computer Security Certifications\" data-key=\"2d2dbc3349824fc3d0b2a740fe71141f\">List of Computer Security Certifications<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_security\" title=\"Mobile security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf32c339d351c1985e8b463b30752340\">Mobile security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_Security_Services\" title=\"Network Security Services\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"611822eef6124c8be777392ee72dd084\">Network Security Services<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_engineering\" title=\"Privacy engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09e10e0d8639a74f9f59abcc2bda335a\">Privacy engineering<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_software\" title=\"Privacy software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c74548af7083e4b6f7021ad7a65759ee\">Privacy software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy-enhancing_technologies\" title=\"Privacy-enhancing technologies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ae61af64d4df26eac37f3a66efc853a\">Privacy-enhancing technologies<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_bug\" title=\"Security bug\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4beabdc260e7c15d505dd13ccd229e28\">Security bug<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_convergence\" title=\"Security convergence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa85a39e353b0f0e2b4a1a55d8c7fbf3\">Security convergence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_information_management\" title=\"Security information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05eb1ff1c2e95447bbc894f070a84d1d\">Security information management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_level_management\" title=\"Security level management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"468fbb55dc5fb6ccda121f6b4d614535\">Security level management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_of_Information_Act\" title=\"Security of Information Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5e8211709e6b3dfbc86dba6c77251f7\">Security of Information Act<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_service_(telecommunication)\" title=\"Security service (telecommunication)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89e0ed00300848b9ed15452e9bc06ded\">Security service (telecommunication)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Single_sign-on\" title=\"Single sign-on\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff6ef9321be5735b208f36c02bfe8450\">Single sign-on<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Verification_and_validation\" title=\"Verification and validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed7e27dd6af25849fd870d013597fa9f\">Verification and validation<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Title_44_of_the_United_States_Code\" title=\"Title 44 of the United States Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c18280e765807efaa315ca14a159450\">44 U.S.C.<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/uscode\/text\/44\/3542\" target=\"_blank\">\u00a7 3542<\/a>(b)(1)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AndressTheBasics14-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_2-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_2-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_2-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AndressTheBasics14_2-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Andress, J. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=9NI0AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Basics of Information Security: Understanding the Fundamentals of InfoSec in Theory and Practice<\/i><\/a>. Syngress. p. 240. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780128008126.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Basics+of+Information+Security%3A+Understanding+the+Fundamentals+of+InfoSec+in+Theory+and+Practice&rft.pages=240&rft.pub=Syngress&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780128008126&rft.au=Andress%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9NI0AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wisegeek.org\/what-is-information-security.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is Information Security? (with pictures)\"<\/a>. <i>wiseGEEK<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2017-10-06<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=wiseGEEK&rft.atitle=What+is+Information+Security%3F+%28with+pictures%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wisegeek.org%2Fwhat-is-information-security.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_4-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_4-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schlienger,_Thomas_2003_4-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Schlienger, Thomas; Teufel, Stephanie (December 2003). \"Information security culture - from analysis to change\". <i>South African Computer Society (SAICSIT)<\/i>. <b>2003<\/b> (31): 46\u201352. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Handle_System\" title=\"Handle System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8e7a741cfb848ce702b7b0326c72032\">hdl<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/10520%2FEJC27949\" target=\"_blank\">10520\/EJC27949<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+African+Computer+Society+%28SAICSIT%29&rft.atitle=Information+security+culture+-+from+analysis+to+change&rft.volume=2003&rft.issue=31&rft.pages=46-52&rft.date=2003-12&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10520%2FEJC27949&rft.aulast=Schlienger&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Teufel%2C+Stephanie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SamonasTheCIA14-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-SamonasTheCIA14_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SamonasTheCIA14_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Samonas, S.; Coss, D. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.jissec.org\/Contents\/V10\/N3\/V10N3-Samonas.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The CIA Strikes Back: Redefining Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability in Security\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Information System Security<\/i>. <b>10<\/b> (3): 21\u201345.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Information+System+Security&rft.atitle=The+CIA+Strikes+Back%3A+Redefining+Confidentiality%2C+Integrity+and+Availability+in+Security&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=21-45&rft.date=2014&rft.au=Samonas%2C+S.&rft.au=Coss%2C+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jissec.org%2FContents%2FV10%2FN3%2FV10N3-Samonas.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GartnerSays17-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GartnerSays17_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/3810771\" target=\"_blank\">\"Gartner Says Digital Disruptors Are Impacting All Industries; Digital KPIs Are Crucial to Measuring Success\"<\/a>. Gartner. 2 October 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gartner+Says+Digital+Disruptors+Are+Impacting+All+Industries%3B+Digital+KPIs+Are+Crucial+to+Measuring+Success&rft.pub=Gartner&rft.date=2017-10-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gartner.com%2Fnewsroom%2Fid%2F3810771&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GartnerSurvey17-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GartnerSurvey17_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/3689017\" target=\"_blank\">\"Gartner Survey Shows 42 Percent of CEOs Have Begun Digital Business Transformation\"<\/a>. Gartner. 24 April 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gartner+Survey+Shows+42+Percent+of+CEOs+Have+Begun+Digital+Business+Transformation&rft.pub=Gartner&rft.date=2017-04-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gartner.com%2Fnewsroom%2Fid%2F3689017&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.itgovernance.co.uk\/download\/Information-security-qualifications.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Information Security Qualifications Fact Sheet\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IT Governance<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IT+Governance&rft.atitle=Information+Security+Qualifications+Fact+Sheet&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.itgovernance.co.uk%2Fdownload%2FInformation-security-qualifications.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Stewart, James (2012). <i>CISSP Study Guide<\/i>. Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 255\u2013257. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-118-31417-3.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=CISSP+Study+Guide&rft.place=Canada&rft.pages=255-257&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-118-31417-3&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Enge, Eric. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.stonetemple.com\/mobile-vs-desktop-usage-mobile-grows-but-desktop-still-a-big-player\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stone Temple\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stone+Temple&rft.aulast=Enge&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stonetemple.com%2Fmobile-vs-desktop-usage-mobile-grows-but-desktop-still-a-big-player%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_phone\" title=\"Mobile phone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f308160569b30fb9430217f73c172f7d\">Cell phones<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Gordon, Lawrence; Loeb, Martin (November 2002). \"The Economics of Information Security Investment\". <i>ACM Transactions on Information and System Security<\/i>. <b>5<\/b> (4): 438\u2013457. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F581271.581274\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/581271.581274<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+Transactions+on+Information+and+System+Security&rft.atitle=The+Economics+of+Information+Security+Investment&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=438-457&rft.date=2002-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F581271.581274&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Lawrence&rft.au=Loeb%2C+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Stewart, James (2012). <i>CISSP Certified Information Systems Security Professional Study Guide Sixth Edition<\/i>. Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 255\u2013257. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-118-31417-3.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=CISSP+Certified+Information+Systems+Security+Professional+Study+Guide+Sixth+Edition&rft.place=Canada&rft.pages=255-257&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-118-31417-3&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Suetonius\" title=\"Suetonius\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fce2976213bf82e31cf346796764465\">Suetonius Tranquillus, Gaius<\/a> (2008). <i>Lives of the Caesars (Oxford World's Classics)<\/i>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 28. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-19-953756-3.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lives+of+the+Caesars+%28Oxford+World%27s+Classics%29&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-953756-3&rft.aulast=Suetonius+Tranquillus&rft.aufirst=Gaius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Simon_Singh\" title=\"Simon Singh\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa41bba80dbd3aab1662ac2538706f62\">Singh, Simon<\/a> (2000). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Code_Book\" title=\"The Code Book\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f219faf65e4df0b06ff890035483e231\"><i>The Code Book<\/i><\/a>. Anchor. pp. 289\u2013290. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-385-49532-5.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Code+Book&rft.pages=289-290&rft.pub=Anchor&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-385-49532-5&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JohnsonTheEvo97-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-JohnsonTheEvo97_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Johnson, John (1997). <i>The Evolution of British Sigint: 1653\u20131939<\/i>. Her Majesty's Stationery Office. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number\" title=\"Amazon Standard Identification Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3985b5e9ec81329b1d5020eb4a07258\">ASIN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/dp\/B00GYX1GX2\" target=\"_blank\">B00GYX1GX2<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+British+Sigint%3A+1653%E2%80%931939&rft.pub=Her+Majesty%27s+Stationery+Office&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HastedtSpies11-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HastedtSpies11_16-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Ruppert, K. (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=A8WoNp2vI-cC&pg=PA589\" target=\"_blank\">\"Official Secrets Act (1889; New 1911; Amended 1920, 1939, 1989)\"<\/a>. In Hastedt, G.P. <i>Spies, Wiretaps, and Secret Operations: An Encyclopedia of American Espionage<\/i>. <b>2<\/b>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 589\u2013590. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781851098088.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Official+Secrets+Act+%281889%3B+New+1911%3B+Amended+1920%2C+1939%2C+1989%29&rft.btitle=Spies%2C+Wiretaps%2C+and+Secret+Operations%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+American+Espionage&rft.pages=589-590&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781851098088&rft.au=Ruppert%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA8WoNp2vI-cC%26pg%3DPA589&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Sebag-MontefioreEnigma11-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Sebag-MontefioreEnigma11_17-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Sebag-MontefioreEnigma11_17-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Sebag\u2013Montefiore, H. (2011). <i>Enigma: The Battle for the Code<\/i>. Orion. p. 576. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781780221236.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enigma%3A+The+Battle+for+the+Code&rft.pages=576&rft.pub=Orion&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781780221236&rft.au=Sebag%E2%80%93Montefiore%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DeLeeuwTheHist07-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DeLeeuwTheHist07_18-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">DeNardis, L. (2007). \"Chapter 24: A History of Internet Security\". In de Leeuw, K.M.M.; Bergstra, J. <i>The History of Information Security: A Comprehensive Handbook<\/i>. Elsevier. pp. 681\u2013704. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780080550589.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+24%3A+A+History+of+Internet+Security&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Information+Security%3A+A+Comprehensive+Handbook&rft.pages=681-704&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780080550589&rft.au=DeNardis%2C+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cherdantseva_Y_2013-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cherdantseva_Y_2013_19-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cherdantseva_Y_2013_19-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Cherdantseva Y. and Hilton J.: \"Information Security and Information Assurance. The Discussion about the Meaning, Scope and Goals\". In: <i>Organizational, Legal, and Technological Dimensions of Information System Administrator<\/i>. Almeida F., Portela, I. (eds.). IGI Global Publishing. (2013)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">ISO\/IEC 27000:2009 (E). (2009). Information technology \u2013 Security techniques \u2013 Information security management systems \u2013 Overview and vocabulary. ISO\/IEC.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Committee_on_National_Security_Systems\" title=\"Committee on National Security Systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0477f3f95ff88d8a345955146264ea2\">Committee on National Security Systems<\/a>: National Information Assurance (IA) Glossary, CNSS Instruction No. 4009, 26 April 2010.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">ISACA. (2008). Glossary of terms, 2008. 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(2003). \"Why we need a new definition of information security\". <i>Computers & Security<\/i>. <b>22<\/b> (4): 308\u2013313. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0167-4048%2803%2900407-3\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/S0167-4048(03)00407-3<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computers+%26+Security&rft.atitle=Why+we+need+a+new+definition+of+information+security&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=308-313&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0167-4048%2803%2900407-3&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Venter, H. 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J.<\/a><\/i> <b>53<\/b> (7): 1020\u20131037. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093%2Fcomjnl%2Fbxp078\" target=\"_blank\">10.1093\/comjnl\/bxp078<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comput.+J.&rft.atitle=Protection+Against+Denial+of+Service+Attacks%3A+A+Survey&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1020-1037&rft.date=2010-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fcomjnl%2Fbxp078&rft.aulast=Loukas&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Oke%2C+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstaffweb.cms.gre.ac.uk%2F~lg47%2Fpublications%2FLoukasOke-DoSSurveyComputerJournal.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BidgoliHandbook06-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BidgoliHandbook06_38-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">McCarthy, C. 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(2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=BvYbQr9MV_sC&pg=PA288\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Corporate Management, Governance, and Ethics Best Practices<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 288. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780470255803.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Corporate+Management%2C+Governance%2C+and+Ethics+Best+Practices&rft.pages=288&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780470255803&rft.au=Vallabhaneni%2C+S.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBvYbQr9MV_sC%26pg%3DPA288&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-55\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shon_Harris\" title=\"Shon Harris\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7237e510933614f129281ce8cb3fa7ac\">Shon Harris<\/a> (2003). <i>All-in-one CISSP Certification Exam Guide<\/i> (2nd ed.). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emeryville,_California\" title=\"Emeryville, California\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2891e27259cb66324a06e6d33ad6632b\">Emeryville, California<\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/McGraw-Hill\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"McGraw-Hill\" data-key=\"bdd94845b8c3055faf8c5f6c1b9cc7d0\">McGraw-Hill<\/a>\/Osborne. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-07-222966-0.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All-in-one+CISSP+Certification+Exam+Guide&rft.place=Emeryville%2C+California&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill%2FOsborne&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-07-222966-0&rft.au=Shon+Harris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/docra.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Duty of Care Risk Analysis Standard\"<\/a>. <i>DoCRA<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DoCRA&rft.atitle=The+Duty+of+Care+Risk+Analysis+Standard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocra.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WestbyGovern07-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WestbyGovern07_57-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Westby, J.R.; Allen, J.H. 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(2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=sbWiDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA218\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 14: Secure Systems Development\"<\/a>. <i>Practical Information Security Management: A Complete Guide to Planning and Implementation<\/i>. Apress. p. 218. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781484216859.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+14%3A+Secure+Systems+Development&rft.btitle=Practical+Information+Security+Management%3A+A+Complete+Guide+to+Planning+and+Implementation&rft.pages=218&rft.pub=Apress&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781484216859&rft.au=Campbell%2C+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsbWiDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TaylorProject08-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TaylorProject08_59-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Taylor, J. 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Ross Publishing. pp. 187\u2013214. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781932159110.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+10%3A+Understanding+the+Project+Change+Process&rft.btitle=Project+Scheduling+and+Cost+Control%3A+Planning%2C+Monitoring+and+Controlling+the+Baseline&rft.pages=187-214&rft.pub=J.+Ross+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781932159110&rft.au=Taylor%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.itpi.org\/home\/visibleops2.php\" target=\"_blank\">itpi.org<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131210081531\/http:\/\/www.itpi.org\/home\/visibleops2.php\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> December 10, 2013, at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-61\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wikisummaries.org\/wiki\/Visible_Ops\" target=\"_blank\">\"book summary of The Visible Ops Handbook: Implementing ITIL in 4 Practical and Auditable Steps\"<\/a>. wikisummaries.org<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-06-22<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=book+summary+of+The+Visible+Ops+Handbook%3A+Implementing+ITIL+in+4+Practical+and+Auditable+Steps&rft.pub=wikisummaries.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikisummaries.org%2Fwiki%2FVisible_Ops&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Hotchkiss, Stuart. Business Continuity Management : In Practice, British Informatics Society Limited, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/ebookcentral.proquest.com\/lib\/pensu\/detail.action?docID=634527\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/ebookcentral.proquest.com\/lib\/pensu\/detail.action?docID=634527<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-63\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sans.org\/reading_room\/whitepapers\/recovery\/disaster-recovery-plan_1164\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Disaster Recovery Plan\"<\/a>. Sans Institute<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EUR-Lex&rft.atitle=Directive+2006%2F24%2FEC+of+the+European+Parliament+and+of+the+Council+of+15+March+2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feur-lex.europa.eu%2Flegal-content%2FEN%2FALL%2F%3Furi%3DCELEX%3A32006L0024&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FERPA-67\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FERPA_67-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Codified at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Title_20_of_the_United_States_Code\" title=\"Title 20 of the United States Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52ad536444c760308c076d17939c6eab\">20 U.S.C.<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/uscode\/text\/20\/1232g\" target=\"_blank\">\u00a7 1232g<\/a>, with implementing regulations in title 34, part 99 of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_of_Federal_Regulations\" title=\"Code of Federal Regulations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9379d3db0df6589fcc2f454f7e6a28bb\">Code of Federal Regulations<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FFIECAudit-68\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FFIECAudit_68-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ithandbook.ffiec.gov\/it-booklets\/audit.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Audit Booklet\"<\/a>. <i>Information Technology Examination Handbook<\/i>. 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Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy. 15 July 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Government+Gazette+of+the+Hellenic+Republic&rft.atitle=%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B8%CE%BC.+%CE%B1%CF%80%CF%8C%CF%86.+205%2F2013&rft.date=2013-07-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adae.gr%2Ffileadmin%2Fdocs%2Fnomoi%2Fkanonismoi%2FKanonismos_FEK_1742_B_15_07_2013_asfaleia_akeraiotita__ADAE_205_2013.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-77\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/securitycultureframework.net\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/securitycultureframework.net<\/a> (09\/04\/2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/securitycultureframework.net\/definition-of-security-culture\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Definition of Security Culture\"<\/a>. <i>The Security Culture Framework<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Security+Culture+Framework&rft.atitle=Definition+of+Security+Culture&rft.chron=09%2F04%2F2014&rft.au=https%3A%2F%2Fsecuritycultureframework.net&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsecuritycultureframework.net%2Fdefinition-of-security-culture%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error error citation-comment\">Check date values in: <code class=\"cs1-code\">|date=<\/code> (<a href=\"#bad_date\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\">help<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-78\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-78\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Roer, Kai; Petric, Gregor (2017). <i>The 2017 Security Culture Report - In depth insights into the human factor<\/i>. CLTRe North America, Inc. pp. 42\u201343. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1544933948.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+2017+Security+Culture+Report+-+In+depth+insights+into+the+human+factor&rft.pages=42-43&rft.pub=CLTRe+North+America%2C+Inc&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1544933948&rft.aulast=Roer&rft.aufirst=Kai&rft.au=Petric%2C+Gregor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Andersson_&_Reimers_2014-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Andersson_&_Reimers_2014_79-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Anderson, D., Reimers, K. and Barretto, C. (March 2014). Post-Secondary Education Network Security: Results of Addressing the End-User Challenge.publication date Mar 11, 2014 publication description INTED2014 (International Technology, Education, and Development Conference)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-80\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.iisp.org\/imis15\/iisp\/Accreditation\/Our_Skills_Framework\/iispv2\/Accreditation\/Our_Skills_Framework.aspx?hkey=e77a6f03-9498-423e-aa7b-585381290ec4\" target=\"_blank\">\"IISP Skills Framework\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IISP+Skills+Framework&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iisp.org%2Fimis15%2Fiisp%2FAccreditation%2FOur_Skills_Framework%2Fiispv2%2FAccreditation%2FOur_Skills_Framework.aspx%3Fhkey%3De77a6f03-9498-423e-aa7b-585381290ec4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-81\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bsi.bund.de\/EN\/Publications\/BSIStandards\/BSIStandards_node.html;jsessionid=8FB8A442EDCF66AECC34651426C22D11.2_cid359\" target=\"_blank\">\"BSI-Standards\"<\/a>. BSI<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 November<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BSI-Standards&rft.pub=BSI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bsi.bund.de%2FEN%2FPublications%2FBSIStandards%2FBSIStandards_node.html%3Bjsessionid%3D8FB8A442EDCF66AECC34651426C22D11.2_cid359&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Anderson, K., \"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080402234040\/http:\/\/www.scmagazineus.com\/IT-security-professionals-must-evolve-for-changing-market\/article\/33990\/\" target=\"_blank\">IT Security Professionals Must Evolve for Changing Market<\/a>\", <i>SC Magazine<\/i>, October 12, 2006.<\/li>\n<li>Aceituno, V., \"On Information Security Paradigms\", <i>ISSA Journal<\/i>, September 2005.<\/li>\n<li>Dhillon, G., <i>Principles of Information Systems Security: text and cases<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Wiley_%26_Sons\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"John Wiley & Sons\" data-key=\"a94882be8e75db6c18ed0e8bd4f49ced\">John Wiley & Sons<\/a>, 2007.<\/li>\n<li>Easttom, C., <i>Computer Security Fundamentals (2nd Edition)<\/i> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pearson_Education\" title=\"Pearson Education\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e89df204aaa261281002dcd6097046db\">Pearson Education<\/a>, 2011.<\/li>\n<li>Lambo, T., \"ISO\/IEC 27001: The future of infosec certification\", <i>ISSA Journal<\/i>, November 2006.<\/li>\n<li>Dustin, D., \" <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.brisbanedatarecovery.com.au\/2017\/05\/awareness-of-how-your-data-is-being.html\" target=\"_blank\">Awareness of How Your Data is Being Used and What to Do About It<\/a>\", \"CDR Blog\", May 2017.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Bibliography\">Bibliography<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><cite class=\"citation book\">Allen, Julia H. (2001). <i>The CERT Guide to System and Network Security Practices<\/i>. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-201-73723-3.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+CERT+Guide+to+System+and+Network+Security+Practices&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-201-73723-3&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Julia+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Krutz, Ronald L.; Russell Dean Vines (2003). <i>The CISSP Prep Guide<\/i> (Gold ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Wiley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-471-26802-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+CISSP+Prep+Guide&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+IN&rft.edition=Gold&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-471-26802-4&rft.aulast=Krutz&rft.aufirst=Ronald+L.&rft.au=Russell+Dean+Vines&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Layton, Timothy P. (2007). <i>Information Security: Design, Implementation, Measurement, and Compliance<\/i>. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach publications. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-8493-7087-8.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Information+Security%3A+Design%2C+Implementation%2C+Measurement%2C+and+Compliance&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.pub=Auerbach+publications&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-7087-8&rft.aulast=Layton&rft.aufirst=Timothy+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">McNab, Chris (2004). <i>Network Security Assessment<\/i>. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-596-00611-2.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Network+Security+Assessment&rft.place=Sebastopol%2C+CA&rft.pub=O%27Reilly&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-596-00611-2&rft.aulast=McNab&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Peltier, Thomas R. (2001). <i>Information Security Risk Analysis<\/i>. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach publications. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-8493-0880-2.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Information+Security+Risk+Analysis&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.pub=Auerbach+publications&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-0880-2&rft.aulast=Peltier&rft.aufirst=Thomas+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Peltier, Thomas R. (2002). <i>Information Security Policies, Procedures, and Standards: guidelines for effective information security management<\/i>. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach publications. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-8493-1137-6.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Information+Security+Policies%2C+Procedures%2C+and+Standards%3A+guidelines+for+effective+information+security+management&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.pub=Auerbach+publications&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-1137-6&rft.aulast=Peltier&rft.aufirst=Thomas+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">White, Gregory (2003). <i>All-in-one Security+ Certification Exam Guide<\/i>. Emeryville, CA: McGraw-Hill\/Osborne. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-07-222633-1.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=All-in-one+Security%2B+Certification+Exam+Guide&rft.place=Emeryville%2C+CA&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill%2FOsborne&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-07-222633-1&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Dhillon, Gurpreet (2007). <i>Principles of Information Systems Security: text and cases<\/i>. NY: John Wiley & Sons. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-471-45056-6.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Information+Systems+Security%3A+text+and+cases&rft.place=NY&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-471-45056-6&rft.aulast=Dhillon&rft.aufirst=Gurpreet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/iac.dtic.mil\/iatac\/ia_policychart.html\" target=\"_blank\">DoD IA Policy Chart<\/a> on the DoD Information Assurance Technology Analysis Center web site.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/msdn2.microsoft.com\/en-us\/library\/ms998382.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">patterns & practices Security Engineering Explained<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.opensecurityarchitecture.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">Open Security Architecture- Controls and patterns to secure IT systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iwar.org.uk\/comsec\/\" target=\"_blank\">IWS \u2013 Information Security Chapter<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cl.cam.ac.uk\/~rja14\/book.html\" target=\"_blank\">Ross Anderson's book \"Security Engineering\"<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1252\nCached time: 20190401135002\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.952 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.141 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4388\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 178826\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 2423\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 7\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 229363\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 4\/400\nLua time usage: 0.492\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6.3 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 891.181 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>59.37% 529.103 1 Template:Reflist\n27.27% 243.027 34 Template:Cite_book\n15.64% 139.358 33 Template:Cite_web\n 9.60% 85.546 9 Template:Cite_journal\n 6.49% 57.865 2 Template:Ambox\n 5.31% 47.353 1 Template:Commons_category\n 4.31% 38.408 1 Template:Expand_section\n 4.11% 36.620 1 Template:Computer_science\n 3.87% 34.522 1 Template:Commons\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:15036-1!canonical and timestamp 20190401135001 and revision id 890457658\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security\" data-key=\"f71a603755a900e335af2b5cfacd0cfc\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203005\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.029 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.216 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 199.138 1 - wikipedia:Information_security\n100.00% 199.138 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:8858-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203005 and revision id 25937\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_security<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","9eff362d944224ff1d4ffe3a149d7cff_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9a\/CIAJMK1209.png\/440px-CIAJMK1209.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/a1\/Posters_for_information_security_for_the_Ministry_of_Defense_of_the_Russian_Federation.jpg\/440px-Posters_for_information_security_for_the_Ministry_of_Defense_of_the_Russian_Federation.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/4c\/Defense_In_Depth_-_Onion_Model.svg\/440px-Defense_In_Depth_-_Onion_Model.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/1c\/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg\/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/43\/Copyright-problem_paste_2.svg\/76px-Copyright-problem_paste_2.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2c\/Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png\/440px-Privacy_International_2007_privacy_ranking_map.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/73\/Monitor_padlock.svg\/61px-Monitor_padlock.svg.png"],"9eff362d944224ff1d4ffe3a149d7cff_timestamp":1554323405,"185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782_type":"article","185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782_title":"Information privacy","185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_privacy","185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tInformation privacy\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tInformation privacy is the relationship between the collection and dissemination of data, technology, the public expectation of privacy, legal and political issues surrounding them.[1] It is also known as data privacy or data protection, \nThe challenge of data privacy is to use data while protecting an individual's privacy preferences and their personally identifiable information.[2] The fields of computer security, data security, and information security design and use software, hardware, and human resources to address this issue.\n\r\n\n\nContents \n\n1 Authorities \n\n1.1 Laws \n1.2 Authorities by country \n\n\n2 Information types \n\n2.1 Cable television \n2.2 Educational \n2.3 Financial \n2.4 Internet \n2.5 Locational \n2.6 Medical \n2.7 Political \n\n\n3 Legality \n4 Protection of privacy in information systems \n\n4.1 Improving privacy through individualization \n\n\n5 United States Department of Commerce Safe Harbor program and passenger name record issues \n6 See also \n7 References \n8 Further reading \n9 External links \n\n\nAuthorities \nLaws \nSee also: Information privacy law\nGeneral Data Protection Regulation (European Union)\nData Protection Directive (EU)\nData Protection Act 1998 (UK)\nData Protection Act, 2012 (Ghana)\nData protection (privacy) laws in Russia\nPersonal Data Protection Act 2012 (Singapore)[3]\nRepublic Act No. 10173: Data Privacy Act of 2012 (Philippines)[4]\nPrivacy Act (Canada)\nAuthorities by country \nSee also: Information commissioner and National data protection authority\nNational data protection authorities in the European Union and the European Free Trade Association\nOffice of the Australian Information Commissioner (Australia)\nCommission nationale de l'informatique et des libert\u00e9s (France)\nFederal Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information (Germany)\nData Protection Commissioner (Ireland)\nOffice of the Data Protection Supervisor (Isle of Man)\nFederal Data Protection and Information Commissioner (Switzerland)\nInformation Commissioner's Office (United Kingdom)\nOffice of the Privacy Commissioner for Personal Data (Hong Kong)\nNational Privacy Commission (Philippines)\nPersonal Data Protection Commission (Singapore)\nInformation types \nVarious types of personal information often come under privacy concerns.\n\nCable television \nThis describes the ability to control what information one reveals about oneself over cable television, and who can access that information. For example, third parties can track IP TV programs someone has watched at any given time. \"The addition of any information in a broadcasting stream is not required for an audience rating survey, additional devices are not requested to be installed in the houses of viewers or listeners, and without the necessity of their cooperations, audience ratings can be automatically performed in real-time.\"[5]\n\nEducational \nIn the United Kingdom in 2012, the Education Secretary Michael Gove described the National Pupil Database as a \"rich dataset\" whose value could be \"maximised\" by making it more openly accessible, including to private companies. Kelly Fiveash of The Register said that this could mean \"a child's school life including exam results, attendance, teacher assessments and even characteristics\" could be available, with third-party organizations being responsible for anonymizing any publications themselves, rather than the data being anonymized by the government before being handed over. An example of a data request that Gove indicated had been rejected in the past, but might be possible under an improved version of privacy regulations, was for \"analysis on sexual exploitation\".[6]\n\nFinancial \nMain article: Financial privacy\nInformation about a person's financial transactions, including the amount of assets, positions held in stocks or funds, outstanding debts, and purchases can be sensitive. If criminals gain access to information such as a person's accounts or credit card numbers, that person could become the victim of fraud or identity theft. Information about a person's purchases can reveal a great deal about that person's history, such as places he\/she has visited, whom he\/she has contacted with, products he\/she has used, his\/her activities and habits, or medications he\/she has used. In some cases, corporations may use this information to target individuals with marketing customized towards those individual's personal preferences, which that person may or may not approve.\n\nInternet \nMain article: Internet privacy\nThe ability to control the information one reveals about oneself over the internet, and who can access that information, has become a growing concern. These concerns include whether email can be stored or read by third parties without consent, or whether third parties can continue to track the websites that someone has visited. Another concern is if the websites that are visited can collect, store, and possibly share personally identifiable information about users.\nThe advent of various search engines and the use of data mining created a capability for data about individuals to be collected and combined from a wide variety of sources very easily.[7][8][9] The FTC has provided a set of guidelines that represent widely accepted concepts concerning fair information practices in an electronic marketplace called the Fair Information Practice Principles.\nIn order not to give away too much personal information, emails should be encrypted. Browsing of web pages as well as other online activities should be done trace-less via \"anonymizers\", in case those are not trusted, by open-source distributed anonymizers, so called mix nets, such as I2P or Tor \u2013 The Onion Router.\nEmail isn't the only internet content with privacy concerns. In an age where increasing amounts of information are going online, social networking sites pose additional privacy challenges. People may be tagged in photos or have valuable information exposed about themselves either by choice or unexpectedly by others. Data about location can also be accidentally published, for example, when someone posts a picture with a store as a background. Caution should be exercised with what information is being posted, as social networks vary in what they allow users to make private and what remains publicly accessible.[10] Without strong security settings in place and careful attention to what remains public, a person can be profiled by searching for and collecting disparate pieces of information, worst case leading to cases of cyberstalking[11] or reputational damage.[12]\n\nLocational \nAs location tracking capabilities of mobile devices are advancing (location-based services), problems related to user privacy arise. Location data is among the most sensitive data currently being collected.[13] A list of potentially sensitive professional and personal information that could be inferred about an individual knowing only his mobility trace was published recently by the Electronic Frontier Foundation.[14] These include the movements of a competitor sales force, attendance of a particular church or an individual's presence in a motel, or at an abortion clinic. A recent MIT study[15][16] by de Montjoye et al. showed that four spatio-temporal points, approximate places and times, are enough to uniquely identify 95% of 1.5 million people in a mobility database. The study further shows that these constraints hold even when the resolution of the dataset is low. Therefore, even coarse or blurred datasets provide little anonymity.\n\nMedical \nMain article: Medical privacy\nPeople may not wish for their medical records to be revealed to others. This may be because they have concern that it might affect their insurance coverages or employment. Or, it may be because they would not wish for others to know about any medical or psychological conditions or treatments that would bring embarrassment upon themselves. Revealing medical data could also reveal other details about one's personal life.[17] There are three major categories of medical privacy: informational (the degree of control over personal information), physical (the degree of physical inaccessibility to others), and psychological (the extent to which the doctor respects patients\u2019 cultural beliefs, inner thoughts, values, feelings, and religious practices and allows them to make personal decisions).[18]\nPhysicians and psychiatrists in many cultures and countries have standards for doctor-patient relationships, which include maintaining confidentiality. In some cases, the physician-patient privilege is legally protected. These practices are in place to protect the dignity of patients, and to ensure that patients will feel free to reveal complete and accurate information required for them to receive the correct treatment.[19]\nTo view the United States' laws on governing privacy of private health information, see HIPAA and the HITECH Act.\n\nPolitical \nMain article: Political privacy\nPolitical privacy has been a concern since voting systems emerged in ancient times. The secret ballot is the simplest and most widespread measure to ensure that political views are not known to anyone other than the voters themselves\u2014it is nearly universal in modern democracy, and considered to be a basic right of citizenship. In fact, even where other rights of privacy do not exist, this type of privacy very often does.\n\nLegality \nMain article: Information privacy law\nThe legal protection of the right to privacy in general \u2013 and of data privacy in particular \u2013 varies greatly around the world.[20]\nLaws and regulations related to Privacy and Data Protection are constantly changing, it is seen as important to keep abreast of any changes in the law and to continually reassess compliance with data privacy and security regulations.[21] Within academia, Institutional Review Boards function to assure that adequate measures are taken to ensure both the privacy and confidentiality of human subjects in research.[22]\nPrivacy concerns exist wherever personally identifiable information or other sensitive information is collected, stored, used, and finally destroyed or deleted \u2013 in digital form or otherwise. Improper or non-existent disclosure control can be the root cause for privacy issues. Data privacy issues may arise in response to information from a wide range of sources, such as:[23]\n\nHealthcare records\nCriminal justice investigations and proceedings\nFinancial institutions and transactions\nBiological traits, such as genetic material\nResidence and geographic records\nPrivacy breach\nLocation-based service and geolocation\nWeb surfing behavior or user preferences using persistent cookies\nAcademic research\n\r\n\n\nProtection of privacy in information systems \nAs heterogeneous information systems with differing privacy rules are interconnected and information is shared, policy appliances will be required to reconcile, enforce, and monitor an increasing amount of privacy policy rules (and laws). There are two categories of technology to address privacy protection in commercial IT systems: communication and enforcement.\n\nPolicy communication\nP3P \u2013 The Platform for Privacy Preferences. P3P is a standard for communicating privacy practices and comparing them to the preferences of individuals.\nPolicy enforcement\nXACML \u2013 The Extensible Access Control Markup Language together with its Privacy Profile is a standard for expressing privacy policies in a machine-readable language which a software system can use to enforce the policy in enterprise IT systems.\nEPAL \u2013 The Enterprise Privacy Authorization Language is very similar to XACML, but is not yet a standard.\nWS-Privacy - \"Web Service Privacy\" will be a specification for communicating privacy policy in web services. For example, it may specify how privacy policy information can be embedded in the SOAP envelope of a web service message.\nProtecting privacy on the internet\nOn the internet many users give away a lot of information about themselves: unencrypted e-mails can be read by the administrators of an e-mail server, if the connection is not encrypted (no HTTPS), and also the internet service provider and other parties sniffing the network traffic of that connection are able to know the contents.\nThe same applies to any kind of traffic generated on the Internet, including web browsing, instant messaging, and others.\nIn order not to give away too much personal information, e-mails can be encrypted and browsing of webpages as well as other online activities can be done traceless via anonymizers, or by open source distributed anonymizers, so-called mix networks.\nWell known open-source mix nets include I2P \u2013 The Anonymous Network and Tor.\n\nImproving privacy through individualization \nComputer privacy can be improved through individualization. Currently security messages are designed for the \"average user\", i.e. the same message for everyone. Researchers have posited that individualized messages and security \"nudges\", crafted based on users' individual differences and personality traits, can be used for further improvements for each person's compliance with computer security and privacy.[24]\n\nUnited States Department of Commerce Safe Harbor program and passenger name record issues \nThe United States Department of Commerce created the International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles certification program in response to the 1995 Directive on Data Protection (Directive 95\/46\/EC) of the European Commission.[25] Directive 95\/46\/EC declares in Chapter IV Article 25 that personal data may only be transferred from the countries in the European Economic Area to countries which provide adequate privacy protection. Historically, establishing adequacy required the creation of national laws broadly equivalent to those implemented by Directive 95\/46\/EU. Although there are exceptions to this blanket prohibition \u2013 for example where the disclosure to a country outside the EEA is made with the consent of the relevant individual (Article 26(1)(a)) \u2013 they are limited in practical scope. As a result, Article 25 created a legal risk to organisations which transfer personal data from Europe to the United States.\nThe program regulates the exchange of passenger name record information between the EU and the US. According to the EU directive, personal data may only be transferred to third countries if that country provides an adequate level of protection. Some exceptions to this rule are provided, for instance when the controller himself can guarantee that the recipient will comply with the data protection rules.\nThe European Commission has set up the \"Working party on the Protection of Individuals with regard to the Processing of Personal Data,\" commonly known as the \"Article 29 Working Party\". The Working Party gives advice about the level of protection in the European Union and third countries.\nThe Working Party negotiated with U.S. representatives about the protection of personal data, the Safe Harbor Principles were the result. Notwithstanding that approval, the self-assessment approach of the Safe Harbor remains controversial with a number of European privacy regulators and commentators.[26]\nThe Safe Harbor program addresses this issue in the following way: rather than a blanket law imposed on all organisations in the United States, a voluntary program is enforced by the FTC. U.S. organisations which register with this program, having self-assessed their compliance with a number of standards, are \"deemed adequate\" for the purposes of Article 25. Personal information can be sent to such organisations from the EEA without the sender being in breach of Article 25 or its EU national equivalents. The Safe Harbor was approved as providing adequate protection for personal data, for the purposes of Article 25(6), by the European Commission on 26 July 2000.[27]\nUnder the Safe Harbor, adoptee organisations need to carefully consider their compliance with the onward transfer obligations, where personal data originating in the EU is transferred to the US Safe Harbor, and then onward to a third country. The alternative compliance approach of \"binding corporate rules\", recommended by many EU privacy regulators, resolves this issue. In addition, any dispute arising in relation to the transfer of HR data to the US Safe Harbor must be heard by a panel of EU privacy regulators.[28]\nIn July 2007, a new, controversial,[29] Passenger Name Record agreement between the US and the EU was made.[30] A short time afterwards, the Bush administration gave exemption for the Department of Homeland Security, for the Arrival and Departure Information System (ADIS) and for the Automated Target System from the 1974 Privacy Act.[31]\nIn February 2008, Jonathan Faull, the head of the EU's Commission of Home Affairs, complained about the US bilateral policy concerning PNR.[32] The US had signed in February 2008 a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the Czech Republic in exchange of a visa waiver scheme, without concerting before with Brussels.[29] The tensions between Washington and Brussels are mainly caused by a lesser level of data protection in the US, especially since foreigners do not benefit from the US Privacy Act of 1974. Other countries approached for bilateral MOU included the United Kingdom, Estonia, Germany and Greece.[33]\n\nSee also \n\nPrivacy\nPrivacy by design\nPrivacy Law\nePrivacy Regulation\nData sovereignty\nData localization\nDigital inheritance\nGenetic privacy\nPrivacy enhancing technologies\nPrivacy software\nWeb literacy (privacy)\nComputer science specific\n\nAuthentication\nData security\nData retention\nData loss prevention software\nDifferential privacy\nOrganisations\n\nConfederation of European Data Protection Organisations\nData Privacy Day (28 January)\nPrivacy International (headquartered in UK)\nInternational Association of Privacy Professionals (headquartered in USA)\nScholars working in the field\n\nKhaled El Emam\nStefan Brands\nAdam Back\nLance Cottrell\nCynthia Dwork\nIan Goldberg\nLatanya Sweeney\nPeter Gutmann\nReferences \n\n\n^ Uberveillance and the social implications of microchip implants : emerging technologies. Michael, M. G.,, Michael, Katina, 1976-. Hershey, PA. ISBN 978-1466645820. OCLC 843857020. \n\n^ Torra, Vicen\u00e7 (2017), \"Introduction\", Data Privacy: Foundations, New Developments and the Big Data Challenge, Studies in Big Data, 28, Springer International Publishing, pp. 1\u201321, doi:10.1007\/978-3-319-57358-8_1, ISBN 9783319573564 \n\n^ \"Legislation and Guidelines: Overview\". Personal Data Protection Commission. \n\n^ \"Data Privacy Act of 2012\". Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. \n\n^ \"System for Gathering TV Audience Rating in Real Time in Internet Protocol Television Network and Method Thereof\". FreePatentsOnline.com. 2010-01-14. Retrieved 2011-06-07 . \n\n^ Fiveash, Kelly (2012-11-08). \"Psst: Heard the one about the National Pupil Database? Thought not\". The Register. Retrieved 2012-12-12 . \n\n^ Bergstein, Brian (2006-06-18). \"Research explores data mining, privacy\". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-05-05 . \n\n^ Bergstein, Brian (2004-01-01). \"In this data-mining society, privacy advocates shudder\". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. \n\n^ Swartz, Nikki (2006). \"U.S. Demands Google Web Data\". Information Management Journal. Vol. 40 Issue 3, p. 18 \n\n^ Schneider, G.; Evans, J.; Pinard, K.T. (2008). The Internet: Illustrated Series. Cengage Learning. p. 156. ISBN 9781423999386. Retrieved 9 May 2018 . \n\n^ Bocij, P. (2004). Cyberstalking: Harassment in the Internet Age and How to Protect Your Family. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 268. ISBN 9780275981181. \n\n^ Cannataci, J.A.; Zhao, B.; Vives, G.T.; et al. (2016). Privacy, free expression and transparency: Redefining their new boundaries in the digital age. UNESCO. p. 26. ISBN 9789231001888. Retrieved 9 May 2018 . \n\n^ Ataei, M.; Kray, C. (2016). \"Ephemerality Is the New Black: A Novel Perspective on Location Data Management and Location Privacy in LBS\". Progress in Location-Based Services 2016. Springer. pp. 357\u2013374. ISBN 9783319472898. Retrieved 9 May 2018 . \n\n^ Blumberg, A. Eckersley, P. \"On locational privacy and how to avoid losing it forever\". EFF. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ de Montjoye, Yves-Alexandre; C\u00e9sar A. Hidalgo; Michel Verleysen; Vincent D. Blondel (March 25, 2013). \"Unique in the Crowd: The privacy bounds of human mobility\". Scientific Reports. 3: 1376. doi:10.1038\/srep01376. PMC 3607247 . PMID 23524645. \n\n^ Palmer, Jason (March 25, 2013). \"Mobile location data 'present anonymity risk' \". BBC News. Retrieved 12 April 2013 . \n\n^ Aurelia, Nicholas-Donald; Francisco, Matus, Jesus; SeungEui, Ryu; M, Mahmood, Adam (1 June 2017). \"The Economic Effect of Privacy Breach Announcements on Stocks: A Comprehensive Empirical Investigation\". aisnet.org. \n\n^ Serenko, Natalia; Lida Fan (2013). \"Patients' Perceptions of Privacy and Their Outcomes in Healthcare\" (PDF) . International Journal of Behavioural and Healthcare Research. 4 (2): 101\u2013122. doi:10.1504\/IJBHR.2013.057359. \n\n^ \"If a patient is below the age of 18-years does confidentiality still works or should doctor breach and inform the parents?15years girl went for... - eNotes\". eNotes. \n\n^ Rakower, Lauren (2011). \"Blurred Line: Zooming in on Google Street View and the Global Right to Privacy\". brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu. Archived from the original on 2017-10-05. \n\n^ Robert Hasty, Dr Trevor W. Nagel and Mariam Subjally, Data Protection Law in the USA. (Advocates for International Development, August 2013.)\"Archived copy\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-25. Retrieved 2013-10-14 . CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link) \n\n^ \"Institutional Review Board - Guidebook, CHAPTER IV - CONSIDERATIONS OF RESEARCH DESIGN\". www.hhs.gov. October 5, 2017. Retrieved October 5, 2017 . \n\n^ Programme Management Managing Multiple Projects Successfully. Mittal, Prashant. Global India Pubns. 2009. ISBN 978-9380228204. OCLC 464584332. \n\n^ \"The Myth of the Average User: Improving Privacy and Security Systems through Individualization (NSPW '15) | BLUES\". blues.cs.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-11 . \n\n^ \"Protection of personal data \u2013 European Commission\". ec.europa.eu. \n\n^ \"Protection of personal data \u2013 European Commission\" (PDF) . ec.europa.eu. \n\n^ \"EUR-Lex \u2013 32000D0520 \u2013 EN\". eur-lex.europa.eu. \n\n^ \"Protection of personal data \u2013 European Commission\" (PDF) . ec.europa.eu. \n\n^ a b A divided Europe wants to protect its personal data wanted by the US, Rue 89, 4 March 2008 (in English) \n\n^ https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120112021643\/http:\/\/www.libertysecurity.org\/article1591.html \n\n^ Statewatch, US changes the privacy rules to exemption access to personal data September 2007 \n\n^ Brussels attacks new US security demands, European Observer. See also Statewatch newsletter February 2008 \n\n^ Statewatch, March 2008 \n\n\nFurther reading \nPhilip E. Agre; Marc Rotenberg (1998). Technology and privacy: the new landscape. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-51101-8. \nExternal links \nInternational\nFactsheet on ECtHR case law on data protection\nInternational Conference of Data Protection and Privacy Commissioners\nBiometrics Institute Privacy Charter\nEurope\nEU data protection page\nUNESCO Chair in Data Privacy\nEuropean Data Protection Supervisor\nLatin America\nLatin American Data Protection Law Review\nNorth America\nPrivacy and Access Council of Canada\nLaboratory for International Data Privacy at Carnegie Mellon University.\nPrivacy Laws by State\nJournals\nIEEE Security & Privacy magazine\nTransactions on Data Privacy\nvteData\nAnalysis\nArchaeology\nCleansing\nCollection\nCompression\nCorruption\nCuration\nDegradation\nEditing\nFarming\nFormat management\nFusion\nIntegration\nIntegrity\nLibrary\nLoss\nManagement\nMigration\nMining\nPre-processing\nPreservation\nProtection (privacy)\nRecovery\nReduction\nRetention\nQuality\nScience\nScraping\nScrubbing\nSecurity\nStewardship\nStorage\nValidation\nWarehouse\nWrangling\/munging\n\nvtePrivacyPrinciples\nExpectation of privacy\nRight to privacy\nRight to be forgotten\nPost-mortem privacy\nPrivacy laws\nAustralia\nBrazil\nCanada\nDenmark\nEngland\nEuropean Union\nGermany\nGhana\nNew Zealand\nSingapore\nSwitzerland\nUnited States\nData protection authorities\nAustralia\nDenmark\nEuropean Union\nFrance\nGermany\nIreland\nIsle of Man\nNorway\nPhilippines\nSpain\nSweden\nSwitzerland\nUnited Kingdom\nAreas\nConsumer\nMedical\nWorkplace\nInformation privacy\nLaw\nFinancial\nInternet\nPersonal data\nPersonal identifier\nPrivacy-enhancing technologies\nSocial networking services\nPrivacy engineering\nSecret ballot\nAdvocacy \r\norganizations\nAmerican Civil Liberties Union\nCenter for Democracy and Technology\nComputer Professionals for Social Responsibility\nFuture of Privacy Forum\nElectronic Privacy Information Center\nElectronic Frontier Foundation\nEuropean Digital Rights\nGlobal Network Initiative\nNOYB\nPrivacy International\nPrivacy Rights Clearinghouse\nSee also\nAnonymity\nCellphone surveillance\nCyberstalking\nData security\nGlobal surveillance\nMass surveillance\nPrivacy engineering\nHuman rights\nIdentity theft\nPanopticon\nPersonality rights\nSearch warrant\n\nAuthority control \nGND: 4011134-9 \n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_privacy\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_privacy<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Business and data managementComputer securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation 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LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Information_privacy skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Information privacy<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Information privacy<\/b> is the relationship between the collection and dissemination of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technology\" title=\"Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"826a00bce65740132769609e46bf6515\">technology<\/a>, the public <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Expectation_of_privacy\" title=\"Expectation of privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"75668efd18cb5237821f441464fd6a56\">expectation of privacy<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Legal\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Legal\" data-key=\"1bd28b6fd166d646443ca8c9848a2680\">legal<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Political\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Political\" data-key=\"77022dc2600cd33c65bb368feff30854\">political<\/a> issues surrounding them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> It is also known as <b>data privacy<\/b> or <b>data protection<\/b>, \n<\/p><p>The challenge of data privacy is to use data while protecting an individual's privacy preferences and their personally identifiable information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> The fields of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security\" title=\"Computer security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c2aa75aadd7f77c4f5ad26205c4c77b\">computer security<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_security\" title=\"Data security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7e9e5ee008f52b19272642e6cf8fb9\">data security<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security\" title=\"Information security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f71a603755a900e335af2b5cfacd0cfc\">information security<\/a> design and use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_hardware\" title=\"Computer hardware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3af5473d082dc42736a8f0e670ebb91\">hardware<\/a>, and human resources to address this issue.\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Authorities\">Authorities<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laws\">Laws<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_privacy_law\" title=\"Information privacy law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3668af10c336ea0006d5e50f32ad79bd\">Information privacy law<\/a><\/div>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Data_Protection_Regulation\" title=\"General Data Protection Regulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20785e45cbe1c33b7aead05d3a22887e\">General Data Protection Regulation<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Protection_Directive\" title=\"Data Protection Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77b2baccd00c9d2787cfad389318038f\">Data Protection Directive<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EU\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"EU\" data-key=\"414fa298eefcbaa034a45cb1069321a0\">EU<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Protection_Act_1998\" title=\"Data Protection Act 1998\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c31e8341972897bbde3d1dfa3760171\">Data Protection Act 1998<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UK\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"UK\" data-key=\"3be4614aa8ee9ecb1c46bbb0c1feed82\">UK<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Protection_Act,_2012\" title=\"Data Protection Act, 2012\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d3b3ab7fee537f72ec32bce1ce1937b\">Data Protection Act, 2012<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ghana\" title=\"Ghana\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54a7599616ef6f8ff2a1e4d51f5f1c42\">Ghana<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_protection_(privacy)_laws_in_Russia\" title=\"Data protection (privacy) laws in Russia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91f3df9c84b214fc75a076441c5c58ca\">Data protection (privacy) laws in Russia<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Personal Data Protection Act 2012 (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Singapore\" title=\"Singapore\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f96bc9b4dba20f7652486c063c05f335\">Singapore<\/a>)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Republic Act No. 10173: Data Privacy Act of 2012 (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philippines\" title=\"Philippines\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6dceabefcd9cbc9aede7ef2df59637d\">Philippines<\/a>)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_Act_(Canada)\" title=\"Privacy Act (Canada)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e69fa2e2c591495fc32d74e29a968bf3\">Privacy Act (Canada)<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Authorities_by_country\">Authorities by country<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_commissioner\" title=\"Information commissioner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4edbb4e0f02071aba276b4472b4c67f\">Information commissioner<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_data_protection_authority\" title=\"National data protection authority\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7a1e2c1a526eadc0674a5b66dd837cd3\">National data protection authority<\/a><\/div>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_data_protection_authority\" title=\"National data protection authority\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7a1e2c1a526eadc0674a5b66dd837cd3\">National data protection authorities<\/a> in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Free_Trade_Association\" title=\"European Free Trade Association\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e2b26984fed3861cbde531ce13711f0\">European Free Trade Association<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Office_of_the_Australian_Information_Commissioner\" title=\"Office of the Australian Information Commissioner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a14f0dc32430ea4bd017ecbf10aa4b37\">Office of the Australian Information Commissioner<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australia\" title=\"Australia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c2db49e6ded3da2c9ba98e453f9ea81\">Australia<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commission_nationale_de_l%27informatique_et_des_libert%C3%A9s\" title=\"Commission nationale de l'informatique et des libert\u00e9s\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50b3ca732815dcd3bd450e8843ce8139\">Commission nationale de l'informatique et des libert\u00e9s<\/a><\/i> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/France\" title=\"France\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a81de8f2d8fdc9a54e30324c3966d61\">France<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Commissioner_for_Data_Protection_and_Freedom_of_Information\" title=\"Federal Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"381edd865b2f61c55cd54f09853f36a4\">Federal Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Germany\" title=\"Germany\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4158270cd6f788dfa9227a7042402194\">Germany<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Protection_Commissioner\" title=\"Data Protection Commissioner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b423dde3ff537485cf266d708748eb81\">Data Protection Commissioner<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Republic_of_Ireland\" title=\"Republic of Ireland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5380a9d5ba49fae68060f38bd3b50297\">Ireland<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Office_of_the_Data_Protection_Supervisor\" title=\"Office of the Data Protection Supervisor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34ed2f0ff326447fa4ebcfdbad7556ef\">Office of the Data Protection Supervisor<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Isle_of_Man\" title=\"Isle of Man\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba1c2bad342d362c3217f57a7d7f54a5\">Isle of Man<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Data_Protection_and_Information_Commissioner\" title=\"Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f05de7e5d4cfd30db6d914b58909939d\">Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Switzerland\" title=\"Switzerland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2046dc1f5faf03e4992722fe3080c906\">Switzerland<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Commissioner%27s_Office\" title=\"Information Commissioner's Office\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42dea620818f881e4865280dbc45fd95\">Information Commissioner's Office<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_Kingdom\" title=\"United Kingdom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec8205bb550c2cfa9d84ff6d896f202f\">United Kingdom<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Office_of_the_Privacy_Commissioner_for_Personal_Data\" title=\"Office of the Privacy Commissioner for Personal Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b15e8642019e21b2f778beec3e62785b\">Office of the Privacy Commissioner for Personal Data<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hong_Kong\" title=\"Hong Kong\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"796da450eb53b46deace00adcf801282\">Hong Kong<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Privacy_Commission\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"National Privacy Commission\" data-key=\"25d322980245210650b42f953acfc68d\">National Privacy Commission<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philippines\" title=\"Philippines\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6dceabefcd9cbc9aede7ef2df59637d\">Philippines<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Singapore\" title=\"Singapore\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f96bc9b4dba20f7652486c063c05f335\">Singapore<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Information_types\">Information types<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Various types of personal information often come under privacy concerns.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cable_television\">Cable television<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This describes the ability to control what information one reveals about oneself over cable television, and who can access that information. For example, third parties can track IP TV programs someone has watched at any given time. \"The addition of any information in a broadcasting stream is not required for an audience rating survey, additional devices are not requested to be installed in the houses of viewers or listeners, and without the necessity of their cooperations, audience ratings can be automatically performed in real-time.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Educational\">Educational<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the United Kingdom in 2012, the Education Secretary <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_Gove\" title=\"Michael Gove\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc5addeaf0f256c3ddddb56f37cf3c2e\">Michael Gove<\/a> described the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Pupil_Database\" title=\"National Pupil Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e07d44b27c1a4c61c535235ad1eac785\">National Pupil Database<\/a> as a \"rich dataset\" whose value could be \"maximised\" by making it more openly accessible, including to private companies. Kelly Fiveash of <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Register\" title=\"The Register\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2eb0545423025dd1f51e39f5eed0591\">The Register<\/a><\/i> said that this could mean \"a child's school life including exam results, attendance, teacher assessments and even characteristics\" could be available, with third-party organizations being responsible for anonymizing any publications themselves, rather than the data being anonymized by the government before being handed over. An example of a data request that Gove indicated had been rejected in the past, but might be possible under an improved version of privacy regulations, was for \"analysis on sexual exploitation\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Financial\">Financial<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_privacy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Financial privacy\" data-key=\"c04ba54560fddb6cc3caf3266fc73d23\">Financial privacy<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Information about a person's financial transactions, including the amount of assets, positions held in stocks or funds, outstanding debts, and purchases can be sensitive. If criminals gain access to information such as a person's accounts or credit card numbers, that person could become the victim of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fraud\" title=\"Fraud\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be4a1d0862e2f02d0c1a33dd9fc7c81c\">fraud<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_theft\" title=\"Identity theft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb9eb8acee1ea77f10451b7488ead058\">identity theft<\/a>. Information about a person's purchases can reveal a great deal about that person's history, such as places he\/she has visited, whom he\/she has contacted with, products he\/she has used, his\/her activities and habits, or medications he\/she has used. In some cases, corporations may use this information to target individuals with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marketing\" title=\"Marketing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fc25da4af284af2b3cae5726440415e\">marketing<\/a> customized towards those individual's personal preferences, which that person may or may not approve.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Internet\">Internet<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_privacy\" title=\"Internet privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cade7c6061c0a371cb777430c9704101\">Internet privacy<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The ability to control the information one reveals about oneself over the internet, and who can access that information, has become a growing concern. These concerns include whether <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Email\" title=\"Email\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d5abd02ca0ff73bc0596c3ae672ec7e\">email<\/a> can be stored or read by third parties without consent, or whether third parties can continue to track the websites that someone has visited. Another concern is if the websites that are visited can collect, store, and possibly share <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personally_identifiable_information\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Personally identifiable information\" data-key=\"e4c271adb170f3060365fdae55299b88\">personally identifiable information<\/a> about users.\n<\/p><p>The advent of various <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_search_engine\" title=\"Web search engine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dba49baed4bcefee8f46c77c8ad4f862\">search engines<\/a> and the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a> created a capability for data about individuals to be collected and combined from a wide variety of sources very easily.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> The FTC has provided a set of guidelines that represent widely accepted concepts concerning fair information practices in an electronic marketplace called the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fair_Information_Practice_Principles\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fair Information Practice Principles\" data-key=\"e334370f01c8a2aee4f2d410659833e5\">Fair Information Practice Principles<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In order not to give away too much personal information, emails should be encrypted. Browsing of web pages as well as other online activities should be done trace-less via \"anonymizers\", in case those are not trusted, by open-source distributed anonymizers, so called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mix_net\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mix net\" data-key=\"01a0844be671c5e2a36e16a6931baf79\">mix nets<\/a>, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I2P\" title=\"I2P\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1444ad7406e84a786f648bd1c8dfb258\">I2P<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tor_(anonymity_network)\" title=\"Tor (anonymity network)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"088a6cecf874a719eb19743cb91a7904\">Tor \u2013 The Onion Router<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Email isn't the only internet content with privacy concerns. In an age where increasing amounts of information are going online, social networking sites pose additional privacy challenges. People may be tagged in photos or have valuable information exposed about themselves either by choice or unexpectedly by others. Data about location can also be accidentally published, for example, when someone posts a picture with a store as a background. Caution should be exercised with what information is being posted, as social networks vary in what they allow users to make private and what remains publicly accessible.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SchneiderTheInter08_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SchneiderTheInter08-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> Without strong security settings in place and careful attention to what remains public, a person can be profiled by searching for and collecting disparate pieces of information, worst case leading to cases of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyberstalking\" title=\"Cyberstalking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce26f1cbda63681657b9927456f12339\">cyberstalking<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BocijCyber04_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BocijCyber04-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> or reputational damage.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CannataciPrivacy16_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CannataciPrivacy16-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Locational\">Locational<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As location tracking capabilities of mobile devices are advancing (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Location-based_service\" title=\"Location-based service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54774d687495c3bc30798929c47c1b35\">location-based services<\/a>), problems related to user privacy arise. Location data is among the most sensitive data currently being collected.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AtaeiEphem16_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AtaeiEphem16-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> A list of potentially sensitive professional and personal information that could be inferred about an individual knowing only his mobility trace was published recently by the Electronic Frontier Foundation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> These include the movements of a competitor sales force, attendance of a particular church or an individual's presence in a motel, or at an abortion clinic. A recent MIT study<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> by de Montjoye et al. showed that four spatio-temporal points, approximate places and times, are enough to uniquely identify 95% of 1.5 million people in a mobility database. The study further shows that these constraints hold even when the resolution of the dataset is low. Therefore, even coarse or blurred datasets provide little anonymity.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Medical\">Medical<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_privacy\" title=\"Medical privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea169294058a9b6f9fa01ffd884d9541\">Medical privacy<\/a><\/div>\n<p>People may not wish for their medical records to be revealed to others. This may be because they have concern that it might affect their insurance coverages or employment. Or, it may be because they would not wish for others to know about any medical or psychological conditions or treatments that would bring embarrassment upon themselves. Revealing medical data could also reveal other details about one's personal life.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> There are three major categories of medical privacy: informational (the degree of control over personal information), physical (the degree of physical inaccessibility to others), and psychological (the extent to which the doctor respects patients\u2019 cultural beliefs, inner thoughts, values, feelings, and religious practices and allows them to make personal decisions).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\nPhysicians and psychiatrists in many cultures and countries have standards for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Doctor-patient_relationship\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Doctor-patient relationship\" data-key=\"6ffc8dfe42bb0693ce8d559cf9022e8c\">doctor-patient relationships<\/a>, which include maintaining confidentiality. In some cases, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Physician-patient_privilege\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Physician-patient privilege\" data-key=\"acfe3a12f286588d03e5f4e0c7c437a4\">physician-patient privilege<\/a> is legally protected. These practices are in place to protect the dignity of patients, and to ensure that patients will feel free to reveal complete and accurate information required for them to receive the correct treatment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\nTo view the United States' laws on governing privacy of private health information, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"651fe0fa5498890d1a29b4c1e21db2db\">HIPAA<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_Information_Technology_for_Economic_and_Clinical_Health_Act\" title=\"Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc3a48e374c7dfd42d66bc6bc0cfd0b2\">HITECH Act<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Political\">Political<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Political_privacy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Political privacy\" data-key=\"53bc1fa4bb7f904ed8b2ac86149fec51\">Political privacy<\/a><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Political_privacy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Political privacy\" data-key=\"53bc1fa4bb7f904ed8b2ac86149fec51\">Political privacy<\/a> has been a concern since <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voting_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Voting system\" data-key=\"75a47430f16fe46be76809a2265602ea\">voting systems<\/a> emerged in ancient times. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secret_ballot\" title=\"Secret ballot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e61dfce45ab22c25473fabd4a184c35\">secret ballot<\/a> is the simplest and most widespread measure to ensure that political views are not known to anyone other than the voters themselves\u2014it is nearly universal in modern <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Democracy\" title=\"Democracy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"617a7e91bb9e98ef50224c61e0ab091a\">democracy<\/a>, and considered to be a basic right of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Citizenship\" title=\"Citizenship\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f73779ee7f0d1d24b296c432cd06a852\">citizenship<\/a>. In fact, even where other rights of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy\" title=\"Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c0e284f1b9cc1e2e6e7c31286443366\">privacy<\/a> do not exist, this type of privacy very often does.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Legality\">Legality<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_privacy_law\" title=\"Information privacy law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3668af10c336ea0006d5e50f32ad79bd\">Information privacy law<\/a><\/div>\n<p>The legal protection of the right to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy\" title=\"Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c0e284f1b9cc1e2e6e7c31286443366\">privacy<\/a> in general \u2013 and of data privacy in particular \u2013 varies greatly around the world.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Laws and regulations related to Privacy and Data Protection are constantly changing, it is seen as important to keep abreast of any changes in the law and to continually reassess compliance with data privacy and security regulations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> Within academia, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Institutional_review_board\" title=\"Institutional review board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7ec5483de271ebaf5d35f24a451623f\">Institutional Review Boards<\/a> function to assure that adequate measures are taken to ensure both the privacy and confidentiality of human subjects in research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy\" title=\"Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c0e284f1b9cc1e2e6e7c31286443366\">Privacy<\/a> concerns exist wherever <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personally_identifiable_information\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Personally identifiable information\" data-key=\"e4c271adb170f3060365fdae55299b88\">personally identifiable information<\/a> or other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_sensitivity\" title=\"Information sensitivity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9360eee4db59815289a22198492abe7\">sensitive information<\/a> is collected, stored, used, and finally destroyed or deleted \u2013 in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_data\" title=\"Digital data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e1fcec00faf0662c4218c67c68af1b1\">digital form<\/a> or otherwise. Improper or non-existent disclosure control can be the root cause for privacy issues. Data privacy issues may arise in response to information from a wide range of sources, such as:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Healthcare\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Healthcare\" data-key=\"f1ffeab9b2f3909caea44907180a439a\">Healthcare<\/a> records<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Criminal_justice\" title=\"Criminal justice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d4ab5224ded8ebf202a4fb0afc0ffac\">Criminal justice<\/a> investigations and proceedings<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Financial\" data-key=\"7c74dcd6c263cccf883766b92327eebd\">Financial<\/a> institutions and transactions<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biological\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Biological\" data-key=\"f86e71f459583876141f602efc9ef258\">Biological<\/a> traits, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_material\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Genetic material\" data-key=\"100d30d30eeafe053b2807153a41c5f5\">genetic material<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/House\" title=\"House\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"491c3f7f6f7e52a2bf4c32b6b4426b58\">Residence<\/a> and geographic records<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_breach\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Privacy breach\" data-key=\"ebea5759a8c685016570e5b813ac70d4\">Privacy breach<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Location-based_service\" title=\"Location-based service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54774d687495c3bc30798929c47c1b35\">Location-based service<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geolocation\" title=\"Geolocation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b324b393a6289779b52bf930b68139b8\">geolocation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Behavioral_Targeting\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Behavioral Targeting\" data-key=\"96798da3816553ddcca0252db4d5355c\">Web surfing behavior<\/a> or user preferences using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Persistent_cookie\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Persistent cookie\" data-key=\"c7c17381683a3a87d711fb1f4d3a3bc0\">persistent cookies<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Academic_research\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Academic research\" data-key=\"3358c648d73b87752065ddcc59d97db4\">Academic research<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Protection_of_privacy_in_information_systems\">Protection of privacy in information systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>As heterogeneous information systems with differing privacy rules are interconnected and information is shared, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Policy_appliances\" title=\"Policy appliances\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f82dd3308e9885a17a09b5cddeb5304e\">policy appliances<\/a> will be required to reconcile, enforce, and monitor an increasing amount of privacy policy rules (and laws). There are two categories of technology to address privacy protection in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commerce\" title=\"Commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ad5a2c520c9917ff59771021594f5d5a\">commercial<\/a> IT systems: communication and enforcement.\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Policy communication<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/P3P\" title=\"P3P\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"feaecb54398c30f2b93e0f6241bb06e8\">P3P<\/a> \u2013 The Platform for Privacy Preferences. P3P is a standard for communicating privacy practices and comparing them to the preferences of individuals.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Policy enforcement<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XACML\" title=\"XACML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cf5668ccec74cd8a9987f3fbcb73102\">XACML<\/a> \u2013 The Extensible Access Control Markup Language together with its Privacy Profile is a standard for expressing privacy policies in a machine-readable language which a software system can use to enforce the policy in enterprise IT systems.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_Privacy_Authorization_Language\" title=\"Enterprise Privacy Authorization Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ed1dbc6f746bad883aaf55af1332b69\">EPAL<\/a> \u2013 The Enterprise Privacy Authorization Language is very similar to XACML, but is not yet a standard.<\/li>\n<li>WS-Privacy - \"Web Service Privacy\" will be a specification for communicating privacy policy in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_service\" title=\"Web service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e72dffc79d570a758fb072280ae0ca6e\">web services<\/a>. For example, it may specify how privacy policy information can be embedded in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SOAP\" title=\"SOAP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"952e7ea001d98d86e8321b60c06caa6d\">SOAP<\/a> envelope of a web service message.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Protecting privacy on the internet<\/dt><\/dl>\n<p>On the internet many users give away a lot of information about themselves: unencrypted e-mails can be read by the administrators of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-mail_server\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"E-mail server\" data-key=\"4a03f0f6da6ac1dbf4f63f4cd0202b6f\">e-mail server<\/a>, if the connection is not encrypted (no <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTTPS\" title=\"HTTPS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"12d3d428d7a70406f198e258c806a867\">HTTPS<\/a>), and also the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_service_provider\" title=\"Internet service provider\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f9d9e4f7009df2d06a1ede76c8391ebd\">internet service provider<\/a> and other parties <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Packet_analyzer\" title=\"Packet analyzer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ff4ec43f937f08c15e2f340e2856d88\">sniffing<\/a> the network traffic of that connection are able to know the contents.\nThe same applies to any kind of traffic generated on the Internet, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_browsing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Web browsing\" data-key=\"cab7180c46a1d059656d4efb9f45d7a6\">web browsing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Instant_messenger\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Instant messenger\" data-key=\"f5e2cd3b2afe7aab4bc15cf5709bfdd6\">instant messaging<\/a>, and others.\nIn order not to give away too much personal information, e-mails can be encrypted and browsing of webpages as well as other online activities can be done traceless via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anonymizer\" title=\"Anonymizer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcefaa098f5232080302f92a051b0ce9\">anonymizers<\/a>, or by open source distributed anonymizers, so-called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mix_network\" title=\"Mix network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd08676cdcd885ce4c2c4dd24427f657\">mix networks<\/a>.\nWell known open-source mix nets include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I2P\" title=\"I2P\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1444ad7406e84a786f648bd1c8dfb258\">I2P \u2013 The Anonymous Network<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tor_(anonymity_network)\" title=\"Tor (anonymity network)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"088a6cecf874a719eb19743cb91a7904\">Tor<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Improving_privacy_through_individualization\">Improving privacy through individualization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Computer privacy can be improved through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Forensic_identification\" title=\"Forensic identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d260494776bd1fae7def0c81597db517\">individualization<\/a>. Currently security messages are designed for the \"average user\", i.e. the same message for everyone. Researchers have posited that individualized messages and security \"nudges\", crafted based on users' individual differences and personality traits, can be used for further improvements for each person's compliance with computer security and privacy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"United_States_Department_of_Commerce_Safe_Harbor_program_and_passenger_name_record_issues\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Department_of_Commerce\" title=\"United States Department of Commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a89680b194a0a51dfb84fd8059646dc8\">United States Department of Commerce<\/a> Safe Harbor program and passenger name record issues<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Department_of_Commerce\" title=\"United States Department of Commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a89680b194a0a51dfb84fd8059646dc8\">United States Department of Commerce<\/a> created the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Safe_Harbor_Privacy_Principles\" title=\"International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc1405cdea3543a46f2e660c8ab7b72c\">International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles<\/a> certification program in response to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Directive_95\/46\/EC_on_the_protection_of_personal_data\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Directive 95\/46\/EC on the protection of personal data\" data-key=\"4d8a4e5373ba1456e20c6900fa6c40e1\">1995 Directive on Data Protection<\/a> (Directive 95\/46\/EC) of the European Commission.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> Directive 95\/46\/EC declares in Chapter IV Article 25 that personal data may only be transferred from the countries in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Economic_Area\" title=\"European Economic Area\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55a3a8ba91c0db6463362d9432afb213\">European Economic Area<\/a> to countries which provide <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adequate\" title=\"Adequate\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"29764da75ffc09c3cf21205a26bf2a0e\">adequate<\/a> privacy protection. Historically, establishing adequacy required the creation of national laws broadly equivalent to those implemented by Directive 95\/46\/EU. Although there are exceptions to this blanket prohibition \u2013 for example where the disclosure to a country outside the EEA is made with the consent of the relevant individual (Article 26(1)(a)) \u2013 they are limited in practical scope. As a result, Article 25 created a legal risk to organisations which transfer personal data from Europe to the United States.\n<\/p><p>The program regulates the exchange of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Passenger_name_record\" title=\"Passenger name record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"feba4575a2e64d09220652a6a64d8705\">passenger name record<\/a> information between the EU and the US. According to the EU directive, personal data may only be transferred to third countries if that country provides an adequate level of protection. Some exceptions to this rule are provided, for instance when the controller himself can guarantee that the recipient will comply with the data protection rules.\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Commission\" title=\"European Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81898eaa89710c9f6ca992957c6e3e7c\">European Commission<\/a> has set up the \"Working party on the Protection of Individuals with regard to the Processing of Personal Data,\" commonly known as the \"Article 29 Working Party\". The Working Party gives advice about the level of protection in the European Union and third countries.\n<\/p><p>The Working Party negotiated with U.S. representatives about the protection of personal data, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Safe_Harbor_Principles\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Safe Harbor Principles\" data-key=\"316ffda0ac624229eb9e7d990b8c3b4a\">Safe Harbor Principles<\/a> were the result. Notwithstanding that approval, the self-assessment approach of the Safe Harbor remains controversial with a number of European privacy regulators and commentators.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The Safe Harbor program addresses this issue in the following way: rather than a blanket law imposed on all organisations in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States\" title=\"United States\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f44266ab2da9382e3764bac08cfb4076\">United States<\/a>, a voluntary program is enforced by the FTC. U.S. organisations which register with this program, having self-assessed their compliance with a number of standards, are \"deemed adequate\" for the purposes of Article 25. Personal information can be sent to such organisations from the EEA without the sender being in breach of Article 25 or its EU national equivalents. The Safe Harbor was approved as providing adequate protection for personal data, for the purposes of Article 25(6), by the European Commission on 26 July 2000.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Under the Safe Harbor, adoptee organisations need to carefully consider their compliance with the <i>onward transfer obligations<\/i>, where personal data originating in the EU is transferred to the US Safe Harbor, and then onward to a third country. The alternative compliance approach of \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Binding_corporate_rules\" title=\"Binding corporate rules\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0910771506df454e2e91bb3be3bf2c80\">binding corporate rules<\/a>\", recommended by many EU privacy regulators, resolves this issue. In addition, any dispute arising in relation to the transfer of HR data to the US Safe Harbor must be heard by a panel of EU privacy regulators.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In July 2007, a new, controversial,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-R89_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-R89-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Passenger_Name_Record\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Passenger Name Record\" data-key=\"683c07655403f79d3f88d04549dea51d\">Passenger Name Record<\/a> agreement between the US and the EU was made.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> A short time afterwards, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush\" title=\"Presidency of George W. Bush\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c9c16ae7279422aeb30eff879abe5c0b\">Bush administration<\/a> gave exemption for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Department_of_Homeland_Security\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Department of Homeland Security\" data-key=\"7f017d14ac9bd6c4bb22b8aac9cd4d2c\">Department of Homeland Security<\/a>, for the (ADIS) and for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_Target_System\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automated Target System\" data-key=\"df7c186d07c453bbb908f0c4f77ba744\">Automated Target System<\/a> from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/1974_Privacy_Act\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"1974 Privacy Act\" data-key=\"3053f9dc3b27694989e41886ff1b25e0\">1974 Privacy Act<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Exemption_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Exemption-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In February 2008, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jonathan_Faull\" title=\"Jonathan Faull\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6afd0deaca91053b56f70834297205b\">Jonathan Faull<\/a>, the head of the EU's Commission of Home Affairs, complained about the US bilateral policy concerning PNR.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Faull_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Faull-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> The US had signed in February 2008 a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Czech_Republic\" title=\"Czech Republic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77002b6cebe02b8fa177be993daa7ed7\">Czech Republic<\/a> in exchange of a visa waiver scheme, without concerting before with Brussels.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-R89_29-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-R89-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> The tensions between Washington and Brussels are mainly caused by a lesser level of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_protection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data protection\" data-key=\"435ee937bd32896bbc3bdc6253a4f199\">data protection<\/a> in the US, especially since foreigners do not benefit from the US <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_Act_of_1974\" title=\"Privacy Act of 1974\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ace73f51225dc654075bd159f4cab48\">Privacy Act of 1974<\/a>. Other countries approached for bilateral MOU included the United Kingdom, Estonia, Germany and Greece.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy\" title=\"Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c0e284f1b9cc1e2e6e7c31286443366\">Privacy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_by_design\" title=\"Privacy by design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53f122f368fac6337721ad557fc00ceb\">Privacy by design<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_law\" title=\"Privacy law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58442113e93c1e202fc66e92aac1c44f\">Privacy Law<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EPrivacy_Regulation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"EPrivacy Regulation\" data-key=\"1ab4abe6eaedb3edcb1431631981b959\">ePrivacy Regulation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_sovereignty\" title=\"Data sovereignty\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8473332b5fcf261c2324048ceca5e168\">Data sovereignty<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_localization\" title=\"Data localization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79ec08df1e18eefc0a02a21007c9c0b4\">Data localization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_inheritance\" title=\"Digital inheritance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c8d5e61ee1ce1d21fe30140336a9ba6\">Digital inheritance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genetic_privacy\" title=\"Genetic privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9200810d73c6f7cb80313945e94cbcb\">Genetic privacy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_enhancing_technologies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Privacy enhancing technologies\" data-key=\"a66deafa5fdbf51bcbbddfb705703a0b\">Privacy enhancing technologies<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_software\" title=\"Privacy software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c74548af7083e4b6f7021ad7a65759ee\">Privacy software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_literacy\" title=\"Web literacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53d3d5816616bafbd3c3d1712ead8f96\">Web literacy<\/a> (privacy)<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<dl><dt>Computer science specific<\/dt><\/dl>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication\" title=\"Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b74801c769bbf831b273b2d28e09b\">Authentication<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_security\" title=\"Data security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7e9e5ee008f52b19272642e6cf8fb9\">Data security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_retention\" title=\"Data retention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7319085a4f0e9c849d3614b6d796cdb5\">Data retention<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_loss_prevention_software\" title=\"Data loss prevention software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"985dd65bda1b5dea90cc63b4d899e124\">Data loss prevention software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Differential_privacy\" title=\"Differential privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93b125a98b7b4a1d56ff140b713317bf\">Differential privacy<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<dl><dt>Organisations<\/dt><\/dl>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Confederation_of_European_Data_Protection_Organisations\" title=\"Confederation of European Data Protection Organisations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f10adf18d3896e3e27139198b76ccc6\">Confederation of European Data Protection Organisations<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Privacy_Day\" title=\"Data Privacy Day\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e3f8f1b19681de06b632dcb25a1ad69\">Data Privacy Day<\/a> (28 January)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_International\" title=\"Privacy International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5871c91334e4a46ac82f987ff205c62e\">Privacy International<\/a> (headquartered in UK)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Association_of_Privacy_Professionals\" title=\"International Association of Privacy Professionals\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e35a002ab5b935548b573c1b95617880\">International Association of Privacy Professionals<\/a> (headquartered in USA)<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<dl><dt>Scholars working in the field<\/dt><\/dl>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Khaled_El_Emam\" title=\"Khaled El Emam\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c45e4d96a62b20d0a56a4e1d12f1a11a\">Khaled El Emam<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stefan_Brands\" title=\"Stefan Brands\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bd53c18344d94c5dd0645fc9a4916a3\">Stefan Brands<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adam_Back\" title=\"Adam Back\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"798568de2cf2789449f1c3ce8105bc07\">Adam Back<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lance_Cottrell\" title=\"Lance Cottrell\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a49bf00606847706688e02f6e7c82058\">Lance Cottrell<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cynthia_Dwork\" title=\"Cynthia Dwork\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f45ea24ce173fb9e624eb628a55ccb7c\">Cynthia Dwork<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ian_Goldberg\" title=\"Ian Goldberg\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"686eda3f9d8c72743e5605843a711ac8\">Ian Goldberg<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Latanya_Sweeney\" title=\"Latanya Sweeney\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9881b4375d5612c30fcb44c8cb6a1d7c\">Latanya Sweeney<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peter_Gutmann_(computer_scientist)\" title=\"Peter Gutmann (computer scientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"31aa076ff07ad6ce02c8d53437731286\">Peter Gutmann<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><i>Uberveillance and the social implications of microchip implants : emerging technologies<\/i>. Michael, M. G.,, Michael, Katina, 1976-. Hershey, PA. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1466645820. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC\" title=\"OCLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e119fc7e1d352d47ef5b80f32a4b20c3\">OCLC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/843857020\" target=\"_blank\">843857020<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uberveillance+and+the+social+implications+of+microchip+implants+%3A+emerging+technologies&rft.place=Hershey%2C+PA&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F843857020&rft.isbn=978-1466645820&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTorra2017\" class=\"citation\">Torra, Vicen\u00e7 (2017), \"Introduction\", <i>Data Privacy: Foundations, New Developments and the Big Data Challenge<\/i>, Studies in Big Data, <b>28<\/b>, Springer International Publishing, pp. 1\u201321, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-319-57358-8_1\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-319-57358-8_1<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783319573564<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Data+Privacy%3A+Foundations%2C+New+Developments+and+the+Big+Data+Challenge&rft.series=Studies+in+Big+Data&rft.pages=1-21&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-57358-8_1&rft.isbn=9783319573564&rft.aulast=Torra&rft.aufirst=Vicen%C3%A7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pdpc.gov.sg\/Legislation-and-Guidelines\/Personal-Data-Protection-Act-Overview\" target=\"_blank\">\"Legislation and Guidelines: Overview\"<\/a>. <i>Personal Data Protection Commission<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Personal+Data+Protection+Commission&rft.atitle=Legislation+and+Guidelines%3A+Overview&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pdpc.gov.sg%2FLegislation-and-Guidelines%2FPersonal-Data-Protection-Act-Overview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.officialgazette.gov.ph\/2012\/08\/15\/republic-act-no-10173\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Privacy Act of 2012\"<\/a>. <i>Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Official+Gazette+of+the+Republic+of+the+Philippines&rft.atitle=Data+Privacy+Act+of+2012&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.officialgazette.gov.ph%2F2012%2F08%2F15%2Frepublic-act-no-10173%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.freepatentsonline.com\/y2010\/0011389.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"System for Gathering TV Audience Rating in Real Time in Internet Protocol Television Network and Method Thereof\"<\/a>. <i>FreePatentsOnline.com<\/i>. 2010-01-14<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-06-07<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FreePatentsOnline.com&rft.atitle=System+for+Gathering+TV+Audience+Rating+in+Real+Time+in+Internet+Protocol+Television+Network+and+Method+Thereof&rft.date=2010-01-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.freepatentsonline.com%2Fy2010%2F0011389.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Fiveash, Kelly (2012-11-08). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theregister.co.uk\/2012\/11\/08\/national_pupil_database_regulation_overhaul_in_private_sector_data_grab\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Psst: Heard the one about the National Pupil Database? Thought not\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Register\" title=\"The Register\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2eb0545423025dd1f51e39f5eed0591\">The Register<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2012-12-12<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Register&rft.atitle=Psst%3A+Heard+the+one+about+the+National+Pupil+Database%3F+Thought+not&rft.date=2012-11-08&rft.aulast=Fiveash&rft.aufirst=Kelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.co.uk%2F2012%2F11%2F08%2Fnational_pupil_database_regulation_overhaul_in_private_sector_data_grab%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Bergstein, Brian (2006-06-18). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.usatoday.com\/tech\/news\/surveillance\/2006-06-18-data-mining-privacy_x.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Research explores data mining, privacy\"<\/a>. <i>USA Today<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2010-05-05<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Research+explores+data+mining%2C+privacy&rft.date=2006-06-18&rft.aulast=Bergstein&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Ftech%2Fnews%2Fsurveillance%2F2006-06-18-data-mining-privacy_x.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Bergstein, Brian (2004-01-01). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.seattlepi.com\/business\/154986_privacychallenge02.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"In this data-mining society, privacy advocates shudder\"<\/a>. <i>Seattle Post-Intelligencer<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seattle+Post-Intelligencer&rft.atitle=In+this+data-mining+society%2C+privacy+advocates+shudder&rft.date=2004-01-01&rft.aulast=Bergstein&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seattlepi.com%2Fbusiness%2F154986_privacychallenge02.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Swartz, Nikki (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/connection.ebscohost.com\/c\/articles\/21472572\/u-s-demands-google-web-data\" target=\"_blank\">\"U.S. Demands Google Web Data\"<\/a>. <i>Information Management Journal<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Information+Management+Journal&rft.atitle=U.S.+Demands+Google+Web+Data&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Swartz&rft.aufirst=Nikki&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconnection.ebscohost.com%2Fc%2Farticles%2F21472572%2Fu-s-demands-google-web-data&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> Vol. 40 Issue 3, p. 18<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SchneiderTheInter08-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SchneiderTheInter08_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Schneider, G.; Evans, J.; Pinard, K.T. (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=E1fQdrzxAPoC&pg=PA17-IA137\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Internet: Illustrated Series<\/i><\/a>. Cengage Learning. p. 156. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781423999386<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Internet%3A+Illustrated+Series&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781423999386&rft.au=Schneider%2C+G.&rft.au=Evans%2C+J.&rft.au=Pinard%2C+K.T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE1fQdrzxAPoC%26pg%3DPA17-IA137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BocijCyber04-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BocijCyber04_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Bocij, P. (2004). <i>Cyberstalking: Harassment in the Internet Age and How to Protect Your Family<\/i>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 268. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780275981181.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cyberstalking%3A+Harassment+in+the+Internet+Age+and+How+to+Protect+Your+Family&rft.pages=268&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780275981181&rft.au=Bocij%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CannataciPrivacy16-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CannataciPrivacy16_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Cannataci, J.A.; Zhao, B.; Vives, G.T.; et al. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=tGC_DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA26\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Privacy, free expression and transparency: Redefining their new boundaries in the digital age<\/i><\/a>. UNESCO. p. 26. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9789231001888<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Privacy%2C+free+expression+and+transparency%3A+Redefining+their+new+boundaries+in+the+digital+age&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9789231001888&rft.au=Cannataci%2C+J.A.&rft.au=Zhao%2C+B.&rft.au=Vives%2C+G.T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtGC_DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AtaeiEphem16-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AtaeiEphem16_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Ataei, M.; Kray, C. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=_BdADQAAQBAJ&pg=PA360\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ephemerality Is the New Black: A Novel Perspective on Location Data Management and Location Privacy in LBS\"<\/a>. <i>Progress in Location-Based Services 2016<\/i>. Springer. pp. 357\u2013374. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783319472898<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ephemerality+Is+the+New+Black%3A+A+Novel+Perspective+on+Location+Data+Management+and+Location+Privacy+in+LBS&rft.btitle=Progress+in+Location-Based+Services+2016&rft.pages=357-374&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9783319472898&rft.au=Ataei%2C+M.&rft.au=Kray%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_BdADQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA360&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Blumberg, A. Eckersley, P. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.eff.org\/wp\/locational-privacy\" target=\"_blank\">\"On locational privacy and how to avoid losing it forever\"<\/a>. EFF.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+locational+privacy+and+how+to+avoid+losing+it+forever.&rft.pub=EFF&rft.au=Blumberg%2C+A.+Eckersley%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eff.org%2Fwp%2Flocational-privacy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">de Montjoye, Yves-Alexandre; C\u00e9sar A. Hidalgo; Michel Verleysen; Vincent D. Blondel (March 25, 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3607247\" target=\"_blank\">\"Unique in the Crowd: The privacy bounds of human mobility\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific Reports<\/i>. <b>3<\/b>: 1376. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2Fsrep01376\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/srep01376<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" title=\"PubMed Central\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63771bf92616f7746c20a676c8bc36e6\">PMC<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3607247\" target=\"_blank\">3607247<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/23524645\" target=\"_blank\">23524645<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Unique+in+the+Crowd%3A+The+privacy+bounds+of+human+mobility&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=1376&rft.date=2013-03-25&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3607247&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23524645&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsrep01376&rft.aulast=de+Montjoye&rft.aufirst=Yves-Alexandre&rft.au=C%C3%A9sar+A.+Hidalgo&rft.au=Michel+Verleysen&rft.au=Vincent+D.+Blondel&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3607247&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Palmer, Jason (March 25, 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/science-environment-21923360\" target=\"_blank\">\"Mobile location data 'present anonymity risk<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\">'<\/span>\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 April<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Mobile+location+data+%27present+anonymity+risk%27&rft.date=2013-03-25&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-21923360&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Aurelia, Nicholas-Donald; Francisco, Matus, Jesus; SeungEui, Ryu; M, Mahmood, Adam (1 June 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aisel.aisnet.org\/amcis2011_submissions\/341\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Economic Effect of Privacy Breach Announcements on Stocks: A Comprehensive Empirical Investigation\"<\/a>. <i>aisnet.org<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=aisnet.org&rft.atitle=The+Economic+Effect+of+Privacy+Breach+Announcements+on+Stocks%3A+A+Comprehensive+Empirical+Investigation&rft.date=2017-06-01&rft.aulast=Aurelia&rft.aufirst=Nicholas-Donald&rft.au=Francisco%2C+Matus%2C+Jesus&rft.au=SeungEui%2C+Ryu&rft.au=M%2C+Mahmood%2C+Adam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faisel.aisnet.org%2Famcis2011_submissions%2F341%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Serenko, Natalia; Lida Fan (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aserenko.com\/IJBHR_Serenko_Fan.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Patients' Perceptions of Privacy and Their Outcomes in Healthcare\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>International Journal of Behavioural and Healthcare Research<\/i>. <b>4<\/b> (2): 101\u2013122. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1504%2FIJBHR.2013.057359\" target=\"_blank\">10.1504\/IJBHR.2013.057359<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Behavioural+and+Healthcare+Research&rft.atitle=Patients%27+Perceptions+of+Privacy+and+Their+Outcomes+in+Healthcare&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=101-122&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1504%2FIJBHR.2013.057359&rft.aulast=Serenko&rft.aufirst=Natalia&rft.au=Lida+Fan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faserenko.com%2FIJBHR_Serenko_Fan.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.enotes.com\/everyday-law-encyclopedia\/doctor-patient-confidentiality\" target=\"_blank\">\"If a patient is below the age of 18-years does confidentiality still works or should doctor breach and inform the parents?15years girl went for... - eNotes\"<\/a>. <i>eNotes<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=eNotes&rft.atitle=If+a+patient+is+below+the+age+of+18-years+does+confidentiality+still+works+or+should+doctor+breach+and+inform+the+parents%3F15years+girl+went+for...+-+eNotes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enotes.com%2Feveryday-law-encyclopedia%2Fdoctor-patient-confidentiality&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Rakower, Lauren (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=bjil\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blurred Line: Zooming in on Google Street View and the Global Right to Privacy\"<\/a>. <i>brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171005101128\/http:\/\/brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=bjil\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2017-10-05.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu&rft.atitle=Blurred+Line%3A+Zooming+in+on+Google+Street+View+and+the+Global+Right+to+Privacy&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Rakower&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbrooklynworks.brooklaw.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1082%26context%3Dbjil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Robert Hasty, Dr Trevor W. Nagel and Mariam Subjally, <i>Data Protection Law in the USA.<\/i> (Advocates for International Development, August 2013.)<cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150925093457\/http:\/\/www.a4id.org\/sites\/default\/files\/user\/Data%20Protection%20Law%20in%20the%20USA_0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Archived copy\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/a4id.org\/sites\/default\/files\/user\/Data%20Protection%20Law%20in%20the%20USA_0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 2015-09-25<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-10-14<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fa4id.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fuser%2FData%2520Protection%2520Law%2520in%2520the%2520USA_0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Archived_copy_as_title\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Archived copy as title\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed2e57b0642742d0fcc92214dc138a5f\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hhs.gov\/ohrp\/education-and-outreach\/archived-materials\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Institutional Review Board - Guidebook, CHAPTER IV - CONSIDERATIONS OF RESEARCH DESIGN\"<\/a>. <i>www.hhs.gov<\/i>. October 5, 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">October 5,<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hhs.gov&rft.atitle=Institutional+Review+Board+-+Guidebook%2C+CHAPTER+IV+-+CONSIDERATIONS+OF+RESEARCH+DESIGN&rft.date=2017-10-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Fohrp%2Feducation-and-outreach%2Farchived-materials%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><i>Programme Management Managing Multiple Projects Successfully<\/i>. Mittal, Prashant. Global India Pubns. 2009. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-9380228204. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC\" title=\"OCLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e119fc7e1d352d47ef5b80f32a4b20c3\">OCLC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/464584332\" target=\"_blank\">464584332<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Programme+Management+Managing+Multiple+Projects+Successfully.&rft.pub=Global+India+Pubns&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F464584332&rft.isbn=978-9380228204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blues.cs.berkeley.edu\/blog\/2015\/08\/26\/the-myth-of-the-average-user-improving-privacy-and-security-systems-through-individualization-nspw-15\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Myth of the Average User: Improving Privacy and Security Systems through Individualization (NSPW '15) | BLUES\"<\/a>. <i>blues.cs.berkeley.edu<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-03-11<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=blues.cs.berkeley.edu&rft.atitle=The+Myth+of+the+Average+User%3A+Improving+Privacy+and+Security+Systems+through+Individualization+%28NSPW+%2715%29+%7C+BLUES&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblues.cs.berkeley.edu%2Fblog%2F2015%2F08%2F26%2Fthe-myth-of-the-average-user-improving-privacy-and-security-systems-through-individualization-nspw-15%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/justice_home\/fsj\/privacy\/law\/index_en.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Protection of personal data \u2013 European Commission\"<\/a>. <i>ec.europa.eu<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ec.europa.eu&rft.atitle=Protection+of+personal+data+%E2%80%93+European+Commission&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Fjustice_home%2Ffsj%2Fprivacy%2Flaw%2Findex_en.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/justice_home\/fsj\/privacy\/docs\/adequacy\/sec-2004-1323_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Protection of personal data \u2013 European Commission\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>ec.europa.eu<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ec.europa.eu&rft.atitle=Protection+of+personal+data+%E2%80%93+European+Commission&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Fjustice_home%2Ffsj%2Fprivacy%2Fdocs%2Fadequacy%2Fsec-2004-1323_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/LexUriServ\/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32000D0520:EN:HTML\" target=\"_blank\">\"EUR-Lex \u2013 32000D0520 \u2013 EN\"<\/a>. <i>eur-lex.europa.eu<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=eur-lex.europa.eu&rft.atitle=EUR-Lex+%E2%80%93+32000D0520+%E2%80%93+EN&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feur-lex.europa.eu%2FLexUriServ%2FLexUriServ.do%3Furi%3DCELEX%3A32000D0520%3AEN%3AHTML&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/justice_home\/fsj\/privacy\/docs\/adequacy\/information_safe_harbour_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Protection of personal data \u2013 European Commission\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>ec.europa.eu<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ec.europa.eu&rft.atitle=Protection+of+personal+data+%E2%80%93+European+Commission&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Fjustice_home%2Ffsj%2Fprivacy%2Fdocs%2Fadequacy%2Finformation_safe_harbour_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-R89-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-R89_29-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-R89_29-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rue89.com\/2008\/03\/04\/a-divided-europe-wants-to-protect-its-personal-data-wanted-by-the-us\" target=\"_blank\">A divided Europe wants to protect its personal data wanted by the US<\/a>, <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rue_89\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Rue 89\" data-key=\"f8ba892cec67c46698472c3166d63518\">Rue 89<\/a><\/i>, 4 March 2008 <span class=\"languageicon\">(in English)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120112021643\/http:\/\/www.libertysecurity.org\/article1591.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120112021643\/http:\/\/www.libertysecurity.org\/article1591.html<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Exemption-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Exemption_31-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statewatch\" title=\"Statewatch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2496c287bd3286ddda67b5b422ea050e\">Statewatch<\/a>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.statewatch.org\/news\/2007\/sep\/04eu-usa-pnr-exemptions.htm\" target=\"_blank\">US changes the privacy rules to exemption access to personal data<\/a> September 2007<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Faull-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Faull_32-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/euobserver.com\/9\/25657\" target=\"_blank\">Brussels attacks new US security demands<\/a>, European Observer. See also <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.statewatch.org\/news\/\" target=\"_blank\">Statewatch newsletter<\/a> February 2008<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statewatch\" title=\"Statewatch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2496c287bd3286ddda67b5b422ea050e\">Statewatch<\/a>, March 2008<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><cite class=\"citation book\">Philip E. Agre; Marc Rotenberg (1998). <i>Technology and privacy: the new landscape<\/i>. MIT Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-262-51101-8.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology+and+privacy%3A+the+new+landscape&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-262-51101-8&rft.au=Philip+E.+Agre&rft.au=Marc+Rotenberg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInformation+privacy\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<dl><dt>International<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.echr.coe.int\/NR\/rdonlyres\/4FCF8133-AD91-4F7B-86F0-A448429BC2CC\/0\/FICHES_Protection_des_donn\u00e9es_EN.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Factsheet on ECtHR case law on data protection<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/icdppc.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">International Conference of Data Protection and Privacy Commissioners<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.biometricsinstitute.org\/pages\/privacy-biometrics.html\" target=\"_blank\">Biometrics Institute Privacy Charter<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Europe<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/justice_home\/fsj\/privacy\/\" target=\"_blank\">EU data protection page<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/unescoprivacychair.urv.cat\/\" target=\"_blank\">UNESCO Chair in Data Privacy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.edps.europa.eu\/EDPSWEB\/\" target=\"_blank\">European Data Protection Supervisor<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Latin America<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rlpdp.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">Latin American Data Protection Law Review<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>North America<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pacc-ccap.ca\/\" target=\"_blank\">Privacy and Access Council of Canada<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/privacy.cs.cmu.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\">Laboratory for International Data Privacy<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Mellon_University\" title=\"Carnegie Mellon University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edc1e7b9266be3eeab86296d0abca43b\">Carnegie Mellon University<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epic.org\/privacy\/consumer\/states.html\" target=\"_blank\">Privacy Laws by State<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Journals<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computer.org\/security\/\" target=\"_blank\">IEEE Security & Privacy magazine<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tdp.cat\/\" target=\"_blank\">Transactions on Data Privacy<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1268\nCached time: 20190325122704\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.568 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.675 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 2237\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 91123\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 10731\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 9\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 4\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 89231\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 4\/400\nLua time usage: 0.363\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 10.83 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 573.931 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>77.21% 443.113 1 Template:Reflist\n31.24% 179.298 1 Template:En_icon\n30.90% 177.345 1 Template:Link_language\n20.73% 118.970 7 Template:Cite_book\n 9.60% 55.105 6 Template:Columns-list\n 8.75% 50.201 12 Template:Cite_web\n 4.62% 26.494 1 Template:Authority_control\n 4.40% 25.232 2 Template:See_also\n 4.39% 25.216 6 Template:Cite_news\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:237536-1!canonical and timestamp 20190325122703 and revision id 887946528\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_privacy\" data-key=\"7dbb3588f4b4f0d68b7d7359daea67bb\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203005\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.013 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.187 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 179.262 1 - wikipedia:Information_privacy\n100.00% 179.262 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10565-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203005 and revision id 33198\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_privacy\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_privacy<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782_images":[],"185f6d9f874e48914b5789317408f782_timestamp":1554323405,"f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73_type":"article","f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73_title":"Information management","f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_management","f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tInformation management\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tNot to be confused with Content management or Knowledge management.\n\n\nInformation science\nGeneral aspects\nInformation access ·  Information architecture\nInformation management\nInformation retrieval\nInformation seeking ·  Information society\nKnowledge organization ·  Ontology ·  Taxonomy\nPhilosophy of information\nScience and technology studies\n\nRelated fields and sub-fields\nBibliometrics ·  Categorization\nCensorship ·  Classification\nComputer data storage ·  Cultural studies\nData modeling ·  Informatics\nInformation technology\nIntellectual freedom\nIntellectual property ·  Memory\nLibrary and information science\nPreservation ·  Privacy\nQuantum information science\n\n Library and information science portalvte\nInformation management (IM) concerns a cycle of organizational activity: the acquisition of information from one or more sources, the custodianship and the distribution of that information to those who need it, and its ultimate disposition through archiving or deletion.\nThis cycle of organisational involvement with information involves a variety of stakeholders, including those who are responsible for assuring the quality, accessibility and utility of acquired information; those who are responsible for its safe storage and disposal; and those who need it for decision making. Stakeholders might have rights to originate, change, distribute or delete information according to organisational information management policies.\nInformation management embraces all the generic concepts of management, including the planning, organizing, structuring, processing, controlling, evaluation and reporting of information activities, all of which is needed in order to meet the needs of those with organisational roles or functions that depend on information. These generic concepts allow the information to be presented to the audience or the correct group of people. After individuals are able to put that information to use, it then gains more value.\nInformation management is closely related to, and overlaps with, the management of data, systems, technology, processes and \u2013 where the availability of information is critical to organisational success \u2013 strategy. This broad view of the realm of information management contrasts with the earlier, more traditional view, that the life cycle of managing information is an operational matter that requires specific procedures, organisational capabilities and standards that deal with information as a product or a service.\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n\n1.1 Emergent ideas out of data management \n1.2 Positioning information management in the bigger picture \n\n\n2 Theoretical background \n\n2.1 Behavioural and organisational theories \n2.2 Economic theory \n\n\n3 Strategic information management \n\n3.1 Background \n3.2 Aligning technology and business strategy with information management \n3.3 A contemporary portfolio model for information \n3.4 Competencies to manage information well \n3.5 Summary \n\n\n4 Operationalising information management \n\n4.1 Managing requisite change \n4.2 The early work of Galbraith \n4.3 The matrix organisation \n\n\n5 See also \n6 References \n7 External links \n\n\nHistory \nEmergent ideas out of data management \nIn the 1970s, the management of information largely concerned matters closer to what would now be called data management: punched cards, magnetic tapes and other record-keeping media, involving a life cycle of such formats requiring origination, distribution, backup, maintenance and disposal. At this time the huge potential of information technology began to be recognised: for example a single chip storing a whole book, or electronic mail moving messages instantly around the world, remarkable ideas at the time.[1] With the proliferation of information technology and the extending reach of information systems in the 1980s and 1990s,[2] information management took on a new form. Progressive businesses such as British Petroleum transformed the vocabulary of what was then \"IT management\", so that \u201csystems analysts\u201d became \u201cbusiness analysts\u201d, \u201cmonopoly supply\u201d became a mixture of \u201cinsourcing\u201d and \u201coutsourcing\u201d, and the large IT function was transformed into \u201clean teams\u201d that began to allow some agility in the processes that harness information for business benefit.[3] The scope of senior management interest in information at British Petroleum extended from the creation of value through improved business processes, based upon the effective management of information, permitting the implementation of appropriate information systems (or \u201capplications\u201d) that were operated on IT infrastructure that was outsourced.[3] In this way, information management was no longer a simple job that could be performed by anyone who had nothing else to do, it became highly strategic and a matter for senior management attention. An understanding of the technologies involved, an ability to manage information systems projects and business change well, and a willingness to align technology and business strategies all became necessary.[4]\n\nPositioning information management in the bigger picture \nIn the transitional period leading up to the strategic view of information management, Venkatraman (a strong advocate of this transition and transformation,[5] proffered a simple arrangement of ideas that succinctly brought together the managements of data, information, and knowledge (see the figure)) argued that:\n\nData that is maintained in IT infrastructure has to be interpreted in order to render information.\nThe information in our information systems has to be understood in order to emerge as knowledge.\nKnowledge allows managers to take effective decisions.\nEffective decisions have to lead to appropriate actions.\nAppropriate actions are expected to deliver meaningful results.\n This simple model summarises a presentation by Venkatraman in 1996, as reported by Ward and Peppard (2002, page 207).[4]\nThis is often referred to as the DIKAR model: Data, Information, Knowledge, Action and Result,[6] it gives a strong clue as to the layers involved in aligning technology and organisational strategies, and it can be seen as a pivotal moment in changing attitudes to information management. The recognition that information management is an investment that must deliver meaningful results is important to all modern organisations that depend on information and good decision-making for their success.[7]\n\nTheoretical background \nBehavioural and organisational theories \nIt is commonly believed that good information management is crucial to the smooth working of organisations, and although there is no commonly accepted theory of information management per se, behavioural and organisational theories help. Following the behavioural science theory of management, mainly developed at Carnegie Mellon University and prominently supported by March and Simon,[8] most of what goes on in modern organizations is actually information handling and decision making. One crucial factor in information handling and decision making is an individual's ability to process information and to make decisions under limitations that might derive from the context: a person's age, the situational complexity, or a lack of requisite quality in the information that is at hand \u2013 all of which is exacerbated by the rapid advance of technology and the new kinds of system that it enables, especially as the social web emerges as a phenomenon that business cannot ignore. And yet, well before there was any general recognition of the importance of information management in organisations, March and Simon [8] argued that organizations have to be considered as cooperative systems, with a high level of information processing and a vast need for decision making at various levels. Instead of using the model of the \"economic man\", as advocated in classical theory [9] they proposed \"administrative man\" as an alternative, based on their argumentation about the cognitive limits of rationality. Additionally they proposed the notion of satisficing, which entails searching through the available alternatives until an acceptability threshold is met - another idea that still has currency.[10]\n\nEconomic theory \nIn addition to the organisational factors mentioned by March and Simon, there are other issues that stem from economic and environmental dynamics. There is the cost of collecting and evaluating the information needed to take a decision, including the time and effort required.[11] The transaction cost associated with information processes can be high. In particular, established organizational rules and procedures can prevent the taking of the most appropriate decision, leading to sub-optimum outcomes \n.[12][13] This is an issue that has been presented as a major problem with bureaucratic organizations that lose the economies of strategic change because of entrenched attitudes.[14]\n\nStrategic information management \nBackground \nAccording to the Carnegie Mellon School an organization's ability to process information is at the core of organizational and managerial competency, and an organization's strategies must be designed to improve information processing capability [15] and as information systems that provide that capability became formalised and automated, competencies were severely tested at many levels.[16] It was recognised that organisations needed to be able to learn and adapt in ways that were never so evident before [17] and academics began to organise and publish definitive works concerning the strategic management of information, and information systems.[4][18] Concurrently, the ideas of business process management [19] and knowledge management [20] although much of the optimistic early thinking about business process redesign has since been discredited in the information management literature.[21] In the strategic studies field, it is considered of the highest priority the understanding of the information environment, conceived as the aggregate of individuals, organizations, and systems that collect, process, disseminate, or act on information. This environment consists of three interrelated dimensions which continuously interact with individuals, organizations, and systems. These dimensions are the physical, informational, and cognitive.[22]\n\nAligning technology and business strategy with information management \nVenkatraman has provided a simple view of the requisite capabilities of an organisation that wants to manage information well \u2013 the DIKAR model (see above). He also worked with others to understand how technology and business strategies could be appropriately aligned in order to identify specific capabilities that are needed.[23] This work was paralleled by other writers in the world of consulting,[24] practice [25] and academia.[26]\n\nA contemporary portfolio model for information \nBytheway has collected and organised basic tools and techniques for information management in a single volume.[7] At the heart of his view of information management is a portfolio model that takes account of the surging interest in external sources of information and the need to organise un-structured information external so as to make it useful (see the figure).\n\n This portfolio model organizes issues of internal and external sourcing and management of information, that may be either structured or unstructured.\nSuch an information portfolio as this shows how information can be gathered and usefully organised, in four stages:\nStage 1: Taking advantage of public information: recognise and adopt well-structured external schemes of reference data, such as post codes, weather data, GPS positioning data and travel timetables, exemplified in the personal computing press.[27]\nStage 2: Tagging the noise on the world wide web: use existing schemes such as post codes and GPS data or more typically by adding \u201ctags\u201d, or construct a formal ontology that provides structure. Shirky provides an overview of these two approaches.[28]\nStage 3: Sifting and analysing: in the wider world the generalised ontologies that are under development extend to hundreds of entities and hundreds of relations between them and provide the means to elicit meaning from large volumes of data. Structured data in databases works best when that structure reflects a higher-level information model \u2013 an ontology, or an entity-relationship model.[29]\nStage 4: Structuring and archiving: with the large volume of data available from sources such as the social web and from the miniature telemetry systems used in personal health management, new ways to archive and then trawl data for meaningful information. Map-reduce methods, originating from functional programming, are a more recent way of eliciting information from large archival datasets that is becoming interesting to regular businesses that have very large data resources to work with, but it requires advanced multi-processor resources.[30]\n\nCompetencies to manage information well \nThe Information Management Body of Knowledge was made available on the world wide web in 2004 [31] \nand sets out to show that the required management competencies to derive real benefits from an investment in information are complex and multi-layered. The framework model that is the basis for understanding competencies comprises six \u201cknowledge\u201d areas and four \u201cprocess\u201d areas:\n\n This framework is the basis of organising the \"Information Management Body of Knowledge\" first made available in 2004. This version is adapted by the addition of \"Business information\" in 2014.\nThe information management knowledge areas\nThe IMBOK is based on the argument that there are six areas of required management competency, two of which (\u201cbusiness process management\u201d and \u201cbusiness information management\u201d) are very closely related.[32]\n\nInformation technology: The pace of change of technology and the pressure to constantly acquire the newest technological products can undermine the stability of the infrastructure that supports systems, and thereby optimises business processes and delivers benefits. It is necessary to manage the \u201csupply side\u201d and recognise that technology is, increasingly, becoming a commodity.[33]\nInformation system: While historically information systems were developed in-house, over the years it has become possible to acquire most of the software systems that an organisation needs from the software package industry. However, there is still the potential for competitive advantage from the implementation of new systems ideas that deliver to the strategic intentions of organisations.[4]\nBusiness processes and Business information: Information systems are applied to business processes in order to improve them, and they bring data to the business that becomes useful as business information. Business process management is still seen as a relatively new idea because it is not universally adopted, and it has been difficult in many cases; business information management is even more of a challenge.[34][35]\nBusiness benefit: What are the benefits that we are seeking? It is necessary not only to be brutally honest about what can be achieved, but also to ensure the active management and assessment of benefit delivery. Since the emergence and popularisation of the Balanced scorecard [36] there has been huge interest in business performance management but not much serious effort has been made to relate business performance management to the benefits of information technology investments and the introduction of new information systems until the turn of the millennium.[26]\nBusiness strategy: Although a long way from the workaday issues of managing information in organisations, strategy in most organisations simply has to be informed by information technology and information systems opportunities, whether to address poor performance or to improve differentiation and competitiveness. Strategic analysis tools such as the value chain and critical success factor analysis are directly dependent on proper attention to the information that is (or could be) managed [4]\nThe information management processes\nEven with full capability and competency within the six knowledge areas, it is argued that things can still go wrong. The problem lies in the migration of ideas and information management value from one area of competency to another. Summarising what Bytheway explains in some detail (and supported by selected secondary references):[37]\n\nProjects: Information technology is without value until it is engineered into information systems that meet the needs of the business by means of good project management.[38]\nBusiness change: The best information systems succeed in delivering benefits through the achievement of change within the business systems, but people do not appreciate change that makes new demands upon their skills in the ways that new information systems often do. Contrary to common expectations, there is some evidence that the public sector has succeeded with information technology induced business change.[39]\nBusiness operations: With new systems in place, with business processes and business information improved, and with staff finally ready and able to work with new processes, then the business can get to work, even when new systems extend far beyond the boundaries of a single business.[40]\nPerformance management: Investments are no longer solely about financial results, financial success must be balanced with internal efficiency, customer satisfaction, and with organisational learning and development.[36]\nSummary \nThere are always many ways to see a business, and the information management viewpoint is only one way. It is important to remember that other areas of business activity will also contribute to strategy \u2013 it is not only good information management that moves a business forwards. Corporate governance, human resource management, product development and marketing will all have an important role to play in strategic ways, and we must not see one domain of activity alone as the sole source of strategic success. On the other hand, corporate governance, human resource management, product development and marketing are all dependent on effective information management, and so in the final analysis our competency to manage information well, on the broad basis that is offered here, can be said to be predominant.\n\nOperationalising information management \nManaging requisite change \nOrganizations are often confronted with many information management challenges and issues at the operational level, especially when organisational change is engendered. The novelty of new systems architectures and a lack of experience with new styles of information management requires a level of organisational change management that is notoriously difficult to deliver. As a result of a general organisational reluctance to change, to enable new forms of information management, there might be (for example): a shortfall in the requisite resources, a failure to acknowledge new classes of information and the new procedures that use them, a lack of support from senior management leading to a loss of strategic vision, and even political manoeuvring that undermines the operation of the whole organisation.[41] However, the implementation of new forms of information management should normally lead to operational benefits.\n\nThe early work of Galbraith \nIn early work, taking an information processing view of organisation design, Jay Galbraith has identified five tactical areas to increase information processing capacity and reduce the need for information processing.[42]\n\nDeveloping, implementing, and monitoring all aspects of the \u201cenvironment\u201d of an organization.\nCreation of slack resources so as to decrease the load on the overall hierarchy of resources and to reduce information processing relating to overload.\nCreation of self-contained tasks with defined boundaries and that can achieve proper closure, and with all the resources at hand required to perform the task.\nRecognition of lateral relations that cut across functional units, so as to move decision power to the process instead of fragmenting it within the hierarchy.\nInvestment in vertical information systems that route information flows for a specific task (or set of tasks) in accordance to the applied business logic.\nThe matrix organisation \nThe lateral relations concept leads to an organizational form that is different from the simple hierarchy, the \u201cmatrix organization\u201d. This brings together the vertical (hierarchical) view of an organisation and the horizontal (product or project) view of the work that it does visible to the outside world. The creation of a matrix organization is one management response to a persistent fluidity of external demand, avoiding multifarious and spurious responses to episodic demands that tend to be dealt with individually.\n\nSee also \nInformation Management Body of Knowledge\nRecords management\nKnowledge management\nInformation technology\nInformation system\nProject management\nBusiness process\nBalanced scorecard\nStrategic management\nData management\nContent management\nMaster of Information Management\nInformation Resources Management Journal\nJournal of Global Information Management\nReferences \n\n\n^ Evans, C., 1979. The Mighty Micro, London: Victor Gollancz. \n\n^ Venkatraman, N., 1994. IT-enabled business transformation: from automation to business scope redefinition. Sloan Management Review, 35(2), pp.73\u201387 \n\n^ a b Cross, J. & Earl, M., 1997. Transformation of the IT function at British Petroleum. MIS Quarterly, 21(4), page 403 \n\n^ a b c d e Ward, J. & Peppard, J., 2002. Strategic Planning for Information Systems (3rd Edition), Chichester: Wiley \n\n^ Venkatraman, N., 1994. IT-enabled business transformation: from automation to business scope redefinition. Sloan Management Review, 35(2), pp.73\u201387. \n\n^ Venkatraman, N., 1996. Managing IT resources as a value center, IS Executive Seminar Series, Cranfield School of Management \n\n^ a b Bytheway, A., 2015. Investing in Information: the Information Management Body of Knowledge, Geneva: Springer \n\n^ a b March, J.G. & Simon, H.A., 1958. Organizations, Wiley \n\n^ see Opp, K.-D., 1985. Sociology and economic man. Zeitschrift f\u00fcr die gesamte Staatswissenschaft\/Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, pp.213\u2013243 \n\n^ Winter, S.G., 2000. The satisficing principle in capability learning. Strategic Management Journal, 21(10-11), pp.981\u2013996 \n\n^ Hedberg, Bo (1981), \"How organizations learn and unlearn\", in: Nystr\u00f6m, P.C. & Starbuck, W.H., Handbook of Organizational Design, Oxford University Press \n\n^ Mackenzie K.D. (1978), Organizational Structures, AHM Publishing Corporation \n\n^ Mullins, L.J (1993), Management and Organizational Behaviours, 3rd ed., Pitman Publishing \n\n^ Wigand, Rolf T., Picot, Arnold and Reichwald, Ralf (1997), Information, Organization and Management: Expanding Markets and Corporate Boundaries, Wiley & Sons \n\n^ Cyert, R.M. & March, J.G., 1959. A behavioural theory of organizational objectives. Modern Organization Theory, Wiley, New York, pp.76\u201390 \n\n^ Morton, M.S.S., 1991. The corporation of the 1990s: Information technology and organizational transformation, Oxford University Press \n\n^ Senge, P.M., 1990. The fifth discipline, Doubleday \n\n^ Earl, M.J., 1989. Management Strategies for Information Technology, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. \n\n^ Hammer, M. & Champy, J., 2009. Reengineering the Corporation: Manifesto for Business Revolution, A, Zondervan \n\n^ Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H., 1995. The knowledge creating company: how Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation, New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press \n\n^ Belmiro, T., Gardiner, P. & Simmons, J., 1997. Business process re-engineering\u2014A discredited vocabulary? International Journal of Information Management, 17(1), pp.21\u201333 \n\n^ Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, U.S. Army (2012). Information Operations. Joint Publication 3-13. Joint Doctrine Support Division, 116 Lake View Parkway, Suffolk, VA., p. 18. \n\n^ Henderson, J.C. & Venkatraman, N., 1993. Strategic alignment: leveraging information technology for transforming organizations. IBM Systems Journal, 32(1), pp.4\u201316 \n\n^ Zachman, J. A. (1987). A framework for information systems architecture. IBM Systems Journal, 26(3), 590\u2013616 \n\n^ Cross, J., 1995. IT outsourcing : British Petroleum\u2019s competitive approach. Harvard Business Review, 73(3), p.94 \n\n^ a b Ward, J. & Daniel, E., 2005. Benefits Management: Delivering Value from IS and IT Investments, Chichester: Wiley \n\n^ Ashbrook, D. & Starner, T., 2003. Using GPS to learn significant locations and predict movement across multiple users. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 7(5), pp.275\u2013286 \n\n^ Shirky, C., 2005. Shirky: Ontology is Overrated -- Categories, Links, and Tags. Clay Shirky\u2019s Writings About the Internet. Available at: http:\/\/shirky.com\/writings\/ontology_overrated.html [Accessed May 23, 2013] \n\n^ Noy, N.F., McGuinness, D.L. & others, 2001. Ontology development 101: A guide to creating your first ontology, Stanford knowledge systems laboratory technical report KSL-01-05 and Stanford medical informatics technical report SMI-2001-0880 \n\n^ Chu, C. et al., 2007. Map-reduce for machine learning on multicore. Advances in neural information processing systems, 19, p.281 \n\n^ IMBOK, 2004. The Information Management Body of Knowledge. Available at: http:\/\/www.imbok.org [Accessed May 12, 2015] \n\n^ Bytheway, A., 2015. Investing in Information: the Information Management Body of Knowledge, Geneva: Springer,\n p29 \n\n^ Carr, N., 2003. IT doesn\u2019t matter. In Wringing real value from IT. HBR OnPoint, pp. 3\u201310 \n\n^ Belmiro, T.R. et al., 2000. Are BPR practitioners really addressing business processes? International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 20(10), pp.1183\u20131203 \n\n^ Davenport, T.H. & Short, J., 2003. Information technology and business process redesign. Operations management: critical perspectives on business and management, 1, p.97 \n\n^ a b Kaplan, R. & Norton, D., 1996. The balanced scorecard - translating stragegy into action, Boston MA: Harvard University Press \n\n^ Bytheway, A., 2015. Investing in Information: the Information Management Body of Knowledge, Geneva: Springer,\n p31 \n\n^ Schwalbe, K., 2013. Information technology project management, Cengage Learning \n\n^ Scholl, H.J., 2005. E-government-induced business process change (BPC): An empirical study of current practices. International Journal of Electronic Government Research (IJEGR), 1(2), pp.27\u201349 \n\n^ Saeed, K.A., Malhotra, M.K. & Grover, V., 2005. Examining the Impact of Interorganizational Systems on Process Efficiency and Sourcing Leverage in Buyer\u2013Supplier Dyads. Decision Sciences, 36(3), pp.365\u2013396 \n\n^ Knights, D. & Murray, F., 1994. Managers Divided, Chichester: John Wiley \n\n^ Galbraith, J.R., 1977. Organization design, Addison Wesley \n\n\nExternal links \n\n\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Information management.\n\n\n\nWikiquote has quotations related to: Information management\nInformation Management Paper (Link to a downloadable book about \"Big data and managing information\")\n\"Information Management Body of Knowledge\" (Web site supporting the IMBOK with overview material, research reviews and blogs)\nApplication Services and Business Information Services Libraries (A web site for the information and systems management community based in the Netherlands)\nAuthority control \nGND: 4114012-6 \nLCCN: sh85066147 \n\nvteInformaticsDesign\nData warehouse\nGeoportal\nInformatics engineering\nInformation management\nInformation processing\nInformation systems\nInformation technology\nWeb portal\nSubfields\nArchival informatics\nAstroinformatics\nBiodiversity informatics\nBioimage informatics\nBioinformatics\nBusiness informatics\nCheminformatics\nCommunity informatics\nComputational biology\nComputational informatics\nConsumer health informatics\nDevelopment informatics\nDisease informatics\nEducation informatics\nEnergy informatics\nEngineering Informatics\nEnvironmental informatics\nForest informatics\nGeoinformatics\nHealth informatics\nHydroinformatics\nImaging informatics\nIrrigation informatics\nLaboratory informatics\nLegal informatics\nMaterials informatics\nMedical informatics\nMusic informatics\nNeuroinformatics\nPervasive Informatics\nPublic health informatics\nSocial informatics\nTechnical informatics\nTranslational research informatics\nUrban informatics\n\nvteManagement\nOutline of business management\nIndex of management articles\nBy type \r\nof organization\nAcademic\nAssociation\nBusiness\nRestaurant\nHealthcare\nMilitary\nPublic\nBy focus (within \r\nan organization)By scopeStrategic\r\n(top-level)\nCapability\nChange\nCommunication\nFinancial\nInnovation\nPerformance\nRisk\nSystems\nBy component\nFacility\nProduct\nProduct lifecycle\nBrand\nProgram\nProject\nConstruction\nBy activity or\r\ndepartment\r\n managedLine\nMarketing\nOperations\/production\nProcess\nQuality\nSales\nStaff\nAccounting\nOffice\nRecords\nBy aspect or\r\nrelationship\nCustomer relationship\nEngineering\nLogistics\nPerception\nSupply chain\nTalent\nBy problem\nConflict\nCrisis\nStress\nBy resource\nEnvironmental resource\nHuman resources\nInformation\nInformation technology\nKnowledge\nLand\nMaterials\nSkills\nStock\nTechnology\nTime\nManagement\r\npositions\nInterim\nMiddle\nSenior\nMethods\r\nand approaches\nAdhocracy\nCollaborative method\nDistributed\nEarned value management\nEvidence-based management\nFull Range of Leadership Model\nManagement by objectives\nManagement style\nMacromanagement\nMicromanagement\nScientific management\nSocial entrepreneurship\nTeam building\nVirtual management\nManagement skills\r\nand activities\nDecision-making\nForecasting\nLeadership\nPioneers and\r\nscholars\nPeter Drucker\nEliyahu M. Goldratt\nOliver E. Williamson\nEducation\nAssociation of Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering\nBusiness school\nCertified Business Manager\nChartered Management Institute\nCritical management studies\nDegrees\nBachelor of Business Administration\nMaster of Business Administration\nPhD in management\nOrganizational studies\nOther\nAdministration\nCollaboration\nCorporate governance\nExecutive compensation\nManagement consulting\nManagement control\nManagement cybernetics\nManagement development\nManagement fad\nManagement system\nManagerial economics\nManagerial psychology\nManagerialism\nOrganization development\nOrganizational behavior management\nPointy-haired Boss\nWilliamson's model of managerial discretion\n Systems science portal\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" 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id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Information management<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Not to be confused with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_management\" title=\"Content management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ddb6b50fbc33bcfbf5f77cb58c5ead1\">Content management<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">Knowledge management<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n\n<p><b>Information management<\/b> (<b>IM<\/b>) concerns a cycle of organizational activity: the acquisition of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a> from one or more sources, the custodianship and the distribution of that information to those who need it, and its ultimate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disposition\" title=\"Disposition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4535e972e721aecd8c8227805a0c7925\">disposition<\/a> through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archiving\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Archiving\" data-key=\"4fbc6dd4e1d2a702dfc0937b9d8e302e\">archiving<\/a> or deletion.\n<\/p><p>This cycle of organisational involvement with information involves a variety of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_(corporate)\" title=\"Stakeholder (corporate)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ca00d64d7f7af3b41dfe409fa5af06e\">stakeholders<\/a>, including those who are responsible for assuring the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_(business)\" title=\"Quality (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93c3fbb1e90ef808bed953ad4e2a10d6\">quality<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accessibility\" title=\"Accessibility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b03a29f12fb22a58105751f50b00570\">accessibility<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Utility\" title=\"Utility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"317210b0c67c2128db183f39aa610e39\">utility<\/a> of acquired information; those who are responsible for its safe <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_storage_device\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data storage device\" data-key=\"3ed5a8a7abc6bc6fbf516d6728e74e3a\">storage<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/disposal\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:disposal\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">disposal<\/a>; and those who need it for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_making\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision making\" data-key=\"f7ca18573163d657813ebb8dfb5bff55\">decision making<\/a>. Stakeholders might have rights to originate, change, distribute or delete information according to organisational information management <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Policies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Policies\" data-key=\"adf5daed653b9fd8d1acd1891817397c\">policies<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Information management embraces all the generic concepts of management, including the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Planning\" title=\"Planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92c4f966837eaf2919da86f8cd081592\">planning<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organizing_(management)\" title=\"Organizing (management)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cd45711cf899c086b2b19ff37049e4f\">organizing<\/a>, structuring, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">processing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internal_control\" title=\"Internal control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fc2b13bf63f62b6536496273c99540b7\">controlling<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Evaluation\" title=\"Evaluation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b93e1d9f8da79dfe955829205bdd34d6\">evaluation<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_reporting\" title=\"Data reporting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5fe485ef0e846bfdb5536c95940c3c6d\">reporting<\/a> of information activities, all of which is needed in order to meet the needs of those with organisational roles or functions that depend on information. These generic concepts allow the information to be presented to the audience or the correct group of people. After individuals are able to put that information to use, it then gains more value.\n<\/p><p>Information management is closely related to, and overlaps with, the management of <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a><\/i>, <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System\" title=\"System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca080f9487afe3b315fe16a2d522534\">systems<\/a><\/i>, <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technology\" title=\"Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"826a00bce65740132769609e46bf6515\">technology<\/a><\/i>, <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">processes<\/a><\/i> and \u2013 where the availability of information is critical to organisational success \u2013 <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strategy\" title=\"Strategy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d14f217dfcf48b91010a4808b3b96b34\">strategy<\/a><\/i>. This broad view of the realm of information management contrasts with the earlier, more traditional view, that the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_life_cycle\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Project life cycle\" data-key=\"500b6b7253cdee114cf6a7125d10b5dc\">life cycle<\/a> of managing information is an operational matter that requires specific procedures, organisational capabilities and standards that deal with information as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_(business)\" title=\"Product (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"56bd07708a3bfd57d684969dc2feb35e\">product<\/a> or a service.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Emergent_ideas_out_of_data_management\">Emergent ideas out of data management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the 1970s, the management of information largely concerned matters closer to what would now be called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_management\" title=\"Data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c54f822d2961a56b862b2fe07cff86\">data management<\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Punched_cards\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Punched cards\" data-key=\"7d793b2d5c044c4755140ef13f5d055d\">punched cards<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetic_tape\" title=\"Magnetic tape\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"354f7c50b916fc5c5ee8b18c0df36061\">magnetic tapes<\/a> and other record-keeping <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_media\" title=\"Digital media\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6db40d4de22af3595ce808f237f41730\">media<\/a>, involving a life cycle of such formats requiring origination, distribution, backup, maintenance and disposal. At this time the huge potential of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">information technology<\/a> began to be recognised: for example a single <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Integrated_circuit\" title=\"Integrated circuit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19f8493fc864521e5acaf7e300904967\">chip<\/a> storing a whole <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Book\" title=\"Book\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4b8fa6cacf899ea5a5e660fbeb8a1ea\">book<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_mail\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Electronic mail\" data-key=\"df5f7d1c0d36a8d0297229e4c0cbb86e\">electronic mail<\/a> moving messages instantly around the world, remarkable ideas at the time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Evans_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Evans-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> With the proliferation of information technology and the extending reach of information systems in the 1980s and 1990s,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Venkat0_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Venkat0-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> information management took on a new form. Progressive businesses such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/British_Petroleum\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"British Petroleum\" data-key=\"d01241b3f2f03cb7ccf55d2af2ecb413\">British Petroleum<\/a> transformed the vocabulary of what was then \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IT management\" data-key=\"631d810fa4bb0241ea04c7411fa521c4\">IT management<\/a>\", so that \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_analyst\" title=\"Systems analyst\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d737fcb0e3a2a71b4f55ac0f0108a9e\">systems analysts<\/a>\u201d became \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_analyst\" title=\"Business analyst\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f630dd4b0f073dc7bbea379c9933c185\">business analysts<\/a>\u201d, \u201cmonopoly supply\u201d became a mixture of \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insourcing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Insourcing\" data-key=\"28b1a92f6871505518cae1f88cf5ff42\">insourcing<\/a>\u201d and \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outsourcing\" title=\"Outsourcing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90924aa23289b1537d3c0f4b2790f737\">outsourcing<\/a>\u201d, and the large IT function was transformed into \u201clean teams\u201d that began to allow some agility in the processes that harness information for .<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cross_and_Earl_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cross_and_Earl-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The scope of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Senior_management\" title=\"Senior management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"650b0b3f18442b303d44af157f219c5a\">senior management<\/a> interest in information at British Petroleum extended from the creation of value through improved <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">business processes<\/a>, based upon the effective management of information, permitting the implementation of appropriate information systems (or \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">applications<\/a>\u201d) that were operated on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IT_infrastructure\" title=\"IT infrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb183d32b0bc5a2502a2cc116200f0cd\">IT infrastructure<\/a> that was <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Outsource\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Outsource\" data-key=\"0e0e3384baf564e70f2ba594f5ea729a\">outsourced<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cross_and_Earl_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cross_and_Earl-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> In this way, information management was no longer a simple job that could be performed by anyone who had nothing else to do, it became highly strategic and a matter for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Senior_management\" title=\"Senior management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"650b0b3f18442b303d44af157f219c5a\">senior management<\/a> attention. An understanding of the technologies involved, an ability to manage information systems <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project\" title=\"Project\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f05b38496b9578ab9149bf3fa7c4ea82\">projects<\/a> and well, and a willingness to align technology and business strategies all became necessary.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ward_and_Peppard_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ward_and_Peppard-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Positioning_information_management_in_the_bigger_picture\">Positioning information management in the bigger picture<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In the transitional period leading up to the strategic view of information management, Venkatraman (a strong advocate of this transition and transformation,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Venkat2_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Venkat2-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> proffered a simple arrangement of ideas that succinctly brought together the managements <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_management\" title=\"Data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c54f822d2961a56b862b2fe07cff86\">of data<\/a>, information, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">knowledge<\/a> (see the figure)) argued that:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Data that is maintained in IT infrastructure has to be <i>interpreted<\/i> in order to render information.<\/li>\n<li>The information in our information systems has to be <i>understood<\/i> in order to emerge as knowledge.<\/li>\n<li>Knowledge allows managers to <i>take effective decisions<\/i>.<\/li>\n<li>Effective decisions have to lead to <i>appropriate actions<\/i>.<\/li>\n<li>Appropriate actions are expected to deliver <i>meaningful results<\/i>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:DIKAR_model.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"96296c4546d4740628b5ed6f8485a01b\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/32\/DIKAR_model.jpg\/220px-DIKAR_model.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"56\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:DIKAR_model.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"96296c4546d4740628b5ed6f8485a01b\"><\/a><\/div>This simple model summarises a presentation by Venkatraman in 1996, as reported by Ward and Peppard (2002, page 207).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ward_and_Peppard_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ward_and_Peppard-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>This is often referred to as the model: Data, Information, Knowledge, Action and Result,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Venkat1_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Venkat1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> it gives a strong clue as to the layers involved in aligning technology and organisational strategies, and it can be seen as a pivotal moment in changing attitudes to information management. The recognition that information management is an investment that must deliver meaningful results is important to all modern organisations that depend on information and good decision-making for their success.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bytheway_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bytheway-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Theoretical_background\">Theoretical background<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Behavioural_and_organisational_theories\">Behavioural and organisational theories<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>It is commonly believed that good information management is crucial to the smooth working of organisations, and although there is no commonly accepted <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theory\" title=\"Theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a668aaa873d33987dd30beb37c0a7ef4\">theory<\/a> of information management <i>per se<\/i>, behavioural and organisational theories help. Following the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Behavioural_science\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Behavioural science\" data-key=\"90b3d156c2dfebfdbe7867fc0e62f35f\">behavioural science<\/a> theory of management, mainly developed at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Carnegie_Mellon_University\" title=\"Carnegie Mellon University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edc1e7b9266be3eeab86296d0abca43b\">Carnegie Mellon University<\/a> and prominently supported by March and Simon,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-March_and_Simon_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-March_and_Simon-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> most of what goes on in modern organizations is actually information handling and decision making. One crucial factor in information handling and decision making is an individual's ability to process information and to make decisions under limitations that might derive from the context: a person's age, the situational complexity, or a lack of requisite quality in the information that is at hand \u2013 all of which is exacerbated by the rapid advance of technology and the new kinds of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System\" title=\"System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dca080f9487afe3b315fe16a2d522534\">system<\/a> that it enables, especially as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_web\" title=\"Social web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"159a2ea1073670d693eddde914a5af26\">social web<\/a> emerges as a phenomenon that business cannot ignore. And yet, well before there was any general recognition of the importance of information management in organisations, March and Simon <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-March_and_Simon_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-March_and_Simon-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> argued that organizations have to be considered as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cooperative_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cooperative systems\" data-key=\"38fa480222a631a284a84dc35a7663e9\">cooperative systems<\/a>, with a high level of information processing and a vast need for decision making at various levels. Instead of using the model of the \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economic_man\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Economic man\" data-key=\"89fd638753058f90ca7c386f3a63e0bb\">economic man<\/a>\", as advocated in classical theory <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Opp_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Opp-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> they proposed \"\" as an alternative, based on their argumentation about the cognitive limits of rationality. Additionally they proposed the notion of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Satisficing\" title=\"Satisficing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5520ef400b9cd347cc5509e826c50c1\">satisficing<\/a>, which entails searching through the available alternatives until an acceptability threshold is met - another idea that still has currency.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Winter_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Winter-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Economic_theory\">Economic theory<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In addition to the organisational factors mentioned by March and Simon, there are other issues that stem from economic and environmental dynamics. There is the cost of collecting and evaluating the information needed to take a decision, including the time and effort required.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hedberg_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hedberg-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transaction_cost\" title=\"Transaction cost\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e412057fcdb9d44cc5c485ca51cdfbcc\">transaction cost<\/a> associated with information processes can be high. In particular, established organizational rules and procedures can prevent the taking of the most appropriate decision, leading to sub-optimum outcomes \n.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mackenzie_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mackenzie-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Mullins_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Mullins-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> This is an issue that has been presented as a major problem with bureaucratic organizations that lose the economies of strategic change because of entrenched attitudes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Wigand_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Wigand-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Strategic_information_management\">Strategic information management<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Background\">Background<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>According to the Carnegie Mellon School an organization's ability to process information is at the core of organizational and managerial <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Competence_(human_resources)\" title=\"Competence (human resources)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5729e9fc50db78b1b54b6ce0361af82b\">competency<\/a>, and an organization's strategies must be designed to improve information processing capability <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cyert_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cyert-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> and as information systems that provide that capability became formalised and automated, competencies were severely tested at many levels.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Morton_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Morton-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> It was recognised that organisations needed to be able to learn and adapt in ways that were never so evident before <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Senge_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Senge-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> and academics began to organise and publish definitive works concerning the strategic management of information, and information systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ward_and_Peppard_4-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ward_and_Peppard-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Earl_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Earl-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> Concurrently, the ideas of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">business process<\/a> management <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hammer_and_Champy_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hammer_and_Champy-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">knowledge management<\/a> <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Nonaka_and_Takeuchi_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Nonaka_and_Takeuchi-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> although much of the optimistic early thinking about <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_redesign\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business process redesign\" data-key=\"9ba3a515a39bb2c268902ccdb10ae61e\">business process redesign<\/a> has since been discredited in the information management literature.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Belmiro_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Belmiro-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> In the strategic studies field, it is considered of the highest priority the understanding of the information environment, conceived as the aggregate of individuals, organizations, and systems that collect, process, disseminate, or act on information. This environment consists of three interrelated dimensions which continuously interact with individuals, organizations, and systems. These dimensions are the physical, informational, and cognitive.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Aligning_technology_and_business_strategy_with_information_management\">Aligning technology and business strategy with information management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Venkatraman has provided a simple view of the requisite capabilities of an organisation that wants to manage information well \u2013 the model (see above). He also worked with others to understand how technology and business strategies could be appropriately aligned in order to identify specific capabilities that are needed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Henderson_and_Venkat_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Henderson_and_Venkat-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> This work was paralleled by other writers in the world of consulting,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Zachman_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Zachman-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> practice <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cross_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cross-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> and academia.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ward2_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ward2-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"A_contemporary_portfolio_model_for_information\">A contemporary portfolio model for information<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Bytheway has collected and organised basic tools and techniques for information management in a single volume.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bytheway_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bytheway-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> At the heart of his view of information management is a portfolio model that takes account of the surging interest in external sources of information and the need to organise un-structured information external so as to make it useful (see the figure).\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:An_Information_Portfolio.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b447f31cf79a33974b7909db03a23a8\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7f\/An_Information_Portfolio.jpg\/220px-An_Information_Portfolio.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:An_Information_Portfolio.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"4b447f31cf79a33974b7909db03a23a8\"><\/a><\/div>This portfolio model organizes issues of internal and external sourcing and management of information, that may be either structured or unstructured.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Such an information portfolio as this shows how information can be gathered and usefully organised, in four stages:\n<\/p><p><b>Stage 1<\/b>: Taking advantage of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_information\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Public information\" data-key=\"584f5c84022c095876963b5f9f49d0f1\">public information<\/a>: recognise and adopt well-structured external schemes of reference data, such as post codes, weather data, GPS positioning data and travel timetables, exemplified in the personal computing press.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ashbrook_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ashbrook-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>Stage 2<\/b>: Tagging the noise on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_wide_web\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"World wide web\" data-key=\"bb10a0d7c13a436a5f03a9a894dee41c\">world wide web<\/a>: use existing schemes such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Post_code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Post code\" data-key=\"a06f4a1d752a6d004541bbda24d6640b\">post codes<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GPS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GPS\" data-key=\"943a7f53e8229a13fea22b2a9f534fb2\">GPS<\/a> data or more typically by adding \u201ctags\u201d, or construct a formal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology\" title=\"Ontology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f89cc07bcbd9a9702c075f7f193a8af5\">ontology<\/a> that provides structure. Shirky provides an overview of these two approaches.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Shirky_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Shirky-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>Stage 3<\/b>: Sifting and analysing: in the wider world the generalised ontologies that are under development extend to hundreds of entities and hundreds of relations between them and provide the means to elicit meaning from large volumes of data. Structured data in databases works best when that structure reflects a higher-level information model \u2013 an ontology, or an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Entity-relationship_model\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Entity-relationship model\" data-key=\"5995c00d38259f6e453c0bbbbc01b04b\">entity-relationship model<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Noy_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Noy-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>Stage 4<\/b>: Structuring and archiving: with the large volume of data available from sources such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_web\" title=\"Social web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"159a2ea1073670d693eddde914a5af26\">social web<\/a> and from the miniature <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telemetry\" title=\"Telemetry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c545b141a6ba0ffe8a862c83b5264e29\">telemetry<\/a> systems used in personal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Health management\" data-key=\"f18b3aa0c354e5b8e3f23ec5e92ad377\">health management<\/a>, new ways to archive and then trawl data for meaningful information. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Map-reduce\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Map-reduce\" data-key=\"5507143955ac26f85d8addae62e029b4\">Map-reduce<\/a> methods, originating from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Functional_programming\" title=\"Functional programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86692f4d835f0c297483717a66ba067f\">functional programming<\/a>, are a more recent way of eliciting information from large archival <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dataset\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dataset\" data-key=\"523df07b218122594119b45c82f363c6\">datasets<\/a> that is becoming interesting to regular businesses that have very large data resources to work with, but it requires advanced multi-processor resources.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Chu_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Chu-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Competencies_to_manage_information_well\">Competencies to manage information well<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Management_Body_of_Knowledge\" title=\"Information Management Body of Knowledge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a248f133f63bb1d6e3553d8b14c22e69\">Information Management Body of Knowledge<\/a> was made available on the world wide web in 2004 <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IMBOK_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IMBOK-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> \nand sets out to show that the required management competencies to derive real benefits from an investment in information are complex and multi-layered. The framework model that is the basis for understanding competencies comprises six \u201cknowledge\u201d areas and four \u201cprocess\u201d areas:\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:IMBOK_Framework.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"830d9a3ee78d66b13da98c905fc58f65\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/ac\/IMBOK_Framework.jpg\/220px-IMBOK_Framework.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"158\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:IMBOK_Framework.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"830d9a3ee78d66b13da98c905fc58f65\"><\/a><\/div>This framework is the basis of organising the \"Information Management Body of Knowledge\" first made available in 2004. This version is adapted by the addition of \"Business information\" in 2014.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<dl><dt>The information management knowledge areas<\/dt><\/dl>\n<p>The IMBOK is based on the argument that there are six areas of required management competency, two of which (\u201cbusiness process management\u201d and \u201cbusiness information management\u201d) are very closely related.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bytheway2_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bytheway2-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><b>Information technology<\/b>: The pace of change of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technology\" title=\"Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"826a00bce65740132769609e46bf6515\">technology<\/a> and the pressure to constantly acquire the newest technological products can undermine the stability of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrastructure\" title=\"Infrastructure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bb70668db4564897263976d0920fec5\">infrastructure<\/a> that supports systems, and thereby optimises <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">business processes<\/a> and delivers benefits. It is necessary to manage the \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_side\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Supply side\" data-key=\"341cf6e837b17069b4bddfdaf14c45fb\">supply side<\/a>\u201d and recognise that technology is, increasingly, becoming a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commodity\" title=\"Commodity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"354a75e8afb2b7cb2ea3f6f5d4e0bc1a\">commodity<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Carr_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Carr-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Information system<\/b>: While historically information systems were developed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/In-house\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"In-house\" data-key=\"abbfc14c71f2a033559fb6e96b42c102\">in-house<\/a>, over the years it has become possible to acquire most of the software systems that an organisation needs from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">software package<\/a> industry. However, there is still the potential for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Competitive_advantage\" title=\"Competitive advantage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99d28b128df96003b047fdd04394ebbc\">competitive advantage<\/a> from the implementation of new systems ideas that deliver to the strategic intentions of organisations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ward_and_Peppard_4-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ward_and_Peppard-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Business processes and Business information<\/b>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_system\" title=\"Information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142b46020d5e573e81dabce3b59c33ec\">Information systems<\/a> are applied to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">business processes<\/a> in order to improve them, and they bring data to the business that becomes useful as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_information\" title=\"Business information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48785a84955b0db9d17b4b6daf6e200b\">business information<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">Business process management<\/a> is still seen as a relatively new idea because it is not universally adopted, and it has been difficult in many cases; business <i>information<\/i> management is even more of a challenge.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Belmiro0_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Belmiro0-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Davenport_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Davenport-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Business benefit<\/b>: What are the benefits that we are seeking? It is necessary not only to be brutally honest about what <i>can<\/i> be achieved, but also to ensure the active management and assessment of benefit delivery. Since the emergence and popularisation of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Balanced_scorecard\" title=\"Balanced scorecard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95223a923460879784d4796e2928d658\">Balanced scorecard<\/a> <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kaplan_and_Norton_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kaplan_and_Norton-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> there has been huge interest in business performance management but not much serious effort has been made to relate business performance management to the benefits of information technology investments and the introduction of new <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_system\" title=\"Information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142b46020d5e573e81dabce3b59c33ec\">information systems<\/a> until the turn of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Millennium\" title=\"Millennium\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe35b079354923f54c3bebf9b51a8b1f\">millennium<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ward2_26-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ward2-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Business strategy<\/b>: Although a long way from the workaday issues of managing information in organisations, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strategy\" title=\"Strategy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d14f217dfcf48b91010a4808b3b96b34\">strategy<\/a> in most organisations simply has to be informed by information technology and information systems opportunities, whether to address poor performance or to improve differentiation and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Competition_(companies)\" title=\"Competition (companies)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30a9a9d579d77f9666629febf8fd49d6\">competitiveness<\/a>. Strategic analysis tools such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Value_chain\" title=\"Value chain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3d880dcb63554da62a8d558a3c1217e\">value chain<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Critical_success_factor\" title=\"Critical success factor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3385e2f7d5460ddf6cb2046550e3803d\">critical success factor<\/a> analysis are directly dependent on proper attention to the information that is (or could be) managed <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ward_and_Peppard_4-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ward_and_Peppard-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>The information management processes<\/dt><\/dl>\n<p>Even with full capability and competency within the six knowledge areas, it is argued that things can still go wrong. The problem lies in the migration of ideas and information management value from one area of competency to another. Summarising what Bytheway explains in some detail (and supported by selected secondary references):<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Bytheway3_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Bytheway3-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><b>Projects<\/b>: Information technology is without value until it is engineered into information systems that meet the needs of the business by means of good <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_management\" title=\"Project management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6eafec51967ae43f1d3054bbbbcb85a\">project management<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schwalbe_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schwalbe-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Business change<\/b>: The best information systems succeed in delivering benefits through the achievement of change within the business systems, but people do not appreciate change that makes new demands upon their skills in the ways that new information systems often do. Contrary to common expectations, there is some evidence that the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_sector\" title=\"Public sector\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a16b1fbf020611b1e8622b0002d0c24\">public sector<\/a> has succeeded with information technology induced .<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Scholl_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Scholl-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Business operations<\/b>: With new systems in place, with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">business processes<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_information\" title=\"Business information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48785a84955b0db9d17b4b6daf6e200b\">business information<\/a> improved, and with staff finally ready and able to work with new processes, then the business can get to work, even when new systems extend far beyond the boundaries of a single business.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Seed_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Seed-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><b>Performance management<\/b>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Investment\" title=\"Investment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a7abfb6ee06c9e2df07c109483a2b6\">Investments<\/a> are no longer solely about financial results, financial success must be balanced with internal efficiency, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_satisfaction\" title=\"Customer satisfaction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da943f056f158a35a0296f3fcbe30f94\">customer satisfaction<\/a>, and with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organisational_learning\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Organisational learning\" data-key=\"e824ce539bb56b2443ed61332f1d732b\">organisational learning<\/a> and development.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kaplan_and_Norton_36-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kaplan_and_Norton-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Summary\">Summary<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There are always many ways to see a business, and the information management viewpoint is only one way. It is important to remember that other areas of business activity will also contribute to strategy \u2013 it is not only good information management that moves a business forwards. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Corporate_governance\" title=\"Corporate governance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8355325e7a974e27681abe41fba0897e\">Corporate governance<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_resource_management\" title=\"Human resource management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67af1c07f791dfa2ff0207e3a0ada027\">human resource management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_development\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Product development\" data-key=\"83ea5a64b25d10b04ef636a62fbb6245\">product development<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marketing\" title=\"Marketing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fc25da4af284af2b3cae5726440415e\">marketing<\/a> will all have an important role to play in strategic ways, and we must not see one domain of activity alone as the sole source of strategic success. On the other hand, corporate governance, human resource management, product development and marketing are all dependent on effective information management, and so in the final analysis our competency to manage information well, on the broad basis that is offered here, can be said to be predominant.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Operationalising_information_management\">Operationalising information management<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Managing_requisite_change\">Managing requisite change<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Organizations are often confronted with many information management challenges and issues at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operational_level\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Operational level\" data-key=\"4af1b4e0d4cbd9930895b7abf51abc2e\">operational level<\/a>, especially when <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organisational_change\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Organisational change\" data-key=\"dedc46bd3adcee43455019dc562527f4\">organisational change<\/a> is engendered. The novelty of new <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_architecture\" title=\"Systems architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e578d55a1b1faa6049ce08a6ef48e7a\">systems architectures<\/a> and a lack of experience with new styles of information management requires a level of organisational <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_management\" title=\"Change management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2164afa9532c821ea7b2c94786e71c\">change management<\/a> that is notoriously difficult to deliver. As a result of a general organisational reluctance to change, to enable new forms of information management, there might be (for example): a shortfall in the requisite resources, a failure to acknowledge new classes of information and the new procedures that use them, a lack of support from senior management leading to a loss of strategic vision, and even political manoeuvring that undermines the operation of the whole organisation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Knights_and_Murray_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Knights_and_Murray-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> However, the implementation of new forms of information management should normally lead to operational benefits.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_early_work_of_Galbraith\">The early work of Galbraith<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In early work, taking an information processing view of organisation design, Jay <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Galbraith\" title=\"Galbraith\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f0211219cf4edbded0a45a7f061d966\">Galbraith<\/a> has identified five tactical areas to increase information processing capacity and reduce the need for information processing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Galbraith_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Galbraith-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Developing, implementing, and monitoring all aspects of the \u201cenvironment\u201d of an organization.<\/li>\n<li>Creation of slack resources so as to decrease the load on the overall <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchy\" title=\"Hierarchy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8bde34faa63a301a4050750d3a51592\">hierarchy<\/a> of resources and to reduce information processing relating to overload.<\/li>\n<li>Creation of self-contained tasks with defined boundaries and that can achieve proper closure, and with all the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource\" title=\"Resource\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c7cd6da7942777a503a806b9efabd61\">resources<\/a> at hand required to perform the task.<\/li>\n<li>Recognition of lateral relations that cut across functional units, so as to move decision power to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">process<\/a> instead of fragmenting it within the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchy\" title=\"Hierarchy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8bde34faa63a301a4050750d3a51592\">hierarchy<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Investment in vertical information systems that route <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_flow\" title=\"Information flow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a64302060028fad9eb9fdd66270d37e3\">information flows<\/a> for a specific task (or set of tasks) in accordance to the applied <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_logic\" title=\"Business logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5ec7e1dc2b3980076ad94c1661ab098\">business logic<\/a>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_matrix_organisation\">The matrix organisation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The lateral relations concept leads to an organizational form that is different from the simple hierarchy, the \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Matrix_organization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Matrix organization\" data-key=\"85b20af5cfa81fab250959080ed37d41\">matrix organization<\/a>\u201d. This brings together the vertical (hierarchical) view of an organisation and the horizontal (product or project) view of the work that it does visible to the outside world. The creation of a matrix organization is one management response to a persistent fluidity of external demand, avoiding multifarious and spurious responses to episodic demands that tend to be dealt with individually.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Management_Body_of_Knowledge\" title=\"Information Management Body of Knowledge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a248f133f63bb1d6e3553d8b14c22e69\">Information Management Body of Knowledge<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Records_management\" title=\"Records management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"776f0cc59b663e870b7d26c6b5868575\">Records management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">Knowledge management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">Information technology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_system\" title=\"Information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142b46020d5e573e81dabce3b59c33ec\">Information system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_management\" title=\"Project management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6eafec51967ae43f1d3054bbbbcb85a\">Project management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">Business process<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Balanced_scorecard\" title=\"Balanced scorecard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95223a923460879784d4796e2928d658\">Balanced scorecard<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Strategic_management\" title=\"Strategic management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c074b8c749a3415f43d9ec27f4e7375\">Strategic management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_management\" title=\"Data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c54f822d2961a56b862b2fe07cff86\">Data management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_management\" title=\"Content management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ddb6b50fbc33bcfbf5f77cb58c5ead1\">Content management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Master_of_Information_Management\" title=\"Master of Information Management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32f3293665f7e130270618959719f33f\">Master of Information Management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Resources_Management_Journal\" title=\"Information Resources Management Journal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c15a5f8d7ebca51515ab64504e3c789\">Information Resources Management Journal<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Journal_of_Global_Information_Management\" title=\"Journal of Global Information Management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1c8a08f009257c38bcda878da454b63\">Journal of Global Information Management<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Evans-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Evans_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Evans, C., 1979. <i>The Mighty Micro<\/i>, London: Victor Gollancz.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Venkat0-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Venkat0_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Venkatraman, N., 1994. IT-enabled business transformation: from automation to business scope redefinition. <i>Sloan Management Review<\/i>, 35(2), pp.73\u201387<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cross_and_Earl-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cross_and_Earl_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cross_and_Earl_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Cross, J. & Earl, M., 1997. Transformation of the IT function at British Petroleum. <i>MIS Quarterly<\/i>, 21(4), page 403<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Ward_and_Peppard-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Ward_and_Peppard_4-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Ward_and_Peppard_4-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Ward_and_Peppard_4-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Ward_and_Peppard_4-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Ward_and_Peppard_4-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Ward, J. & Peppard, J., 2002. <i>Strategic Planning for Information Systems<\/i> (3rd Edition), Chichester: Wiley<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Venkat2-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Venkat2_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Venkatraman, N., 1994. IT-enabled business transformation: from automation to business scope redefinition. <i>Sloan Management Review<\/i>, 35(2), pp.73\u201387.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Venkat1-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Venkat1_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Venkatraman, N., 1996. Managing IT resources as a value center, <i>IS Executive Seminar Series, Cranfield School of Management<\/i><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bytheway-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Bytheway_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Bytheway_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bytheway, A., 2015. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.springer.com\/gp\/book\/9783319119083\" target=\"_blank\">Investing in Information: the Information Management Body of Knowledge<\/a>, Geneva: Springer<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-March_and_Simon-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-March_and_Simon_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-March_and_Simon_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">March, J.G. & Simon, H.A., 1958. <i>Organizations<\/i>, Wiley<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Opp-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Opp_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">see Opp, K.-D., 1985. Sociology and economic man. <i>Zeitschrift f\u00fcr die gesamte Staatswissenschaft\/Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics<\/i>, pp.213\u2013243<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Winter-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Winter_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Winter, S.G., 2000. The satisficing principle in capability learning. <i>Strategic Management Journal<\/i>, 21(10-11), pp.981\u2013996<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Hedberg-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Hedberg_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Hedberg, Bo (1981), \"How organizations learn and unlearn\", in: Nystr\u00f6m, P.C. & Starbuck, W.H., <i>Handbook of Organizational Design<\/i>, Oxford University Press<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mackenzie-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Mackenzie_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Mackenzie K.D. (1978), <i>Organizational Structures<\/i>, AHM Publishing Corporation<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Mullins-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Mullins_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Mullins, L.J (1993), <i>Management and Organizational Behaviours<\/i>, 3rd ed., Pitman Publishing<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Wigand-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Wigand_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Wigand, Rolf T., Picot, Arnold and Reichwald, Ralf (1997), <i>Information, Organization and Management: Expanding Markets and Corporate Boundaries<\/i>, Wiley & Sons<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cyert-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Cyert_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Cyert, R.M. & March, J.G., 1959. 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Business process re-engineering\u2014A discredited vocabulary? <i>International Journal of Information Management<\/i>, 17(1), pp.21\u201333<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, U.S. Army (2012). Information Operations. Joint Publication 3-13. Joint Doctrine Support Division, 116 Lake View Parkway, Suffolk, VA., p. 18.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Henderson_and_Venkat-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Henderson_and_Venkat_23-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Henderson, J.C. & Venkatraman, N., 1993. Strategic alignment: leveraging information technology for transforming organizations. <i>IBM Systems Journal<\/i>, 32(1), pp.4\u201316<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Zachman-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Zachman_24-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Zachman, J. A. (1987). A framework for information systems architecture. <i>IBM Systems Journal<\/i>, 26(3), 590\u2013616<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cross-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Cross_25-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Cross, J., 1995. IT outsourcing : British Petroleum\u2019s competitive approach. <i>Harvard Business Review<\/i>, 73(3), p.94<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Ward2-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Ward2_26-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Ward2_26-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Ward, J. & Daniel, E., 2005. <i>Benefits Management: Delivering Value from IS and IT Investments<\/i>, Chichester: Wiley<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Ashbrook-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Ashbrook_27-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Ashbrook, D. & Starner, T., 2003. Using GPS to learn significant locations and predict movement across multiple users. <i>Personal and Ubiquitous Computing<\/i>, 7(5), pp.275\u2013286<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Shirky-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Shirky_28-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Shirky, C., 2005. Shirky: Ontology is Overrated -- Categories, Links, and Tags. <i>Clay Shirky\u2019s Writings About the Internet<\/i>. Available at: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/shirky.com\/writings\/ontology_overrated.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/shirky.com\/writings\/ontology_overrated.html<\/a> [Accessed May 23, 2013]<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Noy-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Noy_29-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Noy, N.F., McGuinness, D.L. & others, 2001. Ontology development 101: A guide to creating your first ontology, <i>Stanford knowledge systems laboratory technical report KSL-01-05 and Stanford medical informatics technical report SMI-2001-0880<\/i><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Chu-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Chu_30-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Chu, C. et al., 2007. Map-reduce for machine learning on multicore. <i>Advances in neural information processing systems<\/i>, 19, p.281<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-IMBOK-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-IMBOK_31-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">IMBOK, 2004. <i>The Information Management Body of Knowledge<\/i>. Available at: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.imbok.org\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.imbok.org<\/a> [Accessed May 12, 2015]<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Bytheway2-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Bytheway2_32-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bytheway, A., 2015. <i>Investing in Information: the Information Management Body of Knowledge<\/i>, Geneva: Springer,\n p29<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Carr-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Carr_33-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Carr, N., 2003. IT doesn\u2019t matter. In <i>Wringing real value from IT<\/i>. HBR OnPoint, pp. 3\u201310<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Belmiro0-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Belmiro0_34-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Belmiro, T.R. et al., 2000. Are BPR practitioners really addressing business processes? <i>International Journal of Operations & Production Management<\/i>, 20(10), pp.1183\u20131203<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Davenport-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Davenport_35-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Davenport, T.H. & Short, J., 2003. 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E-government-induced business process change (BPC): An empirical study of current practices. <i>International Journal of Electronic Government Research<\/i> (IJEGR), 1(2), pp.27\u201349<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Seed-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Seed_40-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Saeed, K.A., Malhotra, M.K. & Grover, V., 2005. Examining the Impact of Interorganizational Systems on Process Efficiency and Sourcing Leverage in Buyer\u2013Supplier Dyads. <i>Decision Sciences<\/i>, 36(3), pp.365\u2013396<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Knights_and_Murray-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Knights_and_Murray_41-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Knights, D. & Murray, F., 1994. <i>Managers Divided<\/i>, Chichester: John Wiley<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Galbraith-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Galbraith_42-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Galbraith, J.R., 1977. <i>Organization design<\/i>, Addison Wesley<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.managing-information.org.uk\/summary.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Information Management Paper<\/a> (Link to a downloadable book about \"Big data and managing information\")<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.imbok.info\" target=\"_blank\">\"Information Management Body of Knowledge\"<\/a> (Web site supporting the IMBOK with overview material, research reviews and blogs)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aslbislfoundation.org\" target=\"_blank\">Application Services and Business Information Services Libraries<\/a> (A web site for the information and systems management community based in the Netherlands)<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1322\nCached time: 20190331015916\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.280 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.396 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1359\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 68342\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 636\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 4\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 0\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 18926\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\nLua time usage: 0.072\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 2.77 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 274.695 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>20.63% 56.667 1 Template:Commons_category\n17.00% 46.704 1 Template:Commons\n16.32% 44.825 2 Template:Sister_project\n15.02% 41.264 2 Template:Side_box\n14.90% 40.928 1 Template:Information_science\n13.72% 37.682 1 Template:Sidebar\n12.42% 34.126 5 Template:Navbox\n11.82% 32.474 2 Template:If_then_show\n11.39% 31.277 1 Template:Distinguish\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:464877-1!canonical and timestamp 20190331015916 and revision id 870262688\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_management\" data-key=\"6eb7b16b6cf9e903b35914f058a684c1\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203004\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.015 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.183 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 171.064 1 - wikipedia:Information_management\n100.00% 171.064 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10408-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203004 and revision id 32419\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_management\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information_management<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/53\/Library-logo.svg\/26px-Library-logo.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/32\/DIKAR_model.jpg\/440px-DIKAR_model.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7f\/An_Information_Portfolio.jpg\/440px-An_Information_Portfolio.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/a\/ac\/IMBOK_Framework.jpg\/440px-IMBOK_Framework.jpg"],"f8672d270c0750a858ed940158ca0a73_timestamp":1554323404,"86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1_type":"article","86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1_title":"Encryption","86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Encryption","86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tEncryption\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\"Encrypt\" redirects here. For the film, see Encrypt (film).\nThis article is about algorithms for encryption and decryption. For an overview of cryptographic technology in general, see Cryptography. For the album by Pro-jekt, see Encryption (album).\t\nIn cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding a message or information in such a way that only authorized parties can access it and those who are not authorized cannot. Encryption does not itself prevent interference, but denies the intelligible content to a would-be interceptor. In an encryption scheme, the intended information or message, referred to as plaintext, is encrypted using an encryption algorithm \u2013 a cipher \u2013 generating ciphertext that can be read only if decrypted. For technical reasons, an encryption scheme usually uses a pseudo-random encryption key generated by an algorithm. It is in principle possible to decrypt the message without possessing the key, but, for a well-designed encryption scheme, considerable computational resources and skills are required. An authorized recipient can easily decrypt the message with the key provided by the originator to recipients but not to unauthorized users.\n\nContents \n\n1 Types \n\n1.1 Symmetric key \n1.2 Public key \n\n\n2 Uses \n\n2.1 Message verification \n2.2 Data erasure \n\n\n3 See also \n4 References \n5 Further reading \n6 External links \n\n\nTypes \nSymmetric key \nIn symmetric-key schemes,[1] the encryption and decryption keys are the same. Communicating parties must have the same key in order to achieve secure communication. An example of a symmetric key scheme would be the one used by the German Enigma Machine that sent information from a central location to troops in various other locations in secret. When the Allies captured one of these machines and figured out how it worked, they were able to decipher the information encoded within the messages as soon as they could discover the encryption key for a given day's transmissions.[2]\n\nPublic key \n Illustration of how encryption is used within servers Public key encryption.\nIn public-key encryption schemes, the encryption key is published for anyone to use and encrypt messages. However, only the receiving party has access to the decryption key that enables messages to be read.[3] Public-key encryption was first described in a secret document in 1973;[4] before then all encryption schemes were symmetric-key (also called private-key).[5]:478 . Although published subsequently, the work of Diffie and Hellman, was published in a journal with a large readership, and the value of the methodology was explicitly described\n[6]\nand the method became known as the Diffie Hellman key exchange.\nA publicly available public key encryption application called Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) was written in 1991 by Phil Zimmermann, and distributed free of charge with source code; it was purchased by Symantec in 2010 and is regularly updated.[7]\n\nUses \nEncryption has long been used by militaries and governments to facilitate secret communication. It is now commonly used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems. For example, the Computer Security Institute reported that in 2007, 71% of companies surveyed utilized encryption for some of their data in transit, and 53% utilized encryption for some of their data in storage.[8] Encryption can be used to protect data \"at rest\", such as information stored on computers and storage devices (e.g. USB flash drives). In recent years, there have been numerous reports of confidential data, such as customers' personal records, being exposed through loss or theft of laptops or backup drives; encrypting such files at rest helps protect them if physical security measures fail.[9][10][11] Digital rights management systems, which prevent unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted material and protect software against reverse engineering (see also copy protection), is another somewhat different example of using encryption on data at rest.[12]\nIn response to encryption of data at rest, cyber-adversaries have developed new types of attacks. These more recent threats to encryption of data at rest include cryptographic attacks,[13] stolen ciphertext attacks,[14] attacks on encryption keys,[15] insider attacks, data corruption or integrity attacks,[16] data destruction attacks, and ransomware attacks. Data fragmentation[17] and active defense[18] data protection technologies attempt to counter some of these attacks, by distributing, moving, or mutating ciphertext so it is more difficult to identify, steal, corrupt, or destroy.[19]\nEncryption is also used to protect data in transit, for example data being transferred via networks (e.g. the Internet, e-commerce), mobile telephones, wireless microphones, wireless intercom systems, Bluetooth devices and bank automatic teller machines. There have been numerous reports of data in transit being intercepted in recent years.[20] Data should also be encrypted when transmitted across networks in order to protect against eavesdropping of network traffic by unauthorized users.[21]\n\nMessage verification \nEncryption, by itself, can protect the confidentiality of messages, but other techniques are still needed to protect the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, verification of a message authentication code (MAC) or a digital signature. Standards for cryptographic software and hardware to perform encryption are widely available, but successfully using encryption to ensure security may be a challenging problem. A single error in system design or execution can allow successful attacks. Sometimes an adversary can obtain unencrypted information without directly undoing the encryption. See, e.g., traffic analysis, TEMPEST, or Trojan horse.[22]\nDigital signature and encryption must be applied to the ciphertext when it is created (typically on the same device used to compose the message) to avoid tampering; otherwise any node between the sender and the encryption agent could potentially tamper with it. Encrypting at the time of creation is only secure if the encryption device itself has not been tampered with.\n\nData erasure \nMain article: Data erasure\nConventional methods for deleting data permanently from a storage device involve overwriting its whole content with zeros, ones or other patterns \u2013 a process which can take a significant amount of time, depending on the capacity and the type of the medium. Cryptography offers a way of making the erasure almost instantaneous. This method is called crypto-shredding. An example implementation of this method can be found on iOS devices, where the cryptographic key is kept in a dedicated 'Effaceable Storage'.[23] Because the key is stored on the same device, this setup on its own does not offer full confidentiality protection in case an unauthorised person gains physical access to the device.\n\nSee also \n\n\n Cryptography portal \n\nSubstitution cipher\nRotor cipher machines\nBrute-force attack\nCold boot attack\nEncrypted function\nExport of cryptography\nCyberspace Electronic Security Act (US)\nDisk encryption\nKey management\nPhysical Layer Encryption\nGeo-blocking\nTelevision encryption\nActive defense\nCryptography\nTokenization (data security)\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ Symmetric-key encryption software \n\n^ https:\/\/search.proquest.com\/docview\/214674555 \n\n^ Bellare, Mihir. \"Public-Key Encryption in a Multi-user Setting: Security Proofs and Improvements.\" Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2000. Page 1. \n\n^ \"Public-Key Encryption - how GCHQ got there first!\". gchq.gov.uk. Archived from the original on May 19, 2010. \n\n^ Goldreich, Oded. Foundations of Cryptography: Volume 2, Basic Applications. Vol. 2. Cambridge university press, 2004. \n\n^ Diffie, Whitfield; Hellman, Martin (1976), New directions in cryptography, 22, IEEE transactions on Information Theory, p. 644-654 \n\n^ \"Symantec buys encryption specialist PGP for $300M\". \n\n^ Robert Richardson, 2008 CSI Computer Crime and Security Survey at 19.i.cmpnet.com \n\n^ Keane, J. (13 January 2016). \"Why stolen laptops still cause data breaches, and what's being done to stop them\". PCWorld. IDG Communications, Inc. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ Castricone, D.M. (2 February 2018). \"February 2, 2018 - Health Care Group News: $3.5 M OCR Settlement for Five Breaches Affecting Fewer Than 500 Patients Each\". The National Law Review. National Law Forum LLC. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ Bek, E. (19 May 2016). \"Protect Your Company from Theft: Self Encrypting Drives\". Western Digital Blog. Western Digital Corporation. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"DRM\". Electronic Frontier Foundation. \n\n^ Yan Li; Nakul Sanjay Dhotre; Yasuhiro Ohara; Thomas M. Kroeger; Ethan L. Miller; Darrell D. E. Long. \"Horus: Fine-Grained Encryption-Based Security for Large-Scale Storage\" (PDF) . www.ssrc.ucsc.edu. Discussion of encryption weaknesses for petabyte scale datasets. \n\n^ \"The Padding Oracle Attack - why crypto is terrifying\". Robert Heaton. Retrieved 2016-12-25 . \n\n^ \"Researchers crack open unusually advanced malware that hid for 5 years\". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2016-12-25 . \n\n^ \"New cloud attack takes full control of virtual machines with little effort\". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2016-12-25 . \n\n^ Examples of data fragmentation technologies include Tahoe-LAFS and Storj. \n\n^ Burshteyn, Mike (2016-12-22). \"What does 'Active Defense' mean?\". CryptoMove. Retrieved 2016-12-25 . \n\n^ CryptoMove is the first technology to continuously move, mutate, and re-encrypt ciphertext as a form of data protection. \n\n^ Fiber Optic Networks Vulnerable to Attack, Information Security Magazine, November 15, 2006, Sandra Kay Miller \n\n^ \"Data Encryption in Transit Guideline\". \n\n^ \"What is a Trojan Virus - Malware Protection - Kaspersky Lab US\". \n\n^ iOS Security Guide \n\n\nFurther reading \nFouch\u00e9 Gaines, Helen (1939), Cryptanalysis: A Study of Ciphers and Their Solution, New York: Dover Publications Inc, ISBN 978-0486200972 \nKahn, David, The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing (ISBN 0-684-83130-9) (1967)\nPreneel, Bart, \"Advances in Cryptology \u2014 EUROCRYPT 2000\", Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2000, ISBN 978-3-540-67517-4\nSinkov, Abraham, Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach, Mathematical Association of America, 1966. ISBN 0-88385-622-0\nYehuda, Lindell; Jonathan, Katz (2014), Introduction to modern cryptography, Hall\/CRC, ISBN 978-1466570269 \nExternal links \n\n\n\nLook up encryption in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\n\n\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Cryptographic algorithms.\nvteCryptography\nHistory of cryptography\nCryptanalysis\nOutline of cryptography\n\nSymmetric-key algorithm\nBlock cipher\nStream cipher\nPublic-key cryptography\nCryptographic hash function\nMessage authentication code\nRandom numbers\nSteganography\n\n Category\n Portal\n WikiProject\n\nAuthority control \nGND: 4352893-4 \nNDL: 00560252 \n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Encryption\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Encryption<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Computer securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 8 May 2018, at 22:46.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 222 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Encryption skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Encryption<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"Encrypt\" redirects here. For the film, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encrypt_(film)\" title=\"Encrypt (film)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bbf5dcc537014bfc7ce0d92b11c11506\">Encrypt (film)<\/a>.<\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">This article is about algorithms for encryption and decryption. For an overview of cryptographic technology in general, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">Cryptography<\/a>. For the album by Pro-jekt, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption_(album)\" title=\"Encryption (album)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca230e0114fe543b63b9a24debc9bcd3\">Encryption (album)<\/a>.<\/div>\t\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptography<\/a>, <b>encryption<\/b> is the process of encoding a message or information in such a way that only authorized parties can access it and those who are not authorized cannot. Encryption does not itself prevent interference, but denies the intelligible content to a would-be interceptor. In an encryption scheme, the intended information or message, referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plaintext\" title=\"Plaintext\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0624d1b7ef7d237e8eecb300c166f1a1\">plaintext<\/a>, is encrypted using an encryption algorithm \u2013 a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cipher\" title=\"Cipher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8827d4fff7bc2e0d6aa384f9d488147f\">cipher<\/a> \u2013 generating <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ciphertext\" title=\"Ciphertext\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4ee67116f844470f23a8861408a639f\">ciphertext<\/a> that can be read only if decrypted. For technical reasons, an encryption scheme usually uses a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pseudo-random\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Pseudo-random\" data-key=\"4a8a469c826ad755a81e46641a3a58ce\">pseudo-random<\/a> encryption key generated by an algorithm. It is in principle possible to decrypt the message without possessing the key, but, for a well-designed encryption scheme, considerable computational resources and skills are required. An authorized recipient can easily decrypt the message with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_(cryptography)\" title=\"Key (cryptography)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f386cde7c8c131fd3ca8b2e725775fcd\">key<\/a> provided by the originator to recipients but not to unauthorized users.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types\">Types<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Symmetric_key\">Symmetric key<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symmetric-key_algorithm\" title=\"Symmetric-key algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c63e3e6e25fa44204806ac6afb489f41\">symmetric-key<\/a> schemes,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> the encryption and decryption keys are the same. Communicating parties must have the same key in order to achieve secure communication. An example of a symmetric key scheme would be the one used by the German <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enigma_Machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Enigma Machine\" data-key=\"cb2dd0a96ec20a76f625ba6b27a97fb8\">Enigma Machine<\/a> that sent information from a central location to troops in various other locations in secret. When the Allies captured one of these machines and figured out how it worked, they were able to decipher the information encoded within the messages as soon as they could discover the encryption key for a given day's transmissions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Public_key\">Public key<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Public_key_encryption_keys.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"69355b66daad95f2c783438dd030505e\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/bc\/Public_key_encryption_keys.png\/220px-Public_key_encryption_keys.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"93\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Public_key_encryption_keys.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"69355b66daad95f2c783438dd030505e\"><\/a><\/div>Illustration of how encryption is used within servers <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_key_encryption\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Public key encryption\" data-key=\"3fd9df59a31d6b99d47f92b777d68c8e\">Public key encryption<\/a>.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public-key_encryption\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Public-key encryption\" data-key=\"3bd918aa58eb76946bc123d65fba12ac\">public-key encryption<\/a> schemes, the encryption key is published for anyone to use and encrypt messages. However, only the receiving party has access to the decryption key that enables messages to be read.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Public-key encryption was first described in a secret document in 1973;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> before then all encryption schemes were symmetric-key (also called private-key).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Goldreich_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Goldreich-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">:<span>478<\/span><\/sup>. Although published subsequently, the work of Diffie and Hellman, was published in a journal with a large readership, and the value of the methodology was explicitly described\n<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\nand the method became known as the Diffie Hellman key exchange.\n<\/p><p>A publicly available public key encryption application called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pretty_Good_Privacy\" title=\"Pretty Good Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53b603ea3a39ecc964d1c8035196d426\">Pretty Good Privacy<\/a> (PGP) was written in 1991 by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phil_Zimmermann\" title=\"Phil Zimmermann\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a84a7982f7d720a6dac1045a5c78375\">Phil Zimmermann<\/a>, and distributed free of charge with source code; it was purchased by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symantec\" title=\"Symantec\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"063d04a599d715db455e962460db7f1d\">Symantec<\/a> in 2010 and is regularly updated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Uses\">Uses<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Encryption has long been used by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Military\" title=\"Military\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de82354cbb71572ffd905508c51d13c4\">militaries<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Government\" title=\"Government\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7e638d4b2b8da9f52dab28018527662\">governments<\/a> to facilitate secret communication. It is now commonly used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems. For example, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_Security_Institute\" title=\"Computer Security Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54b8c508ea46a03bba08658166c59d02\">Computer Security Institute<\/a> reported that in 2007, 71% of companies surveyed utilized encryption for some of their data in transit, and 53% utilized encryption for some of their data in storage.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> Encryption can be used to protect data \"at rest\", such as information stored on computers and storage devices (e.g. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USB_flash_drives\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"USB flash drives\" data-key=\"e3069e86af0a980ecf76b49ff0c333ad\">USB flash drives<\/a>). In recent years, there have been numerous reports of confidential data, such as customers' personal records, being exposed through loss or theft of laptops or backup drives; encrypting such files at rest helps protect them if physical security measures fail.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KeaneWhyStolen16_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KeaneWhyStolen16-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CastriconeFebruary18_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CastriconeFebruary18-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BekProtect16_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BekProtect16-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_rights_management\" title=\"Digital rights management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a455d536292e2dd2b851a5943fde5d2\">Digital rights management<\/a> systems, which prevent unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted material and protect software against <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reverse_engineering\" title=\"Reverse engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ac5049f03992d4f5352d60ece45d8f2\">reverse engineering<\/a> (see also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Copy_protection\" title=\"Copy protection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ffe85575b304125a2663e3b611f8a6\">copy protection<\/a>), is another somewhat different example of using encryption on data at rest.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In response to encryption of data at rest, cyber-adversaries have developed new types of attacks. These more recent threats to encryption of data at rest include cryptographic attacks,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ciphertext_stealing\" title=\"Ciphertext stealing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63b1c6a39f4fccdbadfda709cd9bdad4\">stolen ciphertext attacks<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> attacks on encryption keys,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insider_threat\" title=\"Insider threat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63686a2e70d02b6ccc42e748f9160e35\">insider attacks<\/a>, data corruption or integrity attacks,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> data destruction attacks, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ransomware\" title=\"Ransomware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9920028b76940c5bc43f59920d1c4eb\">ransomware<\/a> attacks. Data fragmentation<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Active_Defense\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Active Defense\" data-key=\"817bf205fe017deb78b5b711b5a81fda\">active defense<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> data protection technologies attempt to counter some of these attacks, by distributing, moving, or mutating ciphertext so it is more difficult to identify, steal, corrupt, or destroy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Encryption is also used to protect data in transit, for example data being transferred via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">networks<\/a> (e.g. the Internet, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-commerce\" title=\"E-commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c03db4987b899365c11ec8496d2c7c99\">e-commerce<\/a>), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_telephone\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mobile telephone\" data-key=\"034c5ff48d739dd4a4e6257b2c3446bf\">mobile telephones<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wireless_microphone\" title=\"Wireless microphone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89831da511670fed8f7e7c520b5f4c00\">wireless microphones<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wireless_intercom\" title=\"Wireless intercom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cc9750838839ce770aed3ef0792ecec0\">wireless intercom<\/a> systems, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bluetooth\" title=\"Bluetooth\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf7b2ce888d74d287b869156ab12eee2\">Bluetooth<\/a> devices and bank <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_teller_machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automatic teller machine\" data-key=\"1c6375d0887d7363a4ec4a38ada1a711\">automatic teller machines<\/a>. There have been numerous reports of data in transit being intercepted in recent years.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> Data should also be encrypted when transmitted across networks in order to protect against <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eavesdropping\" title=\"Eavesdropping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25a9d311dae84400cfc4f641ee9b1628\">eavesdropping<\/a> of network traffic by unauthorized users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Message_verification\">Message verification<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Encryption, by itself, can protect the confidentiality of messages, but other techniques are still needed to protect the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, verification of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_authentication_code\" title=\"Message authentication code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"280b01c541c4e665d23ec5bed7544d05\">message authentication code<\/a> (MAC) or a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signature\" title=\"Digital signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4619b82a0e21434550c0eaa36d81c82d\">digital signature<\/a>. Standards for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptographic_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cryptographic software\" data-key=\"7a25d9e1740595802e2fc9d1117399f7\">cryptographic software<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hardware_encryption\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hardware encryption\" data-key=\"b7e3b737c0591b7d76ce8053b0de6398\">hardware to perform encryption<\/a> are widely available, but successfully using encryption to ensure security may be a challenging problem. A single error in system design or execution can allow successful attacks. Sometimes an adversary can obtain unencrypted information without directly undoing the encryption. See, e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traffic_analysis\" title=\"Traffic analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5302f8a0d0efa33a738b78b9adbf6cbc\">traffic analysis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TEMPEST\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"TEMPEST\" data-key=\"6e634072f8f0b65180d17ef67b90af85\">TEMPEST<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trojan_horse_(computing)\" title=\"Trojan horse (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a678695bce8d35b35440bc260712bbc\">Trojan horse<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signature\" title=\"Digital signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4619b82a0e21434550c0eaa36d81c82d\">Digital signature<\/a> and encryption must be applied to the ciphertext when it is created (typically on the same device used to compose the message) to avoid tampering; otherwise any node between the sender and the encryption agent could potentially tamper with it. Encrypting at the time of creation is only secure if the encryption device itself has not been tampered with.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_erasure\">Data erasure<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_erasure\" title=\"Data erasure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b04f48ca640263348a373366348c4d6\">Data erasure<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Conventional methods for deleting data permanently from a storage device involve <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Overwriting_(computer_science)\" title=\"Overwriting (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a956fc7cd3a156d9d61ff0b93cd6930\">overwriting<\/a> its whole content with zeros, ones or other patterns \u2013 a process which can take a significant amount of time, depending on the capacity and the type of the medium. Cryptography offers a way of making the erasure almost instantaneous. This method is called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crypto-shredding\" title=\"Crypto-shredding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"916bc76b476efb109b418dde86123a3d\">crypto-shredding<\/a>. An example implementation of this method can be found on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IOS\" title=\"IOS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d92449bf346a22bfc5dca25cc426d93\">iOS<\/a> devices, where the cryptographic key is kept in a dedicated 'Effaceable Storage'.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> Because the key is stored on the same device, this setup on its own does not offer full confidentiality protection in case an unauthorised person gains physical access to the device.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"navigation\" aria-label=\"Portals\" class=\"noprint portal plainlist tright\" style=\"margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px\">\n<ul style=\"display:table;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0.1em;max-width:175px;background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold\">\n<li style=\"display:table-row\"><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Crypto_key.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bb0c04cab12cc6b02f5e8a214028b7e\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/65\/Crypto_key.svg\/32px-Crypto_key.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"32\" height=\"13\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/a><\/span><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Cryptography\" title=\"Portal:Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d69d4a781d4973fe32f8fb593e59678b\">Cryptography portal<\/a><\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 18em; -webkit-column-width: 18em; column-width: 18em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Substitution_cipher\" title=\"Substitution cipher\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a41c2849c25cfcb88e1579fb2d65854\">Substitution cipher<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rotor_machine\" title=\"Rotor machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5abc954f5ef4120e0efb6e8be6f1c85f\">Rotor cipher machines<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Brute-force_attack\" title=\"Brute-force attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"acbf8fbd896f0027ed3c0de3a4b970e1\">Brute-force attack<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cold_boot_attack\" title=\"Cold boot attack\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"31bf08880e2af84ab3be5222c11e0b2b\">Cold boot attack<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encrypted_function\" title=\"Encrypted function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"39eb343879f9aeb27cd3b7dd5c13dd17\">Encrypted function<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Export_of_cryptography\" title=\"Export of cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"923e0397abf4d9185ec780f506774293\">Export of cryptography<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyberspace_Electronic_Security_Act\" title=\"Cyberspace Electronic Security Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40c6d483950eba625723916d06455d5b\">Cyberspace Electronic Security Act<\/a> (US)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk_encryption\" title=\"Disk encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"786d86cb44a83469c6c91a3df437222c\">Disk encryption<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_management\" title=\"Key management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9c068d4680b0ef256209228831e12d2\">Key management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information-theoretic_security#Physical_layer_encryption\" title=\"Information-theoretic security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ba9ffbf1c87f410a68b762ba5c9ba9d\">Physical Layer Encryption<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Geo-blocking\" title=\"Geo-blocking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"75f7633e2945ef827f2b1c884c03018d\">Geo-blocking<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Television_encryption\" title=\"Television encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14aa875df91325dc7336e499732933ac\">Television encryption<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Active_Defense\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Active Defense\" data-key=\"817bf205fe017deb78b5b711b5a81fda\">Active defense<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">Cryptography<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tokenization_(data_security)\" title=\"Tokenization (data security)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3705e822f85c6d5382cc09ac9dc7285d\">Tokenization (data security)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/iaktueller.de\/Collatz.py\" target=\"_blank\">Symmetric-key encryption software<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/search.proquest.com\/docview\/214674555\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/search.proquest.com\/docview\/214674555<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bellare, Mihir. \"Public-Key Encryption in a Multi-user Setting: Security Proofs and Improvements.\" Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2000. Page 1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100519084635\/http:\/\/www.gchq.gov.uk\/history\/pke.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public-Key Encryption - how GCHQ got there first!\"<\/a>. gchq.gov.uk. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gchq.gov.uk\/history\/pke.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on May 19, 2010.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Public-Key+Encryption+-+how+GCHQ+got+there+first%21&rft.pub=gchq.gov.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gchq.gov.uk%2Fhistory%2Fpke.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Goldreich-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Goldreich_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oded_Goldreich\" title=\"Oded Goldreich\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ef36539ff3025920a2c497b56ac3274\">Goldreich, Oded.<\/a> Foundations of Cryptography: Volume 2, Basic Applications. Vol. 2. Cambridge university press, 2004.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDiffieHellman1976\" class=\"citation\">Diffie, Whitfield; Hellman, Martin (1976), <i>New directions in cryptography<\/i>, <b>22<\/b>, IEEE transactions on Information Theory, p. 644-654<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+directions+in+cryptography&rft.pages=644-654&rft.pub=IEEE+transactions+on+Information+Theory&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Diffie&rft.aufirst=Whitfield&rft.au=Hellman%2C+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/s\/article\/9176121\/Symantec_buys_encryption_specialist_PGP_for_300M\" target=\"_blank\">\"Symantec buys encryption specialist PGP for $300M\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Symantec+buys+encryption+specialist+PGP+for+%24300M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Fs%2Farticle%2F9176121%2FSymantec_buys_encryption_specialist_PGP_for_300M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Robert Richardson, 2008 CSI Computer Crime and Security Survey at 19.<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/i.cmpnet.com\/v2.gocsi.com\/pdf\/CSIsurvey2008.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">i.cmpnet.com<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KeaneWhyStolen16-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KeaneWhyStolen16_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Keane, J. (13 January 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pcworld.com\/article\/3021316\/security\/why-stolen-laptops-still-cause-data-breaches-and-whats-being-done-to-stop-them.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why stolen laptops still cause data breaches, and what's being done to stop them\"<\/a>. <i>PCWorld<\/i>. IDG Communications, Inc<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PCWorld&rft.atitle=Why+stolen+laptops+still+cause+data+breaches%2C+and+what%27s+being+done+to+stop+them&rft.date=2016-01-13&rft.au=Keane%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcworld.com%2Farticle%2F3021316%2Fsecurity%2Fwhy-stolen-laptops-still-cause-data-breaches-and-whats-being-done-to-stop-them.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CastriconeFebruary18-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CastriconeFebruary18_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Castricone, D.M. (2 February 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.natlawreview.com\/article\/february-2-2018-health-care-group-news-35-m-ocr-settlement-five-breaches-affecting\" target=\"_blank\">\"February 2, 2018 - Health Care Group News: $3.5 M OCR Settlement for Five Breaches Affecting Fewer Than 500 Patients Each\"<\/a>. <i>The National Law Review<\/i>. National Law Forum LLC<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+National+Law+Review&rft.atitle=February+2%2C+2018+-+Health+Care+Group+News%3A+%243.5+M+OCR+Settlement+for+Five+Breaches+Affecting+Fewer+Than+500+Patients+Each&rft.date=2018-02-02&rft.au=Castricone%2C+D.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.natlawreview.com%2Farticle%2Ffebruary-2-2018-health-care-group-news-35-m-ocr-settlement-five-breaches-affecting&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BekProtect16-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BekProtect16_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Bek, E. (19 May 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.westerndigital.com\/protect-your-company-from-theft-self-encrypting-drives\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Protect Your Company from Theft: Self Encrypting Drives\"<\/a>. <i>Western Digital Blog<\/i>. Western Digital Corporation<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Western+Digital+Blog&rft.atitle=Protect+Your+Company+from+Theft%3A+Self+Encrypting+Drives&rft.date=2016-05-19&rft.au=Bek%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.westerndigital.com%2Fprotect-your-company-from-theft-self-encrypting-drives%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.eff.org\/issues\/drm\" target=\"_blank\">\"DRM\"<\/a>. <i>Electronic Frontier Foundation<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Frontier+Foundation&rft.atitle=DRM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eff.org%2Fissues%2Fdrm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Yan Li; Nakul Sanjay Dhotre; Yasuhiro Ohara; Thomas M. Kroeger; Ethan L. Miller; Darrell D. E. Long. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ssrc.ucsc.edu\/Papers\/li-fast13.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Horus: Fine-Grained Encryption-Based Security for Large-Scale Storage\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>www.ssrc.ucsc.edu<\/i>. Discussion of encryption weaknesses for petabyte scale datasets.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ssrc.ucsc.edu&rft.atitle=Horus%3A+Fine-Grained+Encryption-Based+Security+for+Large-Scale+Storage&rft.au=Yan+Li&rft.au=Nakul+Sanjay+Dhotre&rft.au=Yasuhiro+Ohara&rft.au=Thomas+M.+Kroeger&rft.au=Ethan+L.+Miller&rft.au=Darrell+D.+E.+Long&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ssrc.ucsc.edu%2FPapers%2Fli-fast13.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/robertheaton.com\/2013\/07\/29\/padding-oracle-attack\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Padding Oracle Attack - why crypto is terrifying\"<\/a>. <i>Robert Heaton<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-12-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Robert+Heaton&rft.atitle=The+Padding+Oracle+Attack+-+why+crypto+is+terrifying&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frobertheaton.com%2F2013%2F07%2F29%2Fpadding-oracle-attack%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/security\/2016\/08\/researchers-crack-open-unusually-advanced-malware-that-hid-for-5-years\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Researchers crack open unusually advanced malware that hid for 5 years\"<\/a>. <i>Ars Technica<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-12-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&rft.atitle=Researchers+crack+open+unusually+advanced+malware+that+hid+for+5+years&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Fsecurity%2F2016%2F08%2Fresearchers-crack-open-unusually-advanced-malware-that-hid-for-5-years%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/security\/2016\/08\/new-attack-steals-private-crypto-keys-by-corrupting-data-in-computer-memory\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"New cloud attack takes full control of virtual machines with little effort\"<\/a>. <i>Ars Technica<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-12-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ars+Technica&rft.atitle=New+cloud+attack+takes+full+control+of+virtual+machines+with+little+effort&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Fsecurity%2F2016%2F08%2Fnew-attack-steals-private-crypto-keys-by-corrupting-data-in-computer-memory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Examples of data fragmentation technologies include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tahoe-LAFS\" title=\"Tahoe-LAFS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"647c5c04174250f24ee06894b4800f33\">Tahoe-LAFS<\/a> and <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/storj.io\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">Storj<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Burshteyn, Mike (2016-12-22). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blog.cryptomove.com\/what-does-active-defense-mean-4ecff93c4bc4\" target=\"_blank\">\"What does 'Active Defense' mean?\"<\/a>. <i>CryptoMove<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-12-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CryptoMove&rft.atitle=What+does+%E2%80%98Active+Defense%E2%80%99+mean%3F&rft.date=2016-12-22&rft.aulast=Burshteyn&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblog.cryptomove.com%2Fwhat-does-active-defense-mean-4ecff93c4bc4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cryptomove.com\" target=\"_blank\">CryptoMove<\/a> is the first technology to continuously move, mutate, and re-encrypt ciphertext as a form of data protection.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Fiber Optic Networks Vulnerable to Attack, Information Security Magazine, November 15, 2006, Sandra Kay Miller<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/security.berkeley.edu\/content\/data-encryption-transit-guideline\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Encryption in Transit Guideline\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data+Encryption+in+Transit+Guideline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsecurity.berkeley.edu%2Fcontent%2Fdata-encryption-transit-guideline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#.VV3oaWDTvfY\">\"What is a Trojan Virus - Malware Protection - Kaspersky Lab US\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+a+Trojan+Virus+-+Malware+Protection+-+Kaspersky+Lab+US&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusa.kaspersky.com%2Finternet-security-center%2Fthreats%2Ftrojans%23.VV3oaWDTvfY&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.apple.com\/business\/docs\/iOS_Security_Guide.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">iOS Security Guide<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFouch\u00e9_Gaines1939\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Helen_Fouch%C3%A9_Gaines\" title=\"Helen Fouch\u00e9 Gaines\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf2d40dae7d615308b3fff34ced9ed78\">Fouch\u00e9 Gaines, Helen<\/a> (1939), <i>Cryptanalysis: A Study of Ciphers and Their Solution<\/i>, New York: Dover Publications Inc, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0486200972<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cryptanalysis%3A+A+Study+of+Ciphers+and+Their+Solution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dover+Publications+Inc&rft.date=1939&rft.isbn=978-0486200972&rft.aulast=Fouch%C3%A9+Gaines&rft.aufirst=Helen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Kahn_(writer)\" title=\"David Kahn (writer)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc2ac2abed024b26753881f39a51138e\">Kahn, David<\/a>, <i>The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing<\/i> (<link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-684-83130-9) (1967)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bart_Preneel\" title=\"Bart Preneel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c02dc4961a853c869ce7874914eebf42\">Preneel, Bart<\/a>, \"Advances in Cryptology \u2014 EUROCRYPT 2000\", Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2000, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-3-540-67517-4<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abraham_Sinkov\" title=\"Abraham Sinkov\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45ce2558298e7eccd6376647409ce721\">Sinkov, Abraham<\/a>, <i>Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach<\/i>, Mathematical Association of America, 1966. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-88385-622-0<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFYehudaJonathan2014\" class=\"citation\">Yehuda, Lindell; Jonathan, Katz (2014), <i>Introduction to modern cryptography<\/i>, Hall\/CRC, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1466570269<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+modern+cryptography&rft.pub=Hall%2FCRC&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1466570269&rft.aulast=Yehuda&rft.aufirst=Lindell&rft.au=Jonathan%2C+Katz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEncryption\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1327\nCached time: 20190330192105\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.408 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.560 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1800\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 49790\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 1979\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 4\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 53419\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\nLua time usage: 0.215\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4.98 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 495.890 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>37.48% 185.881 1 Template:Reflist\n27.28% 135.263 10 Template:Cite_web\n10.96% 54.342 1 Template:Commons_category\n10.94% 54.258 3 Template:ISBN\n 8.32% 41.256 2 Template:Navbox\n 6.92% 34.303 1 Template:Authority_control\n 6.03% 29.898 1 Template:About\n 6.02% 29.829 1 Template:Cryptography_navbox\n 5.89% 29.226 1 Template:Redirect\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:10294-1!canonical and timestamp 20190330192105 and revision id 888070201\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203004\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.010 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.142 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 136.294 1 - wikipedia:Encryption\n100.00% 136.294 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10563-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203004 and revision id 33196\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Encryption\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Encryption<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/bc\/Public_key_encryption_keys.png\/440px-Public_key_encryption_keys.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/65\/Crypto_key.svg\/64px-Crypto_key.svg.png"],"86a503652ed5cc9d8e2b0252a480b5e1_timestamp":1554323404,"dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4_type":"article","dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4_title":"Electronic signature","dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_signature","dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tElectronic signature\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tAn electronic signature, or e-signature, refers to data in electronic form, which is logically associated with other data in electronic form and which is used by the signatory to sign.[1][2][3] This type of signature provides the same legal standing as a handwritten signature as long as it adheres to the requirements of the specific regulation it was created under (e.g., eIDAS in the European Union, NIST-DSS in the USA or ZertES in Switzerland).[4][5]\nElectronic signatures are a legal concept distinct from digital signatures, a cryptographic mechanism often used to implement electronic signatures. While an electronic signature can be as simple as a name entered in an electronic document, digital signatures are increasingly used in e-commerce and in regulatory filings to implement electronic signatures in a cryptographically protected way. Standardization agencies like NIST or ETSI provide standards for their implementation (e.g., NIST-DSS, XAdES or PAdES).[4][6] The concept itself is not new, with common law jurisdictions having recognized telegraph signatures as far back as the mid-19th century and faxed signatures since the 1980s.\n\nContents \n\n1 Description \n2 In contract law \n\n2.1 Enforceability \n2.2 Legal definitions \n2.3 Laws regarding their use \n\n\n3 Technological implementations (underlying technology) \n\n3.1 Digital signature \n3.2 Biometric signature \n\n\n4 References \n5 Further reading \n6 External links \n\n\nDescription \nAn electronic signature is intended to provide a secure and accurate identification method for the signatory to provide a seamless transaction.\nDefinitions of electronic signatures vary depending on the applicable jurisdiction. A common denominator in most countries is the level of an advanced electronic signature requiring that:\n\nThe signatory can be uniquely identified and linked to the signature\nThe signatory must have sole control of the private key that was used to create the electronic signature\nThe signature must be capable of identifying if its accompanying data has been tampered with after the message was signed\nIn the event that the accompanying data has been changed, the signature must be invalidated[7]\nElectronic signatures may be created with increasing levels of security, with each having its own set of requirements and means of creation on various levels that prove the validity of the signature. To provide an even stronger probative value than the above described advanced electronic signature, some countries like the European Union or Switzerland introduced the qualified electronic signature. It is difficult to challenge the authorship of a statement signed with a qualified electronic signature - the statement is non-reputable.[8] Technically, a qualified electronic signature is implemented through an advanced electronic signature that utilizes a digital certificate, which has been encrypted through a security signature-creating device [9] and which has been authenticated by a qualified trust service provider.[10]\n\nIn contract law \nSince well before the American Civil War began in 1861, morse code was used to send messages electrically by telegraphy. Some of these messages were agreements to terms that were intended as enforceable contracts. An early acceptance of the enforceability of telegraphic messages as electronic signatures came from the New Hampshire Supreme Court in 1869.[11]\nIn the 1980s, many companies and even some individuals began using fax machines for high-priority or time-sensitive delivery of documents. Although the original signature on the original document was on paper, the image of the signature and its transmission was electronic.[12]\nCourts in various jurisdictions have decided that enforceable electronic signatures can include agreements made by email, entering a personal identification number (PIN) into a bank ATM, signing a credit or debit slip with a digital pen pad device (an application of graphics tablet technology) at a point of sale, installing software with a clickwrap software license agreement on the package, and signing electronic documents online.\nThe first agreement signed electronically by two sovereign nations was a Joint Communiqu\u00e9 recognizing the growing importance of the promotion of electronic commerce, signed by the United States and Ireland in 1998.[13]\n\nEnforceability \nIn 1996 the United Nations published the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce.[14] Article 7 of the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce was highly influential in the development of electronic signature laws around the world, including in the US.[15] In 2001, UNCITRAL concluded work on a dedicated text, the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Signatures,[16] which has been adopted in some 30 jurisdictions.[17] The latest UNCITRAL text dealing with electronic signatures is article 9, paragraph 3 of the United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts, 2005, which establishes a mechanism for functional equivalence between electronic and handwritten signatures at the international level as well as for the cross-border recognition.\nCanadian law (PIPEDA) attempts to clarify the situation by first defining a generic electronic signature as \"a signature that consists of one or more letters, characters, numbers or other symbols in digital form incorporated in, attached to or associated with an electronic document\", then defining a secure electronic signature as an electronic signature with specific properties. PIPEDA's secure electronic signature regulations refine the definition as being a digital signature applied and verified in a specific manner.[18]\nIn the European Union, EU Regulation No 910\/2014 on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the European internal market (eIDAS) sets the legal frame for electronic signatures. It repeals Directive 1999\/93\/EC.[2] The current and applicable version of eIDAS was published by the European Parliament and the European Council on July 23, 2014. Following Article 25 (1) of the eIDAS regulation, an advanced electronic signature shall \u201cnot be denied legal effect and admissibility as evidence in legal proceedings\". However it will reach a higher probative value when enhanced to the level of a qualified electronic signature. By requiring the use of a qualified electronic signature creation device[19] and being based on a certificate that has been issued by a qualified trust service provider, the upgraded advanced signature then carries according to Article 25 (2) of the eIDAS Regulation the same legal value as a handwritten signature.[2][7] However, this is only regulated in the European Union and similarly through ZertES in Switzerland. A qualified electronic signature is not defined in the United States.[20][21]\nThe U.S. Code defines an electronic signature for the purpose of US law as \"an electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated with a contract or other record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.\"[22] It may be an electronic transmission of the document which contains the signature, as in the case of facsimile transmissions, or it may be encoded message, such as telegraphy using Morse code.\nIn the United States, the definition of what qualifies as an electronic signature is wide and is set out in the Uniform Electronic Transactions Act (\"UETA\") released by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (NCCUSL) in 1999.[23] It was influenced by ABA committee white papers and the uniform law promulgated by NCCUSL. Under UETA, the term means \"an electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated with a record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.\" This definition and many other core concepts of UETA are echoed in the U.S. ESign Act of 2000.[22] 47 US states, the District of Columbia, and the US Virgin Islands have enacted UETA.[24] Only New York, Washington State, and Illinois have not enacted UETA,[24] but each of those states has adopted its own electronic signatures statute.[25][26][27]\n\nLegal definitions \nVarious laws have been passed internationally to facilitate commerce by the use of electronic records and signatures in interstate and foreign commerce. The intent is to ensure the validity and legal effect of contracts entered into electronically. For instance,\n\nPIPEDA (Canadian federal law)\n(1) An electronic signature is \"a signature that consists of one or more letters, characters, numbers or other symbols in digital form incorporated in, attached to or associated with an electronic document\";\n(2) A secure electronic signature is as an electronic signature that\n(a) is unique to the person making the signature;\n(b) the technology or process used to make the signature is under the sole control of the person making the signature;\n(c) the technology or process can be used to identify the person using the technology or process; and\n(d) the electronic signature can be linked with an electronic document in such a way that it can be used to determine whether the electronic document has been changed since the electronic signature was incorporated in, attached to or associated with the electronic document.<\/dd>\nESIGN Act Sec 106 (US federal law)[28]\n(2) ELECTRONIC- The term 'electronic' means relating to technology having electrical, digital, magnetic, wireless, optical, electromagnetic, or similar capabilities.\n(4) ELECTRONIC RECORD- The term 'electronic record' means a contract or other record created, generated, sent, communicated, received, or stored by electronic means.\n(5) ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE- The term 'electronic signature' means an electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated with a contract or other record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.\nGPEA Sec 1710 (US federal law)\n\n(1) ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE.\u2014the term \"electronic signature\" means a method of signing an electronic message that\u2014\n(A) identifies and authenticates a particular person as the source of the electronic message; and\n(B) indicates such person's approval of the information contained in the electronic message.\nUETA Sec 2 (US state law)\n\n(5) \"Electronic\" means relating to technology having electrical, digital, magnetic, wireless, optical, electromagnetic, or similar capabilities.\n(6) \"Electronic agent\" means a computer program or an electronic or other automated means used independently to initiate an action or respond to electronic records or performances in whole or in part, without review or action by an individual.\n(7) \"Electronic record\" means a record created, generated, sent, communicated, received, or stored by electronic means.\n(8) \"Electronic signature\" means an electronic sound, symbol, or process attached to or logically associated with a record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.\nFederal Reserve 12 CFR 202 (US federal regulation)\nrefers to the ESIGN Act\nCommodity Futures Trading Commission 17 CFR Part 1 Sec. 1.3 (US federal regulations)\n\n(tt) Electronic signature means an electronic sound, symbol, or process attached to or logically associated with a record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.\nFood and Drug Administration 21 CFR Sec. 11.3 (US federal regulations)\n\n(5) Digital signature means an electronic signature based upon cryptographic methods of originator authentication, computed by using a set of rules and a set of parameters such that the identity of the signer and the integrity of the data can be verified.\n(7) Electronic signature means a computer data compilation of any symbol or series of symbols executed, adopted, or authorized by an individual to be the legally binding equivalent of the individual's handwritten signature.\nUnited States Patent and Trademark Office 37 CFR Sec. 1.4 (federal regulation)\n(d)(2) S-signature. An S-signature is a signature inserted between forward slash marks, but not a handwritten signature ... (i)The S-signature must consist only of letters, or Arabic numerals, or both, with appropriate spaces and commas, periods, apostrophes, or hyphens for punctuation... (e.g., \/Dr. James T. Jones, Jr.\/)...\n(iii) The signer's name must be:\n(A) Presented in printed or typed form preferably immediately below or adjacent the S-signature, and\n(B) Reasonably specific enough so that the identity of the signer can be readily recognized.[29]\nLaws regarding their use \nSee also: Electronic signatures and law\nAustralia - Electronic Transactions Act 1999 (which incorporates amendments from Electronic Transactions Amendment Act 2011), Section 10 - Signatures specifically relates to electronic signatures.\nCanada - PIPEDA, its regulations, and the Canada Evidence Act.\nChina - Law of the People\u2019s Republic of China on Electronic Signature (effective April 1, 2005)\nCosta Rica - Digital Signature Law 8454 (2005)\nCroatia 2002, updated 2008\nCzech Republic \u2013 Z\u00e1kon o elektronick\u00e9m podpisu 227\/2000 Sb.\nEuropean Union - eIDAS regulation on implementation within the EU is set out in the Digital Signatures and the Law.\nIndia - Information Technology Act\nIraq - Electronic Transactions and Electronic Signature Act No 78 in 2012\nIreland - Electronic Commerce Act 2000\nJapan - Law Concerning Electronic Signatures and Certification Services, 2000\nMexico - E-Commerce Act [2000]\nMalaysia - Digital Signature Act 1997 and Digital Signature Regulation 1998 (https:\/\/www.mcmc.gov.my\/sectors\/digital-signature)\nMoldova - Privind semn\u0103tura electronic\u0103 \u015fi documentul electronic (http:\/\/lex.justice.md\/md\/353612\/)\nNew Zealand - Electronic Transactions Act 2002\nParaguay - Ley 4017: De validez jur\u00eddica de la Firma Electr\u00f3nica, la Firma Digital, los Mensajes de Datos y el Expediente Electr\u00f3nico (12\/23\/2010) (in Spanish) , Ley 4610: Que modifica y amplia la Ley 4017\/10 (05\/07\/2012) (in Spanish) \nPeru - Ley N\u00ba 27269. Ley de Firmas y Certificados Digitales (28MAY2000) (in Spanish) \nPhilippines - Electronic Commerce Act of 2000\nPoland - Ustawa o podpisie elektronicznym (Dziennik Ustaw z 2001 r. Nr 130 poz. 1450) [30]\nRomania - Legea nr. 455 din 18 iulie 2001 privind semn\u0103tura electronic\u0103\nRussian Federation - Federal Law of Russian Federation about Electronic Signature (06.04.2011)\nSingapore - Electronic Transactions Act (2010) (background information, differences between ETA 1998 and ETA 2010)\nSlovakia - Z\u00e1kon \u010d.215\/2002 o elektronickom podpise\nSlovenia - Slovene Electronic Commerce and Electronic Signature Act\nSouth Africa - The Electronic Communications and Transactions Act 25, 2002\nSpain - Ley 59\/2003, de 19 de diciembre, de firma electr\u00f3nica\nSwitzerland - ZertES\nRepublika Srpska (entity of the Bosnia and Herzegovina) 2005\nTurkey - Electronic Signature Law\nUkraine - Electronic Signature Law, 2003\nUK - s.7 Electronic Communications Act 2000\nU.S. - Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act\nU.S. - Uniform Electronic Transactions Act - adopted by 48 states\nU.S. - Digital Signature And Electronic Authentication Law\nU.S. - Government Paperwork Elimination Act (GPEA)\nU.S. - The Uniform Commercial Code (UCC)\n Technological implementations (underlying technology) \nDigital signature \nFurther information: Digital signature\n A diagram showing how a digital signature is applied and then verified.\nDigital signatures are cryptographic implementations of electronic signatures used as a proof of authenticity, data integrity and non-repudiation of communications conducted over the Internet. When implemented in compliance to digital signature standards, digital signing should offer end-to-end privacy with the signing process being user-friendly and secure. Digital signatures are generated and verified through standardized frameworks such as the Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA)[6][31] by NIST or in compliance to the XAdES, PAdES or CAdES standards, specified by the ETSI.[32]\nThere are typically three algorithms involved with the digital signature process:\n\nKey generation \u2013 This algorithm provides a private key along with its corresponding public key.\nSigning \u2013 This algorithm produces a signature upon receiving a private key and the message that is being signed.\nVerification \u2013 This algorithm checks for the authenticity of the message by verifying it along with the signature and public key.[33]\nThe process of digital signing requires that the signature generated by both the fixed message and private key can then be authenticated by its accompanied public key. Using these cryptographic algorithms, the user\u2019s signature cannot be replicated without having access to their private key.[33] A secure channel is not typically required. By applying asymmetric cryptography methods, the digital signature process prevents several common attacks where the attacker attempts to gain access through the following attack methods.[1]\nThe most relevant standards on digital signatures with respect to size of domestic markets are the Digital Signature Standard (DSS)[31] by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the eIDAS Regulation[2] enacted by the European Parliament.[4] OpenPGP is a non-proprietary protocol for email encryption through public key cryptography. It is supported by PGP and GnuPG, and some of the S\/MIME IETF standards and has evolved into the most popular email encryption standard in the world.[34]\n\nBiometric signature \nElectronic signature may also refer to electronic forms of processing or verifying identity through use of biometric \"signatures\" or biologically identifying qualities of an individual. Such signatures use the approach of attaching some biometric measurement, or hash of said measurement, to a document as evidence. For instance, fingerprints, hand geometry (finger lengths and palm size), iris patterns, or even retinal patterns. All of these are collected using electronic sensors of some kind. Since each of these physical characteristics has claims to uniqueness among humans, each is to some extent useful as a signature.[35]\nBiometric measurements of this type are useless as passwords, as they can't be changed if compromised. However, they might be serviceable as electronic signatures of a kind, except that to date they have been so easily spoofable that they can carry little assurance that the person who purportedly signed a document was actually the person who did. Unfortunately, each is easily spoofable by a replay of the electronic signal produced and submitted to the computer system responsible for 'affixing' a signature to a document. Wiretapping techniques often suffice for this. In the particular case of fingerprints, a Japanese professor and some graduate students managed to spoof all of the commercially available fingerprint readers available to them with some ordinary kitchen chemistry (gummy bear candy gel) and a little ingenuity. No actual fingers were needed to successfully spoof every reading device.[36] In another example, researchers in Vietnam successfully demonstrated in late 2017 how a specially crafted mask could beat Apple's Face ID program on iPhone X.[37]\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b Turner, Dawn. \"What is a Digital Signature - What It Does, How It Works\". Cryptomathic. Retrieved 7 January 2016 . \n\n^ a b c d \"REGULATION (EU) No 910\/2014 of 23 July 2014 on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the internal market and repealing Directive 1999\/93\/EC\". THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL. Retrieved 7 January 2016 . \n\n^ \"What Are E-Signatures? | Signable\". Retrieved 2016-12-20 . \n\n^ a b c Turner, Dawn. \"Major Standards and Compliance of Digital Signatures - A World-Wide Consideration\". Cryptomathic. Retrieved 7 January 2016 . \n\n^ \"Federal Rules of Evidence | Federal Rules of Evidence | LII \/ Legal Information Institute\". Law.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2015-03-06 . \n\n^ a b JA, Ashiq. \"Recommendations for Providing Digital Signature Services\". Cryptomathic. Retrieved 7 January 2016 . \n\n^ a b Turner, Dawn M. \"Advanced Electronic Signatures for eIDAS\". Cryptomathic. Retrieved 7 June 2016 . \n\n^ Turner, Dawn M. \"Understanding eIDAS\". Cryptomathic. Retrieved 7 June 2016 . \n\n^ Turner, Dawn M. \"QUALIFIED ELECTRONIC SIGNATURES FOR EIDAS\". Cryptomathic. Retrieved 7 June 2016 . \n\n^ Turner, Dawn M. \"Trust Service Providers according to eIDAS\". Cryptomathic. Retrieved 23 June 2016 . \n\n^ \"Privacy Issues In Federal Systems: A Constitutional Perspective\". Crawls-wm.us.archive.org. Retrieved 2015-03-06 . \n\n^ \"The History of Electronic Signature Laws\". Isaac Bowman. Retrieved 2015-03-06 . \n\n^ [1] Archived March 16, 2012, at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ \"UNCITRAL : Model Law on Electronic Commerce with Guide to Enactment 1996\" (PDF) . Uncitral.org. Retrieved 2015-03-06 . \n\n^ Gabriel, Henry. \"The New United States Uniform Electronic Transactions Act: Substantive Provisions, Drafting History and Comparison to the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce\" (PDF) . International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT). Retrieved 30 April 2011 . \n\n^ \"UNCITRAL : Model Law on Electronic Signatures with Guide to Enactment 2001\" (PDF) . Uncitral.org. Retrieved 2015-03-06 . \n\n^ \"Status\". Uncitral.org. Retrieved 2015-03-06 . \n\n^ [2] Archived June 5, 2011, at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ eIDAS regulation Article 3 (12) \n\n^ Tuner, Dawn M. \"Is the NIST Digital Signature Standard DSS legally binding?\". Cryptomathic. Retrieved 12 May 2016 . \n\n^ Information Technology Laboratory National Institute of Standards and Technology. \"FEDERAL INFORMATION PROCESSING STANDARDS PUBLICATION (FIPS PUB 186 -4): Digital Signature Standard (DSS)\" (PDF) . Retrieved 12 May 2016 . \n\n^ a b \"Public Law 106-229 : June 30, 2000 : Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce act\" (PDF) . Frwebgate.access.gpo.gov. Retrieved 2015-03-06 . \n\n^ \"Biddle Law Library: Library: \u2022 Penn Law\". Law.upenn.edu. Retrieved 2015-03-06 . \n\n^ a b [3] Archived January 15, 2011, at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ [4] Archived May 6, 2011, at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ \"Chapter 19.34 RCW: WASHINGTON ELECTRONIC AUTHENTICATION ACT\". Apps.leg.wa.gov. Retrieved 2015-03-06 . \n\n^ \"5 ILCS 175\/ Electronic Commerce Security Act\". Ilga.gov. 2003-10-17. Retrieved 2015-03-06 . \n\n^ \"Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act (\"ESIGN\")\". Isaac Bowman. Retrieved 2015-03-06 . \n\n^ \"MPEP \u00a7501\". USPTO Manual of Patent Examining Procedures (MPEP). \n\n^ [5] Archived September 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ a b \"FIPS PUB 186-4: Digital Signature Standard (DSS)\" (PDF) . National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 7 January 2016 . \n\n^ Turner, Dawn M. \"THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE AND A DIGITAL SIGNATURE\". Cryptomathic. Retrieved 21 April 2016 . \n\n^ a b Turner, Dawn. \"What is a digital signature - what it does, how it work\". Cryptomathic. Retrieved 7 June 2016 . \n\n^ \"Welcome to The OpenPGP Alliance\". OpenPGP Alliance. Retrieved 7 January 2016 . \n\n^ Manikpuri, M.M. (2017). Biometric Security Systems for Beginner. Educreation Publishing. pp. 20\u201326. ISBN 9781545708323. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n^ Matsumoto (2002). \"Impact of artificial gummy fingers on fingerprint systems\". Proceedings of SPIE. pp. 275\u2013289. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.100.8172 . \n\n^ \"Bkav's new mask beats Face ID in \"twin way\": Severity level raised, do not use Face ID in business transactions\". News In Focus. Bkav Corporation. 27 November 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . \n\n\nFurther reading \nJeremiah S. Buckley, John P. Kromer, Margo H. K. Tank, and R. David Whitaker (2014). The Law of Electronic Signatures. 2014-2015 Edition, Thomson Reuters.\nStephen Mason (2016). Electronic Signatures in Law (4th ed.). Institute of Advanced Legal Studies for the SAS Humanities Digital Library, School of Advanced Study, University of London. ISBN 978-1-911507-00-0. Free PDF download at Humanities Digital Library.\nExternal links \n\n\n\nWikibooks has a book on the topic of: Legal and Regulatory Issues in the Information Economy\nE-Sign Final Report (2005, European Union)\nJudicial Studies Board Digital Signature Guidelines\nDynamic signatures\nAuthority control \nGND: 4269037-7 \nNDL: 00928755 \n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_signature\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_signature<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Computer securityRegulatory termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView 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PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 8 May 2018, at 22:18.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 547 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Electronic_signature skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Electronic signature<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>An <b>electronic signature<\/b>, or e-signature, refers to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a> in electronic form, which is logically associated with other data in electronic form and which is used by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Signature\" title=\"Signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5630a314dd230c0753df2712cb6225b0\">signatory<\/a> to sign.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cryptomathic_WHATISADIGITALSIGNATURE_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cryptomathic_WHATISADIGITALSIGNATURE-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eIDAS_Reference-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> This type of signature provides the same legal standing as a handwritten signature as long as it adheres to the requirements of the specific regulation it was created under (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EIDAS\" title=\"EIDAS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9d362d5b2a606dc1dd4c99c6228635a\">eIDAS<\/a> in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Signature_Standard\" title=\"Digital Signature Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e4add42df1782e56f054abd58f5c8c6\">NIST-DSS<\/a> in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States\" title=\"United States\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f44266ab2da9382e3764bac08cfb4076\">USA<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ZertES\" title=\"ZertES\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d82b1f57d1830ff6455a0a4a64dbeb9\">ZertES<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Switzerland\" title=\"Switzerland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2046dc1f5faf03e4992722fe3080c906\">Switzerland<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Electronic signatures are a legal concept distinct from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signature\" title=\"Digital signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4619b82a0e21434550c0eaa36d81c82d\">digital signatures<\/a>, a cryptographic mechanism often used to implement electronic signatures. While an electronic signature can be as simple as a name entered in an electronic document, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signature\" title=\"Digital signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4619b82a0e21434550c0eaa36d81c82d\">digital signatures<\/a> are increasingly used in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-commerce\" title=\"E-commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c03db4987b899365c11ec8496d2c7c99\">e-commerce<\/a> and in regulatory filings to implement electronic signatures in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptographically protected<\/a> way. Standardization agencies like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NIST\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NIST\" data-key=\"2c5730fa123ebb7598290eb8137b243f\">NIST<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ETSI\" title=\"ETSI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ac613e62f4ab5025b6ab7fb0a451ced\">ETSI<\/a> provide standards for their implementation (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Signature_Algorithm\" title=\"Digital Signature Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a664ffea168308e40cc41b137a6e7ada\">NIST-DSS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XAdES\" title=\"XAdES\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2c625466a57ebc1b27fd03f74cc9e84\">XAdES<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PAdES\" title=\"PAdES\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"280660caf4c5a05d16248846ab830c9c\">PAdES<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CryptomathicDigSigServicesAshiqJA_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CryptomathicDigSigServicesAshiqJA-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> The concept itself is not new, with common law jurisdictions having recognized <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telegraph\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Telegraph\" data-key=\"1b6dd33f7cb0231aab417aa7ec6b1057\">telegraph<\/a> signatures as far back as the mid-19th century and faxed signatures since the 1980s.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Description\">Description<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>An electronic signature is intended to provide a secure and accurate identification method for the signatory to provide a seamless transaction.\nDefinitions of electronic signatures vary depending on the applicable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jurisdiction_(area)\" title=\"Jurisdiction (area)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1eb8364673e990757b6a65373ab8b309\">jurisdiction<\/a>. A common denominator in most countries is the level of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_electronic_signature\" title=\"Advanced electronic signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"11fad4e12f103c751c96ad47b342e73a\">advanced electronic signature<\/a> requiring that:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Signature\" title=\"Signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5630a314dd230c0753df2712cb6225b0\">signatory<\/a> can be uniquely identified and linked to the signature<\/li>\n<li>The signatory must have sole control of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public-key_cryptography\" title=\"Public-key cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da4f15fe41ac17b9842b2d0202406ddb\">private key<\/a> that was used to create the electronic signature<\/li>\n<li>The signature must be capable of identifying if its accompanying data has been tampered with after the message was signed<\/li>\n<li>In the event that the accompanying data has been changed, the signature must be invalidated<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner-AdvancedESig_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner-AdvancedESig-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Electronic signatures may be created with increasing levels of security, with each having its own set of requirements and means of creation on various levels that prove the validity of the signature. To provide an even stronger <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relevance_(law)\" title=\"Relevance (law)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55dee8d04f13508fbf22bb640dc45fb8\">probative value<\/a> than the above described advanced electronic signature, some countries like the European Union or Switzerland introduced the qualified electronic signature. It is difficult to challenge the authorship of a statement signed with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qualified_electronic_signature\" title=\"Qualified electronic signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a833a0da84db3610fb612b4b9807028\">qualified electronic signature<\/a> - the statement is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-repudiation\" title=\"Non-repudiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"626625acb28e081c4e58d7fb46a4b9f5\">non-reputable<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner-Understanding-eIDAS_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner-Understanding-eIDAS-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> Technically, a qualified electronic signature is implemented through an advanced electronic signature that utilizes a digital certificate, which has been encrypted through a security signature-creating device <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner-QualifiedElectronicSignature_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner-QualifiedElectronicSignature-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> and which has been authenticated by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qualified_electronic_signature#Qualified_Trust_Service_Providers\" title=\"Qualified electronic signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"758932d2b281a6e2591b94171358c119\">qualified trust service provider<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner-TSPs_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner-TSPs-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_contract_law\">In contract law<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Since well before the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/American_Civil_War\" title=\"American Civil War\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6af713d0a793f227414e6af687a563e\">American Civil War<\/a> began in 1861, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morse_code\" title=\"Morse code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7a0a00c8e68667568ec0ea8d43aea88\">morse code<\/a> was used to send messages electrically by telegraphy. Some of these messages were agreements to terms that were intended as enforceable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contract\" title=\"Contract\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"643e0e1b184a88ea39aada3b3044cfb7\">contracts<\/a>. An early acceptance of the enforceability of telegraphic messages as electronic signatures came from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New_Hampshire_Supreme_Court\" title=\"New Hampshire Supreme Court\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52d9f1b9d4d6e542bd96f374dbe235bf\">New Hampshire Supreme Court<\/a> in 1869.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the 1980s, many companies and even some individuals began using fax machines for high-priority or time-sensitive delivery of documents. Although the original signature on the original document was on paper, the image of the signature and its transmission was electronic.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ib_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ib-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Courts in various jurisdictions have decided that enforceable electronic signatures can include agreements made by email, entering a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_identification_number\" title=\"Personal identification number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd9e61bd2753a6095d26d7c90c766088\">personal identification number<\/a> (PIN) into a bank <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automated_teller_machine\" title=\"Automated teller machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"197cd2560948dac5a517b166bd6f58c0\">ATM<\/a>, signing a credit or debit slip with a digital pen pad device (an application of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphics_tablet\" title=\"Graphics tablet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54aafa6f617e3b054b45ec5c5225d51d\">graphics tablet<\/a> technology) at a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Point_of_sale\" title=\"Point of sale\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e978e565243cc8deaef8586997eedbd7\">point of sale<\/a>, installing software with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clickwrap\" title=\"Clickwrap\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ae9d322034ee73835bcfe8ed2b8e97e\">clickwrap<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_license_agreement\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software license agreement\" data-key=\"ef8669bd713563e70690689f487a14cb\">software license agreement<\/a> on the package, and signing electronic documents online.\n<\/p><p>The first agreement signed electronically by two sovereign nations was a Joint Communiqu\u00e9 recognizing the growing importance of the promotion of electronic commerce, signed by the United States and Ireland in 1998.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Enforceability\">Enforceability<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In 1996 the United Nations published the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Article 7 of the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce was highly influential in the development of electronic signature laws around the world, including in the US.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> In 2001, UNCITRAL concluded work on a dedicated text, the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Signatures,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> which has been adopted in some 30 jurisdictions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> The latest UNCITRAL text dealing with electronic signatures is article 9, paragraph 3 of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Use_of_Electronic_Communications_in_International_Contracts\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts\" data-key=\"3a1c56057f7c00b9cd8978177b9200f7\">United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts<\/a>, 2005, which establishes a mechanism for functional equivalence between electronic and handwritten signatures at the international level as well as for the cross-border recognition.\n<\/p><p>Canadian law (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_Information_Protection_and_Electronic_Documents_Act\" title=\"Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"281123a74d6f255d572e17bafd2474fe\">PIPEDA<\/a>) attempts to clarify the situation by first defining a generic electronic signature as \"a signature that consists of one or more letters, characters, numbers or other symbols in digital form incorporated in, attached to or associated with an electronic document\", then defining a secure electronic signature as an electronic signature with specific properties. PIPEDA's secure electronic signature regulations refine the definition as being a digital signature applied and verified in a specific manner.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the European Union, EU <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulation_(European_Union)\" title=\"Regulation (European Union)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2fa2b50e75038f90a9360b44d358c59b\">Regulation<\/a> No 910\/2014 on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the European <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internal_market\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Internal market\" data-key=\"4cb3db4059365975768c5df21cbbcad0\">internal market<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EIDAS\" title=\"EIDAS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9d362d5b2a606dc1dd4c99c6228635a\">eIDAS<\/a>) sets the legal frame for electronic signatures. It repeals <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Directive_(European_Union)\" title=\"Directive (European Union)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05c782d4ebddeb1a932f6a901167cb0f\">Directive<\/a> 1999\/93\/EC.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eIDAS_Reference-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> The current and applicable version of eIDAS was published by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Parliament\" title=\"European Parliament\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04c947c3fac4787cbde96ed2bb1695f8\">European Parliament<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Council\" title=\"European Council\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e63d10774798d1b83fab045229b9a79\">European Council<\/a> on July 23, 2014. Following Article 25 (1) of the eIDAS regulation, an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advanced_electronic_signature\" title=\"Advanced electronic signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"11fad4e12f103c751c96ad47b342e73a\">advanced electronic signature<\/a> shall \u201cnot be denied legal effect and admissibility as evidence in legal proceedings\". However it will reach a higher <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relevance_(law)\" title=\"Relevance (law)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55dee8d04f13508fbf22bb640dc45fb8\">probative value<\/a> when enhanced to the level of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Qualified_electronic_signature\" title=\"Qualified electronic signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5a833a0da84db3610fb612b4b9807028\">qualified electronic signature<\/a>. By requiring the use of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure_signature_creation_device\" title=\"Secure signature creation device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c73ebd4104ff9db1a124178535ae3e25\">qualified electronic signature creation device<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> and being based on a certificate that has been issued by a qualified trust service provider, the upgraded advanced signature then carries according to Article 25 (2) of the eIDAS Regulation the same legal value as a handwritten signature.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eIDAS_Reference-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner-AdvancedESig_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner-AdvancedESig-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> However, this is only regulated in the European Union and similarly through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ZertES\" title=\"ZertES\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d82b1f57d1830ff6455a0a4a64dbeb9\">ZertES<\/a> in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Switzerland\" title=\"Switzerland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2046dc1f5faf03e4992722fe3080c906\">Switzerland<\/a>. A qualified electronic signature is not defined in the United States.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TurnerDSS_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TurnerDSS-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DSS-Ref_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DSS-Ref-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The U.S. Code defines an <b>electronic signature<\/b> for the purpose of US law as \"an electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated with a contract or other record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-US_ESIGN_Act_of_2000_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-US_ESIGN_Act_of_2000-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> It may be an electronic transmission of the document which contains the signature, as in the case of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facsimile\" title=\"Facsimile\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c3f3b25695e06c0b610558505d5f55a\">facsimile<\/a> transmissions, or it may be encoded message, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telegraphy\" title=\"Telegraphy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba2a464467be9030a23d9d5312bf533f\">telegraphy<\/a> using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morse_code\" title=\"Morse code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7a0a00c8e68667568ec0ea8d43aea88\">Morse code<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In the United States, the definition of what qualifies as an electronic signature is wide and is set out in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uniform_Electronic_Transactions_Act\" title=\"Uniform Electronic Transactions Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20cc6d7b3e6c7d8b7cdc27cebf7d3797\">Uniform Electronic Transactions Act<\/a> (\"UETA\") released by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws (NCCUSL) in 1999.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> It was influenced by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/American_Bar_Association\" title=\"American Bar Association\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f4ecf3e89b6e338c5c47221def7fc2f\">ABA<\/a> committee white papers and the uniform law promulgated by NCCUSL. Under UETA, the term means \"an electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated with a record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.\" This definition and many other core concepts of UETA are echoed in the U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Signatures_in_Global_and_National_Commerce_Act\" title=\"Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"994c4661e49c6b179fe6d3242b38b23a\">ESign Act<\/a> of 2000.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-US_ESIGN_Act_of_2000_22-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-US_ESIGN_Act_of_2000-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> 47 US states, the District of Columbia, and the US Virgin Islands have enacted UETA.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-nccusl.org_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nccusl.org-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> Only New York, Washington State, and Illinois have not enacted UETA,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-nccusl.org_24-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nccusl.org-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> but each of those states has adopted its own electronic signatures statute.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Legal_definitions\">Legal definitions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Various laws have been passed internationally to facilitate commerce by the use of electronic records and signatures in interstate and foreign commerce. The intent is to ensure the validity and legal effect of contracts entered into electronically. For instance,\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PIPEDA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PIPEDA\" data-key=\"32579567ab9f30e34aecd16200b3b013\">PIPEDA<\/a> (Canadian federal law)<\/dt>\n<dd>(1) An electronic signature is \"a signature that consists of one or more letters, characters, numbers or other symbols in digital form incorporated in, attached to or associated with an electronic document\";<\/dd>\n<dd>(2) A secure electronic signature is as an electronic signature that\n<dl><dd>(a) is unique to the person making the signature;<\/dd>\n<dd>(b) the technology or process used to make the signature is under the sole control of the person making the signature;<\/dd>\n<dd>(c) the technology or process can be used to identify the person using the technology or process; and<\/dd>\n<dd>(d) the electronic signature can be linked with an electronic document in such a way that it can be used to determine whether the electronic document has been changed since the electronic signature was incorporated in, attached to or associated with the electronic document.<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Signatures_in_Global_and_National_Commerce_Act\" title=\"Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"994c4661e49c6b179fe6d3242b38b23a\">ESIGN Act<\/a> Sec 106 (US federal law)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><\/dt>\n<dd>(2) ELECTRONIC- The term 'electronic' means relating to technology having electrical, digital, magnetic, wireless, optical, electromagnetic, or similar capabilities.<\/dd>\n<dd>(4) ELECTRONIC RECORD- The term 'electronic record' means a contract or other record created, generated, sent, communicated, received, or stored by electronic means.<\/dd>\n<dd>(5) ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE- The term 'electronic signature' means an electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated with a contract or other record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gpea\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gpea\" data-key=\"b98e72e4ae5c9668e9a1ec069b67ed84\">GPEA<\/a> Sec 1710 (US federal law)<\/dt>\n<dd><\/dd>\n<dd>(1) ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE.\u2014the term \"electronic signature\" means a method of signing an electronic message that\u2014<\/dd>\n<dd>(A) identifies and authenticates a particular person as the source of the electronic message; and<\/dd>\n<dd>(B) indicates such person's approval of the information contained in the electronic message.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uniform_Electronic_Transactions_Act\" title=\"Uniform Electronic Transactions Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20cc6d7b3e6c7d8b7cdc27cebf7d3797\">UETA<\/a> Sec 2 (US state law)<\/dt>\n<dd><\/dd>\n<dd>(5) \"Electronic\" means relating to technology having electrical, digital, magnetic, wireless, optical, electromagnetic, or similar capabilities.<\/dd>\n<dd>(6) \"Electronic agent\" means a computer program or an electronic or other automated means used independently to initiate an action or respond to electronic records or performances in whole or in part, without review or action by an individual.<\/dd>\n<dd>(7) \"Electronic record\" means a record created, generated, sent, communicated, received, or stored by electronic means.<\/dd>\n<dd>(8) \"Electronic signature\" means an electronic sound, symbol, or process attached to or logically associated with a record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Reserve\" title=\"Federal Reserve\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"420b0bc6dbaa35aa00c20434d8f9132f\">Federal Reserve<\/a> 12 CFR 202 (US federal regulation)<\/dt>\n<dd>refers to the ESIGN Act<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Commodity_Futures_Trading_Commission\" title=\"Commodity Futures Trading Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40a918b99de9c4080d0fc042ee926c45\">Commodity Futures Trading Commission<\/a> 17 CFR Part 1 Sec. 1.3 (US federal regulations)<\/dt>\n<dd><\/dd>\n<dd>(tt) Electronic signature means an electronic sound, symbol, or process attached to or logically associated with a record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the record.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> 21 CFR Sec. 11.3 (US federal regulations)<\/dt>\n<dd><\/dd>\n<dd>(5) Digital signature means an electronic signature based upon cryptographic methods of originator authentication, computed by using a set of rules and a set of parameters such that the identity of the signer and the integrity of the data can be verified.<\/dd>\n<dd>(7) Electronic signature means a computer data compilation of any symbol or series of symbols executed, adopted, or authorized by an individual to be the legally binding equivalent of the individual's handwritten signature.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office\" title=\"United States Patent and Trademark Office\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d1174b9e571e2d5a7d9e8af7ad4e80f\">United States Patent and Trademark Office<\/a> 37 CFR Sec. 1.4 (federal regulation)<\/dt>\n<dd>(d)(2) <i>S-signature.<\/i> An S-signature is a signature inserted between forward slash marks, but not a handwritten signature ... (i)The S-signature must consist only of letters, or Arabic numerals, or both, with appropriate spaces and commas, periods, apostrophes, or hyphens for punctuation... (e.g., \/Dr. James T. Jones, Jr.\/)...<\/dd>\n<dd>(iii) The signer's name must be:<\/dd>\n<dd>(A) Presented in printed or typed form preferably immediately below or adjacent the S-signature, and<\/dd>\n<dd>(B) Reasonably specific enough so that the identity of the signer can be readily recognized.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-USPTO_Manual_of_Patent_Examining_Procedures_(MPEP)_\u00a7501_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-USPTO_Manual_of_Patent_Examining_Procedures_(MPEP)_\u00a7501-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laws_regarding_their_use\">Laws regarding their use<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_signatures_and_law\" title=\"Electronic signatures and law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8428b2a67a3b4f514330ea69b43f0fb2\">Electronic signatures and law<\/a><\/div>\n<ul><li>Australia - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.comlaw.gov.au\/Details\/C2011C00445\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Transactions Act 1999<\/a> (which incorporates amendments from Electronic Transactions Amendment Act 2011), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.comlaw.gov.au\/Details\/C2011C00445\/Html\/Text#_Toc296406959\" target=\"_blank\">Section 10 - Signatures<\/a> specifically relates to electronic signatures.<\/li>\n<li>Canada - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/laws.justice.gc.ca\/eng\/acts\/P-8.6\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">PIPEDA<\/a>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/laws-lois.justice.gc.ca\/eng\/regulations\/SOR-2005-30\/?showtoc=&instrumentnumber=SOR-2005-30\" target=\"_blank\">its regulations<\/a>, and the <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/laws-lois.justice.gc.ca\/eng\/acts\/c-5\/\" target=\"_blank\">Canada Evidence Act<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>China - Law of the People\u2019s Republic of China on Electronic Signature (effective April 1, 2005)<\/li>\n<li>Costa Rica - Digital Signature Law 8454 (2005)<\/li>\n<li>Croatia 2002, updated 2008<\/li>\n<li>Czech Republic \u2013 <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/portal.gov.cz\/zakon\/227\/2000\" target=\"_blank\">Z\u00e1kon o elektronick\u00e9m podpisu 227\/2000 Sb.<\/a><\/li>\n<li>European Union - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EIDAS\" title=\"EIDAS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9d362d5b2a606dc1dd4c99c6228635a\">eIDAS<\/a> regulation on implementation within the EU is set out in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signatures_and_law#European_Union_and_the_European_Economic_Area\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital signatures and law\" data-key=\"8bdc840704f9415ee2fc4e3fe4fb32ef\">Digital Signatures and the Law<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>India - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Technology_Act\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information Technology Act\" data-key=\"081bfa8abc365a0d27438478d71408d4\">Information Technology Act<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Iraq - Electronic Transactions and Electronic Signature Act No 78 in 2012<\/li>\n<li>Ireland - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.irishstatutebook.ie\/2000\/en\/act\/pub\/0027\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Commerce Act 2000<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Japan - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signatures_and_law#Japan\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital signatures and law\" data-key=\"9f246d3842c379578bc9a817f7529219\">Law Concerning Electronic Signatures and Certification Services, 2000<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Mexico - E-Commerce Act [2000]<\/li>\n<li>Malaysia - Digital Signature Act 1997 and Digital Signature Regulation 1998 (<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mcmc.gov.my\/sectors\/digital-signature\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.mcmc.gov.my\/sectors\/digital-signature<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>Moldova - Privind semn\u0103tura electronic\u0103 \u015fi documentul electronic (<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/lex.justice.md\/md\/353612\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/lex.justice.md\/md\/353612\/<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>New Zealand - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.legislation.govt.nz\/act\/public\/2002\/0035\/latest\/DLM154185.html\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Transactions Act 2002<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Paraguay - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gacetaoficial.gov.py\/uploads\/pdf\/2013\/2013-11-07\/gaceta_777_FBEJJFBGFADFCKFFGECAGEBJKIDKKHCFIHEGBFCH.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Ley 4017: De validez jur\u00eddica de la Firma Electr\u00f3nica, la Firma Digital, los Mensajes de Datos y el Expediente Electr\u00f3nico (12\/23\/2010)<\/a> <span class=\"languageicon\">(in Spanish)<\/span>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gacetaoficial.gov.py\/uploads\/pdf\/2013\/2013-10-30\/gaceta_384_HFBIHEFKACGHEIACGCEEKCAKJIJIAAIHGJFCDKBE.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Ley 4610: Que modifica y amplia la Ley 4017\/10 (05\/07\/2012)<\/a> <span class=\"languageicon\">(in Spanish)<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Peru - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.congreso.gob.pe\/ntley\/Imagenes\/Leyes\/27269.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Ley N\u00ba 27269. Ley de Firmas y Certificados Digitales (28MAY2000)<\/a> <span class=\"languageicon\">(in Spanish)<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Philippines - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncc.gov.ph\/files\/Ra8792.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Commerce Act of 2000<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Poland - Ustawa o podpisie elektronicznym (Dziennik Ustaw z 2001 r. Nr 130 poz. 1450) <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Romania - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mcsi.ro\/Minister\/Domenii-de-activitate-ale-MCSI\/Tehnologia-Informatiei\/Servicii-electronice\/Semnatura-electronica\/Legea-455-2001\" target=\"_blank\">Legea nr. 455 din 18 iulie 2001 privind semn\u0103tura electronic\u0103<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Russian Federation - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pravo.gov.ru\/proxy\/ips\/?docbody=&nd=102146610\" target=\"_blank\">Federal Law of Russian Federation about Electronic Signature (06.04.2011)<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Singapore - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/sso.agc.gov.sg\/Act\/ETA2010\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Transactions Act (2010)<\/a> (<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.imda.gov.sg\/regulations-licensing-and-consultations\/acts-and-regulations\/electronic-transactions-act-and-regulations\" target=\"_blank\">background information<\/a>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.imda.gov.sg\/regulations-licensing-and-consultations\/acts-and-regulations\/electronic-transactions-act-and-regulations\/differences-between-eta-1998-and-eta-2010\" target=\"_blank\">differences between ETA 1998 and ETA 2010<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>Slovakia - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.zbierka.sk\/zz\/predpisy\/default.aspx?PredpisID=16414&FileName=02-z215&Rocnik=2002\" target=\"_blank\">Z\u00e1kon \u010d.215\/2002 o elektronickom podpise<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Slovenia - Slovene Electronic Commerce and Electronic Signature Act<\/li>\n<li>South Africa - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.acts.co.za\/electronic-communications-and-transactions-act-2002\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">The Electronic Communications and Transactions Act 25, 2002<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Spain - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/noticias.juridicas.com\/base_datos\/Admin\/l59-2003.html\" target=\"_blank\">Ley 59\/2003, de 19 de diciembre, de firma electr\u00f3nica<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Switzerland - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ZertES\" title=\"ZertES\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d82b1f57d1830ff6455a0a4a64dbeb9\">ZertES<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Republika_Srpska\" title=\"Republika Srpska\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19fae3c74d365afdd2c149642ca512bd\">Republika Srpska<\/a> (entity of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina\" title=\"Bosnia and Herzegovina\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cf0c86fd946cd4b7ed856be32cfe05c\">Bosnia and Herzegovina<\/a>) 2005<\/li>\n<li>Turkey - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kamusm.gov.tr\/en\/Electronic_Signature_Law.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Signature Law<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Ukraine - <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ucrf.gov.ua\/uk\/doc\/laws\/1149760377\/\" target=\"_blank\">Electronic Signature Law, 2003<\/a><\/li>\n<li>UK - s.7 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Communications_Act_2000\" title=\"Electronic Communications Act 2000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c09ceb7b354b5e3554a35b9c262eca5d\">Electronic Communications Act 2000<\/a><\/li>\n<li>U.S. - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Signatures_in_Global_and_National_Commerce_Act\" title=\"Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"994c4661e49c6b179fe6d3242b38b23a\">Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act<\/a><\/li>\n<li>U.S. - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uniform_Electronic_Transactions_Act\" title=\"Uniform Electronic Transactions Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20cc6d7b3e6c7d8b7cdc27cebf7d3797\">Uniform Electronic Transactions Act<\/a> - adopted by 48 states<\/li>\n<li>U.S. - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Signature_And_Electronic_Authentication_Law\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital Signature And Electronic Authentication Law\" data-key=\"6d90d841d90c0063f0248c63d75133cf\">Digital Signature And Electronic Authentication Law<\/a><\/li>\n<li>U.S. - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Government_Paperwork_Elimination_Act\" title=\"Government Paperwork Elimination Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1a60bcf526d5404e376b28c2f440ed3\">Government Paperwork Elimination Act<\/a> (GPEA)<\/li>\n<li>U.S. - <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uniform_Commercial_Code\" title=\"Uniform Commercial Code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e24c838c957e10a5ec1b015cadb9131\">The Uniform Commercial Code (UCC)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Technological_implementations_.28underlying_technology.29\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technological_implementations_(underlying_technology)\">Technological implementations (underlying technology)<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Digital_signature\">Digital signature<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signature\" title=\"Digital signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4619b82a0e21434550c0eaa36d81c82d\">Digital signature<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:282px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Digital_Signature_diagram.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5dbe2936a5a52d7258132c60c0cf711\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2b\/Digital_Signature_diagram.svg\/280px-Digital_Signature_diagram.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"280\" height=\"210\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Digital_Signature_diagram.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"d5dbe2936a5a52d7258132c60c0cf711\"><\/a><\/div>A diagram showing how a digital signature is applied and then verified.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signature\" title=\"Digital signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4619b82a0e21434550c0eaa36d81c82d\">Digital signatures<\/a> are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptographic<\/a> implementations of <b>electronic signatures<\/b> used as a proof of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authenticity_(philosophy)\" title=\"Authenticity (philosophy)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8d64ca56cc8bfa12aa40d60d9714958\">authenticity<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42abdc13351f50028f23f899197d3349\">data integrity<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Non-repudiation\" title=\"Non-repudiation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"626625acb28e081c4e58d7fb46a4b9f5\">non-repudiation<\/a> of communications conducted over the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a>. When implemented in compliance to digital signature standards, digital signing should offer end-to-end privacy with the signing process being user-friendly and secure. Digital signatures are generated and verified through standardized frameworks such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Signature_Algorithm\" title=\"Digital Signature Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a664ffea168308e40cc41b137a6e7ada\">Digital Signature Algorithm<\/a> (DSA)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CryptomathicDigSigServicesAshiqJA_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CryptomathicDigSigServicesAshiqJA-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NIST_DigitalSignatureStandardDSS_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NIST_DigitalSignatureStandardDSS-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NIST\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NIST\" data-key=\"2c5730fa123ebb7598290eb8137b243f\">NIST<\/a> or in compliance to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XAdES\" title=\"XAdES\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2c625466a57ebc1b27fd03f74cc9e84\">XAdES<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PAdES\" title=\"PAdES\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"280660caf4c5a05d16248846ab830c9c\">PAdES<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CAdES_(computing)\" title=\"CAdES (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40c40f473076ba434e4f30ffa7a8bd8d\">CAdES<\/a> standards, specified by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ETSI\" title=\"ETSI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ac613e62f4ab5025b6ab7fb0a451ced\">ETSI<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner_Diff-Electronic-Digital-Sig_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner_Diff-Electronic-Digital-Sig-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>There are typically three algorithms involved with the digital signature process:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Key generation \u2013 This algorithm provides a private key along with its corresponding public key.<\/li>\n<li>Signing \u2013 This algorithm produces a signature upon receiving a private key and the message that is being signed.<\/li>\n<li>Verification \u2013 This algorithm checks for the authenticity of the message by verifying it along with the signature and public key.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner-what-is-a-digsig_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner-what-is-a-digsig-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The process of digital signing requires that the signature generated by both the fixed message and private key can then be authenticated by its accompanied public key. Using these cryptographic algorithms, the user\u2019s signature cannot be replicated without having access to their private key.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Turner-what-is-a-digsig_33-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Turner-what-is-a-digsig-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure_channel\" title=\"Secure channel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb18227656feeee0a6b39ccaaf50c06a\">secure channel<\/a> is not typically required. By applying asymmetric cryptography methods, the digital signature process prevents several common attacks where the attacker attempts to gain access through the following attack methods.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cryptomathic_WHATISADIGITALSIGNATURE_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cryptomathic_WHATISADIGITALSIGNATURE-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The most relevant standards on digital signatures with respect to size of domestic markets are the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Signature_Algorithm\" title=\"Digital Signature Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a664ffea168308e40cc41b137a6e7ada\">Digital Signature Standard (DSS)<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NIST_DigitalSignatureStandardDSS_31-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NIST_DigitalSignatureStandardDSS-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup> by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology\" title=\"National Institute of Standards and Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"420abb4c176d79852b635ba1191578a1\">National Institute of Standards and Technology<\/a> (NIST) and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EIDAS\" title=\"EIDAS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9d362d5b2a606dc1dd4c99c6228635a\">eIDAS<\/a> Regulation<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eIDAS_Reference-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> enacted by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Parliament\" title=\"European Parliament\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04c947c3fac4787cbde96ed2bb1695f8\">European Parliament<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig_4-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenPGP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"OpenPGP\" data-key=\"b7a588503e8fa206d9d5813431fcb049\">OpenPGP<\/a> is a non-proprietary protocol for email encryption through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_key_cryptography\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Public key cryptography\" data-key=\"ebf8dd5d2155f0affe8642837207ec39\">public key cryptography<\/a>. It is supported by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pretty_Good_Privacy\" title=\"Pretty Good Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53b603ea3a39ecc964d1c8035196d426\">PGP<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GnuPG\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GnuPG\" data-key=\"d0b18a53bd68c9e39ba2a9ec9ac509c6\">GnuPG<\/a>, and some of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/S\/MIME\" title=\"S\/MIME\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"409f65ba3af6c099907389d909cb1385\">S\/MIME<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IETF\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IETF\" data-key=\"e532f4fb10a864e40a224e94bfe75cb5\">IETF<\/a> standards and has evolved into the most popular email encryption standard in the world.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OpenPGPAllianceReference_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OpenPGPAllianceReference-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Biometric_signature\">Biometric signature<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Electronic signature may also refer to electronic forms of processing or verifying identity through use of biometric \"signatures\" or biologically identifying qualities of an individual. Such signatures use the approach of attaching some biometric measurement, or hash of said measurement, to a document as evidence. For instance, fingerprints, hand geometry (finger lengths and palm size), iris patterns, or even retinal patterns. All of these are collected using electronic sensors of some kind. Since each of these physical characteristics has claims to uniqueness among humans, each is to some extent useful as a signature.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ManikpuriBiometric17_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ManikpuriBiometric17-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Biometric measurements of this type are useless as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Passwords\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Passwords\" data-key=\"b32824c0201e457566b990cae7ae6e2e\">passwords<\/a>, as they can't be changed if compromised. However, they might be serviceable as electronic signatures of a kind, except that to date they have been so easily spoofable that they can carry little assurance that the person who purportedly signed a document was actually the person who did. Unfortunately, each is easily spoofable by a replay of the electronic signal produced and submitted to the computer system responsible for 'affixing' a signature to a document. Wiretapping techniques often suffice for this. In the particular case of fingerprints, a Japanese professor and some graduate students managed to spoof all of the commercially available fingerprint readers available to them with some ordinary kitchen chemistry (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gummy_bear\" title=\"Gummy bear\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5ce35e6fded85ad02beb1b1bfa4fb6b\">gummy bear<\/a> candy gel) and a little ingenuity. No actual fingers were needed to successfully spoof every reading device.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> In another example, researchers in Vietnam successfully demonstrated in late 2017 how a specially crafted mask could beat <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apple_Inc.\" title=\"Apple Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"071b1bca39b3a61799e49233d2df16a3\">Apple's<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Face_ID\" title=\"Face ID\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c32b8c1b02903455268d37f82817abb4\">Face ID<\/a> program on iPhone X.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BkavBkav17_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BkavBkav17-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cryptomathic_WHATISADIGITALSIGNATURE-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cryptomathic_WHATISADIGITALSIGNATURE_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cryptomathic_WHATISADIGITALSIGNATURE_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Turner, Dawn. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/what-is-a-digital-signature-what-it-does-how-it-works\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is a Digital Signature - What It Does, How It Works\"<\/a>. Cryptomathic<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 January<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+a+Digital+Signature+-+What++It+Does%2C+How+It+Works&rft.pub=Cryptomathic&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Dawn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomathic.com%2Fnews-events%2Fblog%2Fwhat-is-a-digital-signature-what-it-does-how-it-works&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-eIDAS_Reference-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-eIDAS_Reference_2-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/legal-content\/EN\/TXT\/?uri=uriserv:OJ.L_.2014.257.01.0073.01.ENG\" target=\"_blank\">\"REGULATION (EU) No 910\/2014 of 23 July 2014 on electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions in the internal market and repealing Directive 1999\/93\/EC\"<\/a>. THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 January<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=REGULATION+%28EU%29+No+910%2F2014+of+23+July+2014+on+electronic+identification+and+trust+services+for+electronic+transactions+in+the+internal+market+and+repealing+Directive+1999%2F93%2FEC&rft.pub=THE+EUROPEAN+PARLIAMENT+AND+OF+THE+COUNCIL&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feur-lex.europa.eu%2Flegal-content%2FEN%2FTXT%2F%3Furi%3Duriserv%3AOJ.L_.2014.257.01.0073.01.ENG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.signable.co.uk\/what-are-e-signatures\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Are E-Signatures? | Signable\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-12-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=What+Are+E-Signatures%3F+%7C+Signable+%7C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.signable.co.uk%2Fwhat-are-e-signatures&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig_4-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig_4-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Cryptomathic_MajorStandardsDigSig_4-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Turner, Dawn. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/major-standards-and-compliance-of-digital-signatures-a-world-wide-consideration\" target=\"_blank\">\"Major Standards and Compliance of Digital Signatures - A World-Wide Consideration\"<\/a>. Cryptomathic<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 January<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Major+Standards+and+Compliance+of+Digital+Signatures+-+A+World-Wide+Consideration&rft.pub=Cryptomathic&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Dawn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomathic.com%2Fnews-events%2Fblog%2Fmajor-standards-and-compliance-of-digital-signatures-a-world-wide-consideration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#Rule1001\">\"Federal Rules of Evidence | Federal Rules of Evidence | LII \/ Legal Information Institute\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2015-03-06<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Federal+Rules+of+Evidence+%26%23124%3B+Federal+Rules+of+Evidence+%26%23124%3B+LII+%2F+Legal+Information+Institute&rft.pub=Law.cornell.edu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Frules%2Ffre%2Frules.htm%23Rule1001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CryptomathicDigSigServicesAshiqJA-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-CryptomathicDigSigServicesAshiqJA_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CryptomathicDigSigServicesAshiqJA_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">JA, Ashiq. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/recommendations-for-providing-digital-signature-services\" target=\"_blank\">\"Recommendations for Providing Digital Signature Services\"<\/a>. Cryptomathic<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 January<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Recommendations+for+Providing+Digital+Signature+Services&rft.pub=Cryptomathic&rft.aulast=JA&rft.aufirst=Ashiq&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomathic.com%2Fnews-events%2Fblog%2Frecommendations-for-providing-digital-signature-services&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Turner-AdvancedESig-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Turner-AdvancedESig_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Turner-AdvancedESig_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Turner, Dawn M. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/advanced-electronic-signatures\" target=\"_blank\">\"Advanced Electronic Signatures for eIDAS\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Advanced+Electronic+Signatures+for+eIDAS&rft.pub=Cryptomathic&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Dawn+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomathic.com%2Fnews-events%2Fblog%2Fadvanced-electronic-signatures&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Turner-Understanding-eIDAS-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Turner-Understanding-eIDAS_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Turner, Dawn M. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/understanding-eidas\" target=\"_blank\">\"Understanding eIDAS\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+eIDAS&rft.pub=Cryptomathic&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Dawn+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomathic.com%2Fnews-events%2Fblog%2Funderstanding-eidas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Turner-QualifiedElectronicSignature-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Turner-QualifiedElectronicSignature_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Turner, Dawn M. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/qualified-electronic-signatures-for-eidas\" target=\"_blank\">\"QUALIFIED ELECTRONIC SIGNATURES FOR EIDAS\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2015-03-06<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Privacy+Issues+In+Federal+Systems%3A+A+Constitutional+Perspective&rft.pub=Crawls-wm.us.archive.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcrawls-wm.us.archive.org%2Fkatrina%2F20051022073309%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.cato.org%2Fspeeches%2Fsp-ss031799.html%231b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ib-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ib_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.isaacbowman.com\/the-history-of-electronic-signature-laws\" target=\"_blank\">\"The History of Electronic Signature Laws\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2015-03-06<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Electronic+Signature+Laws&rft.pub=Isaac+Bowman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isaacbowman.com%2Fthe-history-of-electronic-signature-laws&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"#04\">[1]<\/a> <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#04\">Archived<\/a> March 16, 2012, at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.uncitral.org\/pdf\/english\/texts\/electcom\/05-89450_Ebook.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"UNCITRAL : Model Law on Electronic Commerce with Guide to Enactment 1996\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Uncitral.org<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2015-03-06<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UNCITRAL+%3A+Model+Law+on+Electronic+Commerce+with+Guide+to+Enactment+1996&rft.pub=Uncitral.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uncitral.org%2Fpdf%2Fenglish%2Ftexts%2Felectcom%2F05-89450_Ebook.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Gabriel, Henry. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.unidroit.org\/english\/publications\/review\/articles\/2000-4-gabriel-e.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The New United States Uniform Electronic Transactions Act: Substantive Provisions, Drafting History and Comparison to the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. 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Uncitral.org<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2015-03-06<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=UNCITRAL+%3A+Model+Law+on+Electronic+Signatures+with+Guide+to+Enactment+2001&rft.pub=Uncitral.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uncitral.org%2Fpdf%2Fenglish%2Ftexts%2Felectcom%2Fml-elecsig-e.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.uncitral.org\/uncitral\/en\/uncitral_texts\/electronic_commerce\/2001Model_status.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Status\"<\/a>. Uncitral.org<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2015-03-06<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Status&rft.pub=Uncitral.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uncitral.org%2Funcitral%2Fen%2Funcitral_texts%2Felectronic_commerce%2F2001Model_status.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http:\/\/laws.justice.gc.ca\/en\/showtdm\/cr\/SOR-2005-30\/\/?showtoc=&instrumentnumber=SOR-2005-30\" target=\"_blank\">[2]<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110605050917\/http:\/\/laws.justice.gc.ca\/en\/showtdm\/cr\/SOR-2005-30\/\/?showtoc=&instrumentnumber=SOR-2005-30\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> June 5, 2011, at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">eIDAS regulation Article 3 (12)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TurnerDSS-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TurnerDSS_20-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Tuner, Dawn M. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/is-the-nist-digital-signature-standard-dss-legally-binding\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is the NIST Digital Signature Standard DSS legally binding?\"<\/a>. Cryptomathic<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Is+the+NIST+Digital+Signature+Standard+DSS+legally+binding%3F&rft.pub=Cryptomathic&rft.aulast=Tuner&rft.aufirst=Dawn+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomathic.com%2Fnews-events%2Fblog%2Fis-the-nist-digital-signature-standard-dss-legally-binding&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DSS-Ref-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DSS-Ref_21-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Information Technology Laboratory National Institute of Standards and Technology. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/nvlpubs.nist.gov\/nistpubs\/FIPS\/NIST.FIPS.186-4.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"FEDERAL INFORMATION PROCESSING STANDARDS PUBLICATION (FIPS PUB 186 -4): Digital Signature Standard (DSS)\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FEDERAL+INFORMATION+PROCESSING+STANDARDS++PUBLICATION+%28FIPS+PUB+186+-4%29%3A+Digital+Signature+Standard+%28DSS%29&rft.au=Information+Technology+Laboratory+National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnvlpubs.nist.gov%2Fnistpubs%2FFIPS%2FNIST.FIPS.186-4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-US_ESIGN_Act_of_2000-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-US_ESIGN_Act_of_2000_22-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-US_ESIGN_Act_of_2000_22-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/frwebgate.access.gpo.gov\/cgi-bin\/getdoc.cgi?dbname=106_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ229.106.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Law 106-229 : June 30, 2000 : Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce act\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Frwebgate.access.gpo.gov<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2015-03-06<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Public+Law+106-229+%3A+June+30%2C+2000+%3A+Electronic+Signatures+in+Global+and+National+Commerce+act&rft.pub=Frwebgate.access.gpo.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffrwebgate.access.gpo.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fgetdoc.cgi%3Fdbname%3D106_cong_public_laws%26docid%3Df%3Apubl229.106.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.law.upenn.edu\/bll\/ulc\/fnact99\/1990s\/ueta99.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Biddle Law Library: Library: \u2022 Penn Law\"<\/a>. Law.upenn.edu<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2015-03-06<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biddle+Law+Library%3A+Library%3A+%E2%80%A2+Penn+Law&rft.pub=Law.upenn.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.upenn.edu%2Fbll%2Fulc%2Ffnact99%2F1990s%2Fueta99.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-nccusl.org-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-nccusl.org_24-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-nccusl.org_24-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nccusl.org\/Update\/uniformact_factsheets\/uniformacts-fs-ueta.asp\" target=\"_blank\">[3]<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110115172742\/http:\/\/www.nccusl.org\/Update\/uniformact_factsheets\/uniformacts-fs-ueta.asp\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> January 15, 2011, at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cio.ny.gov\/Policy\/ESRA\/esra.htm\" target=\"_blank\">[4]<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110506185818\/http:\/\/www.cio.ny.gov\/Policy\/ESRA\/esra.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> May 6, 2011, at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/apps.leg.wa.gov\/RCW\/default.aspx?cite=19.34\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 19.34 RCW: WASHINGTON ELECTRONIC AUTHENTICATION ACT\"<\/a>. Apps.leg.wa.gov<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2015-03-06<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chapter+19.34+RCW%3A+WASHINGTON+ELECTRONIC+AUTHENTICATION+ACT&rft.pub=Apps.leg.wa.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.leg.wa.gov%2FRCW%2Fdefault.aspx%3Fcite%3D19.34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ilga.gov\/legislation\/ilcs\/ilcs3.asp?ActID=89&ChapterID=2\" target=\"_blank\">\"5 ILCS 175\/ Electronic Commerce Security Act\"<\/a>. Ilga.gov. 2003-10-17<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2015-03-06<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=5+ILCS+175%2F+Electronic+Commerce+Security+Act&rft.pub=Ilga.gov&rft.date=2003-10-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ilga.gov%2Flegislation%2Filcs%2Filcs3.asp%3FActID%3D89%26ChapterID%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.isaacbowman.com\/electronic-signatures-in-global-and-national-commerce-act-esign\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act (\"ESIGN\")\"<\/a>. Isaac Bowman<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2015-03-06<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Electronic+Signatures+in+Global+and+National+Commerce+Act+%28%22ESIGN%22%29&rft.pub=Isaac+Bowman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isaacbowman.com%2Felectronic-signatures-in-global-and-national-commerce-act-esign&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-USPTO_Manual_of_Patent_Examining_Procedures_(MPEP)_\u00a7501-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-USPTO_Manual_of_Patent_Examining_Procedures_(MPEP)_\u00a7501_29-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#sect501%7Cpublisher=USPTO\">\"MPEP \u00a7501\"<\/a>. <i>USPTO Manual of Patent Examining Procedures (MPEP)<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USPTO+Manual+of+Patent+Examining+Procedures+%28MPEP%29&rft.atitle=MPEP+%C2%A7501&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uspto.gov%2Fweb%2Foffices%2Fpac%2Fmpep%2Fdocuments%2F0500_501.htm%23sect501%257Cpublisher%3DUSPTO&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http:\/\/www.abc.com.pl\/serwis\/du\/2001\/1450.htm\" target=\"_blank\">[5]<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110927073911\/http:\/\/www.abc.com.pl\/serwis\/du\/2001\/1450.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> September 27, 2011, at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NIST_DigitalSignatureStandardDSS-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-NIST_DigitalSignatureStandardDSS_31-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-NIST_DigitalSignatureStandardDSS_31-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/nvlpubs.nist.gov\/nistpubs\/FIPS\/NIST.FIPS.186-4.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"FIPS PUB 186-4: Digital Signature Standard (DSS)\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. National Institute of Standards and Technology<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 January<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FIPS+PUB+186-4%3A+Digital+Signature+Standard+%28DSS%29&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnvlpubs.nist.gov%2Fnistpubs%2FFIPS%2FNIST.FIPS.186-4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Turner_Diff-Electronic-Digital-Sig-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Turner_Diff-Electronic-Digital-Sig_32-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Turner, Dawn M. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/the-difference-between-an-electronic-signature-and-a-digital-signature\" target=\"_blank\">\"THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE AND A DIGITAL SIGNATURE\"<\/a>. Cryptomathic<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 April<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=THE+DIFFERENCE+BETWEEN+AN+ELECTRONIC+SIGNATURE+AND+A+DIGITAL+SIGNATURE&rft.pub=Cryptomathic&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Dawn+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomathic.com%2Fnews-events%2Fblog%2Fthe-difference-between-an-electronic-signature-and-a-digital-signature&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Turner-what-is-a-digsig-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Turner-what-is-a-digsig_33-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Turner-what-is-a-digsig_33-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Turner, Dawn. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cryptomathic.com\/news-events\/blog\/what-is-a-digital-signature-what-it-does-how-it-works\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is a digital signature - what it does, how it work\"<\/a>. Cryptomathic<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+a+digital+signature+-+what+it+does%2C+how+it+work&rft.pub=Cryptomathic&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Dawn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptomathic.com%2Fnews-events%2Fblog%2Fwhat-is-a-digital-signature-what-it-does-how-it-works&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OpenPGPAllianceReference-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-OpenPGPAllianceReference_34-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/openpgp.org\" target=\"_blank\">\"Welcome to The OpenPGP Alliance\"<\/a>. OpenPGP Alliance<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 January<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Welcome+to+The+OpenPGP+Alliance&rft.pub=OpenPGP+Alliance&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopenpgp.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ManikpuriBiometric17-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ManikpuriBiometric17_35-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Manikpuri, M.M. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Qrw6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Biometric Security Systems for Beginner<\/i><\/a>. Educreation Publishing. pp. 20\u201326. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781545708323<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biometric+Security+Systems+for+Beginner&rft.pages=20-26&rft.pub=Educreation+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781545708323&rft.au=Manikpuri%2C+M.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQrw6DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation conference\">Matsumoto (2002). \"Impact of artificial gummy fingers on fingerprint systems\". <i>Proceedings of SPIE<\/i>. pp. 275\u2013289. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.100.8172\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.100.8172<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Impact+of+artificial+gummy+fingers+on+fingerprint+systems&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+SPIE&rft.pages=275-289&rft.date=2002&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.100.8172&rft.au=Matsumoto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BkavBkav17-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BkavBkav17_37-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bkav.com\/news-in-focus\/-\/view_content\/content\/103968\/bkav%E2%80%99s-new-mask-beats-face-id-in-twin-way-severity-level-raised-do-not-use-face-id-in-business-transactions\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bkav's new mask beats Face ID in \"twin way\": Severity level raised, do not use Face ID in business transactions\"<\/a>. <i>News In Focus<\/i>. Bkav Corporation. 27 November 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=News+In+Focus&rft.atitle=Bkav%E2%80%99s+new+mask+beats+Face+ID+in+%22twin+way%22%3A+Severity+level+raised%2C+do+not+use+Face+ID+in+business+transactions&rft.date=2017-11-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bkav.com%2Fnews-in-focus%2F-%2Fview_content%2Fcontent%2F103968%2Fbkav%25E2%2580%2599s-new-mask-beats-face-id-in-twin-way-severity-level-raised-do-not-use-face-id-in-business-transactions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+signature\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Jeremiah S. Buckley, John P. Kromer, Margo H. K. Tank, and R. David Whitaker (2014). <i>The Law of Electronic Signatures<\/i>. 2014-2015 Edition, Thomson Reuters.<\/li>\n<li>Stephen Mason (2016). <i>Electronic Signatures in Law<\/i> (4th ed.). Institute of Advanced Legal Studies for the SAS Humanities Digital Library, School of Advanced Study, University of London. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-911507-00-0. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/humanities-digital-library.org\/index.php\/hdl\/catalog\/book\/electronicsignatures\" target=\"_blank\">Free PDF download<\/a> at Humanities Digital Library.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/information_society\/eeurope\/2005\/all_about\/security\/electronic_sig_report.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">E-Sign Final Report<\/a> (2005, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090408073109\/http:\/\/www.jsboard.co.uk\/publications\/digisigs\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Judicial Studies Board Digital Signature Guidelines<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/biometrics.gov\/Documents\/DynamicSig.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Dynamic signatures<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1251\nCached time: 20190326041517\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.544 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.690 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1808\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 58340\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 1087\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 3\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 100953\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 2\/400\nLua time usage: 0.342\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 15.98 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 589.691 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>51.83% 305.613 1 Template:Reflist\n33.17% 195.593 28 Template:Cite_web\n27.59% 162.721 3 Template:Es_icon\n27.16% 160.178 1 Template:Link_language\n 5.95% 35.071 1 Template:Authority_control\n 5.83% 34.354 1 Template:ISBN\n 4.46% 26.295 1 Template:Cite_conference\n 4.29% 25.312 1 Template:See_also\n 4.10% 24.178 1 Template:Category_handler\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:627040-1!canonical and timestamp 20190326041516 and revision id 889509697\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_signature\" data-key=\"d93c89da3c8f28e5d98d92e55b811ebe\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203004\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.014 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.160 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 150.279 1 - wikipedia:Electronic_signature\n100.00% 150.279 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10562-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203003 and revision id 33195\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_signature\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_signature<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/2b\/Digital_Signature_diagram.svg\/560px-Digital_Signature_diagram.svg.png"],"dd6997760552a80c6babaf1174c092f4_timestamp":1554323403,"4a3b86cba74bc7bb7471aa3fc2fcccc3_type":"article","4a3b86cba74bc7bb7471aa3fc2fcccc3_title":"Data visualization","4a3b86cba74bc7bb7471aa3fc2fcccc3_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_visualization","4a3b86cba74bc7bb7471aa3fc2fcccc3_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tData visualization\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\"Dataviz\" redirects here. For the software company, see DataViz.\nPart of a series on StatisticsData visualization\nMajor dimensions\nExploratory data analysis •  Information design\nInteractive data visualization\nDescriptive statistics •  Inferential statistics\nStatistical graphics •  Plot\nData analysis  •  Infographic\nData science\n\nImportant figures\nTamara Munzner  •  Ben Shneiderman  •  John W. Tukey  •  Edward Tufte  •  Fernanda Vi\u00e9gas  •  Hadley Wickham\n\nInformation graphic types\nLine chart  •  Bar chart\nHistogram •  Scatterplot\nBoxplot •  Pareto chart\nPie chart •  Area chart\nControl chart  •  Run chart\nStem-and-leaf display •  Cartogram\nSmall multiple •  Sparkline\nTable\n\nRelated topics\nData • Information\nBig data •  Database\nChartjunk •  Visual perception\nRegression analysis •  Statistical model\nMisleading graph\nvte\nData visualization is viewed by many disciplines as a modern equivalent of visual communication. It involves the creation and study of the visual representation of data.[1]\nTo communicate information clearly and efficiently, data visualization uses statistical graphics, plots, information graphics and other tools. Numerical data may be encoded using dots, lines, or bars, to visually communicate a quantitative message.[2] Effective visualization helps users analyze and reason about data and evidence. It makes complex data more accessible, understandable and usable. Users may have particular analytical tasks, such as making comparisons or understanding causality, and the design principle of the graphic (i.e., showing comparisons or showing causality) follows the task. Tables are generally used where users will look up a specific measurement, while charts of various types are used to show patterns or relationships in the data for one or more variables.\nData visualization is both an art and a science.[3] It is viewed as a branch of descriptive statistics by some, but also as a grounded theory development tool by others. Increased amounts of data created by Internet activity and an expanding number of sensors in the environment are referred to as \"big data\" or Internet of things. Processing, analyzing and communicating this data present ethical and analytical challenges for data visualization.[4] The field of data science and practitioners called data scientists help address this challenge.[5]\n\nContents \n\n1 Overview \n2 Characteristics of effective graphical displays \n3 Quantitative messages \n4 Visual perception and data visualization \n\n4.1 Human perception\/cognition and data visualization \n\n\n5 History of data visualization \n6 Terminology \n7 Examples of diagrams used for data visualization \n8 Other perspectives \n9 Data presentation architecture \n\n9.1 Objectives \n9.2 Scope \n9.3 Related fields \n\n\n10 See also \n11 Notes \n12 References \n13 Further reading \n14 External links \n\n\nOverview \n Data visualization is one of the steps in analyzing data and presenting it to users.\nData visualization refers to the techniques used to communicate data or information by encoding it as visual objects (e.g., points, lines or bars) contained in graphics. The goal is to communicate information clearly and efficiently to users. It is one of the steps in data analysis or data science. According to Friedman (2008) the \"main goal of data visualization is to communicate information clearly and effectively through graphical means. It doesn't mean that data visualization needs to look boring to be functional or extremely sophisticated to look beautiful. To convey ideas effectively, both aesthetic form and functionality need to go hand in hand, providing insights into a rather sparse and complex data set by communicating its key-aspects in a more intuitive way. Yet designers often fail to achieve a balance between form and function, creating gorgeous data visualizations which fail to serve their main purpose \u2014 to communicate information\".[6]\nIndeed, Fernanda Viegas and Martin M. Wattenberg suggested that an ideal visualization should not only communicate clearly, but stimulate viewer engagement and attention.[7]\nData visualization is closely related to information graphics, information visualization, scientific visualization, exploratory data analysis and statistical graphics. In the new millennium, data visualization has become an active area of research, teaching and development. According to Post et al. (2002), it has united scientific and information visualization.[8]\n\nCharacteristics of effective graphical displays \n Charles Joseph Minard's 1869 diagram of Napoleonic France's invasion of Russia, an early example of an information graphic\n\nThe greatest value of a picture is when it forces us to notice what we never expected to see.\nJohn Tukey[9]\n\n\nProfessor Edward Tufte explained that users of information displays are executing particular analytical tasks such as making comparisons. The design principle of the information graphic should support the analytical task.[10] As William Cleveland and Robert McGill show, different graphical elements accomplish this more or less effectively. For example, dot plots and bar charts outperform pie charts.[11]\nIn his 1983 book The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, Edward Tufte defines 'graphical displays' and principles for effective graphical display in the following passage:\n\"Excellence in statistical graphics consists of complex ideas communicated with clarity, precision and efficiency. Graphical displays should:\n\n<\/p>\nshow the data\ninduce the viewer to think about the substance rather than about methodology, graphic design, the technology of graphic production or something else\navoid distorting what the data has to say\npresent many numbers in a small space\nmake large data sets coherent\nencourage the eye to compare different pieces of data\nreveal the data at several levels of detail, from a broad overview to the fine structure\nserve a reasonably clear purpose: description, exploration, tabulation or decoration\nbe closely integrated with the statistical and verbal descriptions of a data set.\nGraphics reveal data. Indeed graphics can be more precise and revealing than conventional statistical computations.\"[12]\nFor example, the Minard diagram shows the losses suffered by Napoleon's army in the 1812\u20131813 period. Six variables are plotted: the size of the army, its location on a two-dimensional surface (x and y), time, direction of movement, and temperature. The line width illustrates a comparison (size of the army at points in time) while the temperature axis suggests a cause of the change in army size. This multivariate display on a two dimensional surface tells a story that can be grasped immediately while identifying the source data to build credibility. Tufte wrote in 1983 that: \"It may well be the best statistical graphic ever drawn.\"[12]\nNot applying these principles may result in misleading graphs, which distort the message or support an erroneous conclusion. According to Tufte, chartjunk refers to extraneous interior decoration of the graphic that does not enhance the message, or gratuitous three dimensional or perspective effects. Needlessly separating the explanatory key from the image itself, requiring the eye to travel back and forth from the image to the key, is a form of \"administrative debris.\" The ratio of \"data to ink\" should be maximized, erasing non-data ink where feasible.[12]\nThe Congressional Budget Office summarized several best practices for graphical displays in a June 2014 presentation. These included: a) Knowing your audience; b) Designing graphics that can stand alone outside the context of the report; and c) Designing graphics that communicate the key messages in the report.[13]\n\nQuantitative messages \n A time series illustrated with a line chart demonstrating trends in U.S. federal spending and revenue over time.\n A scatterplot illustrating negative correlation between two variables (inflation and unemployment) measured at points in time.\nAuthor Stephen Few described eight types of quantitative messages that users may attempt to understand or communicate from a set of data and the associated graphs used to help communicate the message:\n\nTime-series: A single variable is captured over a period of time, such as the unemployment rate over a 10-year period. A line chart may be used to demonstrate the trend.\nRanking: Categorical subdivisions are ranked in ascending or descending order, such as a ranking of sales performance (the measure) by sales persons (the category, with each sales person a categorical subdivision) during a single period. A bar chart may be used to show the comparison across the sales persons.\nPart-to-whole: Categorical subdivisions are measured as a ratio to the whole (i.e., a percentage out of 100%). A pie chart or bar chart can show the comparison of ratios, such as the market share represented by competitors in a market.\nDeviation: Categorical subdivisions are compared against a reference, such as a comparison of actual vs. budget expenses for several departments of a business for a given time period. A bar chart can show comparison of the actual versus the reference amount.\nFrequency distribution: Shows the number of observations of a particular variable for given interval, such as the number of years in which the stock market return is between intervals such as 0-10%, 11-20%, etc. A histogram, a type of bar chart, may be used for this analysis. A boxplot helps visualize key statistics about the distribution, such as median, quartiles, outliers, etc.\nCorrelation: Comparison between observations represented by two variables (X,Y) to determine if they tend to move in the same or opposite directions. For example, plotting unemployment (X) and inflation (Y) for a sample of months. A scatter plot is typically used for this message.\nNominal comparison: Comparing categorical subdivisions in no particular order, such as the sales volume by product code. A bar chart may be used for this comparison.\nGeographic or geospatial: Comparison of a variable across a map or layout, such as the unemployment rate by state or the number of persons on the various floors of a building. A cartogram is a typical graphic used.[2][14]\nAnalysts reviewing a set of data may consider whether some or all of the messages and graphic types above are applicable to their task and audience. The process of trial and error to identify meaningful relationships and messages in the data is part of exploratory data analysis.\n\nVisual perception and data visualization \nA human can distinguish differences in line length, shape, orientation, and color (hue) readily without significant processing effort; these are referred to as \"pre-attentive attributes\". For example, it may require significant time and effort (\"attentive processing\") to identify the number of times the digit \"5\" appears in a series of numbers; but if that digit is different in size, orientation, or color, instances of the digit can be noted quickly through pre-attentive processing.[15]\nEffective graphics take advantage of pre-attentive processing and attributes and the relative strength of these attributes. For example, since humans can more easily process differences in line length than surface area, it may be more effective to use a bar chart (which takes advantage of line length to show comparison) rather than pie charts (which use surface area to show comparison).[15]\n\n Human perception\/cognition and data visualization \nAlmost all data visualizations are created for human consumption. Knowledge of human perception and cognition is necessary when designing intuitive visualizations.[16] Cognition refers to processes in human beings like perception, attention, learning, memory, thought, concept formation, reading, and problem solving.[17] Human visual processing is efficient in detecting changes and making comparisons between quantities, sizes, shapes and variations in lightness. When properties of symbolic data are mapped to visual properties, humans can browse through large amounts of data efficiently. It is estimated that 2\/3 of the brain's neurons can be involved in visual processing. Proper visualization provides a different approach to show potential connections, relationships, etc. which are not as obvious in non-visualized quantitative data. Visualization can become a means of data exploration.\n\nHistory of data visualization \nThere is no comprehensive 'history' of data visualization. There are no accounts that span the entire development of visual thinking and the visual\nrepresentation of data, and which collate the contributions of disparate disciplines.[18] Michael Friendly and Daniel J Denis of York University are engaged in a project that attempts to provide a comprehensive history of visualization. Contrary to general belief, data visualization is not a modern development. Stellar data, or information such as location of stars were visualized on the walls of caves (such as those found in Lascaux Cave in Southern France) since the Pleistocene era.[19] Physical artefacts such as Mesopotamian clay tokens (5500 BC), Inca quipus (2600 BC) and Marshall Islands stick charts (n.d.) can also be considered as visualizing quantitative information.[20][21]\nFirst documented data visualization can be tracked back to 1160 B.C. with Turin Papyrus Map which accurately illustrates the distribution of geological resources and provides information about quarrying of those resources.[22] Such maps can be categorized as Thematic Cartography, which is a type of data visualization that presents and communicates specific data and information through a geographical illustration designed to show a particular theme connected with a specific geographic area. Earliest documented forms of data visualization were various thematic maps from different cultures and ideograms and hieroglyphs that provided and allowed interpretation of information illustrated. For example, Linear B tablets of Mycenae provided a visualization of information regarding Late Bronze Age era trades in the Mediterranean. The idea of coordinates was used by ancient Egyptian surveyors in laying out towns, earthly and heavenly positions were located by something akin to latitude and longitude at least by 200 BC, and the map projection of a spherical earth into latitude and longitude by Claudius Ptolemy [c.85\u2013c. 165] in Alexandria would serve as reference standards until the 14th century.[22]\n\nInvention of paper and parchment allowed further development of visualizations throughout history. Figure shows a graph from the 10th, possibly 11th century that is intended to be an illustration of the planetary movement, used in an appendix of a textbook in monastery schools.[23] The graph apparently was meant to represent a plot of the inclinations of the planetary orbits as a function of the time. For this purpose the zone of the zodiac was represented on a plane with a horizontal line divided into thirty parts as the time or longitudinal axis. The vertical axis designates the width of the zodiac. The horizontal scale appears to have been chosen for each planet individually for the periods cannot be reconciled. The accompanying text refers only to the amplitudes. The curves are apparently not related in time. Planetary Movements\nBy the 16th century, techniques and instruments for precise observation and measurement of physical quantities, and geographic and celestial position were well-developed (for example, a \u201cwall quadrant\u201d constructed by Tycho Brahe [1546\u20131601], covering an entire wall in his observatory). Particularly important were the development of triangulation and other methods to determine mapping locations accurately.[18]\n\nFrench philosopher and mathematician Ren\u00e9 Descartes and Pierre de Fermat developed analytic geometry and two-dimensional coordinate system which heavily influenced the practical methods of displaying and calculating values. Fermat and Blaise Pascal's work on statistics and probability theory laid the groundwork for what we now conceptualize as data.[18] According to the Interaction Design Foundation, these developments allowed and helped William Playfair, who saw potential for graphical communication of quantitative data, to generate and develop graphical methods of statistics.[16] Playfair TimeSeries In the second half of the 20th century, Jacques Bertin used quantitative graphs to represent information \"intuitively, clearly, accurately, and efficiently\".[16]\nJohn Tukey and Edward Tufte pushed the bounds of data visualization; Tukey with his new statistical approach of exploratory data analysis and Tufte with his book \"The Visual Display of Quantitative Information\" paved the way for refining data visualization techniques for more than statisticians. With the progression of technology came the progression of data visualization; starting with hand drawn visualizations and evolving into more technical applications \u2013 including interactive designs leading to software visualization.[24]\nPrograms like SAS, SOFA, R, Minitab, Cornerstone and more allow for data visualization in the field of statistics. Other data visualization applications, more focused and unique to individuals, programming languages such as D3, Python and JavaScript help to make the visualization of quantitative data a possibility. Private schools have also developed programs to meet the demand for learning data visualization and associated programming libraries, including free programs like The Data Incubator or paid programs like General Assembly.[25]\n\nTerminology \nData visualization involves specific terminology, some of which is derived from statistics. For example, author Stephen Few defines two types of data, which are used in combination to support a meaningful analysis or visualization:\n\nCategorical: Text labels describing the nature of the data, such as \"Name\" or \"Age\". This term also covers qualitative (non-numerical) data.\nQuantitative: Numerical measures, such as \"25\" to represent the age in years.\nTwo primary types of information displays are tables and graphs.\n\nA table contains quantitative data organized into rows and columns with categorical labels. It is primarily used to look up specific values. In the example above, the table might have categorical column labels representing the name (a qualitative variable) and age (a quantitative variable), with each row of data representing one person (the sampled experimental unit or category subdivision).\nA graph is primarily used to show relationships among data and portrays values encoded as visual objects (e.g., lines, bars, or points). Numerical values are displayed within an area delineated by one or more axes. These axes provide scales (quantitative and categorical) used to label and assign values to the visual objects. Many graphs are also referred to as charts.[26]\nEppler and Lengler have developed the \"Periodic Table of Visualization Methods,\" an interactive chart displaying various data visualization methods. It includes six types of data visualization methods: data, information, concept, strategy, metaphor and compound.[27]\n\nExamples of diagrams used for data visualization \n\n\n\n\nName\n\nVisual Dimensions\n\nExample Usages\n\n\n Bar chart of tips by day of week\n\nBar chart\n\n\nlength\/count\ncategory\n(color)\n\n\nComparison of values, such as sales performance for several persons or businesses in a single time period. For a single variable measured over time (trend) a line chart is preferable.\n\n\n\n Histogram of housing prices\n\nHistogram\n\n\nbin limits\ncount\/length\n(color)\n\n\nDetermining frequency of annual stock market percentage returns within particular ranges (bins) such as 0-10%, 11-20%, etc. The height of the bar represents the number of observations (years) with a return % in the range represented by the bin.\n\n\n\n Basic scatterplot of two variables\n\nScatter plot\n\n\nx position\ny position\n(symbol\/glyph)\n(color)\n(size)\n\n\nDetermining the relationship (e.g., correlation) between unemployment (x) and inflation (y) for multiple time periods.\n\n\n\n Scatter Plot\n\nScatter plot (3D)\n\n\nposition x\nposition y\nposition z\ncolor\n\n\n\n\n Network Analysis\n\nNetwork\n\n\nnodes size\nnodes color\nties thickness\nties color\nspatialization\n\n\nFinding clusters in the network (e.g. grouping Facebook friends into different clusters).\nDiscovering bridges (information brokers or boundary spanners) between clusters in the network\nDetermining the most influential nodes in the network (e.g. A company wants to target a small group of people on Twitter for a marketing campaign).\nFinding outlier actors who do not fit into any cluster or are in the periphery of a network.\n\n\n Streamgraph\n\nStreamgraph\n\n\nwidth\ncolor\ntime (flow)\n\n\n Treemap\n\nTreemap\n\n\nsize\ncolor\n\n\ndisk space by location \/ file type\n\n\n Gantt Chart\n\nGantt chart\n\n\ncolor\ntime (flow)\n\n\nschedule \/ progress, e.g. in project planning\n\n\n Heat map\n\nHeat map\n\n\nrow\ncolumn\ncluster\ncolor\n\n\nAnalyzing risk, with green, yellow and red representing low, medium, and high risk, respectively.\n\n\nOther perspectives \nThere are different approaches on the scope of data visualization. One common focus is on information presentation, such as Friedman (2008). Friendly (2008) presumes two main parts of data visualization: statistical graphics, and thematic cartography.[1] In this line the \"Data Visualization: Modern Approaches\" (2007) article gives an overview of seven subjects of data visualization:[28]\n\nArticles & resources\nDisplaying connections\nDisplaying data\nDisplaying news\nDisplaying websites\nMind maps\nTools and services\nAll these subjects are closely related to graphic design and information representation.\nOn the other hand, from a computer science perspective, Frits H. Post in 2002 categorized the field into sub-fields:[8][29]\n\nInformation visualization\nInteraction techniques and architectures\nModelling techniques\nMultiresolution methods\nVisualization algorithms and techniques\nVolume visualization\nData presentation architecture \n A data visualization from social media\nData presentation architecture (DPA) is a skill-set that seeks to identify, locate, manipulate, format and present data in such a way as to optimally communicate meaning and proper knowledge.\nHistorically, the term data presentation architecture is attributed to Kelly Lautt:[a] \"Data Presentation Architecture (DPA) is a rarely applied skill set critical for the success and value of Business Intelligence. Data presentation architecture weds the science of numbers, data and statistics in discovering valuable information from data and making it usable, relevant and actionable with the arts of data visualization, communications, organizational psychology and change management in order to provide business intelligence solutions with the data scope, delivery timing, format and visualizations that will most effectively support and drive operational, tactical and strategic behaviour toward understood business (or organizational) goals. DPA is neither an IT nor a business skill set but exists as a separate field of expertise. Often confused with data visualization, data presentation architecture is a much broader skill set that includes determining what data on what schedule and in what exact format is to be presented, not just the best way to present data that has already been chosen. Data visualization skills are one element of DPA.\"\n\nObjectives \nDPA has two main objectives:\n\nTo use data to provide knowledge in the most efficient manner possible (minimize noise, complexity, and unnecessary data or detail given each audience's needs and roles)\nTo use data to provide knowledge in the most effective manner possible (provide relevant, timely and complete data to each audience member in a clear and understandable manner that conveys important meaning, is actionable and can affect understanding, behavior and decisions)\nScope \nWith the above objectives in mind, the actual work of data presentation architecture consists of:\n\nCreating effective delivery mechanisms for each audience member depending on their role, tasks, locations and access to technology\nDefining important meaning (relevant knowledge) that is needed by each audience member in each context\nDetermining the required periodicity of data updates (the currency of the data)\nDetermining the right timing for data presentation (when and how often the user needs to see the data)\nFinding the right data (subject area, historical reach, breadth, level of detail, etc.)\nUtilizing appropriate analysis, grouping, visualization, and other presentation formats\nRelated fields \nDPA work shares commonalities with several other fields, including:\n\nBusiness analysis in determining business goals, collecting requirements, mapping processes.\nBusiness process improvement in that its goal is to improve and streamline actions and decisions in furtherance of business goals\nData visualization in that it uses well-established theories of visualization to add or highlight meaning or importance in data presentation.\nInformation architecture, but information architecture's focus is on unstructured data and therefore excludes both analysis (in the statistical\/data sense) and direct transformation of the actual content (data, for DPA) into new entities and combinations.\nHCI and interaction design, since the many of the principles in how to design interactive data visualisation have been developed cross-disciplinary with HCI.\nVisual journalism and data-driven journalism or data journalism: Visual journalism is concerned with all types of graphic facilitation of the telling of news stories, and data-driven and data journalism are not necessarily told with data visualisation. Nevertheless, the field of journalism are at the forefront in developing new data visualisations to communicate data.\nGraphic design, conveying information through styling, typography, position, and other aesthetic concerns.\nSee also \n\nAnalytics\nBalanced scorecard\nBig Data\nBusiness analysis\nBusiness intelligence\nData analysis\nData art\nData profiling\nData science\nData storytelling\nData warehouse\nExploratory data analysis\nInfographic\nInformation architecture\nInformation design\nInformation visualization\nInteraction design\nInteraction techniques\nScientific visualization\nSoftware visualization\nStatistical analysis\nStatistical graphics\nVisual analytics\nVisual journalism\n\nNotes \n\n\n^ The first formal, recorded, public usages of the term data presentation architecture were at the three formal Microsoft Office 2007 Launch events in Dec, Jan and Feb of 2007\u201308 in Edmonton, Calgary and Vancouver (Canada) in a presentation by Kelly Lautt describing a business intelligence system designed to improve service quality in a pulp and paper company. The term was further used and recorded in public usage on December 16, 2009 in a Microsoft Canada presentation on the value of merging Business Intelligence with corporate collaboration processes. \n\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b Michael Friendly (2008). \"Milestones in the history of thematic cartography, statistical graphics, and data visualization\". \n\n^ a b \"Stephen Few-Perceptual Edge-Selecting the Right Graph for Your Message-2004\" (PDF) . \n\n^ Manuela Aparicio and Carlos J. Costa (November 2014). \"Data visualization\". Communication Design Quarterly Review. 3 (1): 7\u201311. doi:10.1145\/2721882.2721883. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) \n\n^ Nikos Bikaks (2018) \"Big Data Visualization Tools\" Encyclopedia of Big Data Technologies, Springer 2018. \n\n^ Press, Gil. \"A Very Short History Of Data Science\". \n\n^ Vitaly Friedman (2008) \"Data Visualization and Infographics\" in: Graphics, Monday Inspiration, January 14th, 2008. \n\n^ Fernanda Viegas and Martin Wattenberg (April 19, 2011). \"How To Make Data Look Sexy\". CNN.com. Archived from the original on May 6, 2011. Retrieved May 7, 2017 . CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) \n\n^ a b Frits H. Post, Gregory M. Nielson and Georges-Pierre Bonneau (2002). Data Visualization: The State of the Art. Research paper TU delft, 2002. Archived 2009-10-07 at the Wayback Machine. \n\n^ Tukey, John (1977). Exploratory Data Analysis. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-07616-0. \n\n^ techatstate (7 August 2013). \"Tech@State: Data Visualization - Keynote by Dr Edward Tufte\" – via YouTube. \n\n^ [1] \n\n^ a b c Tufte, Edward (1983). The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Cheshire, Connecticut: Graphics Press. ISBN 0-9613921-4-2. \n\n^ \"Telling Visual Stories About Data - Congressional Budget Office\". www.cbo.gov. \n\n^ \"Stephen Few-Perceptual Edge-Graph Selection Matrix\" (PDF) . \n\n^ a b \"Steven Few-Tapping the Power of Visual Perception-September 2004\" (PDF) . \n\n^ a b c \"Data Visualization for Human Perception\". The Interaction Design Foundation. Retrieved 2015-11-23 . \n\n^ \"Visualization\" (PDF) . SFU. SFU lecture. Retrieved 2015-11-22 . \n\n^ a b c Friendly, Michael. \"A Brief History of Data Visualization\". Springer-Verlag. Retrieved 19 November 2017 . \n\n^ Whitehouse, D. (9 August 2000). \"Ice Age star map discovered\". BBC News. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Dragicevic, Pierre; Jansen, Yvonne (2012). \"List of Physical Visualizations and Related Artefacts\". Retrieved 2018-01-12 . \n\n^ Jansen, Yvonne; Dragicevic, Pierre; Isenberg, Petra; Alexander, Jason; Karnik, Abhijit; Kildal, Johan; Subramanian, Sriram; Hornbaek, Kasper (2015). \"Opportunities and challenges for data physicalization\". Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems: 3227\u20133236. \n\n^ a b Friendly, Michael (2001). \"Milestones in the history of thematic cartography, statistical graphics, and data visualization\". Retrieved 2017-11-19 . \n\n^ Funkhouser, Howard Gray (Jan 1936). \"A Note on a Tenth Century Graph\". Osiris. 1: 260\u2013262. doi:10.1086\/368425. JSTOR 301609. \n\n^ Friendly, Michael (2006). \"A Brief History of Data Visualization\" (PDF) . York University. Springer-Verlag. Retrieved 2015-11-22 . \n\n^ \"NY gets new boot camp for data scientists: It's free but harder to get into than Harvard\". Venture Beat. Retrieved 2016-02-21 . \n\n^ \"Steven Few-Selecting the Right Graph for Your Message-September 2004\" (PDF) . \n\n^ Lengler, Ralph; Eppler, Martin. J. \"Periodic Table of Visualization Methods\". www.visual-literacy.org. Retrieved 15 March 2013 . \n\n^ \"Data Visualization: Modern Approaches\". in: Graphics, August 2nd, 2007 \n\n^ Frits H. Post, Gregory M. Nielson and Georges-Pierre Bonneau (2002). Data Visualization: The State of the Art Archived 2009-10-07 at the Wayback Machine. \n\n\nFurther reading \nCleveland, William S. (1993). Visualizing Data. Hobart Press. ISBN 0-9634884-0-6. \nEvergreen, Stephanie (2016). Effective Data Visualization: The Right Chart for the Right Data. Sage. ISBN 978-1-5063-0305-5. \nPost, Frits H.; Nielson, Gregory M.; Bonneau, Georges-Pierre (2003). Data Visualization: The State of the Art. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4613-5430-7. \nWilke, Claus O. (2018). Fundamentals of Data Visualization. O'Reilly. ISBN 978-1-4920-3108-6. \nWilkinson, Leland (2012). Grammar of Graphics. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-2033-1. \nExternal links \n\n\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Data visualization.\nMilestones in the History of Thematic Cartography, Statistical Graphics, and Data Visualization, An illustrated chronology of innovations by Michael Friendly and Daniel J. Denis.\nDuke University-Christa Kelleher Presentation-Communicating through infographics-visualizing scientific & engineering information-March 6, 2015\nvteVisualization of technical informationFields\nBiological data visualization\nChemical imaging\nCrime mapping\nData visualization\nEducational visualization\nFlow visualization\nGeovisualization\nInformation visualization\nMathematical visualization\nMedical imaging\nMolecular graphics\nProduct visualization\nScientific visualization\nSoftware visualization\nTechnical drawing\nUser interface design\nVisual culture\nVolume visualization\nImage types\nChart\nDiagram\nEngineering drawing\nGraph of a function\nIdeogram\nMap\nPhotograph\nPictogram\nPlot\nSchematic\nSkeletal formula\nStatistical graphics\nTable\nTechnical drawings\nTechnical illustration\nUser interface\nPeople\nJacques Bertin\nStuart Card\nThomas A. DeFanti\nMichael Friendly\nGeorge Furnas\nPat Hanrahan\nNigel Holmes\nChristopher R. Johnson\nGordon Kindlmann\nAugust Kekul\u00e9\nManuel Lima\nAlan MacEachren\nJock D. Mackinlay\nMichael Maltz\nBruce H. McCormick\nMiriah Meyer\nCharles Joseph Minard\nRudolf Modley\nGaspard Monge\nTamara Munzner\nOtto Neurath\nFlorence Nightingale\nHanspeter Pfister\nClifford A. Pickover\nWilliam Playfair\nKarl Wilhelm Pohlke\nAdolphe Quetelet\nGeorge G. Robertson\nArthur H. Robinson\nLawrence J. Rosenblum\nBen Shneiderman\nFraser Stoddart\nEdward Tufte\nFernanda Vi\u00e9gas\nAde Olufeko\nHoward Wainer\nMartin Wattenberg\nBang Wong\nRelated topics\nCartography\nChartjunk\nComputer graphics\nin computer science\nGraph drawing\nGraphic design\nGraphic organizer\nImaging science\nInformation graphics\nInformation science\nMental visualisation\nMisleading graph\nNeuroimaging\nPatent drawing\nScientific modelling\nSpatial analysis\nVisual analytics\nVisual perception\nVolume cartography\nVolume rendering\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_visualization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_visualization<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Big dataInformaticsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 26 January 2018, at 01:27.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 1,525 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","4a3b86cba74bc7bb7471aa3fc2fcccc3_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_visualization skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data visualization<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"Dataviz\" redirects here. For the software company, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DataViz\" title=\"DataViz\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"498e226a03189129e4b2056c54f498c3\">DataViz<\/a>.<\/div>\n\n<p><b>Data visualization<\/b> is viewed by many disciplines as a modern equivalent of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visual_communication\" title=\"Visual communication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f76679c62369a0ccbcb8d6ca3172826\">visual communication<\/a>. It involves the creation and study of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visual_system\" title=\"Visual system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c721081b3a69afdd50fbc26ce2eb9c5b\">visual<\/a> representation of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MF08_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MF08-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>To communicate information clearly and efficiently, data visualization uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_graphics\" title=\"Statistical graphics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd16ccce765f1afc8a732df4eddc6be3\">statistical graphics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plot_(graphics)\" title=\"Plot (graphics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6294ea37b3f8b16c00c03125d1c85cd\">plots<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infographic\" title=\"Infographic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44e610a285ac7bf220d0c2341d0b4126\">information graphics<\/a> and other tools. Numerical data may be encoded using dots, lines, or bars, to visually communicate a quantitative message.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReferenceA_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReferenceA-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Effective visualization helps users analyze and reason about data and evidence. It makes complex data more accessible, understandable and usable. Users may have particular analytical tasks, such as making comparisons or understanding <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Causality\" title=\"Causality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d308e90367f67293ad5ece1c384b8de\">causality<\/a>, and the design principle of the graphic (i.e., showing comparisons or showing causality) follows the task. Tables are generally used where users will look up a specific measurement, while charts of various types are used to show patterns or relationships in the data for one or more variables.\n<\/p><p>Data visualization is both an art and a science.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> It is viewed as a branch of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Descriptive_statistics\" title=\"Descriptive statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ed440c9b335f031feb0de193efc6fea\">descriptive statistics<\/a> by some, but also as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grounded_theory\" title=\"Grounded theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"beac6d4b74a1d3ea79e85f7c828b1a55\">grounded theory<\/a> development tool by others. Increased amounts of data created by Internet activity and an expanding number of sensors in the environment are referred to as \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_data\" title=\"Big data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e130d519686c4edbc43ee36a686a3d0a\">big data<\/a>\" or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_of_things\" title=\"Internet of things\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08e522f905854fe34747cc25ffb62f63\">Internet of things<\/a>. Processing, analyzing and communicating this data present ethical and analytical challenges for data visualization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> The field of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_science\" title=\"Data science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ca3033a747d64b89d986a08df1bf310\">data science<\/a> and practitioners called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_scientists\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data scientists\" data-key=\"63a5daa4287a82694138ae190d722fb9\">data scientists<\/a> help address this challenge.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Overview\">Overview<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:352px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Data_visualization_process_v1.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"57fafbefabe26d7e911fa28dd60d3066\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/ba\/Data_visualization_process_v1.png\/350px-Data_visualization_process_v1.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"350\" height=\"263\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Data_visualization_process_v1.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"57fafbefabe26d7e911fa28dd60d3066\"><\/a><\/div>Data visualization is one of the steps in analyzing data and presenting it to users.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Data visualization refers to the techniques used to communicate data or information by encoding it as visual objects (e.g., points, lines or bars) contained in graphics. The goal is to communicate information clearly and efficiently to users. It is one of the steps in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe81497dd8621498e1de0a68d203fd37\">data analysis<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_science\" title=\"Data science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ca3033a747d64b89d986a08df1bf310\">data science<\/a>. According to Friedman (2008) the \"main goal of data visualization is to communicate information clearly and effectively through graphical means. It doesn't mean that data visualization needs to look boring to be functional or extremely sophisticated to look beautiful. To convey ideas effectively, both aesthetic form and functionality need to go hand in hand, providing insights into a rather sparse and complex data set by communicating its key-aspects in a more intuitive way. Yet designers often fail to achieve a balance between form and function, creating gorgeous data visualizations which fail to serve their main purpose \u2014 to communicate information\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Indeed, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fernanda_Viegas\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fernanda Viegas\" data-key=\"b7d79c4d28aa6d8186ec0d7394d21fee\">Fernanda Viegas<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Martin_M._Wattenberg\" title=\"Martin M. Wattenberg\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"299bce02d7360c6bc098f4105a858e2a\">Martin M. Wattenberg<\/a> suggested that an ideal visualization should not only communicate clearly, but stimulate viewer engagement and attention.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Data visualization is closely related to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_graphics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information graphics\" data-key=\"255e58399f66cf4c91ee40f60cff8890\">information graphics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_visualization\" title=\"Information visualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"470dd3dc6568025f97d2b1a4d84bfa30\">information visualization<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_visualization\" title=\"Scientific visualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"821153ae69e6fee5db90a340ef0fa346\">scientific visualization<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploratory_data_analysis\" title=\"Exploratory data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c528c5090304a5d47c36b6c6451163\">exploratory data analysis<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_graphics\" title=\"Statistical graphics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd16ccce765f1afc8a732df4eddc6be3\">statistical graphics<\/a>. In the new millennium, data visualization has become an active area of research, teaching and development. According to Post et al. (2002), it has united scientific and information visualization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FHP02_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FHP02-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Characteristics_of_effective_graphical_displays\">Characteristics of effective graphical displays<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:352px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Minard.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"a62de3d10e26d5f8c8efd05bd2a40860\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/29\/Minard.png\/350px-Minard.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"350\" height=\"167\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Minard.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"a62de3d10e26d5f8c8efd05bd2a40860\"><\/a><\/div><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charles_Joseph_Minard\" title=\"Charles Joseph Minard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b35b416a06f029b7bcb591f9efdc54c\">Charles Joseph Minard<\/a>'s 1869 diagram of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/French_invasion_of_Russia\" title=\"French invasion of Russia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a99f825e772ed594cb17638259a1795\">Napoleonic France's invasion of Russia<\/a>, an early example of an information graphic<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"quotebox pullquote floatright\" style=\"width:300px; ;\">\n<div class=\"quotebox-quote left-aligned\" style=\"\">The greatest value of a picture is when it forces us to notice what we never expected to see.<\/div>\n<p><cite class=\"left-aligned\" style=\"\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Tukey\" title=\"John Tukey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86034d57ea6f01f8ccf80a3164d52949\">John Tukey<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tukey1977_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tukey1977-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><\/cite>\n<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Professor <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_Tufte\" title=\"Edward Tufte\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25b08cd23d77c100150453a3a6c1f1f4\">Edward Tufte<\/a> explained that users of information displays are executing particular <i>analytical tasks<\/i> such as making comparisons. The <i>design principle<\/i> of the information graphic should support the analytical task.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> As William Cleveland and Robert McGill show, different graphical elements accomplish this more or less effectively. For example, dot plots and bar charts outperform pie charts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In his 1983 book <i>The Visual Display of Quantitative Information<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edward_Tufte\" title=\"Edward Tufte\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25b08cd23d77c100150453a3a6c1f1f4\">Edward Tufte<\/a> defines 'graphical displays' and principles for effective graphical display in the following passage:\n<p>\"Excellence in statistical graphics consists of complex ideas communicated with clarity, precision and efficiency. Graphical displays should:\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>show the data<\/li>\n<li>induce the viewer to think about the substance rather than about methodology, graphic design, the technology of graphic production or something else<\/li>\n<li>avoid distorting what the data has to say<\/li>\n<li>present many numbers in a small space<\/li>\n<li>make large data sets coherent<\/li>\n<li>encourage the eye to compare different pieces of data<\/li>\n<li>reveal the data at several levels of detail, from a broad overview to the fine structure<\/li>\n<li>serve a reasonably clear purpose: description, exploration, tabulation or decoration<\/li>\n<li>be closely integrated with the statistical and verbal descriptions of a data set.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Graphics <i>reveal<\/i> data. Indeed graphics can be more precise and revealing than conventional statistical computations.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tufte1983_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tufte1983-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>For example, the Minard diagram shows the losses suffered by Napoleon's army in the 1812\u20131813 period. Six variables are plotted: the size of the army, its location on a two-dimensional surface (x and y), time, direction of movement, and temperature. The line width illustrates a comparison (size of the army at points in time) while the temperature axis suggests a cause of the change in army size. This multivariate display on a two dimensional surface tells a story that can be grasped immediately while identifying the source data to build credibility. Tufte wrote in 1983 that: \"It may well be the best statistical graphic ever drawn.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tufte1983_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tufte1983-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Not applying these principles may result in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Misleading_graphs\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Misleading graphs\" data-key=\"901b24ff754785df9d961f854f68475c\">misleading graphs<\/a>, which distort the message or support an erroneous conclusion. According to Tufte, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chartjunk\" title=\"Chartjunk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4318aab164f841ac1765282426331d5b\">chartjunk<\/a> refers to extraneous interior decoration of the graphic that does not enhance the message, or gratuitous three dimensional or perspective effects. Needlessly separating the explanatory key from the image itself, requiring the eye to travel back and forth from the image to the key, is a form of \"administrative debris.\" The ratio of \"data to ink\" should be maximized, erasing non-data ink where feasible.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Tufte1983_12-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Tufte1983-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Congressional_Budget_Office\" title=\"Congressional Budget Office\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e35158c7014ec1497df17c7f3638248\">Congressional Budget Office<\/a> summarized several best practices for graphical displays in a June 2014 presentation. These included: a) Knowing your audience; b) Designing graphics that can stand alone outside the context of the report; and c) Designing graphics that communicate the key messages in the report.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quantitative_messages\">Quantitative messages<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:252px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Total_Revenues_and_Outlays_as_Percent_GDP_2013.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"509ae7f6b84ab3a7e9c47ad17f019a21\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fb\/Total_Revenues_and_Outlays_as_Percent_GDP_2013.png\/250px-Total_Revenues_and_Outlays_as_Percent_GDP_2013.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"250\" height=\"118\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Total_Revenues_and_Outlays_as_Percent_GDP_2013.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"509ae7f6b84ab3a7e9c47ad17f019a21\"><\/a><\/div>A time series illustrated with a line chart demonstrating trends in U.S. federal spending and revenue over time.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:252px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:U.S._Phillips_Curve_2000_to_2013.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8be5e4ea638ad27a1da7d404e64be2a\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7e\/U.S._Phillips_Curve_2000_to_2013.png\/250px-U.S._Phillips_Curve_2000_to_2013.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"250\" height=\"188\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:U.S._Phillips_Curve_2000_to_2013.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"b8be5e4ea638ad27a1da7d404e64be2a\"><\/a><\/div>A scatterplot illustrating negative correlation between two variables (inflation and unemployment) measured at points in time.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Author Stephen Few described eight types of quantitative messages that users may attempt to understand or communicate from a set of data and the associated graphs used to help communicate the message:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Time-series: A single variable is captured over a period of time, such as the unemployment rate over a 10-year period. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Line_chart\" title=\"Line chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a36b8d826ef3261874a9c4f9169d3826\">line chart<\/a> may be used to demonstrate the trend.<\/li>\n<li>Ranking: Categorical subdivisions are ranked in ascending or descending order, such as a ranking of sales performance (the <i>measure<\/i>) by sales persons (the <i>category<\/i>, with each sales person a <i>categorical subdivision<\/i>) during a single period. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bar_chart\" title=\"Bar chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab04c618b4d6401bf00b3f792368d070\">bar chart<\/a> may be used to show the comparison across the sales persons.<\/li>\n<li>Part-to-whole: Categorical subdivisions are measured as a ratio to the whole (i.e., a percentage out of 100%). A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pie_chart\" title=\"Pie chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a44e62276cdd450ec12e48c977514e0e\">pie chart<\/a> or bar chart can show the comparison of ratios, such as the market share represented by competitors in a market.<\/li>\n<li>Deviation: Categorical subdivisions are compared against a reference, such as a comparison of actual vs. budget expenses for several departments of a business for a given time period. A bar chart can show comparison of the actual versus the reference amount.<\/li>\n<li>Frequency distribution: Shows the number of observations of a particular variable for given interval, such as the number of years in which the stock market return is between intervals such as 0-10%, 11-20%, etc. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Histogram\" title=\"Histogram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48aef8539f0462f53d7ba1063d96879b\">histogram<\/a>, a type of bar chart, may be used for this analysis. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boxplot\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Boxplot\" data-key=\"f165bb689a2b5a73e4364216766f0d51\">boxplot<\/a> helps visualize key statistics about the distribution, such as median, quartiles, outliers, etc.<\/li>\n<li>Correlation: Comparison between observations represented by two variables (X,Y) to determine if they tend to move in the same or opposite directions. For example, plotting unemployment (X) and inflation (Y) for a sample of months. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scatter_plot\" title=\"Scatter plot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c01877b3fcfe4f14e522d15dfd0d9c75\">scatter plot<\/a> is typically used for this message.<\/li>\n<li>Nominal comparison: Comparing categorical subdivisions in no particular order, such as the sales volume by product code. A bar chart may be used for this comparison.<\/li>\n<li>Geographic or geospatial: Comparison of a variable across a map or layout, such as the unemployment rate by state or the number of persons on the various floors of a building. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cartogram\" title=\"Cartogram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9bc221ef9b6e79c33ee5505c6218419e\">cartogram<\/a> is a typical graphic used.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReferenceA_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReferenceA-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Analysts reviewing a set of data may consider whether some or all of the messages and graphic types above are applicable to their task and audience. The process of trial and error to identify meaningful relationships and messages in the data is part of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploratory_data_analysis\" title=\"Exploratory data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c528c5090304a5d47c36b6c6451163\">exploratory data analysis<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Visual_perception_and_data_visualization\">Visual perception and data visualization<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A human can distinguish differences in line length, shape, orientation, and color (hue) readily without significant processing effort; these are referred to as \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pre-attentive_processing\" title=\"Pre-attentive processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5de30f0d581e57f67a8fde26c1f71b2f\">pre-attentive attributes<\/a>\". For example, it may require significant time and effort (\"attentive processing\") to identify the number of times the digit \"5\" appears in a series of numbers; but if that digit is different in size, orientation, or color, instances of the digit can be noted quickly through pre-attentive processing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-perceptualedge.com_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-perceptualedge.com-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Effective graphics take advantage of pre-attentive processing and attributes and the relative strength of these attributes. For example, since humans can more easily process differences in line length than surface area, it may be more effective to use a bar chart (which takes advantage of line length to show comparison) rather than pie charts (which use surface area to show comparison).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-perceptualedge.com_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-perceptualedge.com-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Human_perception.2Fcognition_and_data_visualization\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Human_perception\/cognition_and_data_visualization\">Human perception\/cognition and data visualization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Almost all data visualizations are created for human consumption. Knowledge of human perception and cognition is necessary when designing intuitive visualizations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> Cognition refers to processes in human beings like perception, attention, learning, memory, thought, concept formation, reading, and problem solving.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> Human visual processing is efficient in detecting changes and making comparisons between quantities, sizes, shapes and variations in lightness. When properties of symbolic data are mapped to visual properties, humans can browse through large amounts of data efficiently. It is estimated that 2\/3 of the brain's neurons can be involved in visual processing. Proper visualization provides a different approach to show potential connections, relationships, etc. which are not as obvious in non-visualized quantitative data. Visualization can become a means of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_exploration\" title=\"Data exploration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a0d4272512352e9b72cef04794e292c\">data exploration<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_data_visualization\">History of data visualization<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>There is no comprehensive 'history' of data visualization. There are no accounts that span the entire development of visual thinking and the visual\nrepresentation of data, and which collate the contributions of disparate disciplines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Springer-Verlag_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Springer-Verlag-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> Michael Friendly and Daniel J Denis of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/York_University\" title=\"York University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8802016696f797b339bdbf89a5e9bb07\">York University<\/a> are engaged in a project that attempts to provide a comprehensive history of visualization. Contrary to general belief, data visualization is not a modern development. Stellar data, or information such as location of stars were visualized on the walls of caves (such as those found in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lascaux\" title=\"Lascaux\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1945c4e09770a4e0397a42b7703b4aa\">Lascaux Cave<\/a> in Southern France) since the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pleistocene\" title=\"Pleistocene\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ef2c7c71bc404539f4c0d0c555451ff\">Pleistocene<\/a> era.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WhitehouseIce00_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WhitehouseIce00-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> Physical artefacts such as Mesopotamian <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_ancient_numeral_systems#Clay_token\" title=\"History of ancient numeral systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b55a05d8da99364ad0be6de852b6b29a\">clay tokens<\/a> (5500 BC), Inca <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quipu\" title=\"Quipu\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84d9514706f8b148c84e271197ba1e0e\">quipus<\/a> (2600 BC) and Marshall Islands <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marshall_Islands_stick_chart\" title=\"Marshall Islands stick chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a48d416b2ef6d560a7cdfac2ddb0b2a4\">stick charts<\/a> (n.d.) can also be considered as visualizing quantitative information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Dragicevic_2012_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dragicevic_2012-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>First documented data visualization can be tracked back to 1160 B.C. with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Turin_Papyrus_Map\" title=\"Turin Papyrus Map\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e89cfe4e939eb21a34d186fbe2ce42eb\">Turin Papyrus Map<\/a> which accurately illustrates the distribution of geological resources and provides information about quarrying of those resources.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Friendly_2001_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Friendly_2001-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> Such maps can be categorized as Thematic Cartography, which is a type of data visualization that presents and communicates specific data and information through a geographical illustration designed to show a particular theme connected with a specific geographic area. Earliest documented forms of data visualization were various thematic maps from different cultures and ideograms and hieroglyphs that provided and allowed interpretation of information illustrated. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_B\" title=\"Linear B\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"68b4f9d889369492b180f4e4459532e0\">Linear B<\/a> tablets of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mycenae\" title=\"Mycenae\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ea837113ad07472134210e6fde2862d\">Mycenae<\/a> provided a visualization of information regarding Late Bronze Age era trades in the Mediterranean. The idea of coordinates was used by ancient Egyptian surveyors in laying out towns, earthly and heavenly positions were located by something akin to latitude and longitude at least by 200 BC, and the map projection of a spherical earth into latitude and longitude by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Claudius_Ptolemy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Claudius Ptolemy\" data-key=\"96f4183ff816f5448164c25016b93862\">Claudius Ptolemy<\/a> [c.85\u2013c. 165] in Alexandria would serve as reference standards until the 14th century.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Friendly_2001_22-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Friendly_2001-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>\nInvention of paper and parchment allowed further development of visualizations throughout history. Figure shows a graph from the 10th, possibly 11th century that is intended to be an illustration of the planetary movement, used in an appendix of a textbook in monastery schools.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FUNKHOUSER_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FUNKHOUSER-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> The graph apparently was meant to represent a plot of the inclinations of the planetary orbits as a function of the time. For this purpose the zone of the zodiac was represented on a plane with a horizontal line divided into thirty parts as the time or longitudinal axis. The vertical axis designates the width of the zodiac. The horizontal scale appears to have been chosen for each planet individually for the periods cannot be reconciled. The accompanying text refers only to the amplitudes. The curves are apparently not related in time. <\/p><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Planetary_Movements.gif\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"13834230fa7bcdfb02b29edf6d6a0cc7\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/12\/Planetary_Movements.gif\/220px-Planetary_Movements.gif\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"123\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Planetary_Movements.gif\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"13834230fa7bcdfb02b29edf6d6a0cc7\"><\/a><\/div>Planetary Movements<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>By the 16th century, techniques and instruments for precise observation and measurement of physical quantities, and geographic and celestial position were well-developed (for example, a \u201cwall quadrant\u201d constructed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tycho_Brahe\" title=\"Tycho Brahe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60c8d6173879be9ad3fb30912d567795\">Tycho Brahe<\/a> [1546\u20131601], covering an entire wall in his observatory). Particularly important were the development of triangulation and other methods to determine mapping locations accurately.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Springer-Verlag_18-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Springer-Verlag-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>\nFrench philosopher and mathematician <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes\" title=\"Ren\u00e9 Descartes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a2eeab9904221090ae2765bde07657c\">Ren\u00e9 Descartes<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pierre_de_Fermat\" title=\"Pierre de Fermat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a2d216a23e7cba6ef27c37a873b24570\">Pierre de Fermat<\/a> developed analytic geometry and two-dimensional coordinate system which heavily influenced the practical methods of displaying and calculating values. Fermat and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blaise_Pascal\" title=\"Blaise Pascal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24c7e259043e924fa172ae96dda73c3b\">Blaise Pascal<\/a>'s work on statistics and probability theory laid the groundwork for what we now conceptualize as data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Springer-Verlag_18-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Springer-Verlag-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> According to the Interaction Design Foundation, these developments allowed and helped William <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/William_Playfair\" title=\"William Playfair\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33049df50a27edd10db5a6b64d8f66af\">Playfair<\/a>, who saw potential for graphical communication of quantitative data, to generate and develop graphical methods of statistics.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_16-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> <\/p><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Playfair_TimeSeries.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"18781ea18714e4f36cfc19b6d5999c79\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d8\/Playfair_TimeSeries.png\/220px-Playfair_TimeSeries.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"163\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Playfair_TimeSeries.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"18781ea18714e4f36cfc19b6d5999c79\"><\/a><\/div>Playfair TimeSeries<\/div><\/div><\/div><p> In the second half of the 20th century, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jacques_Bertin\" title=\"Jacques Bertin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e79569879ee43c9a719bcb5874be66d9\">Jacques Bertin<\/a> used quantitative graphs to represent information \"intuitively, clearly, accurately, and efficiently\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:0_16-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:0-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>John Tukey and Edward Tufte pushed the bounds of data visualization; Tukey with his new statistical approach of exploratory data analysis and Tufte with his book \"The Visual Display of Quantitative Information\" paved the way for refining data visualization techniques for more than statisticians. With the progression of technology came the progression of data visualization; starting with hand drawn visualizations and evolving into more technical applications \u2013 including interactive designs leading to software visualization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Programs like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SAS_(software)\" title=\"SAS (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ea0e095344493088cdaf2af3f6a2b9e\">SAS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SOFA_Statistics\" title=\"SOFA Statistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f3363002efcc10a8f49f95d1dbb10ec\">SOFA<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/R_(programming_language)\" title=\"R (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a8b10cb90b0f5b4c7dd2d246fda099e\">R<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Minitab\" title=\"Minitab\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"434bcb15eb9edca355af339c1a099b64\">Minitab<\/a>, Cornerstone and more allow for data visualization in the field of statistics. Other data visualization applications, more focused and unique to individuals, programming languages such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/D3.js\" title=\"D3.js\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7a5fa712cfd1a60c84e0a5d7fbfe95b\">D3<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Python_(programming_language)\" title=\"Python (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f46180939245bdafa4d5be32df12a34\">Python<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JavaScript\" title=\"JavaScript\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71f33eac8a93feb52a8918610e80030e\">JavaScript<\/a> help to make the visualization of quantitative data a possibility. Private schools have also developed programs to meet the demand for learning data visualization and associated programming libraries, including free programs like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Data_Incubator\" title=\"The Data Incubator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a55cdf54b4f0cf68d9ca26470ef7733\">The Data Incubator<\/a> or paid programs like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Assembly\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"General Assembly\" data-key=\"279c9cbc81ccf245f45a0e2fa5ec3474\">General Assembly<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Terminology\">Terminology<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Data visualization involves specific terminology, some of which is derived from statistics. For example, author Stephen Few defines two types of data, which are used in combination to support a meaningful analysis or visualization:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Categorical: Text labels describing the nature of the data, such as \"Name\" or \"Age\". This term also covers qualitative (non-numerical) data.<\/li>\n<li>Quantitative: Numerical measures, such as \"25\" to represent the age in years.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Two primary types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_graphics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information graphics\" data-key=\"255e58399f66cf4c91ee40f60cff8890\">information displays<\/a> are tables and graphs.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>A <i>table<\/i> contains quantitative data organized into rows and columns with categorical labels. It is primarily used to look up specific values. In the example above, the table might have categorical column labels representing the name (a <i>qualitative variable<\/i>) and age (a <i>quantitative variable<\/i>), with each row of data representing one person (the sampled <i>experimental unit<\/i> or <i>category subdivision<\/i>).<\/li>\n<li>A <i>graph<\/i> is primarily used to show relationships among data and portrays values encoded as <i>visual objects<\/i> (e.g., lines, bars, or points). Numerical values are displayed within an area delineated by one or more <i>axes<\/i>. These axes provide <i>scales<\/i> (quantitative and categorical) used to label and assign values to the visual objects. Many graphs are also referred to as <i>charts<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Eppler and Lengler have developed the \"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.visual-literacy.org\/periodic_table\/periodic_table.html\" target=\"_blank\">Periodic Table of Visualization Methods<\/a>,\" an interactive chart displaying various data visualization methods. It includes six types of data visualization methods: data, information, concept, strategy, metaphor and compound.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Examples_of_diagrams_used_for_data_visualization\">Examples of diagrams used for data visualization<\/span><\/h2>\n<table cellpadding=\"20\" style=\"\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<th width=\"220\">\n<\/th>\n<th width=\"120\" style=\"text-align:left;\">Name\n<\/th>\n<th width=\"220\" style=\"text-align:left;\">Visual Dimensions\n<\/th>\n<th width=\"300\" style=\"text-align:left;\">Example Usages\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Tips-day-barchart.pdf\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"b946efe7e2def7208186ed997626e999\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/43\/Tips-day-barchart.pdf\/page1-220px-Tips-day-barchart.pdf.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Tips-day-barchart.pdf\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"b946efe7e2def7208186ed997626e999\"><\/a><\/div>Bar chart of tips by day of week<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bar_chart\" title=\"Bar chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab04c618b4d6401bf00b3f792368d070\">Bar chart<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>length\/count<\/li>\n<li>category<\/li>\n<li>(color)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>Comparison of values, such as sales performance for several persons or businesses in a single time period. For a single variable measured over time (trend) a line chart is preferable.<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Housingprice.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"52d5c6e68b8df88fb637f2a13480681d\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7f\/Housingprice.png\/220px-Housingprice.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"176\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Housingprice.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"52d5c6e68b8df88fb637f2a13480681d\"><\/a><\/div>Histogram of housing prices<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Histogram\" title=\"Histogram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48aef8539f0462f53d7ba1063d96879b\">Histogram<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>bin limits<\/li>\n<li>count\/length<\/li>\n<li>(color)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>Determining frequency of annual stock market percentage returns within particular ranges (bins) such as 0-10%, 11-20%, etc. The height of the bar represents the number of observations (years) with a return % in the range represented by the bin.<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Scatterplot5.pdf\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"033f7404b6838cfef48a6c0f0875e7f9\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/1c\/Scatterplot5.pdf\/page1-220px-Scatterplot5.pdf.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"124\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Scatterplot5.pdf\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"033f7404b6838cfef48a6c0f0875e7f9\"><\/a><\/div>Basic scatterplot of two variables<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scatter_plot\" title=\"Scatter plot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c01877b3fcfe4f14e522d15dfd0d9c75\">Scatter plot<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>x position<\/li>\n<li>y position<\/li>\n<li>(symbol\/glyph)<\/li>\n<li>(color)<\/li>\n<li>(size)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>Determining the relationship (e.g., correlation) between unemployment (x) and inflation (y) for multiple time periods.<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Scatter_plot.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"16def16ce624ad5e515b3b76fd7d3cad\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c4\/Scatter_plot.jpg\/220px-Scatter_plot.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Scatter_plot.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"16def16ce624ad5e515b3b76fd7d3cad\"><\/a><\/div>Scatter Plot<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td>Scatter plot (3D)\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>position x<\/li>\n<li>position y<\/li>\n<li>position z<\/li>\n<li>color<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Social_Network_Analysis_Visualization.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"4aeefbdc4bba22da7e38da71e98ba9d6\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9b\/Social_Network_Analysis_Visualization.png\/220px-Social_Network_Analysis_Visualization.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"164\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Social_Network_Analysis_Visualization.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"4aeefbdc4bba22da7e38da71e98ba9d6\"><\/a><\/div>Network Analysis<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_chart\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Network chart\" data-key=\"283cc9d407db87d3fba0df6ea9e1b8da\">Network<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>nodes size<\/li>\n<li>nodes color<\/li>\n<li>ties thickness<\/li>\n<li>ties color<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spatialization\" title=\"Spatialization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18838d9015ff98b852e75e6ba657515f\">spatialization<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>Finding clusters in the network (e.g. grouping Facebook friends into different clusters).<\/li>\n<li>Discovering bridges (information brokers or boundary spanners) between clusters in the network<\/li>\n<li>Determining the most influential nodes in the network (e.g. A company wants to target a small group of people on Twitter for a marketing campaign).<\/li>\n<li>Finding outlier actors who do not fit into any cluster or are in the periphery of a network.<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:LastGraph_example.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b95015a1da5ce15d3181936e40dc1f4\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/8c\/LastGraph_example.svg\/220px-LastGraph_example.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"207\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:LastGraph_example.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"7b95015a1da5ce15d3181936e40dc1f4\"><\/a><\/div>Streamgraph<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Streamgraph\" title=\"Streamgraph\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5c793b52268ac34bf2fa45c82a447de\">Streamgraph<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>width<\/li>\n<li>color<\/li>\n<li>time (flow)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Top100_states_area_treemap_pop-density.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"f4c993571d624acca994116a96a4be4f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f6\/Top100_states_area_treemap_pop-density.svg\/220px-Top100_states_area_treemap_pop-density.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"236\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Top100_states_area_treemap_pop-density.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"f4c993571d624acca994116a96a4be4f\"><\/a><\/div>Treemap<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Treemap\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Treemap\" data-key=\"be6dc4d68ce3d24a1b9dcb4bc2919d57\">Treemap<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>size<\/li>\n<li>color<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>disk space by location \/ file type<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:GanttChartAnatomy.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"900a3657220b8e993476fe6766aa7182\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e2\/GanttChartAnatomy.png\/220px-GanttChartAnatomy.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"146\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:GanttChartAnatomy.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"900a3657220b8e993476fe6766aa7182\"><\/a><\/div>Gantt Chart<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gantt_chart\" title=\"Gantt chart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cdec9604c416cbb5607a0376623401a0\">Gantt chart<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>color<\/li>\n<li>time (flow)<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>schedule \/ progress, e.g. in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_planning\" title=\"Project planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1692d852c3d4437f74db569f21753db6\">project planning<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Heatmap.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"df60cf321e3ecbe21244d0dc1c01eaf6\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/48\/Heatmap.png\/220px-Heatmap.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Heatmap.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"df60cf321e3ecbe21244d0dc1c01eaf6\"><\/a><\/div>Heat map<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heatmap\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Heatmap\" data-key=\"f2f1fd58557d0b58c1e35bbaa52a91ca\">Heat map<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>row<\/li>\n<li>column<\/li>\n<li>cluster<\/li>\n<li>color<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<ul><li>Analyzing risk, with green, yellow and red representing low, medium, and high risk, respectively.<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_perspectives\">Other perspectives<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>There are different approaches on the scope of data visualization. One common focus is on information presentation, such as Friedman (2008). Friendly (2008) presumes two main parts of data visualization: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_graphics\" title=\"Statistical graphics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd16ccce765f1afc8a732df4eddc6be3\">statistical graphics<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thematic_map\" title=\"Thematic map\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"465bb3a7293eae428580fe21903afdb5\">thematic cartography<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MF08_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MF08-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> In this line the \"Data Visualization: Modern Approaches\" (2007) article gives an overview of seven subjects of data visualization:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Article_(publishing)\" title=\"Article (publishing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59e1e9c79c4422187790102d0fa5dbfc\">Articles<\/a> & <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resources\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Resources\" data-key=\"2084c4222581aa79bc7e1792adafb442\">resources<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Displaying <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/connection\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:connection\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">connections<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Displaying <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Displaying <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/News\" title=\"News\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d0330e241a1822a07eaba10575cbba3\">news<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Displaying <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Website\" title=\"Website\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baaafe699fb6fda8b6611a6b03e9f889\">websites<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mind_map\" title=\"Mind map\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c33e529161a6efd850ce10a0a53efbce\">Mind maps<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Tools and services<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>All these subjects are closely related to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphic_design\" title=\"Graphic design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eecc5be6eb97d61502c529027375637e\">graphic design<\/a> and information representation.\n<\/p><p>On the other hand, from a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">computer science<\/a> perspective, Frits H. Post in 2002 categorized the field into sub-fields:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FHP02_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FHP02-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FHP03_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FHP03-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_visualization\" title=\"Information visualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"470dd3dc6568025f97d2b1a4d84bfa30\">Information visualization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interaction_techniques\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Interaction techniques\" data-key=\"ab5d9bc5268f76379f7ba408bf1b2774\">Interaction techniques<\/a> and architectures<\/li>\n<li>Modelling techniques<\/li>\n<li>Multiresolution methods<\/li>\n<li>Visualization <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithm\" title=\"Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b91430604726f884a846b998f41902e\">algorithms<\/a> and techniques<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Volume_visualization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Volume visualization\" data-key=\"d8491e3c14ed802fae1097de8287e2e3\">Volume visualization<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_presentation_architecture\">Data presentation architecture<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Kencf0618FacebookNetwork.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"7e459884d32390255b385ca9d82e8a0e\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/90\/Kencf0618FacebookNetwork.jpg\/220px-Kencf0618FacebookNetwork.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"220\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Kencf0618FacebookNetwork.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"7e459884d32390255b385ca9d82e8a0e\"><\/a><\/div>A data visualization from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_media\" title=\"Social media\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9f8f9cc29e60cc5cb8fb612d00adf7a\">social media<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Data presentation architecture<\/b> (<b>DPA<\/b>) is a skill-set that seeks to identify, locate, manipulate, format and present data in such a way as to optimally communicate meaning and proper knowledge.\n<\/p><p>Historically, the term <i>data presentation architecture<\/i> is attributed to Kelly Lautt:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[a]<\/a><\/sup> \"Data Presentation Architecture (DPA) is a rarely applied skill set critical for the success and value of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" title=\"Business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">Business Intelligence<\/a>. Data presentation architecture weds the science of numbers, data and statistics in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_discovery\" title=\"Information discovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c287bbf7bcd6617d628bbb11812b27bd\">discovering valuable information<\/a> from data and making it usable, relevant and actionable with the arts of data visualization, communications, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organizational_psychology\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Organizational psychology\" data-key=\"b56c30cf008e6c9e97167bf9776f3a82\">organizational psychology<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Change_management\" title=\"Change management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2164afa9532c821ea7b2c94786e71c\">change management<\/a> in order to provide business intelligence solutions with the data scope, delivery timing, format and visualizations that will most effectively support and drive operational, tactical and strategic behaviour toward understood business (or organizational) goals. DPA is neither an IT nor a business skill set but exists as a separate field of expertise. Often confused with data visualization, data presentation architecture is a much broader skill set that includes determining what data on what schedule and in what exact format is to be presented, not just the best way to present data that has already been chosen. Data visualization skills are one element of DPA.\"\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Objectives\">Objectives<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>DPA has two main objectives:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>To use data to provide knowledge in the most efficient manner possible (minimize noise, complexity, and unnecessary data or detail given each audience's needs and roles)<\/li>\n<li>To use data to provide knowledge in the most effective manner possible (provide relevant, timely and complete data to each audience member in a clear and understandable manner that conveys important meaning, is actionable and can affect understanding, behavior and decisions)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Scope\">Scope<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>With the above objectives in mind, the actual work of data presentation architecture consists of:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Creating effective delivery mechanisms for each audience member depending on their role, tasks, locations and access to technology<\/li>\n<li>Defining important meaning (relevant knowledge) that is needed by each audience member in each context<\/li>\n<li>Determining the required periodicity of data updates (the currency of the data)<\/li>\n<li>Determining the right timing for data presentation (when and how often the user needs to see the data)<\/li>\n<li>Finding the right data (subject area, historical reach, breadth, level of detail, etc.)<\/li>\n<li>Utilizing appropriate analysis, grouping, visualization, and other presentation formats<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Related_fields\">Related fields<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>DPA work shares commonalities with several other fields, including:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_analysis\" title=\"Business analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b78b96ff345f64ef8c22e8b85dd60f2\">Business analysis<\/a> in determining business goals, collecting requirements, mapping processes.<\/li>\n<li>Business process improvement in that its goal is to improve and streamline actions and decisions in furtherance of business goals<\/li>\n<li>Data visualization in that it uses well-established theories of visualization to add or highlight meaning or importance in data presentation.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_architecture\" title=\"Information architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7cf4d6469343f6fc04f2caf4d3b3cf32\">Information architecture<\/a>, but information architecture's focus is on unstructured data and therefore excludes both analysis (in the statistical\/data sense) and direct transformation of the actual content (data, for DPA) into new entities and combinations.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction\" title=\"Human\u2013computer interaction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f223dba7ff4b64f99540c3cb7b28b58\">HCI<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interaction_design\" title=\"Interaction design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f36a80cd438ba37490698c288311cb0\">interaction design<\/a>, since the many of the principles in how to design interactive data visualisation have been developed cross-disciplinary with HCI.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visual_journalism\" title=\"Visual journalism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cad71c353c2af48f1886c49057c8c9ae\">Visual journalism<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data-driven_journalism\" title=\"Data-driven journalism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d48b84305cb3387084a61be18bcf7759\">data-driven journalism<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_journalism\" title=\"Data journalism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f3272de50d1b9286e636f46f97befffa\">data journalism<\/a>: Visual journalism is concerned with all types of graphic facilitation of the telling of news stories, and data-driven and data journalism are not necessarily told with data visualisation. Nevertheless, the field of journalism are at the forefront in developing new data visualisations to communicate data.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphic_design\" title=\"Graphic design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eecc5be6eb97d61502c529027375637e\">Graphic design<\/a>, conveying information through styling, typography, position, and other aesthetic concerns.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Analytics\" title=\"Analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a9e129b74020e51d9761f09f2d4652\">Analytics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Balanced_scorecard\" title=\"Balanced scorecard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95223a923460879784d4796e2928d658\">Balanced scorecard<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_Data\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Big Data\" data-key=\"90828494693d39dff35579b42feff965\">Big Data<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_analysis\" title=\"Business analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b78b96ff345f64ef8c22e8b85dd60f2\">Business analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" title=\"Business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">Business intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe81497dd8621498e1de0a68d203fd37\">Data analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_art\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data art\" data-key=\"3da3ef40ade012256d5ce2eae1e0eea4\">Data art<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_profiling\" title=\"Data profiling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0cdd6f578957e70891c0b08751ae4cc\">Data profiling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_science\" title=\"Data science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ca3033a747d64b89d986a08df1bf310\">Data science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0ea3ce49e6688a8ec1616b9f0927fea\">Data warehouse<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploratory_data_analysis\" title=\"Exploratory data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c528c5090304a5d47c36b6c6451163\">Exploratory data analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infographic\" title=\"Infographic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"44e610a285ac7bf220d0c2341d0b4126\">Infographic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_architecture\" title=\"Information architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7cf4d6469343f6fc04f2caf4d3b3cf32\">Information architecture<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_design\" title=\"Information design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71b4a0abd9d67b7bcc3fbd16767292d0\">Information design<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_visualization\" title=\"Information visualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"470dd3dc6568025f97d2b1a4d84bfa30\">Information visualization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interaction_design\" title=\"Interaction design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3f36a80cd438ba37490698c288311cb0\">Interaction design<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interaction_techniques\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Interaction techniques\" data-key=\"ab5d9bc5268f76379f7ba408bf1b2774\">Interaction techniques<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_visualization\" title=\"Scientific visualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"821153ae69e6fee5db90a340ef0fa346\">Scientific visualization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_visualization\" title=\"Software visualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baaecf7e0f2c12570d686aa19769ad2c\">Software visualization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Statistical analysis\" data-key=\"aa326396a3ec131f22db89698617d998\">Statistical analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statistical_graphics\" title=\"Statistical graphics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd16ccce765f1afc8a732df4eddc6be3\">Statistical graphics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visual_analytics\" title=\"Visual analytics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94097bf5517ea936d0fbfabb40d1b750\">Visual analytics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visual_journalism\" title=\"Visual journalism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cad71c353c2af48f1886c49057c8c9ae\">Visual journalism<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: lower-alpha;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">The first formal, recorded, public usages of the term data presentation architecture were at the three formal Microsoft Office 2007 Launch events in Dec, Jan and Feb of 2007\u201308 in Edmonton, Calgary and Vancouver (Canada) in a presentation by Kelly Lautt describing a business intelligence system designed to improve service quality in a pulp and paper company. The term was further used and recorded in public usage on December 16, 2009 in a Microsoft Canada presentation on the value of merging Business Intelligence with corporate collaboration processes.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-MF08-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-MF08_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-MF08_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Michael_Friendly\" title=\"Michael Friendly\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"13bde8ce009a1cc4f944f354b34ba10c\">Michael Friendly<\/a> (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.math.yorku.ca\/SCS\/Gallery\/milestone\/milestone.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Milestones in the history of thematic cartography, statistical graphics, and data visualization\"<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ReferenceA-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ReferenceA_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ReferenceA_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.perceptualedge.com\/articles\/ie\/the_right_graph.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stephen Few-Perceptual Edge-Selecting the Right Graph for Your Message-2004\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stephen+Few-Perceptual+Edge-Selecting+the+Right+Graph+for+Your+Message-2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perceptualedge.com%2Farticles%2Fie%2Fthe_right_graph.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Manuela Aparicio and Carlos J. Costa (November 2014). \"Data visualization\". <i>Communication Design Quarterly Review<\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (1): 7\u201311. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F2721882.2721883\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/2721882.2721883<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communication+Design+Quarterly+Review&rft.atitle=Data+visualization&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-11&rft.date=2014-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2721882.2721883&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Uses_authors_parameter\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d24cca49ab4330535650bd8cf246a9d5\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Nikos Bikaks (2018) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arxiv.org\/pdf\/1801.08336\" target=\"_blank\">\"Big Data Visualization Tools\"<\/a> Encyclopedia of Big Data Technologies, Springer 2018.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Press, Gil. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/gilpress\/2013\/05\/28\/a-very-short-history-of-data-science\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Very Short History Of Data Science\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Very+Short+History+Of+Data+Science&rft.aulast=Press&rft.aufirst=Gil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fgilpress%2F2013%2F05%2F28%2Fa-very-short-history-of-data-science%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Vitaly Friedman (2008) <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.smashingmagazine.com\/2008\/01\/14\/monday-inspiration-data-visualization-and-infographics\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Visualization and Infographics\"<\/a> in: <i>Graphics<\/i>, Monday Inspiration, January 14th, 2008.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Fernanda Viegas and Martin Wattenberg (April 19, 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110506065701\/http:\/\/articles.cnn.com\/2011-04-19\/opinion\/sexy.data_1_visualization-21st-century-engagement?_s=PM%3AOPINION\" target=\"_blank\">\"How To Make Data Look Sexy\"<\/a>. <i>CNN.com<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/articles.cnn.com\/2011-04-19\/opinion\/sexy.data_1_visualization-21st-century-engagement?_s=PM:OPINION\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on May 6, 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">May 7,<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN.com&rft.atitle=How+To+Make+Data+Look+Sexy&rft.date=2011-04-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.cnn.com%2F2011-04-19%2Fopinion%2Fsexy.data_1_visualization-21st-century-engagement%3F_s%3DPM%3AOPINION&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Uses_authors_parameter\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d24cca49ab4330535650bd8cf246a9d5\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FHP02-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FHP02_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FHP02_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Frits H. Post, Gregory M. Nielson and Georges-Pierre Bonneau (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/visualisation.tudelft.nl\/publications\/post2003b.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Data Visualization: The State of the Art<\/i>. Research paper TU delft, 2002.<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091007134531\/http:\/\/visualisation.tudelft.nl\/publications\/post2003b.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2009-10-07 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Tukey1977-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Tukey1977_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/John_Tukey\" title=\"John Tukey\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86034d57ea6f01f8ccf80a3164d52949\">Tukey, John<\/a> (1977). <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exploratory_Data_Analysis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Exploratory Data Analysis\" data-key=\"395e4b1cf46e8622aaf563dbb2df8187\">Exploratory Data Analysis<\/a><\/i>. Addison-Wesley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-201-07616-0.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploratory+Data+Analysis&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-201-07616-0&rft.aulast=Tukey&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">techatstate (7 August 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=g9Y4SxgfGCg\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tech@State: Data Visualization - Keynote by Dr Edward Tufte\"<\/a> – via YouTube.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tech%40State%3A+Data+Visualization+-+Keynote+by+Dr++Edward+Tufte&rft.date=2013-08-07&rft.au=techatstate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dg9Y4SxgfGCg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https:\/\/pdfs.semanticscholar.org\/565d\/843c2c0e60915709268ac4224894469d82d5.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">[1]<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Tufte1983-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Tufte1983_12-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Tufte1983_12-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Tufte1983_12-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Tufte, Edward (1983). <i>The Visual Display of Quantitative Information<\/i>. Cheshire, Connecticut: Graphics Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-9613921-4-2.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Visual+Display+of+Quantitative+Information&rft.place=Cheshire%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Graphics+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-9613921-4-2&rft.aulast=Tufte&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cbo.gov\/publication\/45224\" target=\"_blank\">\"Telling Visual Stories About Data - Congressional Budget Office\"<\/a>. <i>www.cbo.gov<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cbo.gov&rft.atitle=Telling+Visual+Stories+About+Data+-+Congressional+Budget+Office&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbo.gov%2Fpublication%2F45224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.perceptualedge.com\/articles\/misc\/Graph_Selection_Matrix.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stephen Few-Perceptual Edge-Graph Selection Matrix\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Stephen+Few-Perceptual+Edge-Graph+Selection+Matrix&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perceptualedge.com%2Farticles%2Fmisc%2FGraph_Selection_Matrix.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-perceptualedge.com-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-perceptualedge.com_15-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-perceptualedge.com_15-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.perceptualedge.com\/articles\/ie\/visual_perception.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Steven Few-Tapping the Power of Visual Perception-September 2004\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Steven+Few-Tapping+the+Power+of+Visual+Perception-September+2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perceptualedge.com%2Farticles%2Fie%2Fvisual_perception.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:0-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_16-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_16-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-:0_16-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.interaction-design.org\/literature\/book\/the-encyclopedia-of-human-computer-interaction-2nd-ed\/data-visualization-for-human-perception\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Visualization for Human Perception\"<\/a>. <i>The Interaction Design Foundation<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2015-11-22<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SFU&rft.atitle=Visualization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfu.ca%2Fgis%2Fgeog_x55%2Fweb355%2Ficons%2F11_lec_vweb.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Springer-Verlag-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Springer-Verlag_18-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Springer-Verlag_18-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Springer-Verlag_18-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Friendly, Michael. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/download?doi=10.1.1.446.458&rep=rep1&type=pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Brief History of Data Visualization\"<\/a>. Springer-Verlag<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Data+Visualization&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.aulast=Friendly&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fdownload%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.446.458%26rep%3Drep1%26type%3Dpdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WhitehouseIce00-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WhitehouseIce00_19-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Whitehouse, D. 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Springer-Verlag<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2015-11-22<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=York+University&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+Data+Visualization&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Friendly&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.datavis.ca%2Fpapers%2Fhbook.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/venturebeat.com\/2014\/04\/15\/ny-gets-new-bootcamp-for-data-scientists-its-free-but-harder-to-get-into-than-harvard\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"NY gets new boot camp for data scientists: It's free but harder to get into than Harvard\"<\/a>. <i>Venture Beat<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-02-21<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Venture+Beat&rft.atitle=NY+gets+new+boot+camp+for+data+scientists%3A+It%E2%80%99s+free+but+harder+to+get+into+than+Harvard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fventurebeat.com%2F2014%2F04%2F15%2Fny-gets-new-bootcamp-for-data-scientists-its-free-but-harder-to-get-into-than-harvard%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.perceptualedge.com\/articles\/ie\/the_right_graph.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Steven Few-Selecting the Right Graph for Your Message-September 2004\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Steven+Few-Selecting+the+Right+Graph+for+Your+Message-September+2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perceptualedge.com%2Farticles%2Fie%2Fthe_right_graph.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Martin_J._Eppler\" title=\"Martin J. Eppler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0803c7c23c3e70043c92944d6205f79\">Eppler, Martin. J<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.visual-literacy.org\/periodic_table\/periodic_table.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Periodic Table of Visualization Methods\"<\/a>. www.visual-literacy.org<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 March<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Periodic+Table+of+Visualization+Methods&rft.pub=www.visual-literacy.org&rft.aulast=Lengler&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rft.au=Eppler%2C+Martin.+J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.visual-literacy.org%2Fperiodic_table%2Fperiodic_table.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.smashingmagazine.com\/2007\/08\/02\/data-visualization-modern-approaches\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Visualization: Modern Approaches\"<\/a>. in: <i>Graphics<\/i>, August 2nd, 2007<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FHP03-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FHP03_29-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Frits H. Post, Gregory M. Nielson and Georges-Pierre Bonneau (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091007134531\/http:\/\/visualisation.tudelft.nl\/publications\/post2003b.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Data Visualization: The State of the Art<\/i><\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091007134531\/http:\/\/visualisation.tudelft.nl\/publications\/post2003b.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2009-10-07 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><cite class=\"citation book\">Cleveland, William S. (1993). <i>Visualizing Data<\/i>. Hobart Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-9634884-0-6.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visualizing+Data&rft.pub=Hobart+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-9634884-0-6&rft.aulast=Cleveland&rft.aufirst=William+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Evergreen, Stephanie (2016). <i>Effective Data Visualization: The Right Chart for the Right Data<\/i>. Sage. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-5063-0305-5.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Effective+Data+Visualization%3A+The+Right+Chart+for+the+Right+Data&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-5063-0305-5&rft.aulast=Evergreen&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Post, Frits H.; Nielson, Gregory M.; Bonneau, Georges-Pierre (2003). <i>Data Visualization: The State of the Art<\/i>. New York: Springer. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-4613-5430-7.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+Visualization%3A+The+State+of+the+Art&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4613-5430-7&rft.aulast=Post&rft.aufirst=Frits+H.&rft.au=Nielson%2C+Gregory+M.&rft.au=Bonneau%2C+Georges-Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Wilke, Claus O. (2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/serialmentor.com\/dataviz\/\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Fundamentals of Data Visualization<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-4920-3108-6.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Data+Visualization&rft.pub=O%27Reilly&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-4920-3108-6&rft.aulast=Wilke&rft.aufirst=Claus+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fserialmentor.com%2Fdataviz%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leland_Wilkinson\" title=\"Leland Wilkinson\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f115841d8f5091bc6708d2d123bb9ad3\">Wilkinson, Leland<\/a> (2012). <i>Grammar of Graphics<\/i>. New York: Springer. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-4419-2033-1.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammar+of+Graphics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4419-2033-1&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Leland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+visualization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.math.yorku.ca\/SCS\/Gallery\/\" target=\"_blank\">Milestones in the History of Thematic Cartography, Statistical Graphics, and Data Visualization<\/a>, An illustrated chronology of innovations by Michael Friendly and Daniel J. Denis.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/compsci.capture.duke.edu\/Panopto\/Pages\/Viewer.aspx?id=ee45ebd7-da62-4d27-8d16-5647aa167946\" target=\"_blank\">Duke University-Christa Kelleher Presentation-Communicating through infographics-visualizing scientific & engineering information-March 6, 2015<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1327\nCached time: 20190330194128\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.524 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.658 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1897\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 67719\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 1301\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 3\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 81409\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 3\/400\nLua time usage: 0.216\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4.48 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 484.946 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>50.36% 244.206 2 Template:Reflist\n26.20% 127.036 15 Template:Cite_web\n 9.99% 48.436 1 Template:Commonscat\n 9.25% 44.858 1 Template:Quote_box\n 9.22% 44.711 3 Template:Cite_journal\n 7.61% 36.896 1 Template:Commons\n 7.35% 35.662 1 Template:Redirect\n 7.02% 34.043 1 Template:Sister_project\n 6.34% 30.742 1 Template:Side_box\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:3461736-1!canonical and timestamp 20190330194127 and revision id 886400533\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_visualization\" data-key=\"e5477909db13f678e8054bd9dae16a17\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203003\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.014 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.161 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 152.458 1 - wikipedia:Data_visualization\n100.00% 152.458 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10407-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203003 and revision id 32418\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_visualization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_visualization<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","4a3b86cba74bc7bb7471aa3fc2fcccc3_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/b\/ba\/Data_visualization_process_v1.png\/700px-Data_visualization_process_v1.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/29\/Minard.png\/700px-Minard.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fb\/Total_Revenues_and_Outlays_as_Percent_GDP_2013.png\/500px-Total_Revenues_and_Outlays_as_Percent_GDP_2013.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7e\/U.S._Phillips_Curve_2000_to_2013.png\/500px-U.S._Phillips_Curve_2000_to_2013.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/12\/Planetary_Movements.gif\/440px-Planetary_Movements.gif","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d8\/Playfair_TimeSeries.png\/440px-Playfair_TimeSeries.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/43\/Tips-day-barchart.pdf\/page1-440px-Tips-day-barchart.pdf.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/7f\/Housingprice.png\/440px-Housingprice.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/1c\/Scatterplot5.pdf\/page1-440px-Scatterplot5.pdf.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c4\/Scatter_plot.jpg\/440px-Scatter_plot.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/9b\/Social_Network_Analysis_Visualization.png\/440px-Social_Network_Analysis_Visualization.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/8c\/LastGraph_example.svg\/440px-LastGraph_example.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f6\/Top100_states_area_treemap_pop-density.svg\/440px-Top100_states_area_treemap_pop-density.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e2\/GanttChartAnatomy.png\/440px-GanttChartAnatomy.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/48\/Heatmap.png\/440px-Heatmap.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/90\/Kencf0618FacebookNetwork.jpg\/440px-Kencf0618FacebookNetwork.jpg"],"4a3b86cba74bc7bb7471aa3fc2fcccc3_timestamp":1554323403,"d77533b92d003d39cee958a82b62391a_type":"article","d77533b92d003d39cee958a82b62391a_title":"Data retention","d77533b92d003d39cee958a82b62391a_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_retention","d77533b92d003d39cee958a82b62391a_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tData retention\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tData retention defines the policies of persistent data and records management for meeting legal and business data archival requirements; although sometimes interchangeable, not to be confused with the Data Protection Act 1998.\nThe different data retention policies weigh legal and privacy concerns against economics and need-to-know concerns to determine the retention time, archival rules, data formats, and the permissible means of storage, access, and encryption.\nIn the field of telecommunications, data retention generally refers to the storage of call detail records (CDRs) of telephony and internet traffic and transaction data (IPDRs) by governments and commercial organisations. In the case of government data retention, the data that is stored is usually of telephone calls made and received, emails sent and received, and websites visited. Location data is also collected.\nThe primary objective in government data retention is traffic analysis and mass surveillance. By analysing the retained data, governments can identify the locations of individuals, an individual's associates and the members of a group such as political opponents. These activities may or may not be lawful, depending on the constitutions and laws of each country. In many jurisdictions access to these databases may be made by a government with little or no judicial oversight.[citation needed ]\nIn the case of commercial data retention, the data retained will usually be on transactions and web sites visited.\nData retention also covers data collected by other means (e.g., by Automatic number-plate recognition systems) and held by government and commercial organisations.\n\nContents \n\n1 Data retention policy \n2 Australia \n3 European Union \n\n3.1 United Kingdom \n\n3.1.1 Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act 2014 \n3.1.2 Controversy \n3.1.3 Retention of other data \n3.1.4 Access to retained data \n3.1.5 Reasons for accessing retained data \n\n\n3.2 Czech Republic \n3.3 Italy \n3.4 Denmark \n3.5 Sweden \n3.6 Germany \n3.7 Romania \n3.8 Slovakia \n\n\n4 Russia \n5 Norway \n6 Serbia \n7 Switzerland \n\n7.1 Mobile phones \n7.2 Email \n\n\n8 United States \n\n8.1 Leveraging commercial data retention \n8.2 Failed mandatory ISP retention legislation attempts \n\n\n9 Arguments against data retention \n10 Protection against data retention \n\n10.1 Anonymizing proxy services: Web \n10.2 P2P communications \n10.3 Privacy enhancing tools \n\n\n11 Initiative against extensive data retention \n12 Plans for extending data retention to social networks \n13 See also \n14 References \n15 External links \n\n\nData retention policy \nA data retention policy is a recognized and proven protocol within an organization for retaining information for operational use while ensuring adherence to the laws and regulations concerning them. The objectives of a data retention policy are to keep important information for future use or reference, to organize information so it can be searched and accessed at a later date and to dispose of information that is no longer needed.[1]\nThe data retention policies within an organization are a set of guidelines that describes which data will be archived, how long it will be kept, what happens to the data at the end of the retention period (archive or destroy) and other factors concerning the retention of the data.[2]\nA part of any effective data retention policy is the permanent deletion of the retained data; achieving secure deletion of data by encrypting the data when stored, and then deleting the encryption key after a specified retention period. Thus, effectively deleting the data object and its copies stored in online and offline locations.[3]\n\nAustralia \nMain article: Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Amendment (Data Retention) Act 2015\nIn 2015, the Australian government introduced mandatory data retention laws that allows data to be retained up to two years.[4] The scheme is estimated to cost at least AU$400 million per year to implement, working out to at least $16 per user per year.[5] It will require telecommunication providers and ISPs to retain telephony, Internet and email metadata for two years, accessible without a warrant, and could possibly be used to target file sharing.[6][7] The Attorney-General has broad discretion on which agencies are allowed to access metadata, including private agencies.[8]\nThe Greens were strongly opposed to the introduction of these laws, citing privacy concerns and the increased prospect of 'speculative invoicing' over alleged copyright infringement cases.[9][10] The Labor Party initially opposed as well, but later agreed to passing the law after additional safeguards were put in place to afford journalists some protection.[11][12]\n\nEuropean Union \nOn 15 March 2006, the European Union adopted the Data Retention Directive, on \"the retention of data generated or processed in connection with the provision of publicly available electronic communications services or of public communications networks and amending Directive 2002\/58\/EC\".[13][14] It requires Member States to ensure that communications providers retain the necessary data as specified in the Directive for a period of between 6 months and 2 years in order to:\n\nTrace and identify the source of a communication;\nTrace and identify the destination of a communication;\nIdentify the date, time, and duration of a communication;\nIdentify the type of communication;\nIdentify the communication device;\nIdentify the location of mobile communication equipment.\nThe data is required to be available to \"competent\" national authorities in specific cases, \"for the purpose of the investigation, detection and prosecution of serious crime, as defined by each Member State in its national law\".\nThe Directive covers fixed telephony, mobile telephony, Internet access, email, and VoIP. Member States were required to transpose it into national law within 18 months\u2014no later than September 2007. However, they may if they wish postpone the application of the Directive to Internet access, email, and VoIP for a further 18 months after this date. A majority of Member States exercised this option. All 28 EU States have notified the European Commission about the transposition of the Directive into their national law. Of these, however, Germany and Belgium have only transposed the legislation partially.[15]\nA report evaluating the Directive was published by the European Commission in April 2011.[16]\nIt concluded that data retention was a valuable tool for ensuring criminal justice and public protection, but that it had achieved only limited harmonisation. There were serious concerns from service providers about the compliance costs and from civil society organisations who claim that mandatory data retention was an unacceptable infringement of the fundamental right to privacy and the protection of personal data. The Commission is now reviewing the legislation.\nIn response to the report, on May 31, 2011, the European Data Protection Supervisor expressed some concerns on the European Data Retention Directive, underlining that the Directive \"does not meet the requirements imposed by the fundamental rights to privacy and data protection\".[17]\nOn 8 April 2014, the Court of Justice of the European Union declared the Directive 2006\/24\/EC invalid for violating fundamental rights. The Council's Legal Services have been reported to have stated in closed session that paragraph 59 of the European Court of Justice's ruling \"suggests that general and blanket data retention is no longer possible\".[18] A legal opinion funded by the Greens\/EFA Group in the European Parliament finds that the blanket retention data of unsuspicious persons generally violates the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, both in regard to national telecommunications data retention laws and to similar EU data retention schemes (PNR, TFTP, TFTS, LEA access to EES, Eurodac, VIS).[19]\n\nUnited Kingdom \nData Retention and Investigatory Powers Act 2014 \nThe Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act came into force in 2014. It is the answer by the United Kingdom parliament after a declaration of invalidity was made by the Court of Justice of the European Union in relation to Directive 2006\/ 24\/EC in order to make provision, about the retention of certain communications data.[20]\nIn addition, the purpose of the act is to:\n\nAmend the grounds for issuing interception warrants, or granting or giving certain authorizations or notices.\nMake provision about the extraterritorial application of that Part and about the meaning of \u201ctelecommunications service\u201d for the purposes of that Act;\nMake provision about a review of the operation and regulation of investigatory powers; and for connected purposes [20]\nThe act is also to ensure that communication companies in the UK retain communications data so that it continues to be available when it is needed by law enforcement agencies and others to investigate committed crimes and protect the public.[21]\nData protection law requires data that isn't of use to be deleted, this means that the intention of this Act could be using data retention to acquire further policing powers using, as the Act make data retention mandatory.\nAn element of this Act is the provision of the investigatory powers to be reported by 1 May 2015.[22]\n\nControversy \nThe Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act 2014 was referred to as the \"snooper\u2019s charter\" communications data bill.[23]\nThe then Home Secretary Theresa May (and now current Prime Minister), a strong supporter of the Parliament Act, in a speech said that \u201cIf we (parliament) do not act, we risk sleepwalking into a society in which crime can no longer be investigated and terrorists can plot their murderous schemes undisrupted.\u201d [23]\nThe United Kingdom parliament its new laws increasing the power of data retention is essential to tackling crime and protecting the public. However, not all agree and believe that the primary objective in the data retention by the government is mass surveillance.\nAfter Europe's highest court said the depth of data retention breaches citizens' fundamental right to privacy and the UK created its own Act, it has led to the British government being accused of breaking the law by forcing telecoms and internet providers to retain records of phone calls, texts and internet usage.[24]\nFrom this information, governments can identify an individual's associates, location, group memberships, political affiliations and other personal information.\n\n<\/p>In a television interview, the EU Advocate General Pedro Cruz Villal\u00f3n highlighted the risk that the retained data might be used illegally in ways that are \"potentially detrimental to privacy or, more broadly, fraudulent or even malicious\".[24]\n\nRetention of other data \nPostal data \u2013 retention period unknown \nInformation written on the outside of a postal item (such as a letter or parcel), online tracking of postal items, records of special postal items (such as records of registered, recorded or special delivery postal items), records of parcel consignment, delivery and collection.\nBanking data \u2013 seven years \nThe Economist reported that UK banks are required to retain data on all financial transactions for seven years though this has not been verified.[citation needed ] It is not clear whether data on credit card transactions is also retained for seven years.\nVehicle movement data \u2013 two years \nDocuments leaked from the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) have revealed that the UK is planning to collect data from a nationwide network of automatic numberplate recognition cameras and store the data for two years in a controversial new centre being built at Hendon.[25] This data could then be linked to other data held by the government and watchlists from the police and security services.[26]\nAccess to retained data \nThe bodies that are able to access retained data in the United Kingdom are listed in the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (RIPA). These are the following:\n\nPolice forces, as defined in section 81(1) of RIPA\nNational Criminal Intelligence Service\nSerious Organised Crime Agency, formerly the National Crime Squad\nHM Customs and Excise\nInland Revenue (the latter two have been merged into HM Revenue and Customs)\nSecurity Service\nSecret Intelligence Service\nGovernment Communications Headquarters (GCHQ)\nHowever, the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (RIPA) also gives the Home Secretary powers to change the list of bodies with access to retained data through secondary legislation. The list of authorised bodies now includes:[27]\n\nFood Standards Agency\nLocal authorities\nNational Health Service\nReasons for accessing retained data \nThe justifications for accessing retained data in the UK are set out in the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (RIPA). They include:\n\nInterests of national security;\nPreventing or detecting crime or of preventing disorder;\nEconomic well-being of the United Kingdom;\nPublic safety;\nProtecting public health;\nAssessing or collecting any tax, duty, levy or other imposition, contribution or charge payable to a government department;\nPreventing death or injury in an emergency or any damage to a person's physical or mental health, or of mitigating any injury or damage to a person's physical or mental health;\nAny other purpose not listed above which is specified for the purposes of this subsection by an order made by the Secretary of State.\nCzech Republic \nImplementation of the directive was part of Act. No. 259\/2010 Coll. on electronic communications as later amended. Under Art. 97 (3), telecommunication data are to be stored between 6 and 12 months. The Czech Constitutional Court has deemed the law unconstitutional and found it to be infringing on the peoples right to privacy.[28]\nAs of July 2012, new legislation was on its way.[29]\n\nItaly \nIn July 2005 new legal requirements[30] on data retention came into force in Italy.\n\nSubscriber information \nInternet caf\u00e9s and public telephone shops with at least three terminals must seek a license permit within 30 days from the Ministry of Home Affairs. They must also store traffic data for a period which may be determined later by administrative decree. Wi-Fi hotspots and locations that do not store traffic data have to secure ID information from users before allowing them to log on. For example, users may be required to enter a number from an ID card or driving license. It is not clear how this information is validated. Mobile telephony users must identify themselves before service activation, or before a SIM card may be obtained. Resellers of mobile subscriptions or pre-paid cards must verify the identity of purchasers and retain a photocopy of identity cards.\nTelephony data \nData, including location data, on fixed line and mobile telephony must be retained for 24 months. There is no requirement to store the content of calls. Telephony operators must retain a record of all unsuccessful dial attempts.\nISP data \nInternet service providers must retain all data for at least 12 months. The law does not specify exactly what traffic data must be retained. There is no requirement to store the content of internet communications.\nLegality \nThe legislation of July 2005 enables data retention by outlawing all the relevant data protection provisions until 31 December 2007. Under the data protection provisions, service providers are obliged to store traffic data and user data for no less than 365 days, even if they no longer need it to process the communication or to send bills, policy requires user id information, location, tracking data be stored and kept on file for easy access by law enforcement and\/or other authorities who request this information (permission must be asked to view sensitive user ID data on file). The traffic data which will now be retained can be used for anti-terrorism purposes and for general penal enforcement of criminal offences large and small.\nItaly already required the retention of telephony traffic data for 48 months, but without location data. Italy has adopted the EU Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications 2002 but with an exemption to the requirement to erase traffic data.\n\nDenmark \nDenmark has implemented the EU data retention directive and much more, by logging all internet flow or sessions between operators and operators and consumers.[31]\n\n\"2.2.1. Session logging (section 5(1) of the Executive Order) Providers of access to the internet must, in respect of the initiating and terminating package of an internet session, retain data that identifies the sending and receiving internet protocol address (in the following called IP address), the sending and receiving port number and the transmission protocol.\"\n\"2.2.2. Sampling (section 5(4) of the Executive Order) The obligation to retain data about the initiating and terminating package of an internet session does not apply to providers in case such retention is not technically feasible in their systems. In that case, data must instead be retained for every 500th package that is part of an end user\u2019s communication on the internet.\"\n\"2.2.5. Hot spots (section 5(3) of the Executive Order) In addition to the internet data that must otherwise be retained, the provider must retain data that identifies the precise geographic or physical location of a hot spot and the identity of the communication equipment used. This means that a provider of internet access via a hot spot must retain data on a user\u2019s access to the internet and, at the same time, retain data that identifies the geographic location of the hot spot in question.\"\nSweden \nSweden implemented the EU's 2006 Data Retention Directive in May 2012, and it was fined \u20ac3 million by the Court of Justice of the European Union for its belated transposition (the deadline was 15 September 2007).[32][33][34][35] The directive allowed member states to determine the duration data is retained, ranging from six months to two years; the Riksdag, Sweden's legislature, opted for six months.[36]\nIn April 2014, however, the CJEU struck down the Data Retention Directive. PTS, Sweden's telecommunications regulator, told Swedish ISPs and telcos that they would no longer have to retain call records and internet metadata.[37] But after two government investigations found that Sweden's data retention law did not break its obligations to the European Convention on Human Rights, the PTS reversed course.[38] Most of Sweden's major telecommunications companies complied immediately, though Tele2 lodged an unsuccessful appeal. The one holdout ISP, Bahnhof, was given an order to comply by November 24 deadline or face a five million krona ($680,000) fine.[39]\n\nGermany \nThe German Bundestag had implemented the directive in \"Gesetz zur Neuregelung der Telekommunikations\u00fcberwachung und anderer verdeckter Ermittlungsma\u00dfnahmen sowie zur Umsetzung der Richtlinie 2006\/24\/EG\".[40] The law became valid on 1 January 2008. Any communications data had to be retained for six months. On 2 March 2010, the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany ruled the law unconstitutional as a violation of the guarantee of the secrecy of correspondence.[41] On 16 October 2015, a second law for shorter, up to 10 weeks long, data retention excluding email communication was passed by parliament.[42][43][44] However, this act was ruled incompatible with German and European laws by an injunction of the Higher Administrative Court of North Rhine-Westphalia. As a result, on June 28, 2017, three days before the planned start of data retention, the Federal Network Agency suspended the introduction of data retention until a final decision in the principle proceedings.[45]\n\nRomania \nThe EU directive has been transposed into Romanian law as well, initially as Law 298\/2008.[46] However, the Constitutional Court of Romania subsequently struck down the law in 2009 as violating constitutional rights.[47] The court held that the transposing act violated the constitutional rights of privacy, of confidentiality in communications, and of free speech.[48] The European Commission has subsequently sued Romania in 2011 for non-implementation, threatening Romania with a fine of 30,000 euros per day.[49] The Romanian parliament passed a new law in 2012, which was signed by president Traian B\u0103sescu in June.[50] The Law 82\/2012 has been nicknamed \"Big Brother\" (using the untranslated English expression) by various Romanian non-governmental organizations opposing it.[49][51][52] On July 8, 2014 this law too was declared unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court of Romania.[53]\n\nSlovakia \nSlovakia has implemented the directive in Act No. 610\/2003 Coll. on electronic communications as later amended. Telecommunication data are stored for six months in the case of data related to Internet, Internet email and Internet telephony (art. 59a (6) a)), and for 12 months in the case of other types of communication (art. 59a (6) b)).\nIn April 2014, the Slovak Constitutional Court preliminary suspended effectiveness of the Slovak implementation of Data Retention Directive and accepted the case for the further review.[54][55] In April 2015 Constitutional court decided that some parts of Slovak laws implementing DR Directive are not in compliance with Slovak constitution and Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.[56] According to now invalid provisions of the Electronic Communications Act, the providers of electronic communications were obliged to store traffic data, localization data and data about the communicating parties for a period of 6 months (in the case Internet, email or VoIP communication) or for a period of 12 months (in case of other communication).[57]\n\nRussia \nA 2016 anti-terrorist federal law 374-FZ known as Yarovaya Law requires all telecommunication providers to store phone call, text and email metadata, as well as the actual voice recordings for up to 6 months. Messaging services like Whatsapp are required to provide cryptographic backdoors to law-enforcement.[58] The law has been widely criticized both in Russia and abroad as an infringement of human rights and a waste of resources.[59][60][61][62]\n\nNorway \nThis article's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2017 )\nThe EU's Data Retention Directive has been implemented into Norwegian law in 2011,[63] but this will not be in effect before 1 January 2015.[64]\n\nSerbia \nOn 29 June 2010, the Serbian parliament adopted the Law on Electronic Communications, according to which the operator must keep the data on electronic communications for 12 months. This provision was criticized as unconstitutional by opposition parties and by Ombudsman Sa\u0161a Jankovi\u0107.[65]\n\nSwitzerland \nAs from 7 July 2016, the Swiss Federal Law about the Surveillance of the Post and Telecommunications entered into force, passed by the Swiss government on 18 March 2016.[66]\n\nMobile phones \nSwiss mobile phone operators have to retain the following data for six months according to the B\u00dcPF:\n\nPhone numbers of incoming and outgoing calls\nSIM- (Subscriber Identity Module), IMSI- (International Mobile Subscribers Identity) and IMEI-numbers (International Mobile Equipment Identity)\n\u201ethe location and the electrical boresight of the antenna of the mobile phone with which the monitored person is connected to the communications system at the time of the communication\u201c\ndate, time and duration of the connection\nEmail \nAll Internet service providers must retain the following data for six months:\n\ntype of the connections (telephone, xDSL, Cable, permanent line etc.) and if known login data, address information of the origin (MAC address, telephone number), name, address and occupation of the user and duration of the connection from beginning to end\ntime of the transmission or reception of an email, header information according to the SMTP-protocol and the IP addresses of the sending and receiving email application.\nEmail application refers to SMTP-, POP3-, IMAP4, webmail- and remail-server.[67]\n\nUnited States \nThe National Security Agency (NSA) commonly records Internet metadata for the whole planet for up to a year in its MARINA database, where it is used for pattern-of-life analysis. U.S. persons are not exempt because metadata are not considered data under US law (section 702 of the FISA Amendments Act).[68] Its equivalent for phone records is MAINWAY.[69] The NSA records SMS and similar text messages worldwide through DISHFIRE.[70]\n\nLeveraging commercial data retention \nVarious United States agencies leverage the (voluntary) data retention practised by many U.S. commercial organizations through programs such as PRISM and MUSCULAR.\nAmazon is known to retain extensive data on customer transactions. Google is also known to retain data on searches, and other transactions. If a company is based in the United States the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) can obtain access to such information by means of a National Security Letter (NSL). The Electronic Frontier Foundation states that \"NSLs are secret subpoenas issued directly by the FBI without any judicial oversight. These secret subpoenas allow the FBI to demand that online service providers or ecommerce companies produce records of their customers' transactions. The FBI can issue NSLs for information about people who haven't committed any crimes.\nNSLs are practically immune to judicial review. They are accompanied by gag orders that allow no exception for talking to lawyers and provide no effective opportunity for the recipients to challenge them in court. This secret subpoena authority, which was expanded by the controversial USA PATRIOT Act, could be applied to nearly any online service provider for practically any type of record, without a court ever knowing\". The Washington Post has published a well researched article on the FBI's use of National Security Letters.[71]\n\nFailed mandatory ISP retention legislation attempts \nThe United States does not have any Internet Service Provider (ISP) mandatory data retention laws similar to the European Data Retention Directive.[72] Some attempts to create mandatory retention legislation have failed:\n\nIn 1999 two models of mandatory data retention were suggested for the United States: What IP address was assigned to a customer at a specific time. In the second model, \"which is closer to what Europe adopted\", telephone numbers dialed, contents of Web pages visited, and recipients of e-mail messages must be retained by the ISP for an unspecified amount of time.[73][74][75]\nThe Internet Stopping Adults Facilitating the Exploitation of Today's Youth Act (SAFETY Act) of 2009 also known as H.R. 1076 and S.436 would require providers of \"electronic communication or remote computing services\" to \"retain for a period of at least two years all records or other information pertaining to the identity of a user of a temporarily assigned network address the service assigns to that user\".[76] This bill never became a law.[77]\nArguments against data retention \nIt is often argued that data retention is necessary to combat terrorism, and other crimes. Data retention may assist the police and security services to identify potential terrorists and their accomplices before or after an attack has taken place. For example, the authorities in Spain and the United Kingdom stated that retained telephony data made a significant contribution to police enquires into the 2004 Madrid train bombings and the 2005 London bombings.[citation needed ]\nThe opponents of data retention make the following arguments:\n\nThe Madrid train bombings can also be seen as proof that the current data retention level is sufficient and hence the EU directive is not necessity.[citation needed ]\nSchemes for data retention do not make provisions for adequate regulation of the data retention process and for independent judicial oversight.[citation needed ]\nData retention is an invasion of privacy and a disproportionate response to the threat of terrorism.[citation needed ]\nIt is easy for terrorists to avoid having their communications recorded. The Home Office Voluntary Code of Practice of Data Retention admits that there are some internet protocols which cannot be effectively monitored.[citation needed ] It would be possible for terrorists to avoid monitoring by using anonymous P2P technologies, internet caf\u00e9s, anonymous proxies or several other methods. Some police officers in the EU are sceptical about the value of data retention. For example, Heinz Kiefer, president of Eurocop, the European Confederation of Police, issued a press statement saying \"it remains easy for criminals to avoid detection through fairly simple means, for example mobile phone cards can be purchased from foreign providers and frequently switched. The result would be that a vast effort is made with little more effect on criminals and terrorists than to slightly irritate them. Activities like these are unlikely to boost citizens\u2019 confidence in the EU\u2019s ability to deliver solutions to their demand for protection against serious crime and terrorism\".[78]\nThe hardware and software required to store all the retained data would be extremely costly. The costs of retaining data would not only fall on Internet Service Providers and telephone companies, but also on all companies and other organisations which would need to retain records of traffic passing through their switchboards and servers.[citation needed ]\nData retention gives excessive power to the state to monitor the lives of individual citizens.[citation needed ]\nData retention may be abused by the police to monitor the activities of any group which may come into conflict with the state; including ones which are engaged in legitimate protests. The UK police have used anti-terrorism powers against groups opposed to the war in Iraq[79] and protesters at an arms fair.[80] The definition of terrorism in the UK Terrorism Act 2000 includes not only action, but the threat of action, involving serious violence against a person, or serious damage to property, for the purposes of advancing a \"political, religious or ideological cause\". There is concern that the definition is vaguely worded and could be applied to supporters of animal liberation, anti-war demonstrators, and many others.[citation needed ]\nEven if data retention may be justified, the retention periods proposed in some cases are excessive. It has been argued that a period of five days for web activity logs and ninety days for all other data would be adequate for police purposes.[citation needed ]\nProtection against data retention \nThe current directive proposal (see above) would force ISPs to record the internet communications of its users. The basic assumption is that this information can be used to identify with whom someone, whether innocent citizen or terrorist, communicated throughout a specific timespan. Believing that such as mandate would be useful is ignoring that some very committed community of crypto professionals has been preparing for such legislation for decades. Below are some strategies available today to anyone to protect themselves, avoid such traces, and render such expensive and legally dubious logging operations useless.\n\nAnonymizing proxy services: Web \nThere are anonymizing proxies that provide slightly more private web access. Proxies must use HTTPS encryption in order to provide any level of protection at all. Unfortunately, proxies require the user to place a large amount of trust in the proxy operator (since they see everything the user does over HTTP), and may be subject to traffic analysis.\n\nP2P communications \nSome P2P services like file transfer or voice over IP use other computers to allow communication between computers behind firewalls. This means that trying to follow a call between two citizens might, mistakenly, identify a third citizen unaware of the communication.\n\nPrivacy enhancing tools \nFor security conscious citizens with some basic technical knowledge, tools like I2P \u2013 The Anonymous Network, Tor, Mixmaster and the cryptography options integrated into any many modern mail clients can be employed.\nI2P is an international peer-to-peer anonymizing network, which aims at not only evading data retention, but also at making spying by other parties impossible. The structure is similar to the one TOR (see next paragraph) uses, but there are substantial differences. It protects better against traffic analysis and offers strong anonymity and for net-internal traffic end-to-end encryption. Due to unidirectional tunnels it is less prone to timing attacks than Tor. In I2P, several services are available: anonymous browsing, anonymous e-mails, anonymous instant messenger, anonymous file-sharing, and anonymous hosting of websites, among others.\nTor is a project of the U.S. non-profit Tor Project[81] to develop and improve an onion routing network to shield its users from traffic analysis. Mixmaster is a remailer service that allows anonymous email sending.\nJAP is a project very similar to Tor. It is designed to route web requests through several proxies to hide the end user's Internet address. Tor support has been included into JAP.\n\nInitiative against extensive data retention \nThe Arbeitskreis Vorratsdatenspeicherung (German Working Group on Data Retention) is an association of civil rights campaigners, data protection activists and Internet users. The Arbeitskreis coordinates the campaign against the introduction of data retention in Germany.[82]\nAn analysis of federal Crime Agency (BKA) statistics published on 27 January 2010 by civil liberties NGO AK Vorrat revealed that data retention did not make a prosecution of serious crime any more effective.[83]\nAs the EU Commission is currently considering changes to the controversial EU data retention directive, a coalition of more than 100 civil liberties, data protection and human rights associations, jurists, trade unions and others are urging the Commission to propose the repeal of the EU requirements regarding data retention in favour of a system of expedited preservation and targeted collection of traffic data.[83]\n\nPlans for extending data retention to social networks \nIn November 2012, answers to a parliamentary inquiry in the German Bundestag revealed plans of some EU countries including France to extend data retention to chats and social media. Furthermore, the German Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (Germany's domestic intelligence agency) has confirmed that it has been working with the ETSI LI Technical Committee since 2003.[84][85][86][87][88]\n\nSee also \nData security\nData Retention Directive\nData retention hardware\nData Protection Act 1998\nComputer data storage\nCustomer proprietary network information\nData privacy\nData Retention Directive\nElectronic discovery\nLawful interception\nMass surveillance\nNSA call database\nPrivacy\nSecrecy of correspondence\nTraffic analysis\nI2P - The Anonymous Network\nReferences \n\n\n^ Rouse, Margaret. \"Data retention policy\". TechTarget. Retrieved 30 October 2014 . \n\n^ Rouse, Margaret. \"Data retention\". TechTarget. Retrieved 30 October 2014 . \n\n^ Li, J; Singhal, S; Swaminathan, R; Karp, AH (19 October 2012). \"Managing Data Retention Policies at Scale\". IEEE Xplore. 9 (4): 393\u2013406. doi:10.1109\/TNSM.2012.101612.110203. \n\n^ \"Australia passes controversial new metadata law\". BBC News. 26 March 2015. Retrieved 28 March 2015 . \n\n^ Scott, Elise (27 March 2015). \"Metadata laws pass parliament\". AAP. 7 News. Archived from the original on 8 April 2015. Retrieved 28 March 2015 . \n\n^ Knott, Matthew (30 October 2014). \"Malcolm Turnbull introduces legislation for metadata retention scheme\". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 14 November 2014 . \n\n^ Malcolm, Jeremy (3 November 2014). \"To Nobody's Surprise, Australian \"Terrorism\" Law May Be Used for Copyright Enforcement\". EFF. Retrieved 14 November 2014 . \n\n^ Kerin, John. \"What new metadata laws mean for you\". Australian Financial Review. Retrieved 28 March 2015 . \n\n^ Gardiner, Bonnie (8 April 2015). \"Metadata regime to spur speculative invoicing, say Greens\". CIO. 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Danish Ministry of Justice. 13 October 2006. \n\n^ \"Sweden is ordered to make a lump sum payment of \u20ac3 000 000 for its delay in transposing the Data Retention Directive into national law\" (PDF) . Court of Justice of the European Union (No 66\/13). 30 May 2013. \n\n^ \"ECJ sets important legal precedent by striking down Data Retention Directive\". Open Europe Blog. 8 April 2014. \n\n^ Tobias Olsson (26 May 2009). \"Sverige st\u00e4ms f\u00f6r datalagring\" (in Swedish). SvD. Retrieved 2011-12-28 . \n\n^ Ullman, Tommie (21 March 2012). \"The Riksdag said Yes to Data Retention Directive\". Stockholm News. Archived from the original on 3 August 2012. Retrieved 2012-09-19 . \n\n^ Lagring av trafikuppgifter f\u00f6r brottsbek\u00e4mpning (PDF) (in Swedish). Stockholm: Bet\u00e4nkande av Trafikuppgiftsutredningen. 1 November 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 November 2011. Retrieved 2011-12-24 . \n\n^ Essers, Loek (11 April 2014). \"Sweden won't enforce data retention law against ISP that deleted metadata\". PCWorld. \n\n^ Tung, Liam (29 October 2014). \"Swedish data retention back in full swing minus one ISP\". ZDNet. \n\n^ Meyer, David (29 October 2014). \"Swedish ISP Bahnhof threatened with fine for not storing customer data for law enforcement\". GigaOm. \n\n^ \"Gesetz zur Neuregelung der Telekommunikations\u00fcberwachung und anderer verdeckter Ermittlungsma\u00dfnahmen sowie zur Umsetzung der Richtlinie 2006\/24\/EG.\" Bundesgesetzblatt (BGBl.), Part I, No. 70, p. 3198, 31. December 2007.(in German) \n\n^ \"BBC UK German court orders stored telecoms data deletion\", BBC News website, English \n\n^ \"Endg\u00fcltiges Ergebnis der Namentlichen Abstimmung Nr. 1\" (PDF) . Deutscher Bundestag. 2015-10-16. Retrieved 2016-06-28 . \n\n^ \"Entwurf eines Gesetzes zur Einf\u00fchrung einer Speicherpflicht und einer H\u00f6chstspeicherfrist f\u00fcr Verkehrsdaten\" (PDF) . Deutscher Bundestag. 2016-06-09. Retrieved 2016-06-28 . \n\n^ \"Germany Just Introduced Data Retention. Politicians Should Be Ashamed\". Tutanota. 2015-10-16. Retrieved 2017-06-22 . \n\n^ \"Bundesnetzagentur - Umsetzung \u00a7\u00a7 110, 113 TKG - Speicherpflicht und H\u00f6chstspeicherfrist f\u00fcr Verkehrsdaten\". Bundesnetzagentur. June 28, 2017. Retrieved November 16, 2017 . \n\n^ \"CE solicit\u0103 Rom\u00e2niei s\u0103 transpun\u0103 integral normele UE \u00een privin\u0163a p\u0103str\u0103rii datelolor - Romania Libera\". romanialibera.ro. Retrieved 19 April 2018 . \n\n^ \"The Legality of the Data Retention Directive in Light of the Fundamental Rights to Privacy and Data Protection | Feiler | European Journal of Law and Technology\". Ejlt.org. Retrieved 2014-01-26 . \n\n^ Romanian Constitutional Court Decision no.1258 of Oct. 8, 2009, Official Gazette no. 798 of Nov. 23, 2009.In: http:\/\/ejlt.org\/\/article\/view\/29\/75 \n\n^ a b \"Traian Basescu a promulgat asa numita 'lege Big Brother' care prevede stocarea pentru sase luni a datelor de trafic ale tuturor utilizatorilor de telefonie si internet\". hotnews.ro. Retrieved 19 April 2018 . \n\n^ \"EC drops case against Romania as data retention law passes\". www.telecompaper.com. Retrieved 19 April 2018 . \n\n^ \"Pre\u015fedintele a promulgat \"Legea Big Brother\" \". adevarul.ro. 12 July 2012. Retrieved 19 April 2018 . \n\n^ Avocatnet.ro. \"Legea Big Brother a intrat in vigoare! Operatorii de telefonie si internet vor putea stoca o serie de date ale abonatilor\". avocatnet.ro. Retrieved 19 April 2018 . \n\n^ \"Legea \"Big Brother\", prin care furnizorii de telefonie \u015fi internet erau obliga\u0163i s\u0103 re\u0163in\u0103 date ale abona\u0163ilor, declarat\u0103 neconstitu\u0163ional\u0103\". mediafax.ro. Retrieved 2014-07-08 . \n\n^ Martin Husovec on April 28, 2014, FIRST EUROPEAN CONSTITUTIONAL COURT SUSPENDS DATA RETENTION AFTER THE DECISION OF THE COURT OF JUSTICE OF EU \n\n^ \nHeini J\u00e4rvinen, Slovak Constitutional Court suspends data retention legislation \n\n^ \"Archived copy\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-05-20. Retrieved 2015-05-19 . CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link) \n\n^ http:\/\/www.eisionline.org\/index.php\/sk\/projekty-m-2\/ochrana-sukromia\/109-the-slovak-constitutional-court-cancelled-mass-surveillance-of-citizens \n\n^ \"Russian ISPs will need to store content and metadata, open backdoors\". Retrieved 2016-08-10 . \n\n^ Khrennikov, Ilya. \"Putin's 'Big Brother' Surveillance Law Criticized by Snowden\". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2016-08-10 . \n\n^ \"Draconian Law Rammed Through Russian Parliament\". 2016-06-23. Retrieved 2016-08-10 . \n\n^ (www.dw.com), Deutsche Welle. \"Are Russia's anti-terror laws designed to fight democracy? | Europe | DW.COM | 23.06.2016\". DW.COM. Retrieved 2016-08-10 . \n\n^ \"Russia is on the verge of a new snooping law and 100,000 are not happy\". 2016-08-10. Retrieved 2016-08-10 . \n\n^ Norway (2011-04-05). \"Updated: Parliament passes Data Retention Directive \/ News \/ The Foreigner \u2014 Norwegian News in English\". Theforeigner.no. Retrieved 2014-01-26 . \n\n^ \"H\u00f8ring om kostnadsfordelingsmodell for datalagringsdirektivet og ny bestemmelse som regulerer politiets adgang til uthenting av data i n\u00f8dsituasjoner\" [Consultation on Cost Allocation Model for Data Retention Directive and the New Provision Regulating Police Access to the Retrieval of Data in Emergency Situations] (in Norwegian). Government of Norway. 26 April 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2013 . \n\n^ Tadi\u0107 signs electronic communications law Archived 2015-04-03 at the Wayback Machine, B92 \n\n^ Switzerland (2016-03-18). \"Bundesgesetz betreffend der \u00dcberwachung des Post- und Fernmeldeverkehrs (B\u00dcPF)\" (PDF) . admin.ch. Retrieved 2017-03-20 . \n\n^ Digitale Gesellschaft (2015-09-05). \"\u00dcberwachung\". digitale-gesellschaft.ch. Retrieved 2017-03-20 . \n\n^ James Ball. \"NSA stores metadata of millions of web users for up to a year, secret files show\". The Guardian. Retrieved 2014-01-26 . \n\n^ Kevin Drum. \"Washington Post Provides New History of NSA Surveillance Programs\". Mother Jones. Retrieved 2014-01-26 . \n\n^ James Ball in (16 January 2014). \"NSA collects millions of text messages daily in 'untargeted' global sweep\". The Guardian. Retrieved 16 January 2014 . \n\n^ Gellman, Barton (6 November 2005). \"The FBI's Secret Scrutiny\". Retrieved 19 April 2018 – via www.washingtonpost.com. \n\n^ Akrivopoulou, Christina; Psygkas, Athanasios (2010). Personal Data Privacy and Protection in a Surveillance Era: Technologies and Practices. Idea Group Inc. p. 257. ISBN 978-1-60960-083-9. These civil liberties organizations also highlighted the absence of such a data retention obligation for ISPs in the US... \n\n^ \"ISP snooping gaining support\". CNET. April 14, 2006. Retrieved 2009-03-17 . \n\n^ \"FBI, politicos renew push for ISP data retention laws\". CNET. April 14, 2006. Retrieved 2009-03-17 . Based on the statements at Wednesday's hearing and previous calls for new laws in this area, the scope of a mandatory data retention law remains fuzzy. It could mean forcing companies to store data for two years about what Internet addresses are assigned to which customers (Comcast said in 2006 that it would be retaining those records for six months). \n\n^ \"FBI wants records kept of Web sites visited\". CNET. February 5, 2010. Retrieved 2010-02-06 . Federal regulations in place since at least 1986 require phone companies that offer toll service to \"retain for a period of 18 months\" records including \"the name, address, and telephone number of the caller, telephone number called, date, time and length of the call.\" \u2014 \"Eighteen million hits an hour would have to have been logged\" ... The purpose of the FBI's request was to identify visitors to two URLs, \"to try to find out...who's going to them.\" \n\n^ \"Proposed Child Pornography Laws Raise Data Retention Concerns\". Channel Web. February 20, 2009. Archived from the original on March 19, 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-17 . \n\n^ \"H.R. 1076: Internet Stopping Adults Facilitating the Exploitation of Today's Youth (SAFETY) Act of 2009\". Govtrack.us. February 13, 2009. \n\n^ \"Europe wide retention of telecommunications data unlikely to help law enforcement agencies in the fight against terrorism\" (PDF) . Eurocop. 2 June 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 July 2011. \n\n^ \"Rights abuse claim at airbase\". BBC News Online. 16 July 2003. \n\n^ \"Police questioned over terror act use\". BBC News Online. 10 September 2003. \n\n^ Inc., The Tor Project. \"Tor Project - Privacy Online\". www.torproject.org. Retrieved 19 April 2018 . \n\n^ \"About us\". Stoppt die Vorratsdatenspeicherung!. 2006-05-01. Retrieved 2014-01-26 . \n\n^ a b \"Study finds telecommunications data retention ineffective (27 Jan 2011)\". Stoppt die Vorratsdatenspeicherung!. Retrieved 2014-01-26 . \n\n^ FM4 Online (ORF): Vorratsspeicherung f\u00fcr Facebook-Daten (in German). 2012-10-30. Retrieved 2012-11-08 \n\n^ \"Study on data retention effectiveness\" (PDF) . vorratsdatenspeicherung.de. Retrieved 19 April 2018 . \n\n^ Patrick. \"Stoppt die Vorratsdatenspeicherung! - Civil society calls for an end to compulsory telecommunications data retention (28 June 2010)\". www.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de. Retrieved 19 April 2018 . \n\n^ Patrick. \"Stoppt die Vorratsdatenspeicherung! - Video: FDP-Pressekonferenz zur Vorratsdatenspeicherung (19.01.2011)\". www.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de. Retrieved 19 April 2018 . \n\n^ Statement by the German Secretary of Justice Archived January 29, 2011, at the Wayback Machine \n\n\nExternal links \nData Retention on the Open Rights Group wiki\nThe Politics of the EU Court Data Retention Opinion: End to Mass Surveillance?\nBowden, Caspar: \"Closed Circuit Television For Inside Your Head: Blanket Traffic Data Retention and the Emergency Anti-Terrorism Legislation\". Computer and Telecommunications Law Review, March 2002.\nBoehm, F. and Cole, M.: Data Retention after the Judgement of the Court of Justice of the European Union (2014). (PDF-file)\nBreyer, P.: \"Telecommunications Data Retention and Human Rights: The Compatibility of Blanket Traffic Data Retention with the ECHR\", European Law Journal, May 2005. (PDF-File, 82 KB)\nCentre for European Policy Studies (CEP): Policy Brief on Data Retention (2011). (PDF-File)\nCrump, C.: Data retention: privacy, anonymity, and accountability online (2003). 56 Stanford Law Review 191-229.\nCybertelecom :: Records Keeping \/ Data Retention\nDigital Rights Ireland: Digital Rights Ireland's challenge against the EU Data Retention Directive and Irish retention legislation on the grounds of European and Irish constitutional law.\nElectronic Privacy Information Center: EPIC data retention page (to 2007)\nEuropean Digital Rights: EDRI news tracking page on data retention (current)\nFeiler, L.: The Data Retention Directive (2008). Seminar paper. (PDF-File)\nFrost & Sullivan Whitepaper: \"Meeting the challenges of Data Retention: Now and in the future\"\nGanj, C.: \"The Lives of Other Judges: Effects of the Romanian Data Retention Judgment\" (December 4, 2009). (PDF-File)\nGoemans, C. and Dumortier, J.: \"Mandatory retention of traffic data in the EU: possible impact on privacy and on-line anonymity[permanent dead link ] . Digital Anonymity and the Law, series IT & Law\/2, T.M.C. Asser Press, 2003, p 161-183. (PDF-File)\nMilford, P.: \"The Data Retention Directive: too fast, too furious a response? (2008). LLM Dissertation \u2013 Southampton Business School. (PDF-File)\nMitrou, L.: \"Communications Data Retention: A Pandora\u2019s Box for Rights and Liberties?\" From Digital Privacy: Theory, Technologies, and Practices edited by Alessandro Acquisti, Stefanos Gritzalis, Costos Lambrinoudakis and Sabrina di Vimercati. Auerbach Publications, 2008. (PDF-File)\nMorariu, M.: How Secure is to Remain Private? On the Controversies of the European Data Retention Directive (2009). Amsterdam Social Science, Vol. 1(2): p. 46-65. (PDF-File)\nStatewatch: The surveillance of telecommunications in the EU.\nUK Data Retention Requirements with full references to legislation, codes of practice, etc.\nUK Home Office: Consultation papers on data retention and on access to communications data.\nWalker, C., & Akdeniz, Y.: \"Anti-Terrorism laws and data retention: war is over?\". Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly, 54(2), Summer edition 2003, 159-182. (PDF-File, 97 KB)\nWorking Group on Data Retention: List of documents relating to communications data retention in the EU (current)\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_retention\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_retention<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 5 March 2019, at 20:43.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 66 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","d77533b92d003d39cee958a82b62391a_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_retention skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data retention<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Data retention<\/b> defines the policies of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Persistent_data\" title=\"Persistent data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4a983959561660483ad5823722894f0\">persistent data<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Records_management\" title=\"Records management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"776f0cc59b663e870b7d26c6b5868575\">records management<\/a> for meeting legal and business <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_archive\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data archive\" data-key=\"97553c0acdb17bbf0d03063f7deb085c\">data archival<\/a> requirements; although sometimes interchangeable, not to be confused with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Protection_Act_1998\" title=\"Data Protection Act 1998\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c31e8341972897bbde3d1dfa3760171\">Data Protection Act 1998<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The different data retention policies weigh legal and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_privacy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data privacy\" data-key=\"d0046f8fc1b53d833da01d7569e91ea8\">privacy<\/a> concerns against economics and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Need_to_know\" title=\"Need to know\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae3f2f2c241a6d5a406bdad5c21caf91\">need-to-know<\/a> concerns to determine the retention time, archival rules, data formats, and the permissible means of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_data_storage\" title=\"Computer data storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c06a35ae9ff26906dd57849f8067bfdb\">storage<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_access\" title=\"Data access\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f8630737798ba2b12f5bec8a18d828f\">access<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" title=\"Encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">encryption<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In the field of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telecommunication\" title=\"Telecommunication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e6c5b88185933f9f03eb88df6b15551\">telecommunications<\/a>, <b>data retention<\/b> generally refers to the storage of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Call_detail_record\" title=\"Call detail record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b71156ae806906621fc5bd9b039ec40c\">call detail records<\/a> (CDRs) of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telephony\" title=\"Telephony\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25ec85ce71c7a7ec52215242b258b62e\">telephony<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">internet<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traffic\" title=\"Traffic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f6b887f77f5f3a2bce33119961a20f9\">traffic<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_transaction\" title=\"Database transaction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91753e6ff342353eeab59f5277c76518\">transaction<\/a> data (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Protocol_Detail_Record\" title=\"Internet Protocol Detail Record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb4a5707015ed887822c4c05337fffcc\">IPDRs<\/a>) by governments and commercial organisations. In the case of government data retention, the data that is stored is usually of telephone calls made and received, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Email\" title=\"Email\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d5abd02ca0ff73bc0596c3ae672ec7e\">emails<\/a> sent and received, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Website\" title=\"Website\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baaafe699fb6fda8b6611a6b03e9f889\">websites<\/a> visited. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telephone_tapping#Location_data\" title=\"Telephone tapping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f212e3352b6dcc8926682c5deb852645\">Location data<\/a> is also collected.\n<\/p><p>The primary objective in government data retention is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traffic_analysis\" title=\"Traffic analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5302f8a0d0efa33a738b78b9adbf6cbc\">traffic analysis<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_surveillance\" title=\"Mass surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"061b28bcb7c5d34d04d8c26d44ca3916\">mass surveillance<\/a>. By analysing the retained data, governments can identify the locations of individuals, an individual's associates and the members of a group such as political opponents. These activities may or may not be lawful, depending on the constitutions and laws of each country. In many jurisdictions access to these databases may be made by a government with little or no judicial oversight.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2012)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the case of commercial data retention, the data retained will usually be on transactions and web sites visited.\n<\/p><p>Data retention also covers data collected by other means (e.g., by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automatic_number-plate_recognition\" title=\"Automatic number-plate recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"860d42b705d4c083b5c1b300f0d6ddb2\">Automatic number-plate recognition<\/a> systems) and held by government and commercial organisations.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_retention_policy\">Data retention policy<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A data retention policy is a recognized and proven protocol within an organization for retaining information for operational use while ensuring adherence to the laws and regulations concerning them. The objectives of a data retention policy are to keep important information for future use or reference, to organize information so it can be searched and accessed at a later date and to dispose of information that is no longer needed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Data_retention_policy_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Data_retention_policy-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The data retention policies within an organization are a set of guidelines that describes which data will be archived, how long it will be kept, what happens to the data at the end of the retention period (archive or destroy) and other factors concerning the retention of the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A part of any effective data retention policy is the permanent deletion of the retained data; achieving secure deletion of data by encrypting the data when stored, and then deleting the encryption key after a specified retention period. Thus, effectively deleting the data object and its copies stored in online and offline locations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Australia\">Australia<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telecommunications_(Interception_and_Access)_Amendment_(Data_Retention)_Act_2015\" title=\"Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Amendment (Data Retention) Act 2015\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2f54dae670bfa3d645673eece49c14d\">Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Amendment (Data Retention) Act 2015<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In 2015, the Australian government introduced <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telecommunications_(Interception_and_Access)_Amendment_(Data_Retention)_Act_2015\" title=\"Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Amendment (Data Retention) Act 2015\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2f54dae670bfa3d645673eece49c14d\">mandatory data retention laws<\/a> that allows data to be retained up to two years.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> The scheme is estimated to cost at least AU$400 million per year to implement, working out to at least $16 per user per year.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> It will require telecommunication providers and ISPs to retain telephony, Internet and email metadata for two years, accessible without a warrant, and could possibly be used to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trade_group_efforts_against_file_sharing\" title=\"Trade group efforts against file sharing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f1c386fd9e50544e869005f3305621d\">target file sharing<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attorney-General_of_Australia\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Attorney-General of Australia\" data-key=\"9abea594fcb696a092b50aaa4e3d2471\">Attorney-General<\/a> has broad discretion on which agencies are allowed to access metadata, including private agencies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-afr_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-afr-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Australian_Greens\" title=\"Australian Greens\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cca2c859c3a71d88043e341336108633\">The Greens<\/a> were strongly opposed to the introduction of these laws, citing privacy concerns and the increased prospect of 'speculative invoicing' over alleged copyright infringement cases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> The Labor Party initially opposed as well, but later agreed to passing the law after additional safeguards were put in place to afford journalists some protection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"European_Union\">European Union<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>On 15 March 2006, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Union\" title=\"European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9f4de8ef928bad86853bc083498b760\">European Union<\/a> adopted the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Retention_Directive\" title=\"Data Retention Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97dcc4c879c13050f302a7e7873fa6e9\">Data Retention Directive<\/a>, on \"the retention of data generated or processed in connection with the provision of publicly available electronic communications services or of public communications networks and amending Directive 2002\/58\/EC\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> It requires Member States to ensure that communications providers retain the necessary data as specified in the Directive for a period of between 6 months and 2 years in order to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Trace and identify the source of a communication;<\/li>\n<li>Trace and identify the destination of a communication;<\/li>\n<li>Identify the date, time, and duration of a communication;<\/li>\n<li>Identify the type of communication;<\/li>\n<li>Identify the communication device;<\/li>\n<li>Identify the location of mobile communication equipment.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The data is required to be available to \"competent\" national authorities in specific cases, \"for the purpose of the investigation, detection and prosecution of serious crime, as defined by each Member State in its national law\".\n<\/p><p>The Directive covers <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fixed_telephony\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fixed telephony\" data-key=\"b0c8bd6f76fbf4562fc3d73579cb2656\">fixed telephony<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mobile_telephony\" title=\"Mobile telephony\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be79080e70852813cb58d19fe8fbd306\">mobile telephony<\/a>, Internet access, email, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/VoIP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"VoIP\" data-key=\"2d467c7c7f30781fde1dc6b5c46c43d0\">VoIP<\/a>. Member States were required to transpose it into national law within 18 months\u2014no later than September 2007. However, they may if they wish postpone the application of the Directive to Internet access, email, and VoIP for a further 18 months after this date. A majority of Member States exercised this option. All 28 EU States have notified the European Commission about the transposition of the Directive into their national law. Of these, however, Germany and Belgium have only transposed the legislation partially.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A report evaluating the Directive was published by the European Commission in April 2011.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>It concluded that data retention was a valuable tool for ensuring criminal justice and public protection, but that it had achieved only limited harmonisation. There were serious concerns from service providers about the compliance costs and from civil society organisations who claim that mandatory data retention was an unacceptable infringement of the fundamental right to privacy and the protection of personal data. The Commission is now reviewing the legislation.\n<\/p><p>In response to the report, on May 31, 2011, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Data_Protection_Supervisor\" title=\"European Data Protection Supervisor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d62901ecda8499422039237c83279fc3\">European Data Protection Supervisor<\/a> expressed some concerns on the European Data Retention Directive, underlining that the Directive \"does not meet the requirements imposed by the fundamental rights to privacy and data protection\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>On 8 April 2014, the Court of Justice of the European Union declared the Directive 2006\/24\/EC invalid for violating fundamental rights. The Council's Legal Services have been reported to have stated in closed session that paragraph 59 of the European Court of Justice's ruling \"suggests that general and blanket data retention is no longer possible\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> A legal opinion funded by the Greens\/EFA Group in the European Parliament finds that the blanket retention data of unsuspicious persons generally violates the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, both in regard to national telecommunications data retention laws and to similar EU data retention schemes (PNR, TFTP, TFTS, LEA access to EES, Eurodac, VIS).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"United_Kingdom\">United Kingdom<\/span><\/h3>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_Retention_and_Investigatory_Powers_Act_2014\">Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act 2014<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act came into force in 2014. It is the answer by the United Kingdom parliament after a declaration of invalidity was made by the Court of Justice of the European Union in relation to Directive 2006\/ 24\/EC in order to make provision, about the retention of certain communications data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DRIP_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DRIP-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\nIn addition, the purpose of the act is to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Amend the grounds for issuing interception warrants, or granting or giving certain authorizations or notices.<\/li>\n<li>Make provision about the extraterritorial application of that Part and about the meaning of \u201ctelecommunications service\u201d for the purposes of that Act;<\/li>\n<li>Make provision about a review of the operation and regulation of investigatory powers; and for connected purposes <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DRIP_20-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DRIP-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The act is also to ensure that communication companies in the UK retain communications data so that it continues to be available when it is needed by law enforcement agencies and others to investigate committed crimes and protect the public.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\nData protection law requires data that isn't of use to be deleted, this means that the intention of this Act could be using data retention to acquire further policing powers using, as the Act make data retention mandatory.\n<\/p><p>An element of this Act is the provision of the investigatory powers to be reported by 1 May 2015.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Controversy\">Controversy<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Retention_and_Investigatory_Powers_Act_2014\" title=\"Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act 2014\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"470b6462847f898af489eeadf8a35525\">Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act 2014<\/a> was referred to as the \"snooper\u2019s charter\" communications data bill.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Guardian_30_Sept_2014_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Guardian_30_Sept_2014-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\nThe then <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Home_Secretary\" title=\"Home Secretary\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38986c96d9f3cc72f38f5f1c6468068f\">Home Secretary<\/a> Theresa May (and now current <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom\" title=\"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b56c21e99ecec4168787c35f6ab51086\">Prime Minister<\/a>), a strong supporter of the Parliament Act, in a speech said that \u201cIf we (parliament) do not act, we risk sleepwalking into a society in which crime can no longer be investigated and terrorists can plot their murderous schemes undisrupted.\u201d <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Guardian_30_Sept_2014_23-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Guardian_30_Sept_2014-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom\" title=\"Parliament of the United Kingdom\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"28abbf09cedf0ab1c7e4d188ee06f606\">United Kingdom parliament<\/a> its new laws increasing the power of data retention is essential to tackling crime and protecting the public. However, not all agree and believe that the primary objective in the data retention by the government is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_surveillance\" title=\"Mass surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"061b28bcb7c5d34d04d8c26d44ca3916\">mass surveillance<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>After Europe's highest court said the depth of data retention breaches citizens' fundamental <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Right_to_privacy\" title=\"Right to privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a2838fa3ea101040654b6dbd0a1b5c56\">right to privacy<\/a> and the UK created its own Act, it has led to the British government being accused of breaking the law by forcing telecoms and internet providers to retain records of phone calls, texts and internet usage.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Guardian_24_June_2014_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Guardian_24_June_2014-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>From this information, governments can identify an individual's associates, location, group memberships, political affiliations and other personal information.\n<\/p>\n<\/p><p>In a television interview, the EU <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Advocate_General\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Advocate General\" data-key=\"8da281378cf562d9d1d3fc792c35458d\">Advocate General<\/a> Pedro Cruz Villal\u00f3n highlighted the risk that the retained data might be used illegally in ways that are \"potentially detrimental to privacy or, more broadly, fraudulent or even malicious\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Guardian_24_June_2014_24-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Guardian_24_June_2014-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Retention_of_other_data\">Retention of other data<\/span><\/h4>\n<dl><dt>Postal data \u2013 retention period unknown <\/dt>\n<dd>Information written on the outside of a postal item (such as a letter or parcel), online tracking of postal items, records of special postal items (such as records of registered, recorded or special delivery postal items), records of parcel consignment, delivery and collection.<\/dd>\n<dt>Banking data \u2013 seven years <\/dt>\n<dd><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Economist\" title=\"The Economist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4158a46c0e55d5660f61e619889b8a1d\">The Economist<\/a><\/i> reported that UK banks are required to retain data on all financial transactions for seven years though this has not been verified.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2013)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> It is not clear whether data on credit card transactions is also retained for seven years.<\/dd>\n<dt>Vehicle movement data \u2013 two years <\/dt>\n<dd>Documents leaked from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Association_of_Chief_Police_Officers\" title=\"Association of Chief Police Officers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bff4d5a6d3f876e90ab394e80008e91\">Association of Chief Police Officers<\/a> (ACPO) have revealed that the UK is planning to collect data from a nationwide network of automatic numberplate recognition cameras and store the data for two years in a controversial new centre being built at Hendon.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> This data could then be linked to other data held by the government and watchlists from the police and security services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Access_to_retained_data\">Access to retained data<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The bodies that are able to access retained data in the United Kingdom are listed in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulation_of_Investigatory_Powers_Act_2000\" title=\"Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03872f68db503ee80bed6f82528263f9\">Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000<\/a> (RIPA). These are the following:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Police forces, as defined in section 81(1) of RIPA<\/li>\n<li>National Criminal Intelligence Service<\/li>\n<li>Serious Organised Crime Agency, formerly the National Crime Squad<\/li>\n<li>HM Customs and Excise<\/li>\n<li>Inland Revenue (the latter two have been merged into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HM_Revenue_and_Customs\" title=\"HM Revenue and Customs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"31738c4f9679bb4374013e4a4059ce00\">HM Revenue and Customs<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>Security Service<\/li>\n<li>Secret Intelligence Service<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Government_Communications_Headquarters\" title=\"Government Communications Headquarters\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34dedcfdf47b6338132f2851287e7e54\">Government Communications Headquarters<\/a> (GCHQ)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>However, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Regulation_of_Investigatory_Powers_Act_2000\" title=\"Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"03872f68db503ee80bed6f82528263f9\">Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000<\/a> (RIPA) also gives the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Home_Secretary\" title=\"Home Secretary\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38986c96d9f3cc72f38f5f1c6468068f\">Home Secretary<\/a> powers to change the list of bodies with access to retained data through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secondary_legislation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Secondary legislation\" data-key=\"941e37b5ba35499119b282f1e458e0c0\">secondary legislation<\/a>. The list of authorised bodies now includes:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Food Standards Agency<\/li>\n<li>Local authorities<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Health_Service\" title=\"National Health Service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38f4467b4b5fcdccd114843b7654296e\">National Health Service<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reasons_for_accessing_retained_data\">Reasons for accessing retained data<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The justifications for accessing retained data in the UK are set out in the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (RIPA). They include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Interests of national security;<\/li>\n<li>Preventing or detecting crime or of preventing disorder;<\/li>\n<li>Economic well-being of the United Kingdom;<\/li>\n<li>Public safety;<\/li>\n<li>Protecting public health;<\/li>\n<li>Assessing or collecting any tax, duty, levy or other imposition, contribution or charge payable to a government department;<\/li>\n<li>Preventing death or injury in an emergency or any damage to a person's physical or mental health, or of mitigating any injury or damage to a person's physical or mental health;<\/li>\n<li>Any other purpose not listed above which is specified for the purposes of this subsection by an order made by the Secretary of State.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Czech_Republic\">Czech Republic<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Implementation of the directive was part of Act. No. 259\/2010 Coll. on electronic communications as later amended. Under Art. 97 (3), telecommunication data are to be stored between 6 and 12 months. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Constitutional_Court_of_the_Czech_Republic\" title=\"Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e4e7fd240be6ac2b415acd70a4cc3d1\">Czech Constitutional Court<\/a> has deemed the law unconstitutional and found it to be infringing on the peoples right to privacy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As of July 2012, new legislation was on its way.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Italy\">Italy<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In July 2005 new legal requirements<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> on data retention came into force in Italy.\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Subscriber information <\/dt>\n<dd>Internet caf\u00e9s and public telephone shops with at least three terminals must seek a license permit within 30 days from the Ministry of Home Affairs. They must also store traffic data for a period which may be determined later by administrative decree. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wi-Fi_hotspot\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wi-Fi hotspot\" data-key=\"cae8c2c6c7aef31ad3dcd9ea1dbfb205\">Wi-Fi hotspots<\/a> and locations that do not store traffic data have to secure ID information from users before allowing them to log on. For example, users may be required to enter a number from an ID card or driving license. It is not clear how this information is validated. Mobile telephony users must identify themselves before service activation, or before a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SIM_card\" title=\"SIM card\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33be88edf599d629a00be7eae8630346\">SIM card<\/a> may be obtained. Resellers of mobile subscriptions or pre-paid cards must verify the identity of purchasers and retain a photocopy of identity cards.<\/dd>\n<dt>Telephony data <\/dt>\n<dd>Data, including location data, on fixed line and mobile telephony must be retained for 24 months. There is no requirement to store the content of calls. Telephony operators must retain a record of all unsuccessful dial attempts.<\/dd>\n<dt>ISP data <\/dt>\n<dd>Internet service providers must retain all data for at least 12 months. The law does not specify exactly what traffic data must be retained. There is no requirement to store the content of internet communications.<\/dd>\n<dt>Legality <\/dt>\n<dd>The legislation of July 2005 enables data retention by outlawing all the relevant data protection provisions until 31 December 2007. Under the data protection provisions, service providers are obliged to store traffic data and user data for no less than 365 days, even if they no longer need it to process the communication or to send bills, policy requires user id information, location, tracking data be stored and kept on file for easy access by law enforcement and\/or other authorities who request this information (permission must be asked to view sensitive user ID data on file). The traffic data which will now be retained can be used for anti-terrorism purposes and for general penal enforcement of criminal offences large and small.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<p>Italy already required the retention of telephony traffic data for 48 months, but without location data. Italy has adopted the EU Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications 2002 but with an exemption to the requirement to erase traffic data.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Denmark\">Denmark<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Denmark\" title=\"Denmark\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1628be70aad30e71df19f122ed87bae7\">Denmark<\/a> has implemented the EU data retention directive and much more, by logging all internet flow or sessions between operators and operators and consumers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>\"2.2.1. Session logging (section 5(1) of the Executive Order) Providers of access to the internet must, in respect of the initiating and terminating package of an internet session, retain data that identifies the sending and receiving internet protocol address (in the following called IP address), the sending and receiving port number and the transmission protocol.\"<\/li>\n<li>\"2.2.2. Sampling (section 5(4) of the Executive Order) The obligation to retain data about the initiating and terminating package of an internet session does not apply to providers in case such retention is not technically feasible in their systems. In that case, data must instead be retained for every 500th package that is part of an end user\u2019s communication on the internet.\"<\/li>\n<li>\"2.2.5. Hot spots (section 5(3) of the Executive Order) In addition to the internet data that must otherwise be retained, the provider must retain data that identifies the precise geographic or physical location of a hot spot and the identity of the communication equipment used. This means that a provider of internet access via a hot spot must retain data on a user\u2019s access to the internet and, at the same time, retain data that identifies the geographic location of the hot spot in question.\"<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sweden\">Sweden<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sweden\" title=\"Sweden\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9df59391e23fe9d7ac0fea451ab36da8\">Sweden<\/a> implemented the EU's 2006 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Retention_Directive\" title=\"Data Retention Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97dcc4c879c13050f302a7e7873fa6e9\">Data Retention Directive<\/a> in May 2012, and it was fined \u20ac3 million by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Court_of_Justice_of_the_European_Union\" title=\"Court of Justice of the European Union\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"480b86c6422bc85cba8a49949877790d\">Court of Justice of the European Union<\/a> for its belated <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transposition_(law)\" title=\"Transposition (law)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"607ce52726deba068ca61af6f1cc0af1\">transposition<\/a> (the deadline was 15 September 2007).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> The directive allowed member states to determine the duration data is retained, ranging from six months to two years; the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Riksdag\" title=\"Riksdag\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"942a26314ec6d8446c8afbeee9aaa4f0\">Riksdag<\/a>, Sweden's legislature, opted for six months.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In April 2014, however, the CJEU struck down the Data Retention Directive. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swedish_Post_and_Telecom_Authority\" title=\"Swedish Post and Telecom Authority\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a61834a9105b13d007be1c54792283ea\">PTS<\/a>, Sweden's telecommunications regulator, told Swedish <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_service_provider\" title=\"Internet service provider\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f9d9e4f7009df2d06a1ede76c8391ebd\">ISPs<\/a> and telcos that they would no longer have to retain call records and internet metadata.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> But after two government investigations found that Sweden's data retention law did not break its obligations to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights\" title=\"European Convention on Human Rights\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dc0038e7a12a8c58b2ff785dd368c\">European Convention on Human Rights<\/a>, the PTS reversed course.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> Most of Sweden's major telecommunications companies complied immediately, though <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tele2\" title=\"Tele2\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd640f999073cfaccbb8a27b92baebce\">Tele2<\/a> lodged an unsuccessful appeal. The one holdout ISP, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bahnhof\" title=\"Bahnhof\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e34da91765d2ee58e4a7c89e0bd6dc13\">Bahnhof<\/a>, was given an order to comply by November 24 deadline or face a five million <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Swedish_krona\" title=\"Swedish krona\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51c912e0611dd4e0ca0c0aeaf7b1c290\">krona<\/a> ($680,000) fine.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Germany\">Germany<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Germany\" title=\"Germany\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4158270cd6f788dfa9227a7042402194\">German<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bundestag\" title=\"Bundestag\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4866cb8cec88f292b2124ebc26321f4f\">Bundestag<\/a> had implemented the directive in \"Gesetz zur Neuregelung der Telekommunikations\u00fcberwachung und anderer verdeckter Ermittlungsma\u00dfnahmen sowie zur Umsetzung der Richtlinie 2006\/24\/EG\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup> The law became valid on 1 January 2008. Any communications data had to be retained for six months. On 2 March 2010, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Constitutional_Court_of_Germany\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Federal Constitutional Court of Germany\" data-key=\"536d5b1f91e4e64100009f587d1739be\">Federal Constitutional Court of Germany<\/a> ruled the law <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basic_Law_for_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany\" title=\"Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47c8128bc70c585512dd459a7e53f0a4\">unconstitutional<\/a> as a violation of the guarantee of the secrecy of correspondence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> On 16 October 2015, a second law for shorter, up to 10 weeks long, data retention excluding email communication was passed by parliament.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> However, this act was ruled incompatible with German and European laws by an injunction of the Higher Administrative Court of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/North_Rhine-Westphalia\" title=\"North Rhine-Westphalia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37e522bba376d2d92c021784a1ac6a56\">North Rhine-Westphalia<\/a>. As a result, on June 28, 2017, three days before the planned start of data retention, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Network_Agency\" title=\"Federal Network Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5db0ed05f1ffb4471d565816a12e0a7f\">Federal Network Agency<\/a> suspended the introduction of data retention until a final decision in the principle proceedings.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Romania\">Romania<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The EU directive has been transposed into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Romanian_law\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Romanian law\" data-key=\"96e3eb36407b6f7b850c97f61f05a733\">Romanian law<\/a> as well, initially as Law 298\/2008.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> However, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Constitutional_Court_of_Romania\" title=\"Constitutional Court of Romania\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48f2da57b9e0dc870c57182d3378a122\">Constitutional Court of Romania<\/a> subsequently struck down the law in 2009 as violating constitutional rights.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup> The court held that the transposing act violated the constitutional rights of privacy, of confidentiality in communications, and of free speech.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Commission\" title=\"European Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81898eaa89710c9f6ca992957c6e3e7c\">European Commission<\/a> has subsequently sued Romania in 2011 for non-implementation, threatening Romania with a fine of 30,000 euros per day.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hotnews_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hotnews-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup> The Romanian parliament passed a new law in 2012, which was signed by president <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traian_B%C4%83sescu\" title=\"Traian B\u0103sescu\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4b3b0f0e93ddb83f2b54be6049ba0fb\">Traian B\u0103sescu<\/a> in June.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup> The Law 82\/2012 has been nicknamed \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Big_Brother_(Nineteen_Eighty-Four)\" title=\"Big Brother (Nineteen Eighty-Four)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5951a6172ff9b5b652f3b96d28596d31\">Big Brother<\/a>\" (using the untranslated English expression) by various Romanian non-governmental organizations opposing it.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hotnews_49-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hotnews-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup> On July 8, 2014 this law too was declared unconstitutional by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Constitutional_Court_of_Romania\" title=\"Constitutional Court of Romania\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48f2da57b9e0dc870c57182d3378a122\">Constitutional Court of Romania<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Slovakia\">Slovakia<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Slovakia\" title=\"Slovakia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26e64bc292a1f281f1ccdf82d413bfc4\">Slovakia<\/a> has implemented the directive in Act No. 610\/2003 Coll. on electronic communications as later amended. Telecommunication data are stored for six months in the case of data related to Internet, Internet email and Internet telephony (art. 59a (6) a)), and for 12 months in the case of other types of communication (art. 59a (6) b)).\n<\/p><p>In April 2014, the Slovak Constitutional Court preliminary suspended effectiveness of the Slovak implementation of Data Retention Directive and accepted the case for the further review.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup> In April 2015 Constitutional court decided that some parts of Slovak laws implementing DR Directive are not in compliance with Slovak constitution and Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup> According to now invalid provisions of the Electronic Communications Act, the providers of electronic communications were obliged to store traffic data, localization data and data about the communicating parties for a period of 6 months (in the case Internet, email or VoIP communication) or for a period of 12 months (in case of other communication).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Russia\">Russia<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A 2016 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anti-terrorism_legislation\" title=\"Anti-terrorism legislation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"067f5c1e934ee9c872b4a5955fd31045\">anti-terrorist<\/a> federal law 374-FZ known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Yarovaya_Law\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Yarovaya Law\" data-key=\"a62b8109d5e30c545433749a7285dd4e\">Yarovaya Law<\/a> requires all telecommunication providers to store phone call, text and email metadata, as well as the actual voice recordings for up to 6 months. Messaging services like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WhatsApp\" title=\"WhatsApp\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd273a81d181b16a8f9fd79a883afe50\">Whatsapp<\/a> are required to provide cryptographic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backdoor_(computing)\" title=\"Backdoor (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1d88a200650aff5c48f98c7ee2360cd\">backdoors<\/a> to law-enforcement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup> The law has been widely criticized both in Russia and abroad as an infringement of human rights and a waste of resources.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-59\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-62\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Norway\">Norway<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<p>The EU's Data Retention Directive has been implemented into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Law_of_Norway\" title=\"Law of Norway\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5ee3375c1937b6cdd6dae635eaefa325\">Norwegian law<\/a> in 2011,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup> but this will not be in effect before 1 January 2015.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Serbia\">Serbia<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>On 29 June 2010, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Assembly_(Serbia)\" title=\"National Assembly (Serbia)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b442d4fe34a0cd81d9289d5bf910077e\">Serbian parliament<\/a> adopted the Law on Electronic Communications, according to which the operator must keep the data on electronic communications for 12 months. This provision was criticized as unconstitutional by opposition parties and by Ombudsman <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sa%C5%A1a_Jankovi%C4%87\" title=\"Sa\u0161a Jankovi\u0107\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dd42ace1101d07fbfbf4e3186c9c8e7d\">Sa\u0161a Jankovi\u0107<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Switzerland\">Switzerland<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>As from 7 July 2016, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Law_of_Switzerland\" title=\"Law of Switzerland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5867852c89ad84e2b6d33d274e2dbf60\">Swiss Federal Law<\/a> about the Surveillance of the Post and Telecommunications entered into force, passed by the Swiss government on 18 March 2016.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Mobile_phones\">Mobile phones<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Swiss mobile phone operators have to retain the following data for six months according to the B\u00dcPF:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Phone numbers of incoming and outgoing calls<\/li>\n<li>SIM- (Subscriber Identity Module), IMSI- (International Mobile Subscribers Identity) and IMEI-numbers (International Mobile Equipment Identity)<\/li>\n<li>\u201ethe location and the electrical boresight of the antenna of the mobile phone with which the monitored person is connected to the communications system at the time of the communication\u201c<\/li>\n<li>date, time and duration of the connection<\/li><\/ol>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Email\">Email<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>All Internet service providers must retain the following data for six months:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>type of the connections (telephone, xDSL, Cable, permanent line etc.) and if known login data, address information of the origin (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MAC_address\" title=\"MAC address\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78ff6ca548d3df989f1c5fdd2d33a840\">MAC address<\/a>, telephone number), name, address and occupation of the user and duration of the connection from beginning to end<\/li>\n<li>time of the transmission or reception of an email, header information according to the SMTP-protocol and the IP addresses of the sending and receiving email application.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Email application refers to SMTP-, POP3-, IMAP4, webmail- and remail-server.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"United_States\">United States<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Security_Agency\" title=\"National Security Agency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2897c7c54e158a987495468907ded569\">National Security Agency<\/a> (NSA) commonly records Internet metadata for the whole planet for up to a year in its <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MARINA\" title=\"MARINA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afebb35482ea6145ebadc7a8d8668a14\">MARINA<\/a> database, where it is used for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pattern-of-life_analysis\" title=\"Pattern-of-life analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcf1f086deea3f7e33ca8a12af2f98e6\">pattern-of-life analysis<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/US_person\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"US person\" data-key=\"47db5764987b239b468893413a69b06e\">U.S. persons<\/a> are not exempt because metadata are not considered data under US law (section 702 of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Act_of_1978_Amendments_Act_of_2008\" title=\"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 Amendments Act of 2008\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5937dd4cd1f36d83c10708c250a555cf\">FISA Amendments Act<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup> Its equivalent for phone records is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MAINWAY\" title=\"MAINWAY\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3046f302e61827867e5add45d284a3b7\">MAINWAY<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-69\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup> The NSA records <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SMS\" title=\"SMS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aeb1b26480065d70d625e9de5013d0bb\">SMS<\/a> and similar <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Text_messaging\" title=\"Text messaging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51178d6f5c9ed860fbc01c38a7d9eac2\">text messages<\/a> worldwide through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DISHFIRE\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"DISHFIRE\" data-key=\"fe444760b95bb91813abc03c281f35a5\">DISHFIRE<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-guardian_70-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-guardian-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Leveraging_commercial_data_retention\">Leveraging commercial data retention<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Various United States agencies leverage the (voluntary) data retention practised by many U.S. commercial organizations through programs such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PRISM_(surveillance_program)\" title=\"PRISM (surveillance program)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47f207f16c2f993a8f72a57a86dada89\">PRISM<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MUSCULAR\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"MUSCULAR\" data-key=\"2d3c8b62ef9d6290282684e945c2666a\">MUSCULAR<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Amazon is known to retain extensive data on customer transactions. Google is also known to retain data on searches, and other transactions. If a company is based in the United States the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation\" title=\"Federal Bureau of Investigation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08cb2f20ea0a4832a7374b41d5852f66\">Federal Bureau of Investigation<\/a> (FBI) can obtain access to such information by means of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Security_Letter\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"National Security Letter\" data-key=\"37d03f22dab769489a905c1d81e9564e\">National Security Letter<\/a> (NSL). The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation\" title=\"Electronic Frontier Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"448ef28a1a41cd9c59b4b7b93093d3fe\">Electronic Frontier Foundation<\/a> states that \"NSLs are secret subpoenas issued directly by the FBI without any judicial oversight. These secret subpoenas allow the FBI to demand that online service providers or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ecommerce\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ecommerce\" data-key=\"7a5e97e717a7fad47dfc7af59d9717d2\">ecommerce<\/a> companies produce records of their customers' transactions. The FBI can issue NSLs for information about people who haven't committed any crimes.\n<\/p><p>NSLs are practically immune to judicial review. They are accompanied by gag orders that allow no exception for talking to lawyers and provide no effective opportunity for the recipients to challenge them in court. This secret subpoena authority, which was expanded by the controversial <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USA_PATRIOT_Act\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"USA PATRIOT Act\" data-key=\"f35c7705ecee4621fbfdfecfd4665a99\">USA PATRIOT Act<\/a>, could be applied to nearly any online service provider for practically any type of record, without a court ever knowing\". The <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Washington_Post\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Washington Post\" data-key=\"285fe128c4fdcd281291bd94d4564780\">Washington Post<\/a><\/i> has published a well researched article on the FBI's use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Security_Letters\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"National Security Letters\" data-key=\"660be88eb50f6e368e6040f46c5a8912\">National Security Letters<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Failed_mandatory_ISP_retention_legislation_attempts\">Failed mandatory ISP retention legislation attempts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The United States does not have any <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Service_Provider\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Internet Service Provider\" data-key=\"7bb835136044f0d1767a0ddcd5763aec\">Internet Service Provider<\/a> (ISP) mandatory data retention laws similar to the European <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Retention_Directive\" title=\"Data Retention Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97dcc4c879c13050f302a7e7873fa6e9\">Data Retention Directive<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup> Some attempts to create mandatory retention legislation have failed:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>In 1999 two models of mandatory data retention were suggested for the United States: What <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IP_address\" title=\"IP address\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40883980a0cbe2c89a23dfaa0ca04d81\">IP address<\/a> was assigned to a customer at a specific time. In the second model, \"which is closer to what Europe adopted\", telephone numbers dialed, contents of Web pages visited, and recipients of e-mail messages must be retained by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISP\" data-key=\"01bfb959ef1897c3bafbb7a8f9ebceb8\">ISP<\/a> for an unspecified amount of time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-73\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-74\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Stopping_Adults_Facilitating_the_Exploitation_of_Today%27s_Youth_Act\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Internet Stopping Adults Facilitating the Exploitation of Today's Youth Act\" data-key=\"c37c503af94b0fce70e382405bc5f977\">Internet Stopping Adults Facilitating the Exploitation of Today's Youth Act<\/a> (SAFETY Act) of 2009 also known as H.R. 1076 and S.436 would require providers of \"electronic communication or remote computing services\" to \"retain for a period of at least two years all records or other information pertaining to the identity of a user of a temporarily assigned network address the service assigns to that user\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-76\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-76\">[76]<\/a><\/sup> This bill never became a law.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">[77]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Arguments_against_data_retention\">Arguments against data retention<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>It is often argued that data retention is necessary to combat terrorism, and other crimes. Data retention may assist the police and security services to identify potential terrorists and their accomplices before or after an attack has taken place. For example, the authorities in Spain and the United Kingdom stated that retained telephony data made a significant contribution to police enquires into the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2004_Madrid_train_bombings\" title=\"2004 Madrid train bombings\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1d3c36c60f2fe91f292c54b7ded5923\">2004 Madrid train bombings<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/2005_London_bombings\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"2005 London bombings\" data-key=\"b88b531ac7f1dbe7d3b1897216060e6b\">2005 London bombings<\/a>.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2015)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The opponents of data retention make the following arguments:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>The Madrid train bombings can also be seen as proof that the current data retention level is sufficient and hence the EU directive is not necessity.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2015)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Schemes for data retention do not make provisions for adequate regulation of the data retention process and for independent judicial oversight.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2015)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Data retention is an invasion of privacy and a disproportionate response to the threat of terrorism.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2015)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>It is easy for terrorists to avoid having their communications recorded. The Home Office Voluntary Code of Practice of Data Retention admits that there are some internet protocols which cannot be effectively monitored.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2015)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> It would be possible for terrorists to avoid monitoring by using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anonymous_P2P\" title=\"Anonymous P2P\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61933d8e57e7389acaf4b203990996b3\">anonymous P2P<\/a> technologies, internet caf\u00e9s, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anonymizer\" title=\"Anonymizer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcefaa098f5232080302f92a051b0ce9\">anonymous proxies<\/a> or several other methods. Some police officers in the EU are sceptical about the value of data retention. For example, Heinz Kiefer, president of Eurocop, the European Confederation of Police, issued a press statement saying \"it remains easy for criminals to avoid detection through fairly simple means, for example mobile phone cards can be purchased from foreign providers and frequently switched. The result would be that a vast effort is made with little more effect on criminals and terrorists than to slightly irritate them. Activities like these are unlikely to boost citizens\u2019 confidence in the EU\u2019s ability to deliver solutions to their demand for protection against serious crime and terrorism\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-78\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-78\">[78]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The hardware and software required to store all the retained data would be extremely costly. The costs of retaining data would not only fall on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_Service_Providers\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Internet Service Providers\" data-key=\"4795fee4dbb7f8918a766ef9a4122c50\">Internet Service Providers<\/a> and telephone companies, but also on all companies and other organisations which would need to retain records of traffic passing through their switchboards and servers.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2015)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Data retention gives excessive power to the state to monitor the lives of individual citizens.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2015)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Data retention may be abused by the police to monitor the activities of any group which may come into conflict with the state; including ones which are engaged in legitimate protests. The UK police have used anti-terrorism powers against groups opposed to the war in Iraq<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup> and protesters at an arms fair.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-80\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-80\">[80]<\/a><\/sup> The definition of terrorism in the UK Terrorism Act 2000 includes not only action, but the threat of action, involving serious violence against a person, or serious damage to property, for the purposes of advancing a \"political, religious or ideological cause\". There is concern that the definition is vaguely worded and could be applied to supporters of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Animal_rights_movement\" title=\"Animal rights movement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b29fe0e1cee7cd6d98b00a407df858c0\">animal liberation<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anti-war_demonstrator\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Anti-war demonstrator\" data-key=\"d18eb13804f84c5aaa705dee651cdfab\">anti-war demonstrators<\/a>, and many others.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Even if data retention may be justified, the retention periods proposed in some cases are excessive. It has been argued that a period of five days for web activity logs and ninety days for all other data would be adequate for police purposes.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Protection_against_data_retention\">Protection against data retention<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The current directive proposal (see above) would force ISPs to record the internet communications of its users. The basic assumption is that this information can be used to identify with whom someone, whether innocent citizen or terrorist, communicated throughout a specific timespan. Believing that such as mandate would be useful is ignoring that some very committed community of crypto professionals has been preparing for such legislation for decades. Below are some strategies available today to anyone to protect themselves, avoid such traces, and render such expensive and legally dubious logging operations useless.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Anonymizing_proxy_services:_Web\">Anonymizing proxy services: Web<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anonymizer\" title=\"Anonymizer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bcefaa098f5232080302f92a051b0ce9\">anonymizing proxies<\/a> that provide slightly more private web access. Proxies must use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTTP_Secure\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HTTP Secure\" data-key=\"7965c97e8c902fa38cdd9ffe00f73b2a\">HTTPS<\/a> encryption in order to provide any level of protection at all. Unfortunately, proxies require the user to place a large amount of trust in the proxy operator (since they see everything the user does over HTTP), and may be subject to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traffic_analysis\" title=\"Traffic analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5302f8a0d0efa33a738b78b9adbf6cbc\">traffic analysis<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"P2P_communications\">P2P communications<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Some P2P services like file transfer or voice over IP use other computers to allow communication between computers behind firewalls. This means that trying to follow a call between two citizens might, mistakenly, identify a third citizen unaware of the communication.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Privacy_enhancing_tools\">Privacy enhancing tools<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>For security conscious citizens with some basic technical knowledge, tools like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I2P\" title=\"I2P\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1444ad7406e84a786f648bd1c8dfb258\">I2P \u2013 The Anonymous Network<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tor_(anonymity_network)\" title=\"Tor (anonymity network)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"088a6cecf874a719eb19743cb91a7904\">Tor<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mixmaster_anonymous_remailer\" title=\"Mixmaster anonymous remailer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41c27d5cdb99b0bc3c22a2c8dd304cbb\">Mixmaster<\/a> and the cryptography options integrated into any many modern mail clients can be employed.\n<\/p><p>I2P is an international peer-to-peer anonymizing network, which aims at not only evading data retention, but also at making spying by other parties impossible. The structure is similar to the one TOR (see next paragraph) uses, but there are substantial differences. It protects better against traffic analysis and offers strong anonymity and for net-internal traffic end-to-end encryption. Due to unidirectional tunnels it is less prone to timing attacks than Tor. In I2P, several services are available: anonymous browsing, anonymous e-mails, anonymous instant messenger, anonymous file-sharing, and anonymous hosting of websites, among others.\n<\/p><p>Tor is a project of the U.S. non-profit Tor Project<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-81\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup> to develop and improve an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Onion_routing\" title=\"Onion routing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb12d6303d6a03b9cab547f24d78eb45\">onion routing<\/a> network to shield its users from traffic analysis. Mixmaster is a remailer service that allows anonymous email sending.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_Anon_Proxy\" title=\"Java Anon Proxy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f54bbb95b5a046f8effee174246a8df\">JAP<\/a> is a project very similar to Tor. It is designed to route web requests through several proxies to hide the end user's Internet address. Tor support has been included into JAP.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Initiative_against_extensive_data_retention\">Initiative against extensive data retention<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The Arbeitskreis Vorratsdatenspeicherung (German Working Group on Data Retention) is an association of civil rights campaigners, data protection activists and Internet users. The Arbeitskreis coordinates the campaign against the introduction of data retention in Germany.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-82\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-82\">[82]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An analysis of federal Crime Agency (BKA) statistics published on 27 January 2010 by civil liberties NGO AK Vorrat revealed that data retention did not make a prosecution of serious crime any more effective.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-vorratsdatenspeicherung.de_83-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-vorratsdatenspeicherung.de-83\">[83]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As the EU Commission is currently considering changes to the controversial EU data retention directive, a coalition of more than 100 civil liberties, data protection and human rights associations, jurists, trade unions and others are urging the Commission to propose the repeal of the EU requirements regarding data retention in favour of a system of expedited preservation and targeted collection of traffic data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-vorratsdatenspeicherung.de_83-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-vorratsdatenspeicherung.de-83\">[83]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Plans_for_extending_data_retention_to_social_networks\">Plans for extending data retention to social networks<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In November 2012, answers to a parliamentary inquiry in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/German_Bundestag\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"German Bundestag\" data-key=\"69d3e97992497894efec108543edd1fc\">German Bundestag<\/a> revealed plans of some EU countries including France to extend data retention to chats and social media. Furthermore, the German <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Office_for_the_Protection_of_the_Constitution\" title=\"Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2e1849c7e83c769bf123c285fc2e505\">Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution<\/a> (Germany's domestic intelligence agency) has confirmed that it has been working with the ETSI LI Technical Committee since 2003.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FM4-30-10-2012_84-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FM4-30-10-2012-84\">[84]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-85\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-85\">[85]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-86\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-87\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87\">[87]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-88\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-88\">[88]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_security\" title=\"Data security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7e9e5ee008f52b19272642e6cf8fb9\">Data security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Retention_Directive\" title=\"Data Retention Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97dcc4c879c13050f302a7e7873fa6e9\">Data Retention Directive<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_retention_hardware\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data retention hardware\" data-key=\"df0fdc7fc63a50ccd2fe297cec85029e\">Data retention hardware<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Protection_Act_1998\" title=\"Data Protection Act 1998\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c31e8341972897bbde3d1dfa3760171\">Data Protection Act 1998<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_data_storage\" title=\"Computer data storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c06a35ae9ff26906dd57849f8067bfdb\">Computer data storage<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_proprietary_network_information\" title=\"Customer proprietary network information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48967c1b9b3ee508d9dbb1b33a84d414\">Customer proprietary network information<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_privacy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data privacy\" data-key=\"d0046f8fc1b53d833da01d7569e91ea8\">Data privacy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Retention_Directive\" title=\"Data Retention Directive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97dcc4c879c13050f302a7e7873fa6e9\">Data Retention Directive<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_discovery\" title=\"Electronic discovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"941a35e9aad4a891b5fbe4cfecc213bd\">Electronic discovery<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lawful_interception\" title=\"Lawful interception\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10e2b044bc665e1a18d6da2ebdcee497\">Lawful interception<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_surveillance\" title=\"Mass surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"061b28bcb7c5d34d04d8c26d44ca3916\">Mass surveillance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NSA_call_database\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NSA call database\" data-key=\"bcd33aa16b019ff2f27586db9ddad64a\">NSA call database<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy\" title=\"Privacy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3c0e284f1b9cc1e2e6e7c31286443366\">Privacy<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secrecy_of_correspondence\" title=\"Secrecy of correspondence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fc2ea7c50967e75d52d608a73a0cd3e\">Secrecy of correspondence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traffic_analysis\" title=\"Traffic analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5302f8a0d0efa33a738b78b9adbf6cbc\">Traffic analysis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I2P\" title=\"I2P\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1444ad7406e84a786f648bd1c8dfb258\">I2P - The Anonymous Network<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-Data_retention_policy-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Data_retention_policy_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Rouse, Margaret. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/searchdatabackup.techtarget.com\/definition\/data-retention-policy\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data retention policy\"<\/a>. TechTarget<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data+retention+policy&rft.pub=TechTarget&rft.aulast=Rouse&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearchdatabackup.techtarget.com%2Fdefinition%2Fdata-retention-policy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Rouse, Margaret. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/searchstorage.techtarget.com\/definition\/data-retention\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data retention\"<\/a>. TechTarget<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 October<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data+retention&rft.pub=TechTarget&rft.aulast=Rouse&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearchstorage.techtarget.com%2Fdefinition%2Fdata-retention&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Li, J; Singhal, S; Swaminathan, R; Karp, AH (19 October 2012). \"Managing Data Retention Policies at Scale\". <i>IEEE Xplore<\/i>. <b>9<\/b> (4): 393\u2013406. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FTNSM.2012.101612.110203\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/TNSM.2012.101612.110203<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Xplore&rft.atitle=Managing+Data+Retention+Policies+at+Scale&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=393-406&rft.date=2012-10-19&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTNSM.2012.101612.110203&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Singhal%2C+S&rft.au=Swaminathan%2C+R&rft.au=Karp%2C+AH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bbc.com\/news\/world-australia-32061421\" target=\"_blank\">\"Australia passes controversial new metadata law\"<\/a>. <i>BBC News<\/i>. 26 March 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 March<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Australia+passes+controversial+new+metadata+law&rft.date=2015-03-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-australia-32061421&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Scott, Elise (27 March 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.is\/20150408084812\/https:\/\/au.news.yahoo.com\/a\/26809707\/metadata-laws-pass-parliament\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metadata laws pass parliament\"<\/a>. <i>AAP<\/i>. 7 News. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/au.news.yahoo.com\/a\/26809707\/metadata-laws-pass-parliament\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 8 April 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 March<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AAP&rft.atitle=Metadata+laws+pass+parliament&rft.date=2015-03-27&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Elise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fau.news.yahoo.com%2Fa%2F26809707%2Fmetadata-laws-pass-parliament%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Knott, Matthew (30 October 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.smh.com.au\/federal-politics\/political-news\/malcolm-turnbull-introduces-legislation-for-metadata-retention-scheme-20141030-11e101.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Malcolm Turnbull introduces legislation for metadata retention scheme\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald\" title=\"The Sydney Morning Herald\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cde0d3cd68558e3d515e8193003c42ca\">The Sydney Morning Herald<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Sydney+Morning+Herald&rft.atitle=Malcolm+Turnbull+introduces+legislation+for+metadata+retention+scheme&rft.date=2014-10-30&rft.aulast=Knott&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smh.com.au%2Ffederal-politics%2Fpolitical-news%2Fmalcolm-turnbull-introduces-legislation-for-metadata-retention-scheme-20141030-11e101.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Malcolm, Jeremy (3 November 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.eff.org\/deeplinks\/2014\/11\/nobodys-surprise-australian-terrorism-law-may-be-used-copyright-enforcement\" target=\"_blank\">\"To Nobody's Surprise, Australian \"Terrorism\" Law May Be Used for Copyright Enforcement\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation\" title=\"Electronic Frontier Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"448ef28a1a41cd9c59b4b7b93093d3fe\">EFF<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=To+Nobody%27s+Surprise%2C+Australian+%22Terrorism%22+Law+May+Be+Used+for+Copyright+Enforcement&rft.date=2014-11-03&rft.aulast=Malcolm&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eff.org%2Fdeeplinks%2F2014%2F11%2Fnobodys-surprise-australian-terrorism-law-may-be-used-copyright-enforcement&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-afr-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-afr_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-26_March_2015\" class=\"citation news\">Kerin, John. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.afr.com\/news\/politics\/what-new-metadata-laws-mean-for-you-20150327-1m3l9j\" target=\"_blank\">\"What new metadata laws mean for you\"<\/a>. <i>Australian Financial Review<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 April<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AAP&rft.atitle=Govt+offers+metadata+laws+breakthrough&rft.date=2015-03-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.heraldsun.com.au%2Fnews%2Fbreaking-news%2Fgovt-offers-metadata-laws-breakthrough%2Fstory-fni0xqi4-1227265053046&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Ramli, David (28 February 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.smh.com.au\/it-pro\/metadata-retention-laws-will-pass-as-labor-folds-20150227-13qd4m.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Metadata retention laws will pass as Labor folds\"<\/a>. <i>Sydney Morning Herald<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 April<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sydney+Morning+Herald&rft.atitle=Metadata+retention+laws+will+pass+as+Labor+folds&rft.date=2015-02-28&rft.aulast=Ramli&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smh.com.au%2Fit-pro%2Fmetadata-retention-laws-will-pass-as-labor-folds-20150227-13qd4m.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/LexUriServ\/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:105:0054:0063:EN:PDF\" target=\"_blank\">\"Directive 2006\/24\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 March 2006 on the retention of data generated or processed in connection with the provision of publicly available electronic communications services or of public communications networks and amending Directive 2002\/58\/EC\"<\/a>. <i>Official Journal of the European Union<\/i>. April 13, 2006.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Official+Journal+of+the+European+Union&rft.atitle=Directive+2006%2F24%2FEC+of+the+European+Parliament+and+of+the+Council+of+15+March+2006+on+the+retention+of+data+generated+or+processed+in+connection+with+the+provision+of+publicly+available+electronic+communications+services+or+of+public+communications+networks+and+amending+Directive+2002%2F58%2FEC&rft.date=2006-04-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feur-lex.europa.eu%2FLexUriServ%2FLexUriServ.do%3Furi%3DOJ%3AL%3A2006%3A105%3A0054%3A0063%3AEN%3APDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">John Leyden (December 14, 2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theregister.co.uk\/2005\/12\/14\/eu_data_retention_vote\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"MEPs vote for mandatory data retention\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Register\" title=\"The Register\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2eb0545423025dd1f51e39f5eed0591\">The Register<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-12-21<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Register&rft.atitle=MEPs+vote+for+mandatory+data+retention&rft.date=2005-12-14&rft.au=John+Leyden&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.co.uk%2F2005%2F12%2F14%2Feu_data_retention_vote%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140311170440\/http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/dgs\/home-affairs\/what-we-do\/policies\/police-cooperation\/data-retention\/index_en.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data retention\"<\/a>. Directorate-General of the European Commission. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/dgs\/home-affairs\/what-we-do\/policies\/police-cooperation\/data-retention\/index_en.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 11 March 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 March<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data+retention&rft.pub=Directorate-General+of+the+European+Commission&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Fdgs%2Fhome-affairs%2Fwhat-we-do%2Fpolicies%2Fpolice-cooperation%2Fdata-retention%2Findex_en.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/LexUriServ\/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2011:0225:FIN:en:PDF\" target=\"_blank\">\"Evaluation report on the Data Retention Directive (Directive 2006\/24\/EC)\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Commission\" title=\"European Commission\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81898eaa89710c9f6ca992957c6e3e7c\">European Commission<\/a>. 18 April 2011.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Evaluation+report+on+the+Data+Retention+Directive+%28Directive+2006%2F24%2FEC%29&rft.pub=European+Commission&rft.date=2011-04-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feur-lex.europa.eu%2FLexUriServ%2FLexUriServ.do%3Furi%3DCOM%3A2011%3A0225%3AFIN%3Aen%3APDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.edps.europa.eu\/EDPSWEB\/webdav\/site\/mySite\/shared\/Documents\/Consultation\/Opinions\/2011\/11-05-30_Evaluation_Report_DRD_EN.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Opinion of the European Data Protection Supervisor on the Evaluation report from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on the Data Retention Directive (Directive 2006\/24\/EC)\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. European Data Protection Supervisor. 31 May 2011.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Opinion+of+the+European+Data+Protection+Supervisor+on+the+Evaluation+report+from+the+Commission+to+the+Council+and+the+European+Parliament+on+the+Data+Retention+Directive+%28Directive+2006%2F24%2FEC%29&rft.pub=European+Data+Protection+Supervisor&rft.date=2011-05-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edps.europa.eu%2FEDPSWEB%2Fwebdav%2Fsite%2FmySite%2Fshared%2FDocuments%2FConsultation%2FOpinions%2F2011%2F11-05-30_Evaluation_Report_DRD_EN.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de\/content\/view\/745\/79\/lang,en\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"EU lawyers tell Member States: Blanket communications data retention \"no longer possible<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\">\"<\/span>\"<\/a>. Stoppt die Vorratsdatenspeicherung!. 23 June 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 November<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=EU+lawyers+tell+Member+States%3A+Blanket+communications+data+retention+%22no+longer+possible%22&rft.pub=Stoppt+die+Vorratsdatenspeicherung%21&rft.date=2014-06-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de%2Fcontent%2Fview%2F745%2F79%2Flang%2Cen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Franziska Boehm; Mark D Cole (30 June 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.uni-muenster.de\/Jura.itm\/hoeren\/materialien\/boehm\/Boehm_Cole-Data_Retention_Study-June_2014.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Retention after the Judgement of the Court of Justice of the European Union\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Greens%E2%80%93European_Free_Alliance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"The Greens\u2013European Free Alliance\" data-key=\"d3edac2614349caec75e6bd141be29fc\">The Greens\u2013European Free Alliance<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data+Retention+after+the+Judgement+of+the+Court+of+Justice+of+the+European+Union&rft.pub=The+Greens%E2%80%93European+Free+Alliance&rft.date=2014-06-30&rft.au=Franziska+Boehm&rft.au=Mark+D+Cole&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-muenster.de%2FJura.itm%2Fhoeren%2Fmaterialien%2Fboehm%2FBoehm_Cole-Data_Retention_Study-June_2014.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DRIP-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-DRIP_20-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DRIP_20-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.legislation.gov.uk\/ukpga\/2014\/27\/pdfs\/ukpga_20140027_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act 2014\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Office_of_Public_Sector_Information\" title=\"Office of Public Sector Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4a53c0762c43b86b95f15f683b1e068d\">Office of Public Sector Information<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 October<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data+Retention+and+Investigatory+Powers+Act+2014&rft.pub=Office+of+Public+Sector+Information&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.uk%2Fukpga%2F2014%2F27%2Fpdfs%2Fukpga_20140027_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.legislation.gov.uk\/ukia\/2014\/266\/pdfs\/ukia_20140266_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Retention Legislation (Impact Assessment)\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Office_of_Public_Sector_Information\" title=\"Office of Public Sector Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4a53c0762c43b86b95f15f683b1e068d\">Office of Public Sector Information<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 October<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data+Retention+Legislation+%28Impact+Assessment%29&rft.pub=Office+of+Public+Sector+Information&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.uk%2Fukia%2F2014%2F266%2Fpdfs%2Fukia_20140266_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.legislation.gov.uk\/ukpga\/2014\/27\/pdfs\/ukpgaen_20140027_en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act 2014 (Explanatory notes)\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Office_of_Public_Sector_Information\" title=\"Office of Public Sector Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4a53c0762c43b86b95f15f683b1e068d\">Office of Public Sector Information<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 October<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data+Retention+and+Investigatory+Powers+Act+2014+%28Explanatory+notes%29&rft.pub=Office+of+Public+Sector+Information&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.uk%2Fukpga%2F2014%2F27%2Fpdfs%2Fukpgaen_20140027_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Guardian_30_Sept_2014-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Guardian_30_Sept_2014_23-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Guardian_30_Sept_2014_23-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Travis, Alan (30 September 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/politics\/2014\/sep\/30\/theresa-may-tory-government-snoopers-charter\" target=\"_blank\">\"Theresa May vows Tory government would introduce 'snooper's charter<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\">'<\/span>\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Guardian\" title=\"The Guardian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c1524bb31f0ee6ff14f8f44c7f3595d\">The Guardian<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 October<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Theresa+May+vows+Tory+government+would+introduce+%E2%80%98snooper%E2%80%99s+charter%E2%80%99&rft.date=2014-09-30&rft.aulast=Travis&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fpolitics%2F2014%2Fsep%2F30%2Ftheresa-may-tory-government-snoopers-charter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Guardian_24_June_2014-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Guardian_24_June_2014_24-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Guardian_24_June_2014_24-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Hern, Alex (24 June 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2014\/jun\/24\/british-government-breaking-law-in-forcing-data-retention-by-companies\" target=\"_blank\">\"British government 'breaking law' in forcing data retention by companies\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Guardian\" title=\"The Guardian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c1524bb31f0ee6ff14f8f44c7f3595d\">The Guardian<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 October<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=British+government+%27breaking+law%27+in+forcing+data+retention+by+companies&rft.date=2014-06-24&rft.aulast=Hern&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2014%2Fjun%2F24%2Fbritish-government-breaking-law-in-forcing-data-retention-by-companies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Emma Smith; Dipesh Gadher (13 November 2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20060106064734\/http:\/\/www.timesonline.co.uk\/newspaper\/0%2C%2C176-1869818%2C00.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Spy cameras to spot drivers' every move\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sunday_Times\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sunday Times\" data-key=\"2ccdd0905f6dff5f442a280960cb5f7e\">Sunday Times<\/a><\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.timesonline.co.uk\/newspaper\/0,,176-1869818,00.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 6 January 2006.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sunday+Times&rft.atitle=Spy+cameras+to+spot+drivers%27+every+move&rft.date=2005-11-13&rft.au=Emma+Smith&rft.au=Dipesh+Gadher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesonline.co.uk%2Fnewspaper%2F0%2C%2C176-1869818%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">John Lettice (15 November 2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theregister.co.uk\/2005\/11\/15\/vehicle_movement_database\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Gatso 2: rollout of UK's '24\u00d77 vehicle movement database' begins\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Register\" title=\"The Register\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2eb0545423025dd1f51e39f5eed0591\">The Register<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 December<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Register&rft.atitle=Gatso+2%3A+rollout+of+UK%27s+%2724%C3%977+vehicle+movement+database%27+begins&rft.date=2005-11-15&rft.au=John+Lettice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.co.uk%2F2005%2F11%2F15%2Fvehicle_movement_database%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.opsi.gov.uk\/si\/si2000\/20002417.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Statutory Instrument 2000 \u2116 2417 granting additional bodies access to retained telecoms data\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_National_Archives\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"The National Archives\" data-key=\"41920701201a10e429c2f853f22fd06f\">The National Archives<\/a>. 7 September 2000<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 December<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statutory+Instrument+2000+%E2%84%96+2417+granting+additional+bodies+access+to+retained+telecoms+data&rft.pub=The+National+Archives&rft.date=2000-09-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.opsi.gov.uk%2Fsi%2Fsi2000%2F20002417.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.seattlepi.com\/national\/1103ap_eu_czech_data_retention.html\" target=\"_blank\">Seattle PI<\/a><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" title=\"Wikipedia:Link rot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\" Dead link since June 2016\">dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/span><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"http:\/\/www.edri.org\/edrigram\/number10.15\/czech-republic-new-data-retention-law\" target=\"_blank\">[1]<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20121010213833\/http:\/\/www.edri.org\/edrigram\/number10.15\/czech-republic-new-data-retention-law\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> October 10, 2012, at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120125052500\/http:\/\/www.edri.org\/edrigram\/number3.16\/Italy\" target=\"_blank\">\"Italy decrees Data Retention until 31 December 2007\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Digital_Rights\" title=\"European Digital Rights\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"522f891111080b5f60aa6a538948ff0c\">European Digital Rights<\/a>. August 10, 2005. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.edri.org\/edrigram\/number3.16\/Italy\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 25 January 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-12-24<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Italy+decrees+Data+Retention+until+31+December+2007&rft.pub=European+Digital+Rights&rft.date=2005-08-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edri.org%2Fedrigram%2Fnumber3.16%2FItaly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.retsinformation.dk\/Forms\/R0710.aspx?id=2445\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bekendtg\u00f8relse om udbydere af elektroniske kommunikationsnets og elektroniske kommunikationstjenesters registrering og opbevaring af oplysninger om teletrafik (logningsbekendtg\u00f8relsen)\"<\/a> [Order on providers of electronic communications and electronic communications services recording and storage of information about telecommunications traffic (Retention Order)] (in Danish). . 13 October 2006.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bekendtg%C3%B8relse+om+udbydere+af+elektroniske+kommunikationsnets+og+elektroniske+kommunikationstjenesters+registrering+og+opbevaring+af+oplysninger+om+teletrafik+%28logningsbekendtg%C3%B8relsen%29&rft.pub=Danish+Ministry+of+Justice&rft.date=2006-10-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.retsinformation.dk%2FForms%2FR0710.aspx%3Fid%3D2445&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/curia.europa.eu\/jcms\/upload\/docs\/application\/pdf\/2013-05\/cp130066en.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Sweden is ordered to make a lump sum payment of \u20ac3 000 000 for its delay in transposing the Data Retention Directive into national law\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Court of Justice of the European Union<\/i> (No 66\/13). 30 May 2013.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Court+of+Justice+of+the+European+Union&rft.atitle=Sweden+is+ordered+to+make+a+lump+sum+payment+of+%E2%82%AC3+000+000+for+its+delay+in+transposing+the+Data+Retention+Directive+into+national+law&rft.issue=No+66%2F13&rft.date=2013-05-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcuria.europa.eu%2Fjcms%2Fupload%2Fdocs%2Fapplication%2Fpdf%2F2013-05%2Fcp130066en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/openeuropeblog.blogspot.com\/2014\/04\/ecj-sets-important-legal-precedent-by.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ECJ sets important legal precedent by striking down Data Retention Directive\"<\/a>. <i>Open Europe Blog<\/i>. 8 April 2014.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Open+Europe+Blog&rft.atitle=ECJ+sets+important+legal+precedent+by+striking+down+Data+Retention+Directive&rft.date=2014-04-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopeneuropeblog.blogspot.com%2F2014%2F04%2Fecj-sets-important-legal-precedent-by.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-34\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Tobias Olsson (26 May 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.svd.se\/nyheter\/inrikes\/artikel_2954845.svd\" target=\"_blank\">\"Sverige st\u00e4ms f\u00f6r datalagring\"<\/a> (in Swedish). SvD<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-12-28<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Sverige+st%C3%A4ms+f%C3%B6r+datalagring&rft.date=2009-05-26&rft.au=Tobias+Olsson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.svd.se%2Fnyheter%2Finrikes%2Fartikel_2954845.svd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Ullman, Tommie (21 March 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120803134123\/http:\/\/www.stockholmnews.com\/more.aspx?NID=8522\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Riksdag said Yes to Data Retention Directive\"<\/a>. <i>Stockholm News<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.stockholmnews.com\/more.aspx?NID=8522\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 3 August 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2012-09-19<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stockholm+News&rft.atitle=The+Riksdag+said+Yes+to+Data+Retention+Directive&rft.date=2012-03-21&rft.aulast=Ullman&rft.aufirst=Tommie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stockholmnews.com%2Fmore.aspx%3FNID%3D8522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111114181024\/http:\/\/www.regeringen.se\/content\/1\/c6\/09\/15\/21\/2f8c7424.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Lagring av trafikuppgifter f\u00f6r brottsbek\u00e4mpning<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> (in Swedish). Stockholm: Bet\u00e4nkande av Trafikuppgiftsutredningen. 1 November 2007. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.regeringen.se\/content\/1\/c6\/09\/15\/21\/2f8c7424.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 14 November 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-12-24<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lagring+av+trafikuppgifter+f%C3%B6r+brottsbek%C3%A4mpning&rft.place=Stockholm&rft.pub=Bet%C3%A4nkande+av+Trafikuppgiftsutredningen&rft.date=2007-11-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.regeringen.se%2Fcontent%2F1%2Fc6%2F09%2F15%2F21%2F2f8c7424.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Essers, Loek (11 April 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pcworld.com\/article\/2142780\/sweden-wont-enforce-data-retention-law-against-isp-that-deleted-metadata.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Sweden won't enforce data retention law against ISP that deleted metadata\"<\/a>. <i>PCWorld<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PCWorld&rft.atitle=Sweden+won%27t+enforce+data+retention+law+against+ISP+that+deleted+metadata&rft.date=2014-04-11&rft.aulast=Essers&rft.aufirst=Loek&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcworld.com%2Farticle%2F2142780%2Fsweden-wont-enforce-data-retention-law-against-isp-that-deleted-metadata.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Tung, Liam (29 October 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/swedish-data-retention-back-in-full-swing-minus-one-isp-7000035206\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Swedish data retention back in full swing minus one ISP\"<\/a>. <i>ZDNet<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ZDNet&rft.atitle=Swedish+data+retention+back+in+full+swing+minus+one+ISP&rft.date=2014-10-29&rft.aulast=Tung&rft.aufirst=Liam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdnet.com%2Fswedish-data-retention-back-in-full-swing-minus-one-isp-7000035206%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-39\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Meyer, David (29 October 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/gigaom.com\/2014\/10\/29\/swedish-isp-bahnhof-threatened-with-fine-for-not-storing-customer-data-for-law-enforcement\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Swedish ISP Bahnhof threatened with fine for not storing customer data for law enforcement\"<\/a>. <i>GigaOm<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GigaOm&rft.atitle=Swedish+ISP+Bahnhof+threatened+with+fine+for+not+storing+customer+data+for+law+enforcement&rft.date=2014-10-29&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgigaom.com%2F2014%2F10%2F29%2Fswedish-isp-bahnhof-threatened-with-fine-for-not-storing-customer-data-for-law-enforcement%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\"Gesetz zur Neuregelung der Telekommunikations\u00fcberwachung und anderer verdeckter Ermittlungsma\u00dfnahmen sowie zur Umsetzung der Richtlinie 2006\/24\/EG.\" <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bgbl.de\/Xaver\/start.xav?startbk=Bundesanzeiger_BGBl\" target=\"_blank\">Bundesgesetzblatt (BGBl.)<\/a>, Part I, No. 70, p. 3198, 31. December 2007.<span class=\"languageicon\">(in German)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.bbc.co.uk\/2\/hi\/europe\/8545772.stm\" target=\"_blank\">\"BBC UK German court orders stored telecoms data deletion\"<\/a>, BBC News website, English<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bundestag.de\/blob\/392012\/69c860bf6e65681333d940bdae973b60\/20151016_1-data.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Endg\u00fcltiges Ergebnis der Namentlichen Abstimmung Nr. 1\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Deutscher Bundestag. 2015-10-16<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-06-28<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Endg%C3%BCltiges+Ergebnis+der+Namentlichen+Abstimmung+Nr.+1&rft.pub=Deutscher+Bundestag&rft.date=2015-10-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bundestag.de%2Fblob%2F392012%2F69c860bf6e65681333d940bdae973b60%2F20151016_1-data.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dip21.bundestag.de\/dip21\/btd\/18\/050\/1805088.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Entwurf eines Gesetzes zur Einf\u00fchrung einer Speicherpflicht und einer H\u00f6chstspeicherfrist f\u00fcr Verkehrsdaten\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Deutscher Bundestag. 2016-06-09<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-06-28<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Entwurf+eines+Gesetzes+zur+Einf%C3%BChrung+einer+Speicherpflicht+und+einer+H%C3%B6chstspeicherfrist+f%C3%BCr+Verkehrsdaten&rft.pub=Deutscher+Bundestag&rft.date=2016-06-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdip21.bundestag.de%2Fdip21%2Fbtd%2F18%2F050%2F1805088.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-44\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/tutanota.com\/blog\/posts\/germany-data-retention\" target=\"_blank\">\"Germany Just Introduced Data Retention. Politicians Should Be Ashamed\"<\/a>. Tutanota. 2015-10-16<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2017-06-22<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Germany+Just+Introduced+Data+Retention.+Politicians+Should+Be+Ashamed.&rft.pub=Tutanota&rft.date=2015-10-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftutanota.com%2Fblog%2Fposts%2Fgermany-data-retention&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bundesnetzagentur.de\/DE\/Sachgebiete\/Telekommunikation\/Unternehmen_Institutionen\/Anbieterpflichten\/OeffentlicheSicherheit\/Umsetzung110TKG\/VDS_113aTKG\/VDS.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bundesnetzagentur - Umsetzung \u00a7\u00a7 110, 113 TKG - Speicherpflicht und H\u00f6chstspeicherfrist f\u00fcr Verkehrsdaten\"<\/a>. Bundesnetzagentur. June 28, 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">November 16,<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bundesnetzagentur+-+Umsetzung+%C2%A7%C2%A7+110%2C+113+TKG+-+Speicherpflicht+und+H%C3%B6chstspeicherfrist+f%C3%BCr+Verkehrsdaten&rft.pub=Bundesnetzagentur&rft.date=2017-06-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bundesnetzagentur.de%2FDE%2FSachgebiete%2FTelekommunikation%2FUnternehmen_Institutionen%2FAnbieterpflichten%2FOeffentlicheSicherheit%2FUmsetzung110TKG%2FVDS_113aTKG%2FVDS.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.romanialibera.ro\/actualitate\/eveniment\/ce-solicita-romaniei-sa-transpuna-integral-normele-ue-in-privinta-pastrarii-datelolor-242599.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"CE solicit\u0103 Rom\u00e2niei s\u0103 transpun\u0103 integral normele UE \u00een privin\u0163a p\u0103str\u0103rii datelolor - Romania Libera\"<\/a>. <i>romanialibera.ro<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=romanialibera.ro&rft.atitle=CE+solicit%C4%83+Rom%C3%A2niei+s%C4%83+transpun%C4%83+integral+normele+UE+%C3%AEn+privin%C5%A3a+p%C4%83str%C4%83rii+datelolor+-+Romania+Libera&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.romanialibera.ro%2Factualitate%2Feveniment%2Fce-solicita-romaniei-sa-transpuna-integral-normele-ue-in-privinta-pastrarii-datelolor-242599.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ejlt.org\/\/article\/view\/29\/75\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Legality of the Data Retention Directive in Light of the Fundamental Rights to Privacy and Data Protection | Feiler | European Journal of Law and Technology\"<\/a>. Ejlt.org<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-01-26<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Legality+of+the+Data+Retention+Directive+in+Light+of+the+Fundamental+Rights+to+Privacy+and+Data+Protection+%26%23124%3B+Feiler+%26%23124%3B+European+Journal+of+Law+and+Technology&rft.pub=Ejlt.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fejlt.org%2F%2Farticle%2Fview%2F29%2F75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Romanian Constitutional Court Decision no.1258 of Oct. 8, 2009, Official Gazette no. 798 of Nov. 23, 2009.In: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/ejlt.org\/\/article\/view\/29\/75\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/ejlt.org\/\/article\/view\/29\/75<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-hotnews-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-hotnews_49-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-hotnews_49-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/economie.hotnews.ro\/stiri-telecom-12503594-traian-basescu-promulgat-asa-numita-39-lege-big-brother-39-care-prevede-stocarea-pentru-sase-luni-datelor-trafic-ale-tuturor-utilizatorilor-telefonie-internet.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Traian Basescu a promulgat asa numita 'lege Big Brother' care prevede stocarea pentru sase luni a datelor de trafic ale tuturor utilizatorilor de telefonie si internet\"<\/a>. <i>hotnews.ro<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=hotnews.ro&rft.atitle=Traian+Basescu+a+promulgat+asa+numita+%27lege+Big+Brother%27+care+prevede+stocarea+pentru+sase+luni+a+datelor+de+trafic+ale+tuturor+utilizatorilor+de+telefonie+si+internet&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feconomie.hotnews.ro%2Fstiri-telecom-12503594-traian-basescu-promulgat-asa-numita-39-lege-big-brother-39-care-prevede-stocarea-pentru-sase-luni-datelor-trafic-ale-tuturor-utilizatorilor-telefonie-internet.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.telecompaper.com\/news\/ec-drops-case-against-romania-as-data-retention-law-passes--926708\" target=\"_blank\">\"EC drops case against Romania as data retention law passes\"<\/a>. <i>www.telecompaper.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.telecompaper.com&rft.atitle=EC+drops+case+against+Romania+as+data+retention+law+passes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.telecompaper.com%2Fnews%2Fec-drops-case-against-romania-as-data-retention-law-passes--926708&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-51\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/adevarul.ro\/news\/politica\/presedintele-promulgat-legea-big-brother-1_50aeee447c42d5a663a1bd80\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Pre\u015fedintele a promulgat \"Legea Big Brother<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\">\"<\/span>\"<\/a>. <i>adevarul.ro<\/i>. 12 July 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=adevarul.ro&rft.atitle=Pre%C5%9Fedintele+a+promulgat+%22Legea+Big+Brother%22&rft.date=2012-07-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadevarul.ro%2Fnews%2Fpolitica%2Fpresedintele-promulgat-legea-big-brother-1_50aeee447c42d5a663a1bd80%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-52\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Avocatnet.ro. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.avocatnet.ro\/content\/articles\/id_29398\/Legea-Big-Brother-a-intrat-in-vigoare-Operatorii-de-telefonie-si-internet-vor-putea-stoca-o-serie-de-date-ale-abonatilor.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Legea Big Brother a intrat in vigoare! Operatorii de telefonie si internet vor putea stoca o serie de date ale abonatilor\"<\/a>. <i>avocatnet.ro<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=avocatnet.ro&rft.atitle=Legea+Big+Brother+a+intrat+in+vigoare%21+Operatorii+de+telefonie+si+internet+vor+putea+stoca+o+serie+de+date+ale+abonatilor&rft.au=Avocatnet.ro&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.avocatnet.ro%2Fcontent%2Farticles%2Fid_29398%2FLegea-Big-Brother-a-intrat-in-vigoare-Operatorii-de-telefonie-si-internet-vor-putea-stoca-o-serie-de-date-ale-abonatilor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-53\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mediafax.ro\/social\/legea-big-brother-prin-care-furnizorii-de-telefonie-si-internet-erau-obligati-sa-retina-date-ale-abonatilor-declarata-neconstitutionala-12907960\" target=\"_blank\">\"Legea \"Big Brother\", prin care furnizorii de telefonie \u015fi internet erau obliga\u0163i s\u0103 re\u0163in\u0103 date ale abona\u0163ilor, declarat\u0103 neconstitu\u0163ional\u0103\"<\/a>. mediafax.ro<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-07-08<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Legea+%22Big+Brother%22%2C+prin+care+furnizorii+de+telefonie+%C5%9Fi+internet+erau+obliga%C5%A3i+s%C4%83+re%C5%A3in%C4%83+date+ale+abona%C5%A3ilor%2C+declarat%C4%83+neconstitu%C5%A3ional%C4%83&rft.pub=mediafax.ro&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mediafax.ro%2Fsocial%2Flegea-big-brother-prin-care-furnizorii-de-telefonie-si-internet-erau-obligati-sa-retina-date-ale-abonatilor-declarata-neconstitutionala-12907960&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-54\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Martin Husovec on April 28, 2014, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/cyberlaw.stanford.edu\/blog\/2014\/04\/first-european-constitutional-court-suspends-data-retention-after-decision-court\" target=\"_blank\">FIRST EUROPEAN CONSTITUTIONAL COURT SUSPENDS DATA RETENTION AFTER THE DECISION OF THE COURT OF JUSTICE OF EU<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-55\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\nHeini J\u00e4rvinen, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/edri.org\/slovak-constitutional-court-suspends-data-retention-legislation\/\" target=\"_blank\">Slovak Constitutional Court suspends data retention legislation<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150520072521\/http:\/\/portal.concourt.sk\/plugins\/servlet\/get\/attachment\/main\/ts_data\/Tl_info_25_15_el_komunikacie.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Archived copy\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/portal.concourt.sk\/plugins\/servlet\/get\/attachment\/main\/ts_data\/Tl_info_25_15_el_komunikacie.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 2015-05-20<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2015-05-19<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.concourt.sk%2Fplugins%2Fservlet%2Fget%2Fattachment%2Fmain%2Fts_data%2FTl_info_25_15_el_komunikacie.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Archived_copy_as_title\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Archived copy as title\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed2e57b0642742d0fcc92214dc138a5f\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-57\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.eisionline.org\/index.php\/sk\/projekty-m-2\/ochrana-sukromia\/109-the-slovak-constitutional-court-cancelled-mass-surveillance-of-citizens\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.eisionline.org\/index.php\/sk\/projekty-m-2\/ochrana-sukromia\/109-the-slovak-constitutional-court-cancelled-mass-surveillance-of-citizens<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-58\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/tech-policy\/2016\/06\/russias-new-spy-law-calls-for-metadata-and-content-to-be-stored-plus-crypto-backdoors\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Russian ISPs will need to store content and metadata, open backdoors\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-08-10<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bloomberg.com&rft.atitle=Putin%27s+%27Big+Brother%27+Surveillance+Law+Criticized+by+Snowden&rft.aulast=Khrennikov&rft.aufirst=Ilya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2016-07-07%2Fputin-s-anti-terror-law-sends-telecommunications-companies-lower&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2016\/06\/23\/draconian-law-rammed-through-russian-parliament\" target=\"_blank\">\"Draconian Law Rammed Through Russian Parliament\"<\/a>. 2016-06-23<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-08-10<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Draconian+Law+Rammed+Through+Russian+Parliament&rft.date=2016-06-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fnews%2F2016%2F06%2F23%2Fdraconian-law-rammed-through-russian-parliament&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-61\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">(www.dw.com), Deutsche Welle. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dw.com\/en\/are-russias-anti-terror-laws-designed-to-fight-democracy\/a-19351398\" target=\"_blank\">\"Are Russia's anti-terror laws designed to fight democracy? | Europe | DW.COM | 23.06.2016\"<\/a>. <i>DW.COM<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-08-10<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DW.COM&rft.atitle=Are+Russia%27s+anti-terror+laws+designed+to+fight+democracy%3F+%7C+Europe+%7C+DW.COM+%7C+23.06.2016&rft.aulast=%28www.dw.com%29&rft.aufirst=Deutsche+Welle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Fare-russias-anti-terror-laws-designed-to-fight-democracy%2Fa-19351398&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-62\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.newsweek.com\/almost-100000-russians-call-discarding-big-brother-law-489055?rx=us\" target=\"_blank\">\"Russia is on the verge of a new snooping law and 100,000 are not happy\"<\/a>. 2016-08-10<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2016-08-10<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russia+is+on+the+verge+of+a+new+snooping+law+and+100%2C000+are+not+happy&rft.date=2016-08-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsweek.com%2Falmost-100000-russians-call-discarding-big-brother-law-489055%3Frx%3Dus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-63\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Norway (2011-04-05). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/theforeigner.no\/pages\/news\/updated-parliament-passes-data-retention-directive\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Updated: Parliament passes Data Retention Directive \/ News \/ The Foreigner \u2014 Norwegian News in English\"<\/a>. Theforeigner.no<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-01-26<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Updated%3A+Parliament+passes+Data+Retention+Directive+%2F+News+%2F+The+Foreigner+%E2%80%94+Norwegian+News+in+English&rft.pub=Theforeigner.no&rft.date=2011-04-05&rft.au=Norway&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheforeigner.no%2Fpages%2Fnews%2Fupdated-parliament-passes-data-retention-directive%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-64\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-64\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.regjeringen.no\/nb\/dep\/sd\/aktuelt\/nyheter\/2013\/horing-om-kostnadsfordelingsmodell-for-d.html?id=725272\" target=\"_blank\">\"H\u00f8ring om kostnadsfordelingsmodell for datalagringsdirektivet og ny bestemmelse som regulerer politiets adgang til uthenting av data i n\u00f8dsituasjoner\"<\/a> [Consultation on Cost Allocation Model for Data Retention Directive and the New Provision Regulating Police Access to the Retrieval of Data in Emergency Situations] (in Norwegian). Government of Norway. 26 April 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 June<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=H%C3%B8ring+om+kostnadsfordelingsmodell+for+datalagringsdirektivet+og+ny+bestemmelse+som+regulerer+politiets+adgang+til+uthenting+av+data+i+n%C3%B8dsituasjoner&rft.pub=Government+of+Norway&rft.date=2013-04-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.regjeringen.no%2Fnb%2Fdep%2Fsd%2Faktuelt%2Fnyheter%2F2013%2Fhoring-om-kostnadsfordelingsmodell-for-d.html%3Fid%3D725272&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-65\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-65\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.b92.net\/\/eng\/news\/politics-article.php?yyyy=2010&mm=07&dd=01&nav_id=68178\" target=\"_blank\">Tadi\u0107 signs electronic communications law<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150403195028\/http:\/\/www.b92.net\/\/eng\/news\/politics-article.php?yyyy=2010&mm=07&dd=01&nav_id=68178\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 2015-04-03 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, B92<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-66\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-66\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Switzerland (2016-03-18). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.admin.ch\/opc\/de\/federal-gazette\/2016\/1991.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bundesgesetz betreffend der \u00dcberwachung des Post- und Fernmeldeverkehrs (B\u00dcPF)\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. admin.ch<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2017-03-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bundesgesetz+betreffend+der+%C3%9Cberwachung+des+Post-+und+Fernmeldeverkehrs+%28B%C3%9CPF%29&rft.pub=admin.ch&rft.date=2016-03-18&rft.au=Switzerland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.admin.ch%2Fopc%2Fde%2Ffederal-gazette%2F2016%2F1991.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-67\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-67\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Digitale Gesellschaft (2015-09-05). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.digitale-gesellschaft.ch\/ueberwachung\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"\u00dcberwachung\"<\/a>. digitale-gesellschaft.ch<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2017-03-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%C3%9Cberwachung&rft.pub=digitale-gesellschaft.ch&rft.date=2015-09-05&rft.au=Digitale+Gesellschaft&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitale-gesellschaft.ch%2Fueberwachung%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-68\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-68\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/James_Ball_(journalist)\" title=\"James Ball (journalist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69e488d03d25991be0a1187d26c40afc\">James Ball<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/world\/2013\/sep\/30\/nsa-americans-metadata-year-documents\" target=\"_blank\">\"NSA stores metadata of millions of web users for up to a year, secret files show\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Guardian\" title=\"The Guardian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c1524bb31f0ee6ff14f8f44c7f3595d\">The Guardian<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-01-26<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=NSA+stores+metadata+of+millions+of+web+users+for+up+to+a+year%2C+secret+files+show&rft.au=James+Ball&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2013%2Fsep%2F30%2Fnsa-americans-metadata-year-documents&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-69\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-69\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Kevin Drum. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.motherjones.com\/kevin-drum\/2013\/06\/washington-post-provides-new-history-nsa-surveillance-programs\" target=\"_blank\">\"<i>Washington Post<\/i> Provides New History of NSA Surveillance Programs\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mother_Jones_(magazine)\" title=\"Mother Jones (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2e99566e71d716ed446e0b72f6d08870\">Mother Jones<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-01-26<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mother+Jones&rft.atitle=Washington+Post+Provides+New+History+of+NSA+Surveillance+Programs&rft.au=Kevin+Drum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.motherjones.com%2Fkevin-drum%2F2013%2F06%2Fwashington-post-provides-new-history-nsa-surveillance-programs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-guardian-70\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-guardian_70-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">James Ball in (16 January 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/world\/2014\/jan\/16\/nsa-collects-millions-text-messages-daily-untargeted-global-sweep\" target=\"_blank\">\"NSA collects millions of text messages daily in 'untargeted' global sweep\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Guardian\" title=\"The Guardian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c1524bb31f0ee6ff14f8f44c7f3595d\">The Guardian<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 January<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=NSA+collects+millions+of+text+messages+daily+in+%27untargeted%27+global+sweep&rft.date=2014-01-16&rft.au=James+Ball+in&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2014%2Fjan%2F16%2Fnsa-collects-millions-text-messages-daily-untargeted-global-sweep&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-71\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-71\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Gellman, Barton (6 November 2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-dyn\/content\/article\/2005\/11\/05\/AR2005110501366.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The FBI's Secret Scrutiny\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 April<\/span> 2018<\/span> – via www.washingtonpost.com.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+FBI%27s+Secret+Scrutiny&rft.date=2005-11-06&rft.aulast=Gellman&rft.aufirst=Barton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2005%2F11%2F05%2FAR2005110501366.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-72\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-72\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Akrivopoulou, Christina; Psygkas, Athanasios (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=We5iLoALDEEC&pg=PA257\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Personal Data Privacy and Protection in a Surveillance Era: Technologies and Practices<\/i><\/a>. Idea Group Inc. p. 257. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-60960-083-9. <q>These civil liberties organizations also highlighted the absence of such a data retention obligation for ISPs in the US...<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Personal+Data+Privacy+and+Protection+in+a+Surveillance+Era%3A+Technologies+and+Practices&rft.pages=257&rft.pub=Idea+Group+Inc&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-60960-083-9&rft.aulast=Akrivopoulou&rft.aufirst=Christina&rft.au=Psygkas%2C+Athanasios&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWe5iLoALDEEC%26pg%3DPA257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-73\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-73\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.cnet.com\/ISP-snooping-gaining-support\/2100-1028_3-6061187.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ISP snooping gaining support\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CNET\" title=\"CNET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d7fa1f62b9f9bf1be2936ffd96f9142\">CNET<\/a><\/i>. April 14, 2006<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2009-03-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNET&rft.atitle=ISP+snooping+gaining+support&rft.date=2006-04-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.cnet.com%2FISP-snooping-gaining-support%2F2100-1028_3-6061187.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-74\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-74\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.cnet.com\/8301-13578_3-9926803-38.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"FBI, politicos renew push for ISP data retention laws\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CNET\" title=\"CNET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d7fa1f62b9f9bf1be2936ffd96f9142\">CNET<\/a><\/i>. April 14, 2006<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2009-03-17<\/span><\/span>. <q>Based on the statements at Wednesday's hearing and previous calls for new laws in this area, the scope of a mandatory data retention law remains fuzzy. It could mean forcing companies to store data for two years about what Internet addresses are assigned to which customers (Comcast said in 2006 that it would be retaining those records for six months).<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNET&rft.atitle=FBI%2C+politicos+renew+push+for+ISP+data+retention+laws&rft.date=2006-04-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.cnet.com%2F8301-13578_3-9926803-38.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-75\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-75\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.cnet.com\/8301-13578_3-10448060-38.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"FBI wants records kept of Web sites visited\"<\/a>. <i>CNET<\/i>. February 5, 2010<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2010-02-06<\/span><\/span>. <q>Federal regulations in place since at least 1986 require phone companies that offer toll service to \"retain for a period of 18 months\" records including \"the name, address, and telephone number of the caller, telephone number called, date, time and length of the call.\" \u2014 \"Eighteen million hits an hour would have to have been logged\" ... The purpose of the FBI's request was to identify visitors to two URLs, \"to try to find out...who's going to them.\"<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNET&rft.atitle=FBI+wants+records+kept+of+Web+sites+visited&rft.date=2010-02-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.cnet.com%2F8301-13578_3-10448060-38.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-76\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-76\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090319010704\/http:\/\/www.crn.com\/networking\/214502232\" target=\"_blank\">\"Proposed Child Pornography Laws Raise Data Retention Concerns\"<\/a>. <i><\/i>. February 20, 2009. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.crn.com\/networking\/214502232\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on March 19, 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2009-03-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Channel+Web&rft.atitle=Proposed+Child+Pornography+Laws+Raise+Data+Retention+Concerns&rft.date=2009-02-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crn.com%2Fnetworking%2F214502232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-77\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.govtrack.us\/congress\/bill.xpd?bill=h111-1076\" target=\"_blank\">\"H.R. 1076: Internet Stopping Adults Facilitating the Exploitation of Today's Youth (SAFETY) Act of 2009\"<\/a>. <i>Govtrack.us<\/i>. February 13, 2009.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Govtrack.us&rft.atitle=H.R.+1076%3A+Internet+Stopping+Adults+Facilitating+the+Exploitation+of+Today%27s+Youth+%28SAFETY%29+Act+of+2009&rft.date=2009-02-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fbill.xpd%3Fbill%3Dh111-1076&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-78\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-78\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110726042329\/http:\/\/www.eurocop-police.org\/pressreleases\/2005\/05-06-02%20PRESS%20JHA%20Council_E.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Europe wide retention of telecommunications data unlikely to help law enforcement agencies in the fight against terrorism\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. . 2 June 2005. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.eurocop-police.org\/pressreleases\/2005\/05-06-02%20PRESS%20JHA%20Council_E.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 26 July 2011.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Europe+wide+retention+of+telecommunications+data+unlikely+to+help+law+enforcement+agencies+in+the+fight+against+terrorism&rft.pub=Eurocop&rft.date=2005-06-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurocop-police.org%2Fpressreleases%2F2005%2F05-06-02%2520PRESS%2520JHA%2520Council_E.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-79\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.bbc.co.uk\/1\/hi\/england\/gloucestershire\/3069411.stm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Rights abuse claim at airbase\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BBC_News_Online\" title=\"BBC News Online\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71dc138cc5386fb1e8da98d849d7cf8a\">BBC News Online<\/a><\/i>. 16 July 2003.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News+Online&rft.atitle=Rights+abuse+claim+at+airbase&rft.date=2003-07-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fengland%2Fgloucestershire%2F3069411.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-80\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.bbc.co.uk\/1\/hi\/england\/london\/3097150.stm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Police questioned over terror act use\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/BBC_News_Online\" title=\"BBC News Online\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71dc138cc5386fb1e8da98d849d7cf8a\">BBC News Online<\/a><\/i>. 10 September 2003.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News+Online&rft.atitle=Police+questioned+over+terror+act+use&rft.date=2003-09-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fengland%2Flondon%2F3097150.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-81\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Inc., The Tor Project. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.torproject.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tor Project - Privacy Online\"<\/a>. <i>www.torproject.org<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.torproject.org&rft.atitle=Tor+Project+-+Privacy+Online&rft.aulast=Inc.&rft.aufirst=The+Tor+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.torproject.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-82\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-82\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de\/content\/view\/13\/37\/lang,en\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"About us\"<\/a>. Stoppt die Vorratsdatenspeicherung!. 2006-05-01<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-01-26<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+us&rft.pub=Stoppt+die+Vorratsdatenspeicherung%21&rft.date=2006-05-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de%2Fcontent%2Fview%2F13%2F37%2Flang%2Cen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-vorratsdatenspeicherung.de-83\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-vorratsdatenspeicherung.de_83-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-vorratsdatenspeicherung.de_83-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de\/content\/view\/426\/79\/lang,en\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Study finds telecommunications data retention ineffective (27 Jan 2011)\"<\/a>. Stoppt die Vorratsdatenspeicherung!<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-01-26<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Study+finds+telecommunications+data+retention+ineffective+%2827+Jan+2011%29&rft.pub=Stoppt+die+Vorratsdatenspeicherung%21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de%2Fcontent%2Fview%2F426%2F79%2Flang%2Cen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FM4-30-10-2012-84\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FM4-30-10-2012_84-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FM4\" title=\"FM4\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b95ceec90ff6f701620be3f76b9c87d3\">FM4<\/a> Online (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ORF_(broadcaster)\" title=\"ORF (broadcaster)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7420370903add97f08937dea85af2d4\">ORF<\/a>): <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/fm4.orf.at\/stories\/1707197\/\" target=\"_blank\">Vorratsspeicherung f\u00fcr Facebook-Daten<\/a> (in German). 2012-10-30. Retrieved 2012-11-08<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-85\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-85\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de\/images\/data_retention_effectiveness_report_2011-01-26.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Study on data retention effectiveness\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>vorratsdatenspeicherung.de<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=vorratsdatenspeicherung.de&rft.atitle=Study+on+data+retention+effectiveness&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de%2Fimages%2Fdata_retention_effectiveness_report_2011-01-26.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-86\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-86\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Patrick. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de\/content\/view\/370\/79\/lang,en\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stoppt die Vorratsdatenspeicherung! - Civil society calls for an end to compulsory telecommunications data retention (28 June 2010)\"<\/a>. <i>www.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de&rft.atitle=Stoppt+die+Vorratsdatenspeicherung%21+-+Civil+society+calls+for+an+end+to+compulsory+telecommunications+data+retention+%2828+June+2010%29&rft.au=Patrick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de%2Fcontent%2Fview%2F370%2F79%2Flang%2Cen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-87\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-87\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Patrick. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de\/content\/view\/421\/55\/lang,de\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Stoppt die Vorratsdatenspeicherung! - Video: FDP-Pressekonferenz zur Vorratsdatenspeicherung (19.01.2011)\"<\/a>. <i>www.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de&rft.atitle=Stoppt+die+Vorratsdatenspeicherung%21+-+Video%3A+FDP-Pressekonferenz+zur+Vorratsdatenspeicherung+%2819.01.2011%29&rft.au=Patrick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de%2Fcontent%2Fview%2F421%2F55%2Flang%2Cde%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+retention\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-88\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-88\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.eu2011.hu\/de\/video\/Doorstep_von_Deutscher_Justiz-Staatssekret%C3%A4r_Max_Stadler\" target=\"_blank\">Statement by the German Secretary of Justice<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110129014347\/http:\/\/www.eu2011.hu\/de\/video\/Doorstep_von_Deutscher_Justiz-Staatssekret%C3%A4r_Max_Stadler\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> January 29, 2011, at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wiki.openrightsgroup.org\/wiki\/Data_Retention\" target=\"_blank\">Data Retention<\/a> on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_Rights_Group\" title=\"Open Rights Group\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2dd86189e8f0594d474ff9039618b1ff\">Open Rights Group<\/a> wiki<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/freedom-to-tinker.com\/blog\/axel\/the-politics-of-the-eu-court-data-retention-opinion-end-to-mass-surveillance\" target=\"_blank\">The Politics of the EU Court Data Retention Opinion: End to Mass Surveillance?<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caspar_Bowden\" title=\"Caspar Bowden\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9d8de1ee7dda48443dabacdc82ed333\">Bowden, Caspar<\/a>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.law.duke.edu\/journals\/dltr\/articles\/2002dltr0005.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Closed Circuit Television For Inside Your Head: Blanket Traffic Data Retention and the Emergency Anti-Terrorism Legislation\"<\/a>. Computer and Telecommunications Law Review, March 2002.<\/li>\n<li>Boehm, F. and Cole, M.: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.uni-muenster.de\/Jura.itm\/hoeren\/materialien\/boehm\/Boehm_Cole-Data_Retention_Study-June_2014.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Data Retention after the Judgement of the Court of Justice of the European Union<\/a> (2014). (PDF-file)<\/li>\n<li>Breyer, P.: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.daten-speicherung.de\/data\/data_retention_and_human_rights_essay.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Telecommunications Data Retention and Human Rights: The Compatibility of Blanket Traffic Data Retention with the <\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights\" title=\"European Convention on Human Rights\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dc0038e7a12a8c58b2ff785dd368c\">ECHR<\/a>\", European Law Journal, May 2005. (PDF-File, 82 KB)<\/li>\n<li>Centre for European Policy Studies (CEP): <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110929021846\/http:\/\/www.cep.eu\/fileadmin\/user_upload\/Kurzanalysen\/Vorratsdatenspeicherung\/PB_Data_Retention.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Policy Brief on Data Retention<\/a> (2011). (PDF-File)<\/li>\n<li>Crump, C.: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/Data+retention%3A+privacy,+anonymity,+and+accountability+online.-a0110534145\" target=\"_blank\">Data retention: privacy, anonymity, and accountability online<\/a> (2003). 56 Stanford Law Review 191-229.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cybertelecom.org\/security\/records.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Cybertelecom :: Records Keeping \/ Data Retention<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Rights_Ireland\" title=\"Digital Rights Ireland\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0669eb14996b337c0201b1f8a4d269c\">Digital Rights Ireland<\/a>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20061129213604\/http:\/\/www.digitalrights.ie\/2006\/09\/14\/dri-brings-legal-action-over-mass-surveillance\/\" target=\"_blank\">Digital Rights Ireland's challenge against the EU Data Retention Directive and Irish retention legislation on the grounds of European and Irish constitutional law<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Privacy_Information_Center\" title=\"Electronic Privacy Information Center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49b908e2a1e02c79f37b3a0149ffe393\">Electronic Privacy Information Center<\/a>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epic.org\/privacy\/intl\/data_retention.html\" target=\"_blank\">EPIC data retention page<\/a> (to 2007)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/European_Digital_Rights\" title=\"European Digital Rights\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"522f891111080b5f60aa6a538948ff0c\">European Digital Rights<\/a>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.edri.org\/issues\/privacy\/dataretention\" target=\"_blank\">EDRI news tracking page on data retention<\/a> (current)<\/li>\n<li>Feiler, L.: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/rechtsprobleme.at\/doks\/feiler-DataRetentionDirective.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">The Data Retention Directive<\/a> (2008). Seminar paper. (PDF-File)<\/li>\n<li>Frost & Sullivan Whitepaper: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/lims.utimaco.com\/fileadmin\/assets\/Meeting_the_Challenges_of_Data_Retention.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Meeting the challenges of Data Retention: Now and in the future\"<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Ganj, C.: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1558043&\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Lives of Other Judges: Effects of the Romanian Data Retention Judgment\"<\/a> (December 4, 2009). (PDF-File)<\/li>\n<li>Goemans, C. and Dumortier, J.: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.law.kuleuven.be\/icri\/publications\/440Retention_of_traffic_data_Dumortier_Goemans.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Mandatory retention of traffic data in the EU: possible impact on privacy and on-line anonymity<\/a><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" title=\"Wikipedia:Link rot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e73a2ff6f82d88817bdd8ee8b302ab7\"><span title=\" Dead link since September 2017\">permanent dead link<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/span><\/sup>. Digital Anonymity and the Law, series IT & Law\/2, T.M.C. Asser Press, 2003, p 161-183. (PDF-File)<\/li>\n<li>Milford, P.: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.petermilford.com\/downloads\/Data_Retention_PMilford.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Data Retention Directive: too fast, too furious a response?<\/a> (2008). LLM Dissertation \u2013 Southampton Business School. (PDF-File)<\/li>\n<li>Mitrou, L.: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infosectoday.com\/Articles\/Communications_Data_Retention.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Communications Data Retention: A Pandora\u2019s Box for Rights and Liberties?\"<\/a> From Digital Privacy: Theory, Technologies, and Practices edited by Alessandro Acquisti, Stefanos Gritzalis, Costos Lambrinoudakis and Sabrina di Vimercati. Auerbach Publications, 2008. (PDF-File)<\/li>\n<li>Morariu, M.: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120426001116\/http:\/\/www.socialscience.nl\/application\/upload\/files\/vol1%20is2%20morariu.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">How Secure is to Remain Private? On the Controversies of the European Data Retention Directive<\/a> (2009). Amsterdam Social Science, Vol. 1(2): p. 46-65. (PDF-File)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Statewatch\" title=\"Statewatch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2496c287bd3286ddda67b5b422ea050e\">Statewatch<\/a>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.statewatch.org\/eu-data-retention.htm\" target=\"_blank\">The surveillance of telecommunications in the EU<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20080303042224\/http:\/\/www.watsonhall.com\/methodology\/uk-data-retention-requirements.pl\" target=\"_blank\">UK Data Retention Requirements<\/a> with full references to legislation, codes of practice, etc.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Home_Office\" title=\"Home Office\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72025479e375ce3a880bbdfa64d6f9b7\">UK Home Office<\/a>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20050306100054\/http:\/\/www.homeoffice.gov.uk\/inside\/consults\/closed\/papers2003.html\" target=\"_blank\">Consultation papers<\/a> on data retention and on access to communications data.<\/li>\n<li>Walker, C., & Akdeniz, Y.: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cyber-rights.org\/documents\/data_retention_article.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Anti-Terrorism laws and data retention: war is over?\"<\/a>. Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly, 54(2), Summer edition 2003, 159-182. (PDF-File, 97 KB)<\/li>\n<li>Working Group on Data Retention: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/wiki.vorratsdatenspeicherung.de\/Resources\" target=\"_blank\">List of documents relating to communications data retention in the EU<\/a> (current)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1256\nCached time: 20190325141909\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 1.000 second\nReal time usage: 1.142 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4943\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 160732\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 7080\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 8\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 240035\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\nLua time usage: 0.627\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 16.91 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 994.312 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>73.21% 727.899 1 Template:Reflist\n27.64% 274.849 46 Template:Cite_web\n16.86% 167.599 11 Template:Citation_needed\n14.90% 148.126 13 Template:Fix\n14.33% 142.448 28 Template:Cite_news\n14.31% 142.247 1 Template:Link_language\n 7.19% 71.447 27 Template:Category_handler\n 6.95% 69.062 11 Template:Delink\n 2.79% 27.695 1 Template:Cite_journal\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:3095080-1!canonical and timestamp 20190325141908 and revision id 882769077\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_retention\" data-key=\"7319085a4f0e9c849d3614b6d796cdb5\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203003\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.018 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.185 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 174.667 1 - wikipedia:Data_retention\n100.00% 174.667 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10933-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203002 and revision id 35121\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_retention\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_retention<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","d77533b92d003d39cee958a82b62391a_images":[],"d77533b92d003d39cee958a82b62391a_timestamp":1554323402,"6c08e53bbecbefa3a1fe485ae712a419_type":"article","6c08e53bbecbefa3a1fe485ae712a419_title":"Data migration","6c08e53bbecbefa3a1fe485ae712a419_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_migration","6c08e53bbecbefa3a1fe485ae712a419_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tData migration\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tData migration is the process of selecting, preparing, extracting, and transforming data and permanently transferring it from one computer storage system to another. Additionally, the validation of migrated data for completeness and the decommissioning of legacy data storage are considered part of the entire data migration process.[1][2] Data migration is a key consideration for any system implementation, upgrade, or consolidation, and it is typically performed in such a way as to be as automated as possible, freeing up human resources from tedious tasks. Data migration occurs for a variety of reasons, including server or storage equipment replacements, maintenance or upgrades, application migration, website consolidation, disaster recovery, and data center relocation.[2]\n\nContents \n\n1 The standard phases \n\n1.1 Project versus process \n\n\n2 Categories \n\n2.1 Storage migration \n2.2 Database migration \n2.3 Application migration \n2.4 Business process migration \n\n\n3 Migration as a form of digital preservation \n\n3.1 Disadvantages \n\n\n4 See also \n5 References \n6 External links \n\n\nThe standard phases \nAs of 2011[update], \"nearly 40 percent of data migration projects were over time, over budget, or failed entirely.\"[1][3] As such, to achieve an effective data migration, proper planning is critical. While the specifics of a data migration plan may vary\u2014sometimes significantly\u2014from project to project, the computing company IBM suggests there are three main phases to most any data migration project: planning, migration, and post-migration.[2] Each of those phases has its own steps. During planning, dependencies and requirements are analyzed, migration scenarios get developed and tested, and a project plan that incorporates the prior information is created. During the migration phase, the plan is enacted, and during post-migration, the completeness and thoroughness of the migration is validated, documented, closed out, including any necessary decommissioning of legacy systems.[2] For applications of moderate to high complexity, these data migration phases may be repeated several times before the new system is considered to be fully validated and deployed.\nPlanning: The data, applications, etc. that will be migrated are selected based on business, project, and technical requirements and dependencies. Hardware and bandwidth requirements are analyzed. Feasible migration and back-out scenarios are developed, as well as the associated tests, automation scripts, mappings, and procedures. Data cleansing and transformation requirements are also gauged for data formats to improve data quality and to eliminate redundant or obsolete information. Migration architecture is decided on and developed, any necessary software licenses are obtained, and change management processes are started.[1][2]\nMigration: Hardware and software requirements are validated, and migration procedures are customized as necessary. Some sort of pre-validation testing may also occur to ensure requirements and customized settings function as expected. If all is deemed well, migration begins, including the primary acts of data extraction, where data is read from the old system, and data loading, where data is written to the new system. Additional verification steps ensure the developed migration plan was enacted in full.[1][2]\nPost-migration: After data migration, results are subjected to data verification to determine whether data was accurately translated, is complete, and supports processes in the new system. During verification, there may be a need for a parallel run of both systems to identify areas of disparity and forestall erroneous data loss. Additional documentation and reporting of the migration project is conducted, and once the migration is validated complete, legacy systems may also be decommissioned. Migration close-out meetings will officially end the migration process.[1][2]\n\nProject versus process \nThere is a difference between data migration and data integration activities. Data migration is a project by means of which data will be moved or copied from one environment to another, and removed or decommissioned in the source. During the migration (which can take place over months or even years), data can flow in multiple directions, and there may be multiple migrations taking place simultaneously. The ETL (extract, transform, load) actions will be necessary, although the means of achieving these may not be those traditionally associated with the ETL acronym.\nData integration, by contrast, is a permanent part of the IT architecture, and is responsible for the way data flows between the various applications and data stores\u2014and is a process rather than a project activity. Standard ETL technologies designed to supply data from operational systems to data warehouses would fit within the latter category.[4]\n\nCategories \nData is stored on various media in files or databases, and is generated and consumed by software applications, which in turn support business processes. The need to transfer and convert data can be driven by multiple business requirements, and the approach taken to the migration depends on those requirements. Four major migration categories are proposed on this basis.\n\nStorage migration \nA business may choose to rationalize the physical media to take advantage of more efficient storage technologies.[2] This will result in having to move physical blocks of data from one tape or disk to another, often using virtualization techniques. The data format and content itself will not usually be changed in the process and can normally be achieved with minimal or no impact to the layers above.[5]\n\nDatabase migration \nMain article: Schema migration\nSimilarly, it may be necessary to move from one database vendor to another, or to upgrade the version of database software being used. The latter case is less likely to require a physical data migration, but this can happen with major upgrades. In these cases a physical transformation process may be required since the underlying data format can change significantly. This may or may not affect behavior in the applications layer, depending largely on whether the data manipulation language or protocol has changed.[6] However, some modern applications are written to be almost entirely agnostic to the database technology,[7] so a change from Sybase, MySQL, DB2 or SQL Server to Oracle should only require a testing cycle to be confident that both functional and non-functional performance has not been adversely affected.\n\nApplication migration \nChanging application vendor\u2014for instance a new CRM or ERP platform\u2014will inevitably involve substantial transformation as almost every application or suite operates on its own specific data model and also interacts with other applications and systems within the enterprise application integration environment.[8] Furthermore, to allow the application to be sold to the widest possible market, commercial off-the-shelf packages are generally configured for each customer using metadata. Application programming interfaces (APIs) may be supplied by vendors to protect the integrity of the data they have to handle. It is also possible to script the web interfaces of vendors to automatically migrate data.[9]\n\nBusiness process migration \nBusiness processes operate through a combination of human and application systems actions, often orchestrated by business process management tools. When these change they can require the movement of data from one store, database or application to another to reflect the changes to the organization and information about customers, products and operations. Examples of such migration drivers are mergers and acquisitions, business optimization, and reorganization to attack new markets or respond to competitive threat.[10]\nThe first two categories of migration are usually routine operational activities that the IT department takes care of without the involvement of the rest of the business. The last two categories directly affect the operational users of processes and applications, are necessarily complex, and delivering them without significant business downtime can be challenging. A highly adaptive approach, concurrent synchronization, a business-oriented audit capability, and clear visibility of the migration for stakeholders\u2014through a project management office or data governance team\u2014are likely to be key requirements in such migrations.[10]\n\nMigration as a form of digital preservation \nMigration, which focuses on the digital object itself, is the act of transferring, or rewriting data from an out-of-date medium to a current medium and has for many years been considered the only viable approach to long-term preservation of digital objects.[11] Reproducing brittle newspapers onto microfilm is an example of such migration.\n\nDisadvantages \nMigration addresses the possible obsolescence of the data carrier, but does not address the fact that certain technologies which run the data may be abandoned altogether, leaving migration useless.\nTime-consuming \u2013 migration is a continual process, which must be repeated every time a medium reaches obsolescence, for all data objects stored on a certain media.\nCostly - an institution must purchase additional data storage media at each migration.[12]\nAs a result of the disadvantages listed above, technology professionals have begun to develop alternatives to migration, such as emulation.\n\nSee also \nData conversion\nData curation\nData preservation\nData transformation\nDigital Preservation\nExtract, transform, load\nSystem migration\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c d e Morris, J. (2012). \"Chapter 1: Data Migration: What's All the Fuss?\". Practical Data Migration (2nd ed.). BCS Learning & Development Ltd. pp. 7\u201315. ISBN 9781906124847. \n\n^ a b c d e f g h Dufrasne, B.; Warmuth, A.; Appel, J.; et al. (2017). \"Chapter 1: Introducing disk data migration\". DS8870 Data Migration Techniques. IBM Redbooks. pp. 1\u201316. ISBN 9780738440606. \n\n^ Howard, P. (23 August 2011). \"Data Migration Report - 2011\". Bloor Research International Limited. Retrieved 20 July 2018 . \n\n^ King, T. (17 August 2016). \"Data Integration vs. Data Migration; What's the Difference?\". Solutions Review - Data Integration. LeadSpark, Inc. Retrieved 20 July 2018 . \n\n^ Seiwert, C.; Klee, P.; Marinez, L.; et al. (2012). \"Chapter 2: Migration techniques and processes\". Data Migration to IBM Disk Storage Systems. IBM Redbooks. pp. 7\u201330. ISBN 9780738436289. \n\n^ Fowler, M.; Beck, K.; Brant, J.; et al. (2012). Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code. Addison-Wesley. pp. 63\u20134. ISBN 9780133065268. \n\n^ Fronc, A. (1 March 2015). \"Database-agnostic applications\". DBA Presents. Retrieved 20 July 2018 . \n\n^ Plivna, G. (1 July 2006). \"Data migration from old to new application: An experience\". gplivna.eu. Retrieved 20 July 2018 . \n\n^ Ortac, Alper; Monperrus, Martin; Mezini, Mira (2015). \"Abmash: mashing up legacy Web applications by automated imitation of human actions\" (PDF) . Software: Practice and Experience. 45 (5): 581\u2013612. doi:10.1002\/spe.2249. ISSN 0038-0644. \n\n^ a b Allen, M.; Cervo, D. (2015). Multi-Domain Master Data Management: Advanced MDM and Data Governance in Practice. Morgan Kaufmann. pp. 61\u20132. ISBN 9780128011478. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ van der Hoeven, Jeffrey; Bram Lohman; Remco Verdegem (2007). \"Emulation for Digital Preservation in Practice: The Results\". The International Journal of Digital Curation. 2 (2): 123\u2013132. doi:10.2218\/ijdc.v2i2.35. \n\n^ Muira, Gregory (2007). \"Pushing the Boundaries of Traditional Heritage Policy: maintaining long-term access to multimedia content\" (PDF) . IFLA Journal. 33: 323\u2013326. \n\n\nExternal links \nAzure Database Migration Service at Microsoft\nData Migration at Curlie\nAuthority control \nGND: 4226008-5 \n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_migration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_migration<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 20 July 2018, at 18:07.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 354 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","6c08e53bbecbefa3a1fe485ae712a419_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_migration skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data migration<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Data migration<\/b> is the process of selecting, preparing, extracting, and transforming <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a> and permanently <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_transfer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data transfer\" data-key=\"b1e66eed1513d7f33cddebd5309be14b\">transferring<\/a> it from one <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_data_storage\" title=\"Computer data storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c06a35ae9ff26906dd57849f8067bfdb\">computer storage<\/a> system to another. Additionally, the validation of migrated data for completeness and the decommissioning of legacy data storage are considered part of the entire data migration process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MorrisPractical12_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MorrisPractical12-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DufrasneDS8870_17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Data migration is a key consideration for any system implementation, upgrade, or consolidation, and it is typically performed in such a way as to be as automated as possible, freeing up human resources from tedious tasks. Data migration occurs for a variety of reasons, including server or storage equipment replacements, maintenance or upgrades, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_modernization\" title=\"Software modernization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1919ea48cc59498ebf1e778d680f533e\">application migration<\/a>, website consolidation, disaster recovery, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_center\" title=\"Data center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f7623fd733432645a66e8903167fc90\">data center<\/a> relocation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DufrasneDS8870_17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_standard_phases\">The standard phases<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>As of 2011<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, \"nearly 40 percent of data migration projects were over time, over budget, or failed entirely.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MorrisPractical12_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MorrisPractical12-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HowardData11_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HowardData11-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> As such, to achieve an effective data migration, proper planning is critical. While the specifics of a data migration plan may vary\u2014sometimes significantly\u2014from project to project, the computing company <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a> suggests there are three main phases to most any data migration project: planning, migration, and post-migration.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DufrasneDS8870_17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Each of those phases has its own steps. During planning, dependencies and requirements are analyzed, migration scenarios get developed and tested, and a project plan that incorporates the prior information is created. During the migration phase, the plan is enacted, and during post-migration, the completeness and thoroughness of the migration is validated, documented, closed out, including any necessary decommissioning of legacy systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DufrasneDS8870_17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> For applications of moderate to high complexity, these data migration phases may be repeated several times before the new system is considered to be fully validated and deployed.\n<\/p><p><b>Planning<\/b>: The data, applications, etc. that will be migrated are selected based on business, project, and technical requirements and dependencies. Hardware and bandwidth requirements are analyzed. Feasible migration and back-out scenarios are developed, as well as the associated tests, automation scripts, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mapping\" title=\"Data mapping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e27b9e9ae631a9edb1f50c395508f5f\">mappings<\/a>, and procedures. Data cleansing and transformation requirements are also gauged for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_format\" title=\"File format\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62c4671544f65b354f06ff1ad16d0f2f\">data formats<\/a> to improve <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_quality\" title=\"Data quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8771428f8ff5b31246abf8b197186672\">data quality<\/a> and to eliminate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_duplication\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data duplication\" data-key=\"8640c0b27e7d7d8e232ca67c5f92636d\">redundant<\/a> or obsolete information. Migration architecture is decided on and developed, any necessary software licenses are obtained, and change management processes are started.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MorrisPractical12_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MorrisPractical12-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DufrasneDS8870_17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>Migration<\/b>: Hardware and software requirements are validated, and migration procedures are customized as necessary. Some sort of pre-validation testing may also occur to ensure requirements and customized settings function as expected. If all is deemed well, migration begins, including the primary acts of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_extraction\" title=\"Data extraction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de8ab98c6386145eafdff3272413db9a\">data extraction<\/a>, where data is read from the old system, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_loading\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data loading\" data-key=\"f59ccb1b04856bb3f2db3ca30e6c8702\">data loading<\/a>, where data is written to the new system. Additional verification steps ensure the developed migration plan was enacted in full.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MorrisPractical12_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MorrisPractical12-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DufrasneDS8870_17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>Post-migration<\/b>: After data migration, results are subjected to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_verification\" title=\"Data verification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c32d121e22e0105daa2c36a342ab67c0\">data verification<\/a> to determine whether data was accurately translated, is complete, and supports processes in the new system. During verification, there may be a need for a parallel run of both systems to identify areas of disparity and forestall erroneous <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_loss\" title=\"Data loss\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38786c97c9ccb26dced6621e1adf74bf\">data loss<\/a>. Additional documentation and reporting of the migration project is conducted, and once the migration is validated complete, legacy systems may also be decommissioned. Migration close-out meetings will officially end the migration process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MorrisPractical12_1-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MorrisPractical12-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DufrasneDS8870_17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Project_versus_process\">Project versus process<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There is a difference between data migration and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration\" title=\"Data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ef20102ff5fd42522c9e879f31e999e\">data integration<\/a> activities. Data migration is a project by means of which data will be moved or copied from one environment to another, and removed or decommissioned in the source. During the migration (which can take place over months or even years), data can flow in multiple directions, and there may be multiple migrations taking place simultaneously. The ETL (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extract,_transform,_load\" title=\"Extract, transform, load\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1dd08fd33b5feacc8f3e7d140a4ab5d7\">extract, transform, load<\/a>) actions will be necessary, although the means of achieving these may not be those traditionally associated with the ETL acronym.\n<\/p><p>Data integration, by contrast, is a permanent part of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology_architecture\" title=\"Information technology architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc7597844ad28d60e7e34a072ebe368a\">IT architecture<\/a>, and is responsible for the way data flows between the various applications and data stores\u2014and is a process rather than a project activity. Standard ETL technologies designed to supply data from operational systems to data warehouses would fit within the latter category.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KingData16_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KingData16-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Categories\">Categories<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Data is stored on various media in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_file\" title=\"Computer file\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99bce4432f1e311013bdcb5d3fb6c834\">files<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Databases\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Databases\" data-key=\"4ff0b40b476e847fb7b4f18428ec64ad\">databases<\/a>, and is generated and consumed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_applications\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software applications\" data-key=\"9d0038715c58903527ada3fc431cf87b\">software applications<\/a>, which in turn support <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_processes\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business processes\" data-key=\"855790e5e133619d0cb8e8e49874b276\">business processes<\/a>. The need to transfer and convert data can be driven by multiple business requirements, and the approach taken to the migration depends on those requirements. Four major migration categories are proposed on this basis.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Storage_migration\">Storage migration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A business may choose to rationalize the physical media to take advantage of more efficient storage technologies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DufrasneDS8870_17-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> This will result in having to move physical blocks of data from one tape or disk to another, often using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Storage_virtualization\" title=\"Storage virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eddb7ff6636ed52e35f497b50fb1cb79\">virtualization<\/a> techniques. The data format and content itself will not usually be changed in the process and can normally be achieved with minimal or no impact to the layers above.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SeiwertData12_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SeiwertData12-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Database_migration\">Database migration<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Schema_migration\" title=\"Schema migration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b54cf07656f38126e16816549387031\">Schema migration<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Similarly, it may be necessary to move from one <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">database<\/a> vendor to another, or to upgrade the version of database software being used. The latter case is less likely to require a physical data migration, but this can happen with major upgrades. In these cases a physical transformation process may be required since the underlying data format can change significantly. This may or may not affect behavior in the applications layer, depending largely on whether the data manipulation language or protocol has changed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FowlerRefactoring12_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FowlerRefactoring12-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> However, some modern applications are written to be almost entirely agnostic to the database technology,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FroncDatabase15_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FroncDatabase15-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> so a change from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sybase\" title=\"Sybase\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca011efd2c98bff936f8ac9cb85d1e50\">Sybase<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MySQL\" title=\"MySQL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e19ee1594f7d14ed829012c31e3c1c51\">MySQL<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM_DB2\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IBM DB2\" data-key=\"56a485c407cc90ec1fb879526c4274e2\">DB2<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_SQL_Server\" title=\"Microsoft SQL Server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ff3fa55b404790f2d215fc78f21de0b\">SQL Server<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_Database\" title=\"Oracle Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac02a229b19e5e9cb4d2e682cb37fd0e\">Oracle<\/a> should only require a testing cycle to be confident that both functional and non-functional performance has not been adversely affected.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Application_migration\">Application migration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Changing application vendor\u2014for instance a new <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_relationship_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Customer relationship management\" data-key=\"8203726ea504ac5ce9b5ce91be3a96b7\">CRM<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_resource_planning\" title=\"Enterprise resource planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"850b202e706427b4bdd62fd8c05e7c80\">ERP<\/a> platform\u2014will inevitably involve substantial transformation as almost every application or suite operates on its own specific data model and also interacts with other applications and systems within the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_application_integration\" title=\"Enterprise application integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d697403942408f923065543d60e5bda1\">enterprise application integration<\/a> environment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PlivnaData_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PlivnaData-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> Furthermore, to allow the application to be sold to the widest possible market, commercial off-the-shelf packages are generally configured for each customer using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">metadata<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_programming_interfaces\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Application programming interfaces\" data-key=\"b2d807fd19989ddc22eec898ac1bce5f\">Application programming interfaces<\/a> (APIs) may be supplied by vendors to protect the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integrity\" title=\"Data integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42abdc13351f50028f23f899197d3349\">integrity of the data<\/a> they have to handle. It is also possible to script the web interfaces of vendors to automatically migrate data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OrtacMonperrus2015_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OrtacMonperrus2015-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Business_process_migration\">Business process migration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_processes\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business processes\" data-key=\"855790e5e133619d0cb8e8e49874b276\">Business processes<\/a> operate through a combination of human and application systems actions, often orchestrated by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">business process management<\/a> tools. When these change they can require the movement of data from one store, database or application to another to reflect the changes to the organization and information about customers, products and operations. Examples of such migration drivers are mergers and acquisitions, business optimization, and reorganization to attack new markets or respond to competitive threat.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AllenMulti15_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AllenMulti15-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The first two categories of migration are usually routine operational activities that the IT department takes care of without the involvement of the rest of the business. The last two categories directly affect the operational users of processes and applications, are necessarily complex, and delivering them without significant business downtime can be challenging. A highly adaptive approach, concurrent synchronization, a business-oriented audit capability, and clear visibility of the migration for stakeholders\u2014through a project management office or data governance team\u2014are likely to be key requirements in such migrations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AllenMulti15_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AllenMulti15-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Migration_as_a_form_of_digital_preservation\">Migration as a form of digital preservation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Migration, which focuses on the digital object itself, is the act of transferring, or rewriting data from an out-of-date medium to a current medium and has for many years been considered the only viable approach to long-term preservation of digital objects.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> Reproducing brittle newspapers onto <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microform\" title=\"Microform\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73f91d8b31607b681ddaca5b04b420cf\">microfilm<\/a> is an example of such migration.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Disadvantages\">Disadvantages<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Migration addresses the possible obsolescence of the data carrier, but does not address the fact that certain technologies which run the data may be abandoned altogether, leaving migration useless.<\/li>\n<li>Time-consuming \u2013 migration is a continual process, which must be repeated every time a medium reaches obsolescence, for all data objects stored on a certain media.<\/li>\n<li>Costly - an institution must purchase additional data storage media at each migration.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>As a result of the disadvantages listed above, technology professionals have begun to develop alternatives to migration, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emulator\" title=\"Emulator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16b879b7ccd316d5607eee1fefa2425f\">emulation<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_conversion\" title=\"Data conversion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"151dc4268c6f15cc2c155aefaa051875\">Data conversion<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_curation\" title=\"Data curation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0115b409eaea80124e6e409e96b8eed\">Data curation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_preservation\" title=\"Data preservation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8461e6f2e0f58853c9c5dabb08951e2a\">Data preservation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_transformation\" title=\"Data transformation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e65ce825992dab727e2d7e2b22a754b\">Data transformation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Preservation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital Preservation\" data-key=\"f9e23661e2c5f4869af21b259f94b1d7\">Digital Preservation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extract,_transform,_load\" title=\"Extract, transform, load\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1dd08fd33b5feacc8f3e7d140a4ab5d7\">Extract, transform, load<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_migration\" title=\"System migration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e42c336187077d2b1e8c0f1bfaa7f8a0\">System migration<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-MorrisPractical12-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-MorrisPractical12_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-MorrisPractical12_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-MorrisPractical12_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-MorrisPractical12_1-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-MorrisPractical12_1-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Morris, J. (2012). \"Chapter 1: Data Migration: What's All the Fuss?\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AZKMrGyZGTcC&pg=PA7\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Practical Data Migration<\/i><\/a> (2nd ed.). BCS Learning & Development Ltd. pp. 7\u201315. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781906124847.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Data+Migration%3A+What%27s+All+the+Fuss%3F&rft.btitle=Practical+Data+Migration&rft.pages=7-15&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=BCS+Learning+%26+Development+Ltd&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781906124847&rft.au=Morris%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAZKMrGyZGTcC%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+migration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DufrasneDS8870_17-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DufrasneDS8870_17_2-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Dufrasne, B.; Warmuth, A.; Appel, J.; et al. (2017). \"Chapter 1: Introducing disk data migration\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=3fHDCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>DS8870 Data Migration Techniques<\/i><\/a>. IBM Redbooks. pp. 1\u201316. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780738440606.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introducing+disk+data+migration&rft.btitle=DS8870+Data+Migration+Techniques&rft.pages=1-16&rft.pub=IBM+Redbooks&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780738440606&rft.au=Dufrasne%2C+B.&rft.au=Warmuth%2C+A.&rft.au=Appel%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3fHDCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+migration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HowardData11-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HowardData11_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Howard, P. (23 August 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bloorresearch.com\/research\/data-migration-report-2011\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Migration Report - 2011\"<\/a>. Bloor Research International Limited<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Data+Migration+Report+-+2011&rft.pub=Bloor+Research+International+Limited&rft.date=2011-08-23&rft.au=Howard%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloorresearch.com%2Fresearch%2Fdata-migration-report-2011%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+migration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KingData16-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KingData16_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">King, T. (17 August 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/solutionsreview.com\/data-integration\/data-integration-vs-data-migration-whats-the-difference\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Integration vs. Data Migration; What's the Difference?\"<\/a>. <i>Solutions Review - Data Integration<\/i>. LeadSpark, Inc<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Solutions+Review+-+Data+Integration&rft.atitle=Data+Integration+vs.+Data+Migration%3B+What%E2%80%99s+the+Difference%3F&rft.date=2016-08-17&rft.au=King%2C+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsolutionsreview.com%2Fdata-integration%2Fdata-integration-vs-data-migration-whats-the-difference%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+migration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SeiwertData12-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SeiwertData12_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Seiwert, C.; Klee, P.; Marinez, L.; et al. (2012). \"Chapter 2: Migration techniques and processes\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=zr26AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Data Migration to IBM Disk Storage Systems<\/i><\/a>. IBM Redbooks. pp. 7\u201330. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780738436289.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Migration+techniques+and+processes&rft.btitle=Data+Migration+to+IBM+Disk+Storage+Systems&rft.pages=7-30&rft.pub=IBM+Redbooks&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780738436289&rft.au=Seiwert%2C+C.&rft.au=Klee%2C+P.&rft.au=Marinez%2C+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzr26AgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+migration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FowlerRefactoring12-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FowlerRefactoring12_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Fowler, M.; Beck, K.; Brant, J.; et al. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=HmrDHwgkbPsC&pg=PA63\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code<\/i><\/a>. Addison-Wesley. pp. 63\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780133065268.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Refactoring%3A+Improving+the+Design+of+Existing+Code&rft.pages=63-4&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780133065268&rft.au=Fowler%2C+M.&rft.au=Beck%2C+K.&rft.au=Brant%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHmrDHwgkbPsC%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+migration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FroncDatabase15-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-FroncDatabase15_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Fronc, A. (1 March 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dba-presents.com\/index.php\/other\/my-thoughts\/34-database-agnostic-applications\" target=\"_blank\">\"Database-agnostic applications\"<\/a>. <i>DBA Presents<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DBA+Presents&rft.atitle=Database-agnostic+applications&rft.date=2015-03-01&rft.au=Fronc%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdba-presents.com%2Findex.php%2Fother%2Fmy-thoughts%2F34-database-agnostic-applications&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+migration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PlivnaData-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PlivnaData_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Plivna, G. (1 July 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gplivna.eu\/papers\/legacy_app_migration.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data migration from old to new application: An experience\"<\/a>. <i>gplivna.eu<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gplivna.eu&rft.atitle=Data+migration+from+old+to+new+application%3A+An+experience&rft.date=2006-07-01&rft.au=Plivna%2C+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gplivna.eu%2Fpapers%2Flegacy_app_migration.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+migration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OrtacMonperrus2015-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-OrtacMonperrus2015_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Ortac, Alper; Monperrus, Martin; Mezini, Mira (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hal.archives-ouvertes.fr\/hal-00912582\/file\/abmash-mashup-by-imitation.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Abmash: mashing up legacy Web applications by automated imitation of human actions\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Software: Practice and Experience<\/i>. <b>45<\/b> (5): 581\u2013612. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002%2Fspe.2249\" target=\"_blank\">10.1002\/spe.2249<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0038-0644\" target=\"_blank\">0038-0644<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Software%3A+Practice+and+Experience&rft.atitle=Abmash%3A+mashing+up+legacy+Web+applications+by+automated+imitation+of+human+actions&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=581-612&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fspe.2249&rft.issn=0038-0644&rft.aulast=Ortac&rft.aufirst=Alper&rft.au=Monperrus%2C+Martin&rft.au=Mezini%2C+Mira&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-00912582%2Ffile%2Fabmash-mashup-by-imitation.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+migration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AllenMulti15-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-AllenMulti15_10-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AllenMulti15_10-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Allen, M.; Cervo, D. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=y-ScBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Multi-Domain Master Data Management: Advanced MDM and Data Governance in Practice<\/i><\/a>. Morgan Kaufmann. pp. 61\u20132. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780128011478.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Multi-Domain+Master+Data+Management%3A+Advanced+MDM+and+Data+Governance+in+Practice&rft.pages=61-2&rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780128011478&rft.au=Allen%2C+M.%3B+Cervo%2C+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy-ScBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+migration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">van der Hoeven, Jeffrey; Bram Lohman; Remco Verdegem (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ijdc.net\/index.php\/ijdc\/article\/view\/50\" target=\"_blank\">\"Emulation for Digital Preservation in Practice: The Results\"<\/a>. <i>The International Journal of Digital Curation<\/i>. <b>2<\/b> (2): 123\u2013132. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2218%2Fijdc.v2i2.35\" target=\"_blank\">10.2218\/ijdc.v2i2.35<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Digital+Curation&rft.atitle=Emulation+for+Digital+Preservation+in+Practice%3A+The+Results&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=123-132&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2218%2Fijdc.v2i2.35&rft.au=van+der+Hoeven%2C+Jeffrey&rft.au=Bram+Lohman&rft.au=Remco+Verdegem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ijdc.net%2Findex.php%2Fijdc%2Farticle%2Fview%2F50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+migration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Muira, Gregory (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ifla.org\/files\/assets\/hq\/publications\/ifla-journal\/ifla-journal-4-2007.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Pushing the Boundaries of Traditional Heritage Policy: maintaining long-term access to multimedia content\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>IFLA Journal<\/i>. <b>33<\/b>: 323\u2013326.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IFLA+Journal&rft.atitle=Pushing+the+Boundaries+of+Traditional+Heritage+Policy%3A+maintaining+long-term+access+to+multimedia+content&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=323-326&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Muira%2C+Gregory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ifla.org%2Ffiles%2Fassets%2Fhq%2Fpublications%2Fifla-journal%2Fifla-journal-4-2007.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+migration\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/aka.ms\/get-dms\" target=\"_blank\">Azure Database Migration Service<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/curlie.org\/Computers\/Software\/Databases\/Data_Warehousing\/Extraction_and_Transformation\" target=\"_blank\">Data Migration<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curlie\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Curlie\" data-key=\"f2bf78e9dbc70f166d4b3bd9f21cf9f3\">Curlie<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1332\nCached time: 20190330055116\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.288 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.368 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 880\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 26128\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 553\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 4\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 40306\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 3\/400\nLua time usage: 0.164\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 3.58 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 319.543 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>64.53% 206.202 1 Template:Reflist\n34.42% 109.991 5 Template:Cite_book\n14.73% 47.074 3 Template:Cite_journal\n12.17% 38.891 1 Template:Authority_control\n11.34% 36.230 1 Template:As_of\n 9.70% 30.999 1 Template:DMCA\n 8.88% 28.367 1 Template:Dated_maintenance_category\n 7.60% 24.279 1 Template:FULLROOTPAGENAME\n 6.57% 20.983 1 Template:Ns_has_subpages\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:1135408-1!canonical and timestamp 20190330055115 and revision id 890074921\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_migration\" data-key=\"a21ff53cc2ece9b80869cfdffa779af0\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203002\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.010 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.145 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 138.886 1 - wikipedia:Data_migration\n100.00% 138.886 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10693-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203002 and revision id 33599\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_migration\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_migration<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","6c08e53bbecbefa3a1fe485ae712a419_images":[],"6c08e53bbecbefa3a1fe485ae712a419_timestamp":1554323402,"b04c74d5298e13ab6a52b2e0a40a22ee_type":"article","b04c74d5298e13ab6a52b2e0a40a22ee_title":"Data mapping","b04c74d5298e13ab6a52b2e0a40a22ee_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mapping","b04c74d5298e13ab6a52b2e0a40a22ee_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tData mapping\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tData transformation\nConcepts\nMetadata\nData element\nData mapping\nData migration\nData transformation\nModel transformation\nMacro\nPreprocessor\n\nTransformation languages\nATL\nAWK\nMOFM2T\nQVT\nXML languages\n\nTechniques and transforms\nIdentity transform\nData refinement\n\nApplications\nData migration\nData conversion\nExtract, transform, load (ETL)\nWeb template system\n\nRelated\nData conversion\nData wrangling\nTransformation languages\nvte\nThis article needs attention from an expert in Information Architecture. The specific problem is: The information appears outdated and requires sources both historical (history of data mapping) and current (how is data mapping performed today).. WikiProject Information Architecture may be able to help recruit an expert. (May 2018 )\nIn computing and data management, data mapping is the process of creating data element mappings between two distinct data models. Data mapping is used as a first step for a wide variety of data integration tasks, including[1]:\n\nData transformation or data mediation between a data source and a destination\nIdentification of data relationships as part of data lineage analysis\nDiscovery of hidden sensitive data such as the last four digits of a social security number hidden in another user id as part of a data masking or de-identification project\nConsolidation of multiple databases into a single database and identifying redundant columns of data for consolidation or elimination\nFor example, a company that would like to transmit and receive purchases and invoices with other companies might use data mapping to create data maps from a company's data to standardized ANSI ASC X12 messages for items such as purchase orders and invoices.\n\nContents \n\n1 Standards \n2 Hand-coded, graphical manual \n3 Data-driven mapping \n4 Semantic mapping \n5 See also \n6 References \n7 External links \n\n\nStandards \nX12 standards are generic Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) standards designed to allow a company to exchange data with any other company, regardless of industry. The standards are maintained by the Accredited Standards Committee X12 (ASC X12), with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) accredited to set standards for EDI. The X12 standards are often called ANSI ASC X12 standards.\nIn the future, tools based on semantic web languages such as Resource Description Framework (RDF), the Web Ontology Language (OWL) and standardized metadata registry will make data mapping a more automatic process. This process will be accelerated if each application performed metadata publishing. Full automated data mapping is a very difficult problem (see semantic translation).\n\n Hand-coded, graphical manual \nData mappings can be done in a variety of ways using procedural code, creating XSLT transforms or by using graphical mapping tools that automatically generate executable transformation programs. These are graphical tools that allow a user to \"draw\" lines from fields in one set of data to fields in another. Some graphical data mapping tools allow users to \"auto-connect\" a source and a destination. This feature is dependent on the source and destination data element name being the same. Transformation programs are automatically created in SQL, XSLT, Java programming language, or C++. These kinds of graphical tools are found in most ETL (extract, transform, and load) tools as the primary means of entering data maps to support data movement. Examples include SAP BODS and Informatica PowerCenter.\n\nData-driven mapping \nThis is the newest approach in data mapping and involves simultaneously evaluating actual data values in two data sources using heuristics and statistics to automatically discover complex mappings between two data sets. This approach is used to find transformations between two data sets, discovering substrings, concatenations, arithmetic, case statements as well as other kinds of transformation logic. This approach also discovers data exceptions that do not follow the discovered transformation logic.\n\nSemantic mapping \nSemantic mapping is similar to the auto-connect feature of data mappers with the exception that a metadata registry can be consulted to look up data element synonyms. For example, if the source system lists FirstName but the destination lists PersonGivenName, the mappings will still be made if these data elements are listed as synonyms in the metadata registry. Semantic mapping is only able to discover exact matches between columns of data and will not discover any transformation logic or exceptions between columns.\nData lineage is a track of the life cycle of each piece of data as it is ingested, processed, and output by the analytics system. This provides visibility into the analytics pipeline and simplifies tracing errors back to their sources. It also enables replaying specific portions or inputs of the data flow for step-wise debugging or regenerating lost output. In fact, database systems have used such information, called data provenance, to address similar validation and debugging challenges already.[2]\n\nSee also \nData integration\nData wrangling\nIdentity transform\nISO\/IEC 11179 - The ISO\/IEC Metadata registry standard\nMetadata\nMetadata publishing\nSchema matching\nSemantic heterogeneity\nSemantic mapper\nSemantic translation\nSemantic web\nSemantics\nXSLT - XML Transformation Language\nReferences \n\n\n^ Shahbaz, Q. (2015). Data Mapping for Data Warehouse Design. Elsevier. p. 180. ISBN 9780128053355. Retrieved 29 May 2018 . \n\n^ De, Soumyarupa. (2012). Newt : an architecture for lineage based replay and debugging in DISC systems. UC San Diego: b7355202. Retrieved from: https:\/\/escholarship.org\/uc\/item\/3170p7zn \n\n\nExternal links \n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mapping\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mapping<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 2 March 2019, at 22:30.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 17 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","b04c74d5298e13ab6a52b2e0a40a22ee_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_mapping skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data mapping<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\">\n\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing\" title=\"Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e2b41b4b3636a02cae6b06d1b0b6378\">computing<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_management\" title=\"Data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81c54f822d2961a56b862b2fe07cff86\">data management<\/a>, <b>data mapping<\/b> is the process of creating <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_element\" title=\"Data element\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48b5537bac7a549e16dae04c2303fc6f\">data element<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Map_(mathematics)\" title=\"Map (mathematics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4497c83a6f214b0e0f663c38bf53cf40\">mappings<\/a> between two distinct <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_model\" title=\"Data model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0d92c5cb69a9ec47cdd2ea65f864bf1\">data models<\/a>. Data mapping is used as a first step for a wide variety of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration\" title=\"Data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ef20102ff5fd42522c9e879f31e999e\">data integration<\/a> tasks, including<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShahbazData15_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShahbazData15-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_transformation\" title=\"Data transformation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e65ce825992dab727e2d7e2b22a754b\">Data transformation<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mediation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data mediation\" data-key=\"ed9f292e13274b7d16edad1064d1638f\">data mediation<\/a> between a data source and a destination<\/li>\n<li>Identification of data relationships as part of data lineage analysis<\/li>\n<li>Discovery of hidden sensitive data such as the last four digits of a social security number hidden in another user id as part of a data masking or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/De-identification\" title=\"De-identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e47789ac152b2bc4da191537b5992193\">de-identification<\/a> project<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_consolidation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data consolidation\" data-key=\"471af45a50ed99f2fb17a08acdfd2e8c\">Consolidation<\/a> of multiple databases into a single database and identifying redundant columns of data for consolidation or elimination<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>For example, a company that would like to transmit and receive purchases and invoices with other companies might use data mapping to create data maps from a company's data to standardized <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ANSI_ASC_X12\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ANSI ASC X12\" data-key=\"156266a7291e42109ddb5b797bf954c4\">ANSI ASC X12<\/a> messages for items such as purchase orders and invoices.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standards\">Standards<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>X12 standards are generic <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_Data_Interchange\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Electronic Data Interchange\" data-key=\"68304f18a00f6fe726e5f4b6810e5a96\">Electronic Data Interchange<\/a> (EDI) standards designed to allow a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Company_(law)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Company (law)\" data-key=\"2e448ec167035be712d5af5d498f9d72\">company<\/a> to exchange <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a> with any other company, regardless of industry. The standards are maintained by the Accredited Standards Committee X12 (ASC X12), with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/American_National_Standards_Institute\" title=\"American National Standards Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f391900136a273e9e2a6efd431ee0c4\">American National Standards Institute<\/a> (ANSI) accredited to set standards for EDI. The X12 standards are often called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ANSI_ASC_X12\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ANSI ASC X12\" data-key=\"156266a7291e42109ddb5b797bf954c4\">ANSI ASC X12<\/a> standards.\n<\/p><p>In the future, tools based on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_web\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Semantic web\" data-key=\"3e9451ef1cdd8889632548b19fa34dcf\">semantic web<\/a> languages such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource_Description_Framework\" title=\"Resource Description Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f84df3c8186c49293d7c93180e1489de\">Resource Description Framework<\/a> (RDF), the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_Ontology_Language\" title=\"Web Ontology Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556d5da6276c12ca0c34d72be5fe7f5\">Web Ontology Language<\/a> (OWL) and standardized <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_registry\" title=\"Metadata registry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50b38acec4b504b2af8989879e047734\">metadata registry<\/a> will make data mapping a more automatic process. This process will be accelerated if each application performed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_publishing\" title=\"Metadata publishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71c50092f3be4d2c99c0ba1fadad5e1d\">metadata publishing<\/a>. Full automated data mapping is a very difficult problem (see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_translation\" title=\"Semantic translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c19a00f9e1a3aff4a4161867a3c71629\">semantic translation<\/a>).\n<\/p>\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Hand-coded.2C_graphical_manual\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hand-coded,_graphical_manual\">Hand-coded, graphical manual<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Data mappings can be done in a variety of ways using procedural code, creating <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XSLT\" title=\"XSLT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c65e141a10f863ad3c39965d9b557642\">XSLT<\/a> transforms or by using graphical mapping tools that automatically generate executable transformation programs. These are graphical tools that allow a user to \"draw\" lines from fields in one set of data to fields in another. Some graphical data mapping tools allow users to \"auto-connect\" a source and a destination. This feature is dependent on the source and destination <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_element_name\" title=\"Data element name\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eaba55a04448754d3a32fec07eb0e082\">data element name<\/a> being the same. Transformation programs are automatically created in SQL, XSLT, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_(programming_language)\" title=\"Java (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"444fa6d23d72fee4750d4189e5a53f53\">Java programming language<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/C%2B%2B\" title=\"C++\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"591b3d79c619a003deca49c147974b2d\">C++<\/a>. These kinds of graphical tools are found in most <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extract,_transform,_load\" title=\"Extract, transform, load\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1dd08fd33b5feacc8f3e7d140a4ab5d7\">ETL<\/a> (extract, transform, and load) tools as the primary means of entering data maps to support data movement. Examples include SAP BODS and Informatica PowerCenter.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data-driven_mapping\">Data-driven mapping<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This is the newest approach in data mapping and involves simultaneously evaluating actual data values in two data sources using heuristics and statistics to automatically discover complex mappings between two data sets. This approach is used to find transformations between two data sets, discovering substrings, concatenations, arithmetic, case statements as well as other kinds of transformation logic. This approach also discovers data exceptions that do not follow the discovered transformation logic.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Semantic_mapping\">Semantic mapping<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_mapper\" title=\"Semantic mapper\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0117535577f35c01c0db567918a88b60\">Semantic mapping<\/a> is similar to the auto-connect feature of data mappers with the exception that a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_registry\" title=\"Metadata registry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50b38acec4b504b2af8989879e047734\">metadata registry<\/a> can be consulted to look up data element synonyms. For example, if the source system lists <i>FirstName<\/i> but the destination lists <i>PersonGivenName<\/i>, the mappings will still be made if these data elements are listed as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synonyms\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Synonyms\" data-key=\"0297bacbe948ff01fc0b03c9a700f234\">synonyms<\/a> in the metadata registry. Semantic mapping is only able to discover exact matches between columns of data and will not discover any transformation logic or exceptions between columns.\n<\/p><p>Data lineage is a track of the life cycle of each piece of data as it is ingested, processed, and output by the analytics system. This provides visibility into the analytics pipeline and simplifies tracing errors back to their sources. It also enables replaying specific portions or inputs of the data flow for step-wise debugging or regenerating lost output. In fact, database systems have used such information, called data provenance, to address similar validation and debugging challenges already.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration\" title=\"Data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ef20102ff5fd42522c9e879f31e999e\">Data integration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_wrangling\" title=\"Data wrangling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1348b63ace5604aa881bbf97efbbf7a\">Data wrangling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_transform\" title=\"Identity transform\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e990524118e47628e12ca42d7a5db7da\">Identity transform<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO\/IEC_11179\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 11179\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77c34eea440c5f765f97188bdc095b23\">ISO\/IEC 11179<\/a> - The ISO\/IEC Metadata registry standard<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">Metadata<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata_publishing\" title=\"Metadata publishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"71c50092f3be4d2c99c0ba1fadad5e1d\">Metadata publishing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Schema_matching\" title=\"Schema matching\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6182e135eed0dd12021acf436b00a174\">Schema matching<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_heterogeneity\" title=\"Semantic heterogeneity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c23ce302d7f3cfaed045ba1fa7d34f6c\">Semantic heterogeneity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_mapper\" title=\"Semantic mapper\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0117535577f35c01c0db567918a88b60\">Semantic mapper<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_translation\" title=\"Semantic translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c19a00f9e1a3aff4a4161867a3c71629\">Semantic translation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_web\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Semantic web\" data-key=\"3e9451ef1cdd8889632548b19fa34dcf\">Semantic web<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantics\" title=\"Semantics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74dfd4c30b765f279ab114a98bb29fbc\">Semantics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XSLT\" title=\"XSLT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c65e141a10f863ad3c39965d9b557642\">XSLT<\/a> - XML Transformation Language<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShahbazData15-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ShahbazData15_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Shahbaz, Q. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pRChCgAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Data Mapping for Data Warehouse Design<\/i><\/a>. Elsevier. p. 180. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780128053355<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+Mapping+for+Data+Warehouse+Design&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780128053355&rft.au=Shahbaz%2C+Q.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpRChCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+mapping\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">De, Soumyarupa. (2012). Newt : an architecture for lineage based replay and debugging in DISC systems. UC San Diego: b7355202. Retrieved from: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/escholarship.org\/uc\/item\/3170p7zn\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/escholarship.org\/uc\/item\/3170p7zn<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1274\nCached time: 20190324202430\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.140 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.198 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 364\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 12626\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 762\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 10\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 3\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 3640\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\nLua time usage: 0.074\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 1.95 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 166.555 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>51.46% 85.706 1 Template:Reflist\n43.85% 73.036 1 Template:Cite_book\n29.77% 49.578 1 Template:Expert_needed\n19.86% 33.086 1 Template:Ambox\n17.44% 29.052 1 Template:Data_transformation\n16.07% 26.768 1 Template:Sidebar\n 5.12% 8.535 1 Template:Category_handler\n 3.06% 5.093 5 Template:Expert_needed\/catcheck\n 1.56% 2.602 1 Template:Main_other\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:1862853-1!canonical and timestamp 20190324202430 and revision id 881302198\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mapping\" data-key=\"5e27b9e9ae631a9edb1f50c395508f5f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203002\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.013 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.166 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 156.808 1 - wikipedia:Data_mapping\n100.00% 156.808 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10928-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203002 and revision id 35093\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mapping\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_mapping<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","b04c74d5298e13ab6a52b2e0a40a22ee_images":[],"b04c74d5298e13ab6a52b2e0a40a22ee_timestamp":1554323402,"382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167_type":"article","382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167_title":"Data integrity","382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity","382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tData integrity\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tData integrity is the maintenance of, and the assurance of the accuracy and consistency of, data over its entire life-cycle,[1] and is a critical aspect to the design, implementation and usage of any system which stores, processes, or retrieves data. The term is broad in scope and may have widely different meanings depending on the specific context –  even under the same general umbrella of computing. It is at times used as a proxy term for data quality,[2] while data validation is a pre-requisite for data integrity.[3]\nData integrity is the opposite of data corruption.[4] The overall intent of any data integrity technique is the same: ensure data is recorded exactly as intended (such as a database correctly rejecting mutually exclusive possibilities,) and upon later retrieval, ensure the data is the same as it was when it was originally recorded. In short, data integrity aims to prevent unintentional changes to information. Data integrity is not to be confused with data security, the discipline of protecting data from unauthorized parties.\n\n<\/p>Any unintended changes to data as the result of a storage, retrieval or processing operation, including malicious intent, unexpected hardware failure, and human error, is failure of data integrity. If the changes are the result of unauthorized access, it may also be a failure of data security. Depending on the data involved this could manifest itself as benign as a single pixel in an image appearing a different color than was originally recorded, to the loss of vacation pictures or a business-critical database, to even catastrophic loss of human life in a life-critical system.\n\nContents \n\n1 Integrity types \n\n1.1 Physical integrity \n1.2 Logical integrity \n\n\n2 Databases \n\n2.1 Types of integrity constraints \n2.2 Examples \n\n\n3 File systems \n4 Data integrity as applied to various industries \n5 See also \n6 References \n7 Further reading \n\n\nIntegrity types \nPhysical integrity \nPhysical integrity deals with challenges associated with correctly storing and fetching the data itself. Challenges with physical integrity may include electromechanical faults, design flaws, material fatigue, corrosion, power outages, natural disasters, acts of war and terrorism, and other special environmental hazards such as ionizing radiation, extreme temperatures, pressures and g-forces. Ensuring physical integrity includes methods such as redundant hardware, an uninterruptible power supply, certain types of RAID arrays, radiation hardened chips, error-correcting memory, use of a clustered file system, using file systems that employ block level checksums such as ZFS, storage arrays that compute parity calculations such as exclusive or or use a cryptographic hash function and even having a watchdog timer on critical subsystems.\nPhysical integrity often makes extensive use of error detecting algorithms known as error-correcting codes. Human-induced data integrity errors are often detected through the use of simpler checks and algorithms, such as the Damm algorithm or Luhn algorithm. These are used to maintain data integrity after manual transcription from one computer system to another by a human intermediary (e.g. credit card or bank routing numbers). Computer-induced transcription errors can be detected through hash functions.\nIn production systems, these techniques are used together to ensure various degrees of data integrity. For example, a computer file system may be configured on a fault-tolerant RAID array, but might not provide block-level checksums to detect and prevent silent data corruption. As another example, a database management system might be compliant with the ACID properties, but the RAID controller or hard disk drive's internal write cache might not be.\n\nLogical integrity \nSee also: Mutex and Copy-on-write\nThis type of integrity is concerned with the correctness or rationality of a piece of data, given a particular context. This includes topics such as referential integrity and entity integrity in a relational database or correctly ignoring impossible sensor data in robotic systems. These concerns involve ensuring that the data \"makes sense\" given its environment. Challenges include software bugs, design flaws, and human errors. Common methods of ensuring logical integrity include things such as a check constraints, foreign key constraints, program assertions, and other run-time sanity checks.\nBoth physical and logical integrity often share many common challenges such as human errors and design flaws, and both must appropriately deal with concurrent requests to record and retrieve data, the latter of which is entirely a subject on its own.\n\nDatabases \nData integrity contains guidelines for data retention, specifying or guaranteeing the length of time data can be retained in a particular database. To achieve data integrity, these rules are consistently and routinely applied to all data entering the system, and any relaxation of enforcement could cause errors in the data. Implementing checks on the data as close as possible to the source of input (such as human data entry), causes less erroneous data to enter the system. Strict enforcement of data integrity rules results in lower error rates, and time saved troubleshooting and tracing erroneous data and the errors it causes to algorithms.\nData integrity also includes rules defining the relations a piece of data can have, to other pieces of data, such as a Customer record being allowed to link to purchased Products, but not to unrelated data such as Corporate Assets. Data integrity often includes checks and correction for invalid data, based on a fixed schema or a predefined set of rules. An example being textual data entered where a date-time value is required. Rules for data derivation are also applicable, specifying how a data value is derived based on algorithm, contributors and conditions. It also specifies the conditions on how the data value could be re-derived.\n\n Types of integrity constraints \nData integrity is normally enforced in a database system by a series of integrity constraints or rules. Three types of integrity constraints are an inherent part of the relational data model: entity integrity, referential integrity and domain integrity.\n\nEntity integrity concerns the concept of a primary key. Entity integrity is an integrity rule which states that every table must have a primary key and that the column or columns chosen to be the primary key should be unique and not null.\nReferential integrity concerns the concept of a foreign key. The referential integrity rule states that any foreign-key value can only be in one of two states. The usual state of affairs is that the foreign-key value refers to a primary key value of some table in the database. Occasionally, and this will depend on the rules of the data owner, a foreign-key value can be null. In this case, we are explicitly saying that either there is no relationship between the objects represented in the database or that this relationship is unknown.\nDomain integrity specifies that all columns in a relational database must be declared upon a defined domain. The primary unit of data in the relational data model is the data item. Such data items are said to be non-decomposable or atomic. A domain is a set of values of the same type. Domains are therefore pools of values from which actual values appearing in the columns of a table are drawn.\nUser-defined integrity refers to a set of rules specified by a user, which do not belong to the entity, domain and referential integrity categories.\nIf a database supports these features, it is the responsibility of the database to ensure data integrity as well as the consistency model for the data storage and retrieval. If a database does not support these features, it is the responsibility of the applications to ensure data integrity while the database supports the consistency model for the data storage and retrieval.\nHaving a single, well-controlled, and well-defined data-integrity system increases\n\nstability (one centralized system performs all data integrity operations)\nperformance (all data integrity operations are performed in the same tier as the consistency model)\nre-usability (all applications benefit from a single centralized data integrity system)\nmaintainability (one centralized system for all data integrity administration).\nModern databases support these features (see Comparison of relational database management systems), and it has become the de facto responsibility of the database to ensure data integrity. Companies, and indeed many database systems, offer products and services to migrate legacy systems to modern databases.\n\nExamples \nAn example of a data-integrity mechanism is the parent-and-child relationship of related records. If a parent record owns one or more related child records all of the referential integrity processes are handled by the database itself, which automatically ensures the accuracy and integrity of the data so that no child record can exist without a parent (also called being orphaned) and that no parent loses their child records. It also ensures that no parent record can be deleted while the parent record owns any child records. All of this is handled at the database level and does not require coding integrity checks into each application.\n\nFile systems \nVarious research results show that neither widespread filesystems (including UFS, Ext, XFS, JFS and NTFS) nor hardware RAID solutions provide sufficient protection against data integrity problems.[5][6][7][8][9]\nSome filesystems (including Btrfs and ZFS) provide internal data and metadata checksumming that is used for detecting silent data corruption and improving data integrity. If a corruption is detected that way and internal RAID mechanisms provided by those filesystems are also used, such filesystems can additionally reconstruct corrupted data in a transparent way.[10] This approach allows improved data integrity protection covering the entire data paths, which is usually known as end-to-end data protection.[11]\n\nData integrity as applied to various industries \nThe U.S. Food and Drug Administration has created draft guidance on data integrity for the pharmaceutical manufacturers required to adhere to U.S. Code of Federal Regulations 21 CFR Parts 210\u2013212.[12] Outside the U.S., similar data integrity guidance has been issued by the United Kingdom (2015), Switzerland (2016), and Australia (2017).[13]\nVarious standards for the manufacture of medical devices address data integrity either directly or indirectly, including ISO 13485, ISO 14155, and ISO 5840.[14]\nConsumer healthcare companies producing over-the-counter therapies must also put safeguards in place to manage data integrity. In addition to compliance with FDA regulations, there is a significant risk to brand and reputation.[15]\nIn early 2017, the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA), noting data integrity problems with automated trading and money movement surveillance systems, stated it would make \"the development of a data integrity program to monitor the accuracy of the submitted data\" a priority.[16] In early 2018, FINRA said it would expand its approach on data integrity to firms' \"technology change management policies and procedures\" and Treasury securities reviews.[17]\nOther sectors such as mining[18] and product manufacturing[19] are increasingly focusing on the importance of data integrity in associated automation and production monitoring assets.\nCloud storage providers have long faced significant challenges ensuring the integrity or provenance of customer data and tracking violations.[20][21][22]\nSee also \nEnd-to-end data integrity\nMessage authentication\nNational Information Systems Security Glossary\nReferences \n\n\n^ Boritz, J. \"IS Practitioners' Views on Core Concepts of Information Integrity\". International Journal of Accounting Information Systems. Elsevier. Archived from the original on 5 October 2011. Retrieved 12 August 2011 . \n\n^ What is Data Integrity? Learn How to Ensure Database Data Integrity via Checks, Tests, & Best Practices \n\n^ What is Data Integrity? Data Protection 101 \n\n^ From the book: Uberveillance and the Social Implications of Microchip Implants: Emerging Page 40 \n\n^ \nVijayan Prabhakaran (2006). \"IRON FILE SYSTEMS\" (PDF) . Doctor of Philosophy in Computer Sciences. University of Wisconsin-Madison. Retrieved 9 June 2012 . \n\n^ \n\"Parity Lost and Parity Regained\". \n\n^ \n\"An Analysis of Data Corruption in the Storage Stack\" (PDF) . \n\n^ \n\"Impact of Disk Corruption on Open-Source DBMS\" (PDF) . \n\n^ \n\"Baarf.com\". Baarf.com. Retrieved November 4, 2011 . \n\n^ Bierman, Margaret; Grimmer, Lenz (August 2012). \"How I Use the Advanced Capabilities of Btrfs\". Retrieved 2014-01-02 . \n\n^ Yupu Zhang; Abhishek Rajimwale; Andrea C. Arpaci-Dusseau; Remzi H. Arpaci-Dusseau. \"End-to-end Data Integrity for File Systems: A ZFS Case Study\" (PDF) . Computer Sciences Department, University of Wisconsin. Retrieved 2014-01-02 . \n\n^ \"Data Integrity and Compliance with CGMP: Guidance for Industry\" (PDF) . U.S. Food and Drug Administration. April 2016. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Davidson, J. (18 July 2017). \"Data Integrity Guidance Around the World\". Contract Pharma. Rodman Media. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Scannel, P. (12 May 2015). \"Data Integrity: A perspective from the medical device regulatory and standards framework\" (PDF) . Data Integrity Seminar. Parenteral Drug Association. pp. 10\u201357. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"New Risks of Data Integrity in Consumer Healthcare | Clarkston Consulting\". Clarkston Consulting. 2018-09-10. Retrieved 2018-09-11 . \n\n^ Cook, R. (4 January 2017). \"2017 Regulatory and Examination Priorities Letter\". Financial Industry Regulatory Authority. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Cook, R. (8 January 2018). \"2018 Regulatory and Examination Priorities Letter\". Financial Industry Regulatory Authority. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Data Integrity: Enabling Effective Decisions in Mining Operations\" (PDF) . Accenture. 2016. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Industry 4.0 and Cyber-Physical Systems Raise the Data Integrity Imperative\". Nymi Blog. Nymi, Inc. 24 October 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2018 . \n\n^ Priyadharshini, B.; Parvathi, P. (2012). \"Data integrity in cloud storage\". Proceedings from the 2012 International Conference on Advances in Engineering, Science and Management. ISBN 9788190904223. \n\n^ Zafar, F.; Khan, A.; Malik, S.U.R.; et al. (2017). \"A survey of cloud computing data integrity schemes: Design challenges, taxonomy and future trends\". Computers & Security. 65 (3): 29\u201349. doi:10.1016\/j.cose.2016.10.006. \n\n^ Imran, M.; Hlavacs, H.; Haq, I.U.I.; et al. (2017). \"Provenance based data integrity checking and verification in cloud environments\". PLOS One. 12 (5): e0177576. doi:10.1371\/journal.pone.0177576. PMC 5435237 . PMID 28545151. \n\n\nFurther reading \n This article incorporates public domain material from the General Services Administration document \"Federal Standard 1037C\" (in support of MIL-STD-188).\nXiaoyun Wang; Hongbo Yu (2005). \"How to Break MD5 and Other Hash Functions\" (PDF) . EUROCRYPT. ISBN 3-540-25910-4. \nAuthority control \nGND: 4214306-8 \n\nvteData\nAnalysis\nArchaeology\nCleansing\nCollection\nCompression\nCorruption\nCuration\nDegradation\nEditing\nFarming\nFormat management\nFusion\nIntegration\nIntegrity\nLibrary\nLoss\nManagement\nMigration\nMining\nPre-processing\nPreservation\nProtection (privacy)\nRecovery\nReduction\nRetention\nQuality\nScience\nScraping\nScrubbing\nSecurity\nStewardship\nStorage\nValidation\nWarehouse\nWrangling\/munging\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Computer securityData securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 26 January 2018, at 01:25.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 1,131 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_integrity skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data integrity<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Data integrity<\/b> is the maintenance of, and the assurance of the accuracy and consistency of, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a> over its entire <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_Lifecycle_Management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Information Lifecycle Management\" data-key=\"dbe99bc5fa74e1365e58cc1305b9d74d\">life-cycle<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> and is a critical aspect to the design, implementation and usage of any system which stores, processes, or retrieves data. The term is broad in scope and may have widely different meanings depending on the specific context –  even under the same general umbrella of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing\" title=\"Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e2b41b4b3636a02cae6b06d1b0b6378\">computing<\/a>. It is at times used as a proxy term for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_quality\" title=\"Data quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8771428f8ff5b31246abf8b197186672\">data quality<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> while <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_validation\" title=\"Data validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b70acbc05ba8da588936d71fece0b0b6\">data validation<\/a> is a pre-requisite for data integrity.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>Data integrity is the opposite of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_corruption\" title=\"Data corruption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"012248352da338b332ab959566612a39\">data corruption<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> The overall intent of any data integrity technique is the same: ensure data is recorded exactly as intended (such as a database correctly rejecting mutually exclusive possibilities,) and upon later retrieval, ensure the data is the same as it was when it was originally recorded. In short, data integrity aims to prevent unintentional changes to information. Data integrity is not to be confused with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_security\" title=\"Data security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7e9e5ee008f52b19272642e6cf8fb9\">data security<\/a>, the discipline of protecting data from unauthorized parties.\n<\/p>\n<\/p><p>Any unintended changes to data as the result of a storage, retrieval or processing operation, including malicious intent, unexpected hardware failure, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_error\" title=\"Human error\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d94e570446fdfe0dcc32a73ee1b0b99\">human error<\/a>, is failure of data integrity. If the changes are the result of unauthorized access, it may also be a failure of data security. Depending on the data involved this could manifest itself as benign as a single pixel in an image appearing a different color than was originally recorded, to the loss of vacation pictures or a business-critical database, to even catastrophic loss of human life in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Life-critical_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Life-critical system\" data-key=\"2603917bb7ea0b7cb7a4effdca5b8491\">life-critical system<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Integrity_types\">Integrity types<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Physical_integrity\">Physical integrity<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Physical integrity deals with challenges associated with correctly storing and fetching the data itself. Challenges with physical integrity may include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electromechanics\" title=\"Electromechanics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"680b6ba6889288caf430f5c6694fea2f\">electromechanical<\/a> faults, design flaws, material <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fatigue_(material)\" title=\"Fatigue (material)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b960ac412e712a7eb66b9966f2a93448\">fatigue<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Corrosion\" title=\"Corrosion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b8d580adb5d690afdf1b28a52a8c537\">corrosion<\/a>, power outages, natural disasters, acts of war and terrorism, and other special environmental hazards such as ionizing radiation, extreme temperatures, pressures and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/G-force\" title=\"G-force\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f84425b70e4916a159d8300aa79b73a\">g-forces<\/a>. Ensuring physical integrity includes methods such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Redundancy_(engineering)\" title=\"Redundancy (engineering)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10c20f7afc75b8f06f4b512f1c90883b\">redundant<\/a> hardware, an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uninterruptible_power_supply\" title=\"Uninterruptible power supply\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9530180297ed0f137cb7fcfd0495066\">uninterruptible power supply<\/a>, certain types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RAID\" title=\"RAID\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bd07ba03e098130175fc03ba5b0c752\">RAID<\/a> arrays, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radiation_hardened\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Radiation hardened\" data-key=\"e13b6ab2318d978e0335b7d381132af7\">radiation hardened<\/a> chips, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ECC_memory\" title=\"ECC memory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37d46a7baeeedd5fe9af76f735afa59d\">error-correcting memory<\/a>, use of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clustered_file_system\" title=\"Clustered file system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4b3e631c8b7c5a86535ae7f02021b834\">clustered file system<\/a>, using file systems that employ block level <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Checksum\" title=\"Checksum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0062da8a4cedf924c709cab7d64dc84\">checksums<\/a> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ZFS\" title=\"ZFS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"046554aee95a51fea56799723643d698\">ZFS<\/a>, storage arrays that compute parity calculations such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exclusive_or\" title=\"Exclusive or\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"adc928df737b564d488b2c7a84b9864d\">exclusive or<\/a> or use a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptographic_hash_function\" title=\"Cryptographic hash function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"676bb20eaff859ca784b738f7e8c856f\">cryptographic hash function<\/a> and even having a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Watchdog_timer\" title=\"Watchdog timer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6aa657a1da6236c1b95776cd47865c7\">watchdog timer<\/a> on critical subsystems.\n<\/p><p>Physical integrity often makes extensive use of error detecting algorithms known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Error-correcting_codes\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Error-correcting codes\" data-key=\"d051935bcbf562131f9cc6982dbe22e3\">error-correcting codes<\/a>. Human-induced data integrity errors are often detected through the use of simpler checks and algorithms, such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Damm_algorithm\" title=\"Damm algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7a42d43757d1b3df6345758329c6b1df\">Damm algorithm<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Luhn_algorithm\" title=\"Luhn algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"963140e9eee3c95a83b0633a478fcc61\">Luhn algorithm<\/a>. These are used to maintain data integrity after manual transcription from one computer system to another by a human intermediary (e.g. credit card or bank routing numbers). Computer-induced transcription errors can be detected through <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hash_functions\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hash functions\" data-key=\"f644758d9a60687c62b958e47565ced0\">hash functions<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In production systems, these techniques are used together to ensure various degrees of data integrity. For example, a computer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_system\" title=\"File system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7687f830dfdbe09200697ca00721f7b3\">file system<\/a> may be configured on a fault-tolerant RAID array, but might not provide block-level checksums to detect and prevent <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Silent_data_corruption\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Silent data corruption\" data-key=\"221828daaca144f57cce23fd9890ca56\">silent data corruption<\/a>. As another example, a database management system might be compliant with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ACID\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ACID\" data-key=\"49a2ed92a6f8e7d2959db4830195557a\">ACID<\/a> properties, but the RAID controller or hard disk drive's internal write cache might not be.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Logical_integrity\">Logical integrity<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mutex\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mutex\" data-key=\"2268147e2723b1ca8828e969a876a43f\">Mutex<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Copy-on-write\" title=\"Copy-on-write\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"871d5491fe70cf36e1f3dabe66eb4f77\">Copy-on-write<\/a><\/div>\n<p>This type of integrity is concerned with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Correctness_(computer_science)\" title=\"Correctness (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"450677ad62db7462acf89e86b679fac7\">correctness<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Rationality\" title=\"Rationality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f15d35c691d55f5fb8751cf607135a2\">rationality<\/a> of a piece of data, given a particular context. This includes topics such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Referential_integrity\" title=\"Referential integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff357b46cedfef3587d99400e530e6c5\">referential integrity<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Entity_integrity\" title=\"Entity integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7e53b7a5b8c1428918918e7b20bfde8\">entity integrity<\/a> in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relational_database\" title=\"Relational database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86b6b5174c671988f4e5dba65702a9c0\">relational database<\/a> or correctly ignoring impossible sensor data in robotic systems. These concerns involve ensuring that the data \"makes sense\" given its environment. Challenges include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_bugs\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software bugs\" data-key=\"0975923b1072a199f0a0c00a83c897a2\">software bugs<\/a>, design flaws, and human errors. Common methods of ensuring logical integrity include things such as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Check_constraint\" title=\"Check constraint\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1553efecc5b2ee82136f2436a594af3\">check constraints<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Foreign_key_constraint\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Foreign key constraint\" data-key=\"2ba4284892205198b2cda772f73be379\">foreign key constraints<\/a>, program <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Assertion_(computing)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Assertion (computing)\" data-key=\"611b3901356183fadc414edee31a4891\">assertions<\/a>, and other run-time sanity checks.\n<\/p><p>Both physical and logical integrity often share many common challenges such as human errors and design flaws, and both must appropriately deal with concurrent requests to record and retrieve data, the latter of which is entirely a subject on its own.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Databases\">Databases<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Data integrity contains guidelines for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_retention\" title=\"Data retention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7319085a4f0e9c849d3614b6d796cdb5\">data retention<\/a>, specifying or guaranteeing the length of time data can be retained in a particular database. To achieve data integrity, these rules are consistently and routinely applied to all data entering the system, and any relaxation of enforcement could cause errors in the data. Implementing checks on the data as close as possible to the source of input (such as human data entry), causes less erroneous data to enter the system. Strict enforcement of data integrity rules results in lower error rates, and time saved troubleshooting and tracing erroneous data and the errors it causes to algorithms.\n<\/p><p>Data integrity also includes rules defining the relations a piece of data can have, to other pieces of data, such as a <i>Customer<\/i> record being allowed to link to purchased <i>Products<\/i>, but not to unrelated data such as <i>Corporate Assets<\/i>. Data integrity often includes checks and correction for invalid data, based on a fixed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_schema\" title=\"Database schema\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab20ee150e597eb5a9db99cd7836853a\">schema<\/a> or a predefined set of rules. An example being textual data entered where a date-time value is required. Rules for data derivation are also applicable, specifying how a data value is derived based on algorithm, contributors and conditions. It also specifies the conditions on how the data value could be re-derived.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_integrity_constraints\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-TYPES\"><\/span>Types of integrity constraints<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data integrity is normally enforced in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Database system\" data-key=\"63057083b6ce09afef9c50cc7e4db112\">database system<\/a> by a series of integrity constraints or rules. Three types of integrity constraints are an inherent part of the relational data model: entity integrity, referential integrity and domain integrity.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Entity_integrity\" title=\"Entity integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7e53b7a5b8c1428918918e7b20bfde8\">Entity integrity<\/a><\/i> concerns the concept of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Primary_key\" title=\"Primary key\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"663375fdcf0ab4795c1708a1139466c4\">primary key<\/a>. Entity integrity is an integrity rule which states that every table must have a primary key and that the column or columns chosen to be the primary key should be unique and not null.<\/li>\n<li><i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Referential_integrity\" title=\"Referential integrity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff357b46cedfef3587d99400e530e6c5\">Referential integrity<\/a><\/i> concerns the concept of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Foreign_key\" title=\"Foreign key\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dea78614f1bac12f4f8dd4b5e9c5fafc\">foreign key<\/a>. The referential integrity rule states that any foreign-key value can only be in one of two states. The usual state of affairs is that the foreign-key value refers to a primary key value of some table in the database. Occasionally, and this will depend on the rules of the data owner, a foreign-key value can be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Null_(SQL)\" title=\"Null (SQL)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4fd063e6f7c59d9df2eb4df462a4105\">null<\/a>. In this case, we are explicitly saying that either there is no relationship between the objects represented in the database or that this relationship is unknown.<\/li>\n<li><i>Domain integrity<\/i> specifies that all columns in a relational database must be declared upon a defined domain. The primary unit of data in the relational data model is the data item. Such data items are said to be non-decomposable or atomic. A domain is a set of values of the same type. Domains are therefore pools of values from which actual values appearing in the columns of a table are drawn.<\/li>\n<li><i>User-defined integrity<\/i> refers to a set of rules specified by a user, which do not belong to the entity, domain and referential integrity categories.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>If a database supports these features, it is the responsibility of the database to ensure data integrity as well as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consistency_model\" title=\"Consistency model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf5049f32eeb38be04873ce364df79df\">consistency model<\/a> for the data storage and retrieval. If a database does not support these features, it is the responsibility of the applications to ensure data integrity while the database supports the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consistency_model\" title=\"Consistency model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf5049f32eeb38be04873ce364df79df\">consistency model<\/a> for the data storage and retrieval.\n<\/p><p>Having a single, well-controlled, and well-defined data-integrity system increases\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>stability (one centralized system performs all data integrity operations)<\/li>\n<li>performance (all data integrity operations are performed in the same tier as the consistency model)<\/li>\n<li>re-usability (all applications benefit from a single centralized data integrity system)<\/li>\n<li>maintainability (one centralized system for all data integrity administration).<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Modern <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">databases<\/a> support these features (see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comparison_of_relational_database_management_systems\" title=\"Comparison of relational database management systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"869fd5b98f9a2eee5df7cb710d282b91\">Comparison of relational database management systems<\/a>), and it has become the de facto responsibility of the database to ensure data integrity. Companies, and indeed many database systems, offer products and services to migrate legacy systems to modern databases.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Examples\">Examples<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An example of a data-integrity mechanism is the parent-and-child relationship of related records. If a parent record owns one or more related child records all of the referential integrity processes are handled by the database itself, which automatically ensures the accuracy and integrity of the data so that no child record can exist without a parent (also called being orphaned) and that no parent loses their child records. It also ensures that no parent record can be deleted while the parent record owns any child records. All of this is handled at the database level and does not require coding integrity checks into each application.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"File_systems\">File systems<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Various research results show that neither widespread <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Filesystem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Filesystem\" data-key=\"3e6deaedcc75e6750225d3f33c437041\">filesystems<\/a> (including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unix_File_System\" title=\"Unix File System\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f162f992c95b59e9e0d4b1b914a89ca2\">UFS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Extended_file_system\" title=\"Extended file system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d76a8a611d078c430da636c9aee2b8d\">Ext<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XFS\" title=\"XFS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b424f48e3d95320f85857a5fed87f15\">XFS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JFS_(file_system)\" title=\"JFS (file system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a65194a3848c75957950b6a55809a25\">JFS<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NTFS\" title=\"NTFS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3485d6f1f578f7bbc9ccae4f6b46ef2f\">NTFS<\/a>) nor <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RAID#Problems_with_RAID\" title=\"RAID\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7efcd77409c449ed7a8847f8285dbd65\">hardware RAID<\/a> solutions provide sufficient protection against data integrity problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Some filesystems (including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Btrfs\" title=\"Btrfs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"747184c282ee8e73331b500203199ab7\">Btrfs<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ZFS\" title=\"ZFS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"046554aee95a51fea56799723643d698\">ZFS<\/a>) provide internal data and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">metadata<\/a> checksumming that is used for detecting <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Silent_data_corruption\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Silent data corruption\" data-key=\"221828daaca144f57cce23fd9890ca56\">silent data corruption<\/a> and improving data integrity. If a corruption is detected that way and internal RAID mechanisms provided by those filesystems are also used, such filesystems can additionally reconstruct corrupted data in a transparent way.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> This approach allows improved data integrity protection covering the entire data paths, which is usually known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/End-to-end_data_protection\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"End-to-end data protection\" data-key=\"d7181d72ab54288dd0a8c79d9e459d2f\">end-to-end data protection<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_integrity_as_applied_to_various_industries\">Data integrity as applied to various industries<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>The U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> has created draft guidance on data integrity for the pharmaceutical manufacturers required to adhere to U.S. Code of Federal Regulations 21 CFR Parts 210\u2013212.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HHSData16_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HHSData16-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Outside the U.S., similar data integrity guidance has been issued by the United Kingdom (2015), Switzerland (2016), and Australia (2017).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DavidsonData17_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DavidsonData17-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Various standards for the manufacture of medical devices address data integrity either directly or indirectly, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_13485\" title=\"ISO 13485\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8248b26d81c246c0a6cbc320d1670e01\">ISO 13485<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_14155\" title=\"ISO 14155\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85eb5d0b2148e0b3ee66704673e50928\">ISO 14155<\/a>, and ISO 5840.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PDAData15_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PDAData15-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Consumer healthcare companies producing over-the-counter therapies must also put safeguards in place to manage <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/clarkstonconsulting.com\/insights\/data-integrity-consumer-healthcare\/\" target=\"_blank\">data integrity<\/a>. In addition to compliance with FDA regulations, there is a significant risk to brand and reputation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In early 2017, the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA), noting data integrity problems with automated trading and money movement surveillance systems, stated it would make \"the development of a data integrity program to monitor the accuracy of the submitted data\" a priority.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cook2017_17_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cook2017_17-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> In early 2018, FINRA said it would expand its approach on data integrity to firms' \"technology change management policies and procedures\" and Treasury securities reviews.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cook2018_18_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cook2018_18-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Other sectors such as mining<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AccentureDataInt16_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AccentureDataInt16-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> and product manufacturing<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NymiIndustry17_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NymiIndustry17-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> are increasingly focusing on the importance of data integrity in associated automation and production monitoring assets.<\/li>\n<li>Cloud storage providers have long faced significant challenges ensuring the integrity or provenance of customer data and tracking violations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PriyadharshiniData12_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PriyadharshiniData12-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ZafarASurv17_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ZafarASurv17-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ImranProvenance17_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ImranProvenance17-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/End-to-end_data_integrity\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"End-to-end data integrity\" data-key=\"ce379022f24eefec3e496f78962f396f\">End-to-end data integrity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_authentication\" title=\"Message authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a87737191933230fe0fd06e9592b706\">Message authentication<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_Information_Systems_Security_Glossary\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"National Information Systems Security Glossary\" data-key=\"d7daff62a6161801e20fd01c98729d2b\">National Information Systems Security Glossary<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Boritz, J. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111005085820\/http:\/\/www.fdewb.unimaas.nl\/marc\/ecais_new\/files\/boritz.doc\" target=\"_blank\">\"IS Practitioners' Views on Core Concepts of Information Integrity\"<\/a>. <i>International Journal of Accounting Information Systems<\/i>. Elsevier. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.fdewb.unimaas.nl\/marc\/ecais_new\/files\/boritz.doc\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 5 October 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 August<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Accounting+Information+Systems&rft.atitle=IS+Practitioners%27+Views+on+Core+Concepts+of+Information+Integrity&rft.aulast=Boritz&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fdewb.unimaas.nl%2Fmarc%2Fecais_new%2Ffiles%2Fboritz.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.veracode.com\/blog\/2012\/05\/what-is-data-integrity\" target=\"_blank\">What is Data Integrity? Learn How to Ensure Database Data Integrity via Checks, Tests, & Best Practices<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/digitalguardian.com\/blog\/what-data-integrity-data-protection-101\" target=\"_blank\">What is Data Integrity? Data Protection 101<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#v=onepage&q=data%20integrity%20opposite%20data%20corruption&f=false\">From the book: Uberveillance and the Social Implications of Microchip Implants: Emerging Page 40<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation web\">Vijayan Prabhakaran (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pages.cs.wisc.edu\/~vijayan\/vijayan-thesis.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"IRON FILE SYSTEMS\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Doctor of Philosophy in Computer Sciences<\/i>. University of Wisconsin-Madison<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 June<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Doctor+of+Philosophy+in+Computer+Sciences&rft.atitle=IRON+FILE+SYSTEMS&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Vijayan+Prabhakaran&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpages.cs.wisc.edu%2F~vijayan%2Fvijayan-thesis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cs.wisc.edu\/adsl\/Publications\/parity-fast08.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Parity Lost and Parity Regained\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Parity+Lost+and+Parity+Regained&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.wisc.edu%2Fadsl%2FPublications%2Fparity-fast08.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cs.wisc.edu\/adsl\/Publications\/corruption-fast08.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"An Analysis of Data Corruption in the Storage Stack\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+Analysis+of+Data+Corruption+in+the+Storage+Stack&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.wisc.edu%2Fadsl%2FPublications%2Fcorruption-fast08.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cs.wisc.edu\/adsl\/Publications\/corrupt-mysql-icde10.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Impact of Disk Corruption on Open-Source DBMS\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Impact+of+Disk+Corruption+on+Open-Source+DBMS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.wisc.edu%2Fadsl%2FPublications%2Fcorrupt-mysql-icde10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.baarf.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Baarf.com\"<\/a>. 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(2017). \"A survey of cloud computing data integrity schemes: Design challenges, taxonomy and future trends\". <i>Computers & Security<\/i>. <b>65<\/b> (3): 29\u201349. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.cose.2016.10.006\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.cose.2016.10.006<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computers+%26+Security&rft.atitle=A+survey+of+cloud+computing+data+integrity+schemes%3A+Design+challenges%2C+taxonomy+and+future+trends&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=29-49&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cose.2016.10.006&rft.au=Zafar%2C+F.&rft.au=Khan%2C+A.&rft.au=Malik%2C+S.U.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ImranProvenance17-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ImranProvenance17_22-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Imran, M.; Hlavacs, H.; Haq, I.U.I.; et al. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5435237\" target=\"_blank\">\"Provenance based data integrity checking and verification in cloud environments\"<\/a>. <i>PLOS One<\/i>. <b>12<\/b> (5): e0177576. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0177576\" target=\"_blank\">10.1371\/journal.pone.0177576<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" title=\"PubMed Central\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63771bf92616f7746c20a676c8bc36e6\">PMC<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5435237\" target=\"_blank\">5435237<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/28545151\" target=\"_blank\">28545151<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+One&rft.atitle=Provenance+based+data+integrity+checking+and+verification+in+cloud+environments&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=e0177576&rft.date=2017&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5435237&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28545151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0177576&rft.au=Imran%2C+M.&rft.au=Hlavacs%2C+H.&rft.au=Haq%2C+I.U.I.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5435237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/6\/62\/PD-icon.svg\/12px-PD-icon.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"12\" height=\"12\" \/> This article incorporates <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Copyright_status_of_work_by_the_U.S._government\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Copyright status of work by the U.S. government\" data-key=\"f59dd3a88e59a4d5a4d095eecdb16523\">public domain material<\/a> from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Services_Administration\" title=\"General Services Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8078737e4e3b95dbe9730349e063f51\">General Services Administration<\/a> document <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.its.bldrdoc.gov\/fs-1037\/fs-1037c.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Federal Standard 1037C\"<\/a> (in support of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIL-STD-188\" title=\"MIL-STD-188\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d77e08e6b11c34d39cc2dacf315b1ed8\">MIL-STD-188<\/a>).<\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation conference\">Xiaoyun Wang; Hongbo Yu (2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infosec.sdu.edu.cn\/uploadfile\/papers\/How%20to%20Break%20MD5%20and%20Other%20Hash%20Functions.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to Break MD5 and Other Hash Functions\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>EUROCRYPT<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 3-540-25910-4.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=How+to+Break+MD5+and+Other+Hash+Functions&rft.btitle=EUROCRYPT&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=3-540-25910-4&rft.au=Xiaoyun+Wang&rft.au=Hongbo+Yu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infosec.sdu.edu.cn%2Fuploadfile%2Fpapers%2FHow%2520to%2520Break%2520MD5%2520and%2520Other%2520Hash%2520Functions.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+integrity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1333\nCached time: 20190320031905\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.340 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.443 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1081\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 44643\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 537\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 10\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 4\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 60774\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 3\/400\nLua time usage: 0.199\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 3.49 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 373.196 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>62.24% 232.264 1 Template:Reflist\n39.25% 146.497 15 Template:Cite_web\n12.04% 44.935 1 Template:Authority_control\n11.92% 44.475 3 Template:Cite_journal\n 7.84% 29.266 1 Template:See_also\n 4.27% 15.946 1 Template:FS1037C_MS188\n 3.47% 12.936 1 Template:Data\n 3.39% 12.640 1 Template:Include-USGov\n 2.81% 10.493 1 Template:Anchor\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:40995-1!canonical and timestamp 20190320031905 and revision id 882362079\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integrity\" data-key=\"42abdc13351f50028f23f899197d3349\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203001\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.013 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.153 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 144.182 1 - wikipedia:Data_integrity\n100.00% 144.182 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10406-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203001 and revision id 32417\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_integrity<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167_images":[],"382a9bb77ee3e36bb3b37c79ed813167_timestamp":1554323401,"7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_type":"article","7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_title":"Data exchange","7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange","7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tData exchange\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tData exchange is the process of taking data structured under a source schema and transforming it into data structured under a target schema, so that the target data is an accurate representation of the source data.[1] Data exchange allows data to be shared between different computer programs.\nIt is similar to the related concept of data integration except that data is actually restructured (with possible loss of content) in data exchange. There may be no way to transform an instance given all of the constraints. Conversely, there may be numerous ways to transform the instance (possibly infinitely many), in which case a \"best\" choice of solutions has to be identified and justified.\n\nContents \n\n1 Single-domain data exchange \n2 Data exchange languages \n\n2.1 Popular languages used for data exchange \n2.2 XML for data exchange \n2.3 YAML for data exchange \n2.4 REBOL for data exchange \n2.5 Gellish for data exchange \n\n\n3 See also \n4 References \n\n\nSingle-domain data exchange \nIn some domains, a few dozen different source and target schema (proprietary data formats) may exist. An \"exchange\" or \"interchange format\" is often developed for a single domain, and then necessary routines (mappings) are written to (indirectly) transform\/translate each and every source schema to each and every target schema by using the interchange format as an intermediate step.[2] That requires a lot less work than writing and debugging the hundreds of different routines that would be required to directly translate each and every source schema directly to each and every target schema.\nExamples of these transformative interchange formats include:\n\nStandard Interchange Format for geospatial data;[3]\nData Interchange Format for spreadsheet data;[4]\nOpen Document Format for spreadsheets, charts, presentations and word processing documents;[5]\nGPS eXchange Format or Keyhole Markup Language for describing GPS data;[6][7] and\nGDSII for integrated circuit layout.[8]\nData exchange languages \nSee also: Modeling language\nA data interchange (or exchange) language\/format is a language that is domain-independent and can be used for data from any kind of discipline.[9] They have \"evolved from being markup and display-oriented to further support the encoding of metadata that describes the structural attributes of the information.\"[10]\nPractice has shown that certain types of formal languages are better suited for this task than others, since their specification is driven by a formal process instead of particular software implementation needs. For example, XML is a markup language that was designed to enable the creation of dialects (the definition of domain-specific sublanguages).[11] However, it does not contain domain-specific dictionaries or fact types. Beneficial to a reliable data exchange is the availability of standard dictionaries-taxonomies and tools libraries such as parsers, schema validators, and transformation tools.[citation needed ]\n\nPopular languages used for data exchange \nThe following is a partial list of popular generic languages used for data exchange in multiple domains.\n\n\n\n\n\nSchemas\n\nFlexible\n\nSemantic verification\n\nDictionary\n\nInformation Model\n\nSynonyms and homonyms\n\nDialecting\n\nWeb standard\n\nTransformations\n\nLightweight\n\nHuman readable\n\nCompatibility\n\n\nRDF\n\nYes[1]\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nPartial\n\nSubset of Semantic web\n\n\nXML\n\nYes[2]\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nsubset of SGML, HTML\n\n\nAtom\n\nYes\n\nUnknown\n\nUnknown\n\nUnknown\n\nNo\n\nUnknown\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nXML dialect\n\n\nJSON\n\nNo\n\nUnknown\n\nUnknown\n\nUnknown\n\nNo\n\nUnknown\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nsubset of YAML\n\n\nYAML\n\nNo[3]\n\nUnknown\n\nUnknown\n\nUnknown\n\nNo\n\nUnknown\n\nNo\n\nNo\n\nNo[3]\n\nYes\n\nYes[4]\n\nsuperset of JSON\n\n\nREBOL\n\nYes[7]\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nNo\n\nYes[7]\n\nYes\n\nYes[5]\n\n\n\n\nGellish\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nYes[8]\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nYes\n\nISO\n\nNo\n\nYes\n\nPartial[6]\n\nSQL, RDF\/XML, OWL\n\nNomenclature\n\nSchemas - Whether the language definition is available in a computer interpretable form\nFlexible - Whether the language enables extension of the semantic expression capabilities without modifying the schema\nSemantic verification - Whether the language definition enables semantic verification of the correctness of expressions in the language\nDictionary-Taxonomy - Whether the language includes a dictionary and a taxonomy (subtype-supertype hierarchy) of concepts with inheritance\nSynonyms and homonyms - Whether the language includes and supports the use of synonyms and homonyms in the expressions\nDialecting - Whether the language definition is available in multiple natural languages or dialects\nWeb or ISO standard - Organization that endorsed the language as a standard\nTransformations - Whether the language includes a translation to other standards\nLightweight - Whether a lightweight version is available, in addition to a full version\nHuman-readable - Whether expressions in the language are human-readable (readable by humans without training)[12]\nCompatibility - Which other tools are possible to use or required when using the language\nNotes:\n\n^ RDF is a schema-flexible language.\n^ The schema of XML contains a very limited grammar and vocabulary.\n^ Available as an extension.\n^ In the default format, not the compact syntax.\n^ The syntax is fairly simple (the language was designed to be human-readable); the dialects may require domain knowledge.\n^ The standardized fact types are denoted by standardized English phrases, which interpretation and use needs some training.\n^ The Parse dialect is used to specify, validate, and transform dialects.\n^ The English version includes a Gellish English Dictionary-Taxonomy that also includes standardized fact types (= kinds of relations).\nXML for data exchange \nThe popularity of XML for data exchange on the World Wide Web has several reasons. First of all, it is closely related to the preexisting standards Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) and Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), and as such a parser written to support these two languages can be easily extended to support XML as well. For example, XHTML has been defined as a format that is formal XML, but understood correctly by most (if not all) HTML parsers.[11]\n\nYAML for data exchange \nYAML is a language that was designed to be human-readable (and as such to be easy to edit with any standard text editor). Its notion often is similar to reStructuredText or a Wiki syntax, who also try to be readable both by humans and computers. YAML 1.2 also includes a shorthand notion that is compatible with JSON, and as such any JSON document is also valid YAML; this however does not hold the other way.[13]\n\nREBOL for data exchange \nREBOL is a language that was designed to be human-readable and easy to edit using any standard text editor. To achieve that it uses a simple free-form syntax with minimal punctuation and a rich set of datatypes. REBOL datatypes like URLs, emails, date and time values, tuples, strings, tags, etc. respect the common standards. REBOL is designed to not need any additional meta-language, being designed in a metacircular fashion. The metacircularity of the language is the reason why, e.g., the Parse dialect used (not exclusively) for definitions and transformations of REBOL dialects is also itself a dialect of REBOL.[14] REBOL was used as a source of inspiration for JSON.[15]\n\nGellish for data exchange \nGellish English is a formalized subset of natural English, which includes a simple grammar and a large extensible English Dictionary-Taxonomy that defines the general and domain specific terminology (terms for concepts), whereas the concepts are arranged in a subtype-supertype hierarchy (a taxonomy), which supports inheritance of knowledge and requirements. The Dictionary-Taxonomy also includes standardized fact types (also called relation types). The terms and relation types together can be used to create and interpret expressions of facts, knowledge, requirements and other information. Gellish can be used in combination with SQL, RDF\/XML, OWL and various other meta-languages. The Gellish standard is a combination of ISO 10303-221 (AP221) and ISO 15926.[16]\n\nSee also \nAtom (file format)\nLightweight markup language\nRSS\nReferences \n\n^ A. Doan, A. Halevy, and Z. Ives. \"Principles of data integration\", Morgan Kaufmann, 2012 pp. 276 \n\n^ Arenas, M.; Barcel\u00f3, P.; Libkin, L.; Murlak, F. (2014). Foundations of Data Exchange. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1\u201311. ISBN 9781107016163. Retrieved 25 May 2018 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Clancy, J.J. (2012). \"Chapter 1: Directions for Engineering Data Exchange for Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing\". In Wang, P.C.C. Advances in CAD\/CAM: Case Studies. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1\u201336. ISBN 9781461328193. Retrieved 25 May 2018 . \n\n^ Kalish, C.E.; Mayer, M.F. (November 1981). \"DIF: A format for data exchange between application programs\". BYTE Magazine: 174. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ \"About ODF\". OpenDoc Society. Retrieved 25 May 2018 . \n\n^ Zhu, X. (2016). GIS for Environmental Applications: A practical approach. Routledge. ISBN 9781134094509. Retrieved 25 May 2018 . \n\n^ \"KML Reference\". Google Developers. 21 January 2016. Retrieved 25 May 2018 . \n\n^ Martins, R.M.F.; Louren\u00e7o, N.C.C.; Horta, N.C.G. (2012). Generating Analog IC Layouts with LAYGEN II. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 34. ISBN 9783642331466. Retrieved 25 May 2018 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Billingsley, F.C. (1988). \"General Data Interchange Language\". ISPRS Archives. 27 (B3): 80\u201391. Retrieved 25 May 2018 . The transformation routines will constitute a language and syntax which must be discipline and machine independent. \n\n^ Nurseitov, N.; Paulson, M.; Reynolds, R.; Izurieta, C. (2009). \"Comparison of JSON and XML Data Interchange Formats: A Case Study\". Scenario: 157\u2013162. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ a b Lewis, J.; Moscovitz, M. (2009). AdvancED CSS. APress. pp. 5\u20136. ISBN 9781430219323. Retrieved 25 May 2018 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ \"human-readable\". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 29 May 2018 . \n\n^ Bendersky, E. (22 November 2008). \"JSON is YAML, but YAML is not JSON\". Eli Bendersky's website. Retrieved 29 May 2018 . \n\n^ Sassenrath, C. (2000). \"The REBOL Scripting Language\". Dr. Dobb's Journal. 25 (314): 64\u20138. Retrieved 29 May 2018 . \n\n^ Sassenrath, C. (13 December 2012). \"On JSON and REBOL\". REBOL.com. Retrieved 29 May 2018 . \n\n^ van Renssen, A.; Vermaas, P.E.; Zwart, S.D. (2007). \"A Taxonomy of Functions in Gellish English\". Proceedings from the International Conference on Engineering Design 2007: DS42_P_230. Retrieved 29 May 2018 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n\nvteData exchange formatsHuman readable formats\nAtom\nXML\nYAML\nJSON\nRDF\nRebol\nRSS\nOWL\nBinary formats\nAMF\nASN.1\nSMI\nAvro\nBSON\nCBOR\nFlatBuffers\nMessagePack\nProtocol Buffers\nThrift\nSmile\nXDR\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Business and data managementHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 2 March 2019, at 22:13.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 20 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Data_exchange skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Data exchange<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p><b>Data exchange<\/b> is the process of taking data structured under a <i>source<\/i> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_schema\" title=\"Database schema\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab20ee150e597eb5a9db99cd7836853a\">schema<\/a> and transforming it into data structured under a <i>target<\/i> schema, so that the target data is an accurate representation of the source data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Data exchange allows data to be shared between different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_program\" title=\"Computer program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50546cf7bdd4e8811acbcc3ce79a1f3e\">computer programs<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>It is similar to the related concept of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration\" title=\"Data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ef20102ff5fd42522c9e879f31e999e\">data integration<\/a> except that data is actually restructured (with possible loss of content) in data exchange. There may be no way to transform an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Instance_(computer_science)\" title=\"Instance (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1cb4e76f2bb6a038ced81413e1555162\">instance<\/a> given all of the constraints. Conversely, there may be numerous ways to transform the instance (possibly infinitely many), in which case a \"best\" choice of solutions has to be identified and justified.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Single-domain_data_exchange\">Single-domain data exchange<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In some domains, a few dozen different source and target schema (proprietary data formats) may exist. An \"exchange\" or \"interchange format\" is often developed for a single domain, and then necessary routines (mappings) are written to (indirectly) transform\/translate each and every source schema to each and every target schema by using the interchange format as an intermediate step.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ArenasFound14_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ArenasFound14-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> That requires a lot less work than writing and debugging the hundreds of different routines that would be required to directly translate each and every source schema directly to each and every target schema.\n<\/p><p>Examples of these transformative interchange formats include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Standard_Interchange_Format\" title=\"Standard Interchange Format\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc4d5971a0667e19ea5ebe98f2e58698\">Standard Interchange Format<\/a> for geospatial data;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ClancyDirections12_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ClancyDirections12-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_Interchange_Format\" title=\"Data Interchange Format\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6e735f4967f607620563b4a351537edd\">Data Interchange Format<\/a> for spreadsheet data;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KalishDIF81_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KalishDIF81-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_Document_Format\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Open Document Format\" data-key=\"e9c7903c9b26021f12931afd42b89b62\">Open Document Format<\/a> for spreadsheets, charts, presentations and word processing documents;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ODFAbout_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ODFAbout-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GPS_eXchange_Format\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GPS eXchange Format\" data-key=\"4abe96118a0150704beb142bbe020b92\">GPS eXchange Format<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Keyhole_Markup_Language\" title=\"Keyhole Markup Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"624c1d7efc4da7979332f777b88cd2ac\">Keyhole Markup Language<\/a> for describing GPS data;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ZhuGIS16_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ZhuGIS16-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GoogleKMLRef16_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GoogleKMLRef16-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> and<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GDSII\" title=\"GDSII\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da5fc82bb67b838acebc3019e0b1e9fd\">GDSII<\/a> for integrated circuit layout.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MartinsGenerating12_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MartinsGenerating12-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_exchange_languages\">Data exchange languages<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modeling_language\" title=\"Modeling language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8102d085d64451a1872910020cd83bc3\">Modeling language<\/a><\/div>\n<p>A data interchange (or exchange) language\/format is a language that is domain-independent and can be used for data from any kind of discipline.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BillingsleyGeneral88_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BillingsleyGeneral88-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> They have \"evolved from being markup and display-oriented to further support the encoding of metadata that describes the structural attributes of the information.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NurseitovComparison09_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NurseitovComparison09-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Practice has shown that certain types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Formal_language\" title=\"Formal language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fa77d79b84bfea7a70899c29e5453e6\">formal languages<\/a> are better suited for this task than others, since their specification is driven by a formal process instead of particular software implementation needs. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a> is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markup_language\" title=\"Markup language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6018016fc12a1c23aaf6267af4d50fc8\">markup language<\/a> that was designed to enable the creation of dialects (the definition of domain-specific sublanguages).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LewisAdvanced09_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LewisAdvanced09-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> However, it does not contain domain-specific dictionaries or fact types. Beneficial to a reliable data exchange is the availability of standard dictionaries-taxonomies and tools libraries such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parser\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Parser\" data-key=\"7167d848951cd5611c95638be53a0cff\">parsers<\/a>, schema <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Validator\" title=\"Validator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42581f0252ed3d7f0826056578bc4242\">validators<\/a>, and transformation tools.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"While I can recognize the use of these tools as part of the data exchange process, I can't find a source (May 2018) that says all of these together are beneficial to data exchange. (May 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Popular_languages_used_for_data_exchange\">Popular languages used for data exchange<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The following is a partial list of popular generic languages used for data exchange in multiple domains.\n<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable sortable\" style=\"font-size: 85%; text-align: center; width: auto;\">\n<tbody><tr>\n<th>\n<\/th>\n<th>Schemas\n<\/th>\n<th>Flexible\n<\/th>\n<th>Semantic verification\n<\/th>\n<th>Dictionary\n<\/th>\n<th>Information Model\n<\/th>\n<th>Synonyms and homonyms\n<\/th>\n<th>Dialecting\n<\/th>\n<th>Web standard\n<\/th>\n<th>Transformations\n<\/th>\n<th>Lightweight\n<\/th>\n<th>Human readable\n<\/th>\n<th>Compatibility\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;\" class=\"table-rh\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resource_Description_Framework\" title=\"Resource Description Framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f84df3c8186c49293d7c93180e1489de\">RDF<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes<sup class=\"reference\" id=\"rdp-ebb-ref_feat-rdf\"><a href=\"#endnote_feat-rdf\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#FFB;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-partial\">Partial\n<\/td>\n<td>Subset of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Semantic_web\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Semantic web\" data-key=\"3e9451ef1cdd8889632548b19fa34dcf\">Semantic web<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;\" class=\"table-rh\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes<sup class=\"reference\" id=\"rdp-ebb-ref_feat-schema\"><a href=\"#endnote_feat-schema\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td>subset of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SGML\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SGML\" data-key=\"6fa72787891c8e22713dd6da7ae205be\">SGML<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HTML\" title=\"HTML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2129f27a9bbb49d279dab0e89f49c23c\">HTML<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;\" class=\"table-rh\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Atom_(file_format)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Atom (file format)\" data-key=\"27721d7d8b899d0e2f727cc830abe549\">Atom<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; font-size: smaller; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;\" class=\"unknown table-unknown\">Unknown\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; font-size: smaller; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;\" class=\"unknown table-unknown\">Unknown\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; font-size: smaller; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;\" class=\"unknown table-unknown\">Unknown\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; font-size: smaller; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;\" class=\"unknown table-unknown\">Unknown\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a> dialect\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;\" class=\"table-rh\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSON\" title=\"JSON\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0022d8edede1d399deb288231b10aad\">JSON<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; font-size: smaller; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;\" class=\"unknown table-unknown\">Unknown\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; font-size: smaller; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;\" class=\"unknown table-unknown\">Unknown\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; font-size: smaller; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;\" class=\"unknown table-unknown\">Unknown\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; font-size: smaller; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;\" class=\"unknown table-unknown\">Unknown\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td>subset of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/YAML\" title=\"YAML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"281f80d299b9d48f9d72ff7bc4d4c880\">YAML<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;\" class=\"table-rh\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/YAML\" title=\"YAML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"281f80d299b9d48f9d72ff7bc4d4c880\">YAML<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No<sup class=\"reference\" id=\"rdp-ebb-ref_feat-ext\"><a href=\"#endnote_feat-ext\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; font-size: smaller; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;\" class=\"unknown table-unknown\">Unknown\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; font-size: smaller; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;\" class=\"unknown table-unknown\">Unknown\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; font-size: smaller; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;\" class=\"unknown table-unknown\">Unknown\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; font-size: smaller; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;\" class=\"unknown table-unknown\">Unknown\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No<sup class=\"reference\" id=\"rdp-ebb-ref_feat-ext\"><a href=\"#endnote_feat-ext\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes<sup class=\"reference\" id=\"rdp-ebb-ref_feat-yaml-readable\"><a href=\"#endnote_feat-yaml-readable\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td>\n<td>superset of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JSON\" title=\"JSON\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0022d8edede1d399deb288231b10aad\">JSON<\/a>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;\" class=\"table-rh\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/REBOL\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"REBOL\" data-key=\"5aaf6b5636d9a9cd1e48de93463e45d6\">REBOL<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes<sup class=\"reference\" id=\"rdp-ebb-ref_feat-rebol-parse\"><a href=\"#endnote_feat-rebol-parse\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes<sup class=\"reference\" id=\"rdp-ebb-ref_feat-rebol-parse\"><a href=\"#endnote_feat-rebol-parse\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes<sup class=\"reference\" id=\"rdp-ebb-ref_feat-rebol-readable\"><a href=\"#endnote_feat-rebol-readable\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"background: #ececec; color: black; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left;\" class=\"table-rh\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gellish\" title=\"Gellish\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d02fb8d07918da4401014acefb6a12d9\">Gellish<\/a>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes<sup class=\"reference\" id=\"rdp-ebb-ref_feat-gellish-dict\"><a href=\"#endnote_feat-gellish-dict\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td>ISO\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-no\">No\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-yes\">Yes\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"background:#FFB;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;\" class=\"table-partial\">Partial<sup class=\"reference\" id=\"rdp-ebb-ref_feat-gellish-readable\"><a href=\"#endnote_feat-gellish-readable\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td>\n<td>SQL, RDF\/XML, OWL\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<p><b>Nomenclature<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Schemas - Whether the language definition is available in a computer interpretable form<\/li>\n<li>Flexible - Whether the language enables extension of the semantic expression capabilities without modifying the schema<\/li>\n<li>Semantic verification - Whether the language definition enables semantic verification of the correctness of expressions in the language<\/li>\n<li>Dictionary-Taxonomy - Whether the language includes a dictionary and a taxonomy (subtype-supertype hierarchy) of concepts with inheritance<\/li>\n<li>Synonyms and homonyms - Whether the language includes and supports the use of synonyms and homonyms in the expressions<\/li>\n<li>Dialecting - Whether the language definition is available in multiple natural languages or dialects<\/li>\n<li>Web or ISO standard - Organization that endorsed the language as a standard<\/li>\n<li>Transformations - Whether the language includes a translation to other standards<\/li>\n<li>Lightweight - Whether a lightweight version is available, in addition to a full version<\/li>\n<li>Human-readable - Whether expressions in the language are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human-readable\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Human-readable\" data-key=\"67371dbdd3f78098d3c0ed4eb4f95544\">human-readable<\/a> (readable by humans without training)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OxfordHR_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OxfordHR-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Compatibility - Which other tools are possible to use or required when using the language<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>Notes:<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ol><li><span class=\"citation wikicite\" id=\"rdp-ebb-endnote_feat-rdf\"><b><a href=\"#ref_feat-rdf\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> RDF is a schema-flexible language.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"citation wikicite\" id=\"rdp-ebb-endnote_feat-schema\"><b><a href=\"#ref_feat-schema\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> The schema of XML contains a very limited grammar and vocabulary.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"citation wikicite\" id=\"rdp-ebb-endnote_feat-ext\"><b><a href=\"#ref_feat-ext\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> Available as an extension.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"citation wikicite\" id=\"rdp-ebb-endnote_feat-yaml-readable\"><b><a href=\"#ref_feat-yaml-readable\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> In the default format, not the compact syntax.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"citation wikicite\" id=\"rdp-ebb-endnote_feat-rebol-readable\"><b><a href=\"#ref_feat-rebol-readable\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> The syntax is fairly simple (the language was designed to be human-readable); the dialects may require <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Domain_knowledge\" title=\"Domain knowledge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2995224ef25f53fffcca5a15b8ed0a7c\">domain knowledge<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"citation wikicite\" id=\"rdp-ebb-endnote_feat-gellish-readable\"><b><a href=\"#ref_feat-gellish-readable\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> The standardized fact types are denoted by standardized English phrases, which interpretation and use needs some training.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"citation wikicite\" id=\"rdp-ebb-endnote_feat-rebol-parse\"><b><a href=\"#ref_feat-rebol-parse\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/REBOL#parse\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"REBOL\" data-key=\"7672d6ea0b837bd674137956d60fc258\">Parse dialect<\/a> is used to specify, validate, and transform dialects.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"citation wikicite\" id=\"rdp-ebb-endnote_feat-gellish-dict\"><b><a href=\"#ref_feat-gellish-dict\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> The English version includes a Gellish English Dictionary-Taxonomy that also includes standardized fact types (= kinds of relations).<\/li><\/ol>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"XML_for_data_exchange\">XML for data exchange<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The popularity of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46a36af71b67a8a90a3cc2001904d22d\">XML<\/a> for data exchange on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Wide_Web\" title=\"World Wide Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8167fa2a43229db150009f4a93e3a779\">World Wide Web<\/a> has several reasons. First of all, it is closely related to the preexisting standards <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Standard_Generalized_Markup_Language\" title=\"Standard Generalized Markup Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa3ca81f215ac68d53a4e9096f3ae016\">Standard Generalized Markup Language<\/a> (SGML) and Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), and as such a parser written to support these two languages can be easily extended to support XML as well. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XHTML\" title=\"XHTML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d0fd9d7c5815b2343ef8717b3a021d8\">XHTML<\/a> has been defined as a format that is formal XML, but understood correctly by most (if not all) HTML parsers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LewisAdvanced09_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LewisAdvanced09-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"YAML_for_data_exchange\">YAML for data exchange<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/YAML\" title=\"YAML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"281f80d299b9d48f9d72ff7bc4d4c880\">YAML<\/a> is a language that was designed to be human-readable (and as such to be easy to edit with any standard text editor). Its notion often is similar to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ReStructuredText\" title=\"ReStructuredText\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"121a5bf5eaa387f3e7fc48ae84932d36\">reStructuredText<\/a> or a Wiki syntax, who also try to be readable both by humans and computers. YAML 1.2 also includes a shorthand notion that is compatible with JSON, and as such any JSON document is also valid YAML; this however does not hold the other way.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BenderskyJSON08_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BenderskyJSON08-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"REBOL_for_data_exchange\">REBOL for data exchange<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/REBOL\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"REBOL\" data-key=\"5aaf6b5636d9a9cd1e48de93463e45d6\">REBOL<\/a> is a language that was designed to be human-readable and easy to edit using any standard text editor. To achieve that it uses a simple free-form syntax with minimal punctuation and a rich set of datatypes. REBOL datatypes like URLs, emails, date and time values, tuples, strings, tags, etc. respect the common standards. REBOL is designed to not need any additional meta-language, being designed in a metacircular fashion. The metacircularity of the language is the reason why, e.g., the Parse dialect used (not exclusively) for definitions and transformations of REBOL dialects is also itself a dialect of REBOL.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SassenrathTheREBOL00_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SassenrathTheREBOL00-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> REBOL was used as a source of inspiration for JSON.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SassenrathOnJSON12_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SassenrathOnJSON12-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Gellish_for_data_exchange\">Gellish for data exchange<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gellish_English\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Gellish English\" data-key=\"3a36b8d2554c8c8948b81ce760acd58f\">Gellish English<\/a> is a formalized subset of natural English, which includes a simple grammar and a large extensible <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/English_dictionary\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"English dictionary\" data-key=\"a8e811b90ed9c57f0cfff25a91cf440c\">English Dictionary-Taxonomy<\/a> that defines the general and domain specific terminology (terms for concepts), whereas the concepts are arranged in a subtype-supertype hierarchy (a taxonomy), which supports inheritance of knowledge and requirements. The Dictionary-Taxonomy also includes standardized fact types (also called relation types). The terms and relation types together can be used to create and interpret expressions of facts, knowledge, requirements and other information. Gellish can be used in combination with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SQL\" title=\"SQL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f35b2b4bc8a913c4c71802a7c2f39b88\">SQL<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RDF\/XML\" title=\"RDF\/XML\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"605f857f2be48f91aea3c302a3ae0669\">RDF\/XML<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_Ontology_Language\" title=\"Web Ontology Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4556d5da6276c12ca0c34d72be5fe7f5\">OWL<\/a> and various other meta-languages. The Gellish standard is a combination of ISO 10303-221 (AP221) and ISO 15926.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VanRenssenATax07_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VanRenssenATax07-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Atom (file format)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lightweight_markup_language\" title=\"Lightweight markup language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30a0e1c489d0ebdcc4da1ce1d2377d64\">Lightweight markup language<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RSS\" title=\"RSS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4bf5e9947f643f131adcb9f1861b373\">RSS<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">A. Doan, A. Halevy, and Z. Ives. \"<a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#v=onepage&q&f=false\">Principles of data integration<\/a>\", Morgan Kaufmann, 2012 pp. 276<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ArenasFound14-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ArenasFound14_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Arenas, M.; Barcel\u00f3, P.; Libkin, L.; Murlak, F. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=z9TSAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Foundations of Data Exchange<\/i><\/a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1\u201311. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781107016163<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Data+Exchange&rft.pages=1-11&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781107016163&rft.au=Arenas%2C+M.%3B+Barcel%C3%B3%2C+P.%3B+Libkin%2C+L.%3B+Murlak%2C+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz9TSAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+exchange\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ClancyDirections12-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ClancyDirections12_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Clancy, J.J. (2012). \"Chapter 1: Directions for Engineering Data Exchange for Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing\". In Wang, P.C.C. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=83brBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Advances in CAD\/CAM: Case Studies<\/i><\/a>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1\u201336. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781461328193<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Directions+for+Engineering+Data+Exchange+for+Computer+Aided+Design+and+Manufacturing&rft.btitle=Advances+in+CAD%2FCAM%3A+Case+Studies&rft.pages=1-36&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781461328193&rft.au=Clancy%2C+J.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D83brBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+exchange\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KalishDIF81-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KalishDIF81_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Kalish, C.E.; Mayer, M.F. 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(13 December 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rebol.com\/article\/0522.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"On JSON and REBOL\"<\/a>. <i>REBOL.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=REBOL.com&rft.atitle=On+JSON+and+REBOL&rft.date=2012-12-13&rft.au=Sassenrath%2C+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rebol.com%2Farticle%2F0522.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+exchange\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-VanRenssenATax07-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-VanRenssenATax07_16-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">van Renssen, A.; Vermaas, P.E.; Zwart, S.D. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+from+the+International+Conference+on+Engineering+Design+2007&rft.atitle=A+Taxonomy+of+Functions+in+Gellish+English&rft.pages=DS42_P_230&rft.date=2007&rft.au=van+Renssen%2C+A.%3B+Vermaas%2C+P.E.%3B+Zwart%2C+S.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.designsociety.org%2Fpublication%2F25607%2FA%2BTaxonomy%2Bof%2BFunctions%2Bin%2BGellish%2BEnglish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AData+exchange\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1320\nCached time: 20190316095147\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.364 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.444 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1726\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 44711\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 1296\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 11\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 46796\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\nLua time usage: 0.206\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4.33 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 372.000 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>30.33% 112.821 5 Template:Cite_book\n16.40% 61.018 1 Template:Citation_needed\n14.90% 55.432 1 Template:Fix\n13.03% 48.484 5 Template:Cite_web\n11.05% 41.111 5 Template:Cite_journal\n 8.09% 30.084 2 Template:Category_handler\n 7.62% 28.331 1 Template:See_also\n 5.84% 21.710 1 Template:Delink\n 4.51% 16.764 1 Template:Data_Exchange\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:10231058-1!canonical and timestamp 20190316095147 and revision id 887216854\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_exchange\" data-key=\"c97e148e96943a9053684595427be918\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203001\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.013 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.203 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 194.586 1 - wikipedia:Data_exchange\n100.00% 194.586 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10927-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203001 and revision id 35090\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_exchange<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_images":[],"7f41f95d4835a37b958fa9e870357f66_timestamp":1554323401,"ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e_type":"article","ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e_title":"Blockchain","ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blockchain","ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tBlockchain\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFor other uses, see Block chain (disambiguation).\n\n\ndistributed data store for digital transactions\n\n\n Blockchain formation. The main chain (black) consists of the longest series of blocks from the genesis block (green) to the current block. Orphan blocks (purple) exist outside of the main chain. Bitcoin network data\nA blockchain,[1][2][3] originally block chain,[4][5] is a growing list of records, called blocks, which are linked using cryptography.[1][6] Each block contains a cryptographic hash of the previous block,[6] a timestamp, and transaction data (generally represented as a Merkle tree).\nBy design, a blockchain is resistant to modification of the data. It is \"an open, distributed ledger that can record transactions between two parties efficiently and in a verifiable and permanent way\".[7] For use as a distributed ledger, a blockchain is typically managed by a peer-to-peer network collectively adhering to a protocol for inter-node communication and validating new blocks. Once recorded, the data in any given block cannot be altered retroactively without alteration of all subsequent blocks, which requires consensus of the network majority. Although blockchain records are not unalterable, blockchains may be considered secure by design and exemplify a distributed computing system with high Byzantine fault tolerance. Decentralized consensus has therefore been claimed with a blockchain.[8]\nBlockchain was invented by a person using the name Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008 to serve as the public transaction ledger of the cryptocurrency bitcoin.[1] The identity of Satoshi Nakamoto is unknown. The invention of the blockchain for bitcoin made it the first digital currency to solve the double-spending problem without the need of a trusted authority or central server. The bitcoin design has inspired other applications,[1][3] and blockchains which are readable by the public are widely used by cryptocurrencies. Blockchain is considered a type of payment rail.[9] Private blockchains have been proposed for business use. Sources such as Computerworld called the marketing of such blockchains without a proper security model \"snake oil\".[10]\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Structure \n\n2.1 Blocks \n\n2.1.1 Block time \n2.1.2 Hard forks \n\n\n2.2 Decentralization \n2.3 Openness \n\n2.3.1 Permissionless \n2.3.2 Permissioned (private) blockchain \n2.3.3 Disadvantages of private blockchain \n\n\n\n\n3 Uses \n\n3.1 Cryptocurrencies \n3.2 Smart contracts \n3.3 Financial services \n3.4 Blockchain with video games \n3.5 Supply chain \n3.6 Other uses \n\n\n4 Types of blockchains \n\n4.1 Public blockchains \n4.2 Private blockchains \n4.3 Consortium blockchains \n\n\n5 Academic research \n\n5.1 Energy use of proof-of-work blockchains \n5.2 Journals \n\n\n6 See also \n7 References \n8 Further reading \n\n\n\nHistory \n Bitcoin transactions (January 2009 \u2013 September 2017)\nThe first work on a cryptographically secured chain of blocks was described in 1991 by Stuart Haber and W. Scott Stornetta.[6][11] They wanted to implement a system where document timestamps could not be tampered with. In 1992, Bayer, Haber and Stornetta incorporated Merkle trees to the design, which improved its efficiency by allowing several document certificates to be collected into one block.[6][12]\nThe first blockchain was conceptualized by a person (or group of people) known as Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008. Nakamoto improved the design in an important way using a Hashcash-like method to add blocks to the chain without requiring them to be signed by a trusted party.[6] The design was implemented the following year by Nakamoto as a core component of the cryptocurrency bitcoin, where it serves as the public ledger for all transactions on the network.[1]\nIn August 2014, the bitcoin blockchain file size, containing records of all transactions that have occurred on the network, reached 20 GB (gigabytes).[13] In January 2015, the size had grown to almost 30 GB, and from January 2016 to January 2017, the bitcoin blockchain grew from 50 GB to 100 GB in size.\nThe words block and chain were used separately in Satoshi Nakamoto's original paper, but were eventually popularized as a single word, blockchain, by 2016.\nSmart contracts which run on a blockchain, for example ones which \"creat[e] invoices that pay themselves when a shipment arrives or share certificates which automatically send their owners dividends if profits reach a certain level.\"[1] require an off-chain oracle to access any \"external data or events based on time or market conditions [that need] to interact with the blockchain.\"[14]\nIBM opened a blockchain innovation research center in Singapore in July 2016.[15] A working group for the World Economic Forum met in November 2016 to discuss the development of governance models related to blockchain.\nAccording to Accenture, an application of the diffusion of innovations theory suggests that blockchains attained a 13.5% adoption rate within financial services in 2016, therefore reaching the early adopters phase.[16] Industry trade groups joined to create the Global Blockchain Forum in 2016, an initiative of the Chamber of Digital Commerce.\nIn May 2018, Gartner found that only 1% of CIOs indicated any kind of blockchain adoption within their organisations, and only 8% of CIOs were in the short-term 'planning or [looking at] active experimentation with blockchain'.[17]\n\nStructure \nA blockchain is a decentralized, distributed and public digital ledger that is used to record transactions across many computers so that any involved record cannot be altered retroactively, without the alteration of all subsequent blocks.[1][18] This allows the participants to verify and audit transactions independently and relatively inexpensively.[19] A blockchain database is managed autonomously using a peer-to-peer network and a distributed timestamping server. They are authenticated by mass collaboration powered by collective self-interests.[20] Such a design facilitates robust workflow where participants' uncertainty regarding data security is marginal. The use of a blockchain removes the characteristic of infinite reproducibility from a digital asset. It confirms that each unit of value was transferred only once, solving the long-standing problem of double spending. A blockchain has been described as a value-exchange protocol.[21] A blockchain can maintain title rights because, when properly set up to detail the exchange agreement, it provides a record that compels offer and acceptance.\n\nBlocks \nBlocks hold batches of valid transactions that are hashed and encoded into a Merkle tree.[1] Each block includes the cryptographic hash of the prior block in the blockchain, linking the two. The linked blocks form a chain.[1] This iterative process confirms the integrity of the previous block, all the way back to the original genesis block.[22]\nSometimes separate blocks can be produced concurrently, creating a temporary fork. In addition to a secure hash-based history, any blockchain has a specified algorithm for scoring different versions of the history so that one with a higher value can be selected over others. Blocks not selected for inclusion in the chain are called orphan blocks.[22] Peers supporting the database have different versions of the history from time to time. They keep only the highest-scoring version of the database known to them. Whenever a peer receives a higher-scoring version (usually the old version with a single new block added) they extend or overwrite their own database and retransmit the improvement to their peers. There is never an absolute guarantee that any particular entry will remain in the best version of the history forever. Blockchains are typically built to add the score of new blocks onto old blocks and are given incentives to extend with new blocks rather than overwrite old blocks. Therefore, the probability of an entry becoming superseded decreases exponentially[23] as more blocks are built on top of it, eventually becoming very low.[1][24]:ch. 08 [25] For example, bitcoin uses a proof-of-work system, where the chain with the most cumulative proof-of-work is considered the valid one by the network. There are a number of methods that can be used to demonstrate a sufficient level of computation. Within a blockchain the computation is carried out redundantly rather than in the traditional segregated and parallel manner.[26]\n\nBlock time \nThe block time is the average time it takes for the network to generate one extra block in the blockchain. Some blockchains create a new block as frequently as every five seconds.[27] By the time of block completion, the included data becomes verifiable. In cryptocurrency, this is practically when the transaction takes place, so a shorter block time means faster transactions. The block time for Ethereum is set to between 14 and 15 seconds, while for bitcoin it is 10 minutes.[28]\n\nHard forks \nThis section is transcluded from Fork (blockchain). (edit | history) \nA hard fork is a rule change such that the software validating according to the old rules will see the blocks produced according to the new rules as invalid. In case of a hard fork, all nodes meant to work in accordance with the new rules need to upgrade their software.\nIf one group of nodes continues to use the old software while the other nodes use the new software, a split can occur. For example, Ethereum has hard-forked to \"make whole\" the investors in The DAO, which had been hacked by exploiting a vulnerability in its code. In this case, the fork resulted in a split creating Ethereum and Ethereum Classic chains. In 2014 the Nxt community was asked to consider a hard fork that would have led to a rollback of the blockchain records to mitigate the effects of a theft of 50 million NXT from a major cryptocurrency exchange. The hard fork proposal was rejected, and some of the funds were recovered after negotiations and ransom payment. Alternatively, to prevent a permanent split, a majority of nodes using the new software may return to the old rules, as was the case of bitcoin split on 12 March 2013.[29]\n\nDecentralization \nBy storing data across its peer-to-peer network, the blockchain eliminates a number of risks that come with data being held centrally.[1] The decentralized blockchain may use ad-hoc message passing and distributed networking.\nPeer-to-peer blockchain networks lack centralized points of vulnerability that computer crackers can exploit; likewise, it has no central point of failure. Blockchain security methods include the use of public-key cryptography.[4]:5 A public key (a long, random-looking string of numbers) is an address on the blockchain. Value tokens sent across the network are recorded as belonging to that address. A private key is like a password that gives its owner access to their digital assets or the means to otherwise interact with the various capabilities that blockchains now support. Data stored on the blockchain is generally considered incorruptible.[1]\nEvery node in a decentralized system has a copy of the blockchain. Data quality is maintained by massive database replication[8] and computational trust. No centralized \"official\" copy exists and no user is \"trusted\" more than any other.[4] Transactions are broadcast to the network using software. Messages are delivered on a best-effort basis. Mining nodes validate transactions,[22] add them to the block they are building, and then broadcast the completed block to other nodes.[24]:ch. 08 Blockchains use various time-stamping schemes, such as proof-of-work, to serialize changes.[30] Alternative consensus methods include proof-of-stake.[22] Growth of a decentralized blockchain is accompanied by the risk of centralization because the computer resources required to process larger amounts of data become more expensive.[31]\n\nOpenness \nOpen blockchains are more user-friendly than some traditional ownership records, which, while open to the public, still require physical access to view. Because all early blockchains were permissionless, controversy has arisen over the blockchain definition. An issue in this ongoing debate is whether a private system with verifiers tasked and authorized (permissioned) by a central authority should be considered a blockchain.[32][33][34][35][36] Proponents of permissioned or private chains argue that the term \"blockchain\" may be applied to any data structure that batches data into time-stamped blocks. These blockchains serve as a distributed version of multiversion concurrency control (MVCC) in databases.[37] Just as MVCC prevents two transactions from concurrently modifying a single object in a database, blockchains prevent two transactions from spending the same single output in a blockchain.[38]:30\u201331 Opponents say that permissioned systems resemble traditional corporate databases, not supporting decentralized data verification, and that such systems are not hardened against operator tampering and revision.[32][34] Nikolai Hampton of Computerworld said that \"many in-house blockchain solutions will be nothing more than cumbersome databases,\" and \"without a clear security model, proprietary blockchains should be eyed with suspicion.\"[10][39]\n\nPermissionless \nThe great advantage to an open, permissionless, or public, blockchain network is that guarding against bad actors is not required and no access control is needed.[23] This means that applications can be added to the network without the approval or trust of others, using the blockchain as a transport layer.[23]\nBitcoin and other cryptocurrencies currently secure their blockchain by requiring new entries to include a proof of work. To prolong the blockchain, bitcoin uses Hashcash puzzles. While Hashcash was designed in 1997 by Adam Back, the original idea was first proposed by Cynthia Dwork and Moni Naor and Eli Ponyatovski in their 1992 paper \"Pricing via Processing or Combatting Junk Mail\".\nFinancial companies have not prioritised decentralized blockchains.[40]\nIn 2016, venture capital investment for blockchain-related projects was weakening in the USA but increasing in China.[41] Bitcoin and many other cryptocurrencies use open (public) blockchains. As of April 2018[update], bitcoin has the highest market capitalization.\n\n<\/p>\n Permissioned (private) blockchain \nMain article: Distributed ledger\nPermissioned blockchains use an access control layer to govern who has access to the network.[42] In contrast to public blockchain networks, validators on private blockchain networks are vetted by the network owner. They do not rely on anonymous nodes to validate transactions nor do they benefit from the network effect.[43][better source needed ] Permissioned blockchains can also go by the name of 'consortium' or 'hybrid' blockchains.[44]\nThe New York Times noted in both 2016 and 2017 that many corporations are using blockchain networks \"with private blockchains, independent of the public system.\"[45][46][better source needed ]\n\nDisadvantages of private blockchain \nNikolai Hampton pointed out in Computerworld that \"There is also no need for a '51 percent' attack on a private blockchain, as the private blockchain (most likely) already controls 100 percent of all block creation resources. If you could attack or damage the blockchain creation tools on a private corporate server, you could effectively control 100 percent of their network and alter transactions however you wished.\"[10] This has a set of particularly profound adverse implications during a financial crisis or debt crisis like the financial crisis of 2007\u201308, where politically powerful actors may make decisions that favor some groups at the expense of others,[47][48] and \"the bitcoin blockchain is protected by the massive group mining effort. It's unlikely that any private blockchain will try to protect records using gigawatts of computing power \u2014 it's time consuming and expensive.\"[10] He also said, \"Within a private blockchain there is also no 'race'; there's no incentive to use more power or discover blocks faster than competitors. This means that many in-house blockchain solutions will be nothing more than cumbersome databases.\"[10]\n\nUses \nBlockchain technology can be integrated into multiple areas. The primary use of blockchains today is as a distributed ledger for cryptocurrencies, most notably bitcoin. There are a few operational products maturing from proof of concept by late 2016.[41]\nAs of 2016[update], some observers remain skeptical. Steve Wilson, of Constellation Research, believes the technology has been hyped with unrealistic claims.[49] To mitigate risk, businesses are reluctant to place blockchain at the core of the business structure.[50]\n\nCryptocurrencies \nMain article: Cryptocurrency\nMost cryptocurrencies use blockchain technology to record transactions. For example, the bitcoin network and Ethereum network are both based on blockchain. On May 8, 2018 Facebook confirmed that it is opening a new blockchain group[51] which will be headed by David Marcus who previously was in charge of Messenger. According to The Verge Facebook is planning to launch its own cryptocurrency for facilitating payments on the platform.[52]\n\nSmart contracts \nMain article: Smart contract\nBlockchain-based smart contracts are proposed contracts that could be partially or fully executed or enforced without human interaction.[53] One of the main objectives of a smart contract is automated escrow. An IMF staff discussion reported that smart contracts based on blockchain technology might reduce moral hazards and optimize the use of contracts in general. But \"no viable smart contract systems have yet emerged.\" Due to the lack of widespread use their legal status is unclear.[54]\n\nFinancial services \nMajor portions of the financial industry are implementing distributed ledgers for use in banking,[55][56][57] and according to a September 2016 IBM study, this is occurring faster than expected.[58]\nBanks are interested in this technology because it has potential to speed up back office settlement systems.[59]\nBanks such as UBS are opening new research labs dedicated to blockchain technology in order to explore how blockchain can be used in financial services to increase efficiency and reduce costs.[60][61]\nBerenberg, a German bank, believes that blockchain is an \"overhyped technology\" that has had a large number of \"proofs of concept\", but still has major challenges, and very few success stories.[62]\n\nBlockchain with video games \nSome video games are based on blockchain technology. The first such game, Huntercoin, was released in February, 2014.[63][unreliable source ] Another blockchain game is CryptoKitties, launched in November 2017.[64] The game made headlines in December 2017 when a cryptokitty character - an-in game virtual pet - was sold for US$100,000.[65][irrelevant citation ] CryptoKitties illustrated scalability problems for games on Ethereum when it created significant congestion on the Ethereum network with about 30% of all Ethereum transactions being for the game.[66][irrelevant citation ]\nCryptokitties also demonstrated how blockchains can be used to catalog game assets (digital assets).[67]\nThe Blockchain Game Alliance was formed in September 2018 to explore alternative uses of blockchains in video gaming with support of Ubisoft and Fig, among others.[68]\n\nSupply chain \nThere are a number of efforts and industry organizations working to employ blockchains in supply chain logistics and supply chain management.\nThe Blockchain in Transport Alliance (BiTA) works to develop open standards for supply chains.\nEverledger is one of the inaugural clients of IBM's blockchain-based tracking service.[69]\nWalmart and IBM are running a trial to use a blockchain-backed system for supply chain monitoring \u2014 all nodes of the blockchain are administered by Walmart and are located on the IBM cloud.[70]\nHyperledger Grid develops open components for blockchain supply chain solutions. [71][72]\n\nOther uses \nBlockchain technology can be used to create a permanent, public, transparent ledger system for compiling data on sales, tracking digital use and payments to content creators, such as wireless users[73] or musicians.[74] In 2017, IBM partnered with ASCAP and PRS for Music to adopt blockchain technology in music distribution.[75] Imogen Heap's Mycelia service has also been proposed as blockchain-based alternative \"that gives artists more control over how their songs and associated data circulate among fans and other musicians.\"[76][77]\nNew distribution methods are available for the insurance industry such as peer-to-peer insurance, parametric insurance and microinsurance following the adoption of blockchain.[78][79] The sharing economy and IoT are also set to benefit from blockchains because they involve many collaborating peers.[80] Online voting is another application of the blockchain.[81][82]\nOther designs include:\n\nHyperledger is a cross-industry collaborative effort from the Linux Foundation to support blockchain-based distributed ledgers, with projects under this initiative including Hyperledger Burrow (by Monax) and Hyperledger Fabric (spearheaded by IBM)[83]\nQuorum \u2013 a permissionable private blockchain by JPMorgan Chase with private storage, used for contract applications[84]\nTezos, decentralized voting.[38]:94 \nProof of Existence is an online service that verifies the existence of computer files as of a specific time[85]\nTypes of blockchains \nCurrently, there are three types of blockchain networks \u2014 public blockchains, private blockchains and consortium blockchains.\n\nPublic blockchains \nA public blockchain has absolutely no access restrictions. Anyone with an Internet connection can send transactions to it as well as become a validator (i.e., participate in the execution of a consensus protocol).[86][self-published source? ] Usually, such networks offer economic incentives for those who secure them and utilize some type of a Proof of Stake or Proof of Work algorithm.\nSome of the largest, most known public blockchains are the bitcoin blockchain and the Ethereum blockchain.\n\nPrivate blockchains \nA private blockchain is permissioned.[42] One cannot join it unless invited by the network administrators. Participant and validator access is restricted.\nThis type of blockchains can be considered a middle-ground for companies that are interested in the blockchain technology in general but are not comfortable with a level of control offered by public networks. Typically, they seek to incorporate blockchain into their accounting and record-keeping procedures without sacrificing autonomy and running the risk of exposing sensitive data to the public internet.\n\nConsortium blockchains \nA consortium blockchain is often said to be semi-decentralized. It, too, is permissioned but instead of a single organization controlling it, a number of companies might each operate a node on such a network. The administrators of a consortium chain restrict users' reading rights as they see fit and only allow a limited set of trusted nodes to execute a consensus protocol.\n\nAcademic research \n Blockchain panel discussion at the first IEEE Computer Society TechIgnite conference\nIn October 2014, the MIT Bitcoin Club, with funding from MIT alumni, provided undergraduate students at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology access to $100 of bitcoin. The adoption rates, as studied by Catalini and Tucker (2016), revealed that when people who typically adopt technologies early are given delayed access, they tend to reject the technology.[87]\n\nEnergy use of proof-of-work blockchains \nExternal video Cryptocurrencies: looking beyond the hype, Hyun Song Shin, Bank for International Settlements, 2:48[88] Blockchains and Cryptocurrencies: Burn It With Fire, Nicholas Weaver, Berkeley School of Information, 49:47, lecture begins at 3:05[89]\nThe Bank for International Settlements has criticized the public proof-of-work blockchains for high energy consumption.[90][88][91]\nNicholas Weaver, of the International Computer Science Institute at the University of California, Berkeley examines blockchain's online security, and the energy efficiency of proof-of-work public blockchains, and in both cases finds it grossly inadequate.[89][92]\n\nJournals \nMain article: Ledger (journal)\nIn September 2015, the first peer-reviewed academic journal dedicated to cryptocurrency and blockchain technology research, Ledger, was announced. The inaugural issue was published in December 2016.[93] The journal covers aspects of mathematics, computer science, engineering, law, economics and philosophy that relate to cryptocurrencies such as bitcoin.[94][95]\nThe journal encourages authors to digitally sign a file hash of submitted papers, which will then be timestamped into the bitcoin blockchain. Authors are also asked to include a personal bitcoin address in the first page of their papers.[96]\n\nSee also \n\n\n Information technology portal \n Cryptography portal \n Economics portal \n Computer science portal \nChangelog \u2013 a record of all notable changes made to a project\nChecklist \u2013 an informational aid used to reduce failure\nEconomics of digitization\nPrivacy and blockchain\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l \"Blockchains: The great chain of being sure about things\". The Economist. 31 October 2015. Archived from the original on 3 July 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2016 . The technology behind bitcoin lets people who do not know or trust each other build a dependable ledger. This has implications far beyond the crypto currency. \n\n^ Morris, David Z. (15 May 2016). \"Leaderless, Blockchain-Based Venture Capital Fund Raises $100 Million, And Counting\". Fortune. Archived from the original on 21 May 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016 . \n\n^ a b Popper, Nathan (21 May 2016). \"A Venture Fund With Plenty of Virtual Capital, but No Capitalist\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 May 2016. Retrieved 23 May 2016 . \n\n^ a b c Brito, Jerry; Castillo, Andrea (2013). Bitcoin: A Primer for Policymakers (PDF) (Report). Fairfax, VA: Mercatus Center, George Mason University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2013 . \n\n^ Trottier, Leo (18 June 2016). \"original-bitcoin\" (self-published code collection) . github. Archived from the original on 17 April 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2016 . This is a historical repository of Satoshi Nakamoto's original bit coin sourcecode \n\n^ a b c d e Narayanan, Arvind; Bonneau, Joseph; Felten, Edward; Miller, Andrew; Goldfeder, Steven (2016). Bitcoin and cryptocurrency technologies: a comprehensive introduction. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-17169-2. \n\n^ Iansiti, Marco; Lakhani, Karim R. (January 2017). \"The Truth About Blockchain\". Harvard Business Review. Harvard University. Archived from the original on 18 January 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2017 . The technology at the heart of bitcoin and other virtual currencies, blockchain is an open, distributed ledger that can record transactions between two parties efficiently and in a verifiable and permanent way. \n\n^ a b Raval, Siraj (2016). \"What Is a Decentralized Application?\". Decentralized Applications: Harnessing Bitcoin's Blockchain Technology. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp. 1\u20132. ISBN 978-1-4919-2452-5. OCLC 968277125. 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[but some believe] that open and permission-less blockchains will ultimately prevail even in the banking sector simply because they're more efficient. \n\n^ Redrup, Yolanda (29 June 2016). \"ANZ backs private blockchain, but won't go public\". Australia Financial Review. Archived from the original on 3 July 2016. Retrieved 7 July 2016 . Blockchain networks can be either public or private. Public blockchains have many users and there are no controls over who can read, upload or delete the data and there are an unknown number of pseudonymous participants. In comparison, private blockchains also have multiple data sets, but there are controls in place over who can edit data and there are a known number of participants. \n\n^ Shah, Rakesh (1 March 2018). \"How Can The Banking Sector Leverage Blockchain Technology?\". PostBox Communications. PostBox Communications Blog. Archived from the original on 17 March 2018. 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Bilen, \"Secure Blockchains for Dynamic Spectrum Access : A Decentralized Database in Moving Cognitive Radio Networks Enhances Security and User Access\", IEEE Vehicular Technology Magazine, 2018. \n\n^ \"Blockchain Could Be Music's Next Disruptor\". 22 September 2016. Archived from the original on 23 September 2016. \n\n^ \"ASCAP, PRS and SACEM Join Forces for Blockchain Copyright System\". Music Business Worldwide. 9 April 2017. Archived from the original on 10 April 2017. \n\n^ Burchardi, K.; Harle, N. (20 January 2018). \"The blockchain will disrupt the music business and beyond\". Wired. Retrieved 8 May 2018 . CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Bartlett, Jamie (6 September 2015). \"Imogen Heap: saviour of the music industry?\". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 22 April 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2016 . \n\n^ Wang, Kevin; Safavi, Ali (29 October 2016). \"Blockchain is empowering the future of insurance\". Tech Crunch. AOL Inc. Archived from the original on 7 November 2016. Retrieved 7 November 2016 . \n\n^ Gatteschi, Valentina; Lamberti, Fabrizio; Demartini, Claudio; Pranteda, Chiara; Santamar\u00eda, V\u00edctor (20 February 2018). \"Blockchain and Smart Contracts for Insurance: Is the Technology Mature Enough?\". Future Internet. 10 (2): 20. doi:10.3390\/fi10020020. Archived from the original on 15 March 2018. \n\n^ \"Blockchain reaction: Tech companies plan for critical mass\" (PDF) . Ernst & Young. p. 5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 November 2016. Retrieved 13 November 2016 . \n\n^ \"Online Voting Platform FAQ's\". Follow My Vote. Archived from the original on 27 October 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016 . \n\n^ Chandra, Prabhul. \"Reimagining Democracy: What if votes were a crypto-currency?\". democracywithoutborders.org. Archived from the original on 5 February 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2018 . \n\n^ \"IBM Blockchain based on Hyperledger Fabric from the Linux Foundation\". IBM.com. 9 January 2018. Archived from the original on 7 December 2017. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Why J.P. Morgan Chase Is Building a Blockchain on Ethereum\". Fortune. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 24 January 2017 . \n\n^ Melanie Swan (2015). Blockchain: Blueprint for a New Economy. O'Reilly Media. pp. 38\u201339. ISBN 9781491920473. \n\n^ \"How Companies Can Leverage Private Blockchains to Improve Efficiency and Streamline Business Processes\". Perfectial. \n\n^ Catalini, Christian; Tucker, Catherine E. (11 August 2016). \"Seeding the S-Curve? The Role of Early Adopters in Diffusion\". doi:10.2139\/ssrn.2822729. SSRN 2822729 . \n\n^ a b Janda, Michael (18 June 2018). \"Cryptocurrencies like bitcoin cannot replace money, says Bank for International Settlements\". ABC (Australia). Retrieved 18 June 2018 . \n\n^ a b Illing, Sean (11 April 2018). \"Why Bitcoin is bullshit, explained by an expert\". Vox. Retrieved 17 July 2018 . \n\n^ Hyun Song Shin (June 2018). \"Chapter V. Cryptocurrencies: looking beyond the hype\" (PDF) . BIS 2018 Annual Economic Report. Bank for International Settlements. Retrieved 19 June 2018 . Put in the simplest terms, the quest for decentralised trust has quickly become an environmental disaster. \n\n^ Hiltzik, Michael (18 June 2018). \"Is this scathing report the death knell for bitcoin?\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 19 June 2018 . \n\n^ Weaver, Nicholas. \"Blockchains and Cryptocurrencies: Burn It With Fire\". YouTube video. Berkeley School of Information. Retrieved 17 July 2018 . \n\n^ Extance, Andy (30 September 2015). \"The future of cryptocurrencies: Bitcoin and beyond\". Nature. 526 (7571): 21\u201323. doi:10.1038\/526021a . ISSN 0028-0836. OCLC 421716612. PMID 26432223. Archived from the original on 12 May 2017. \n\n^ Ledger (eJournal \/ eMagazine, 2015). OCLC. OCLC 910895894. \n\n^ Hertig, Alyssa (15 September 2015). \"Introducing Ledger, the First Bitcoin-Only Academic Journal\". Motherboard. Archived from the original on 10 January 2017. Retrieved 10 January 2017 . \n\n^ Rizun, Peter R.; Wilmer, Christopher E.; Burley, Richard Ford; Miller, Andrew (2015). \"How to Write and Format an Article for Ledger\" (PDF) . Ledger. 1 (1): 1\u201312. doi:10.5195\/LEDGER.2015.1 (inactive 14 March 2019). ISSN 2379-5980. OCLC 910895894. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2017 . \n\n\nFurther reading \nCrosby, Michael; Nachiappan; Pattanayak, Pradhan; Verma, Sanjeev; Kalyanaraman, Vignesh (16 October 2015). BlockChain Technology: Beyond Bitcoin (PDF) (Report). Sutardja Center for Entrepreneurship & Technology Technical Report. University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2017-03-19 . \nJaikaran, Chris (February 28, 2018). Blockchain: Background and Policy Issues. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 2 December 2018 . \nKakavand, Hossein; De Sevres, Nicolette Kost; Chilton, Bart (12 October 2016). The Blockchain Revolution: An Analysis of Regulation and Technology Related to Distributed Ledger Technologies (Report). Luther Systems & DLA Piper. SSRN 2849251 . \nMazonka, Oleg (29 December 2016). \"Blockchain: Simple Explanation\" (PDF) . Journal of Reference. \nTapscott, Don; Tapscott, Alex (2016). Blockchain Revolution: How the Technology Behind Bitcoin Is Changing Money, Business and the World. London: Portfolio Penguin. ISBN 978-0-241-23785-4. OCLC 971395169. \nSaito, Kenji; Yamada, Hiroyuki (June 2016). What's So Different about Blockchain? Blockchain is a Probabilistic State Machine. IEEE 36th International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems Workshops. Nara, Nara, Japan: IEEE. pp. 168\u201375. doi:10.1109\/ICDCSW.2016.28. ISBN 978-1-5090-3686-8. ISSN 2332-5666. |access-date= requires |url= (help) \nRaval, Siraj (2016). Decentralized Applications: Harnessing Bitcoin's Blockchain Technology. Oreilly. \nBashir, Imran (2017). Mastering Blockchain. Packt Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-78712-544-5. OCLC 967373845. \nD. Puthal, N. Malik, S. P. Mohanty, E. Kougianos, and G. Das, \"Everything you Wanted to Know about the Blockchain\", IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine, Volume 7, Issue 4, July 2018, pp. 06\u201314.\nSubbiah, Kannan; Ferrarini, Benno; Maupin, Julie; Hinojales, Marthe; Guhathakurta, Rahul; Kulshrestha, Sanatan; Wright, Danika \"The Age of Blockchain: A Collection of Articles\" IndraStra Open Access, 18 March 2018, ISBN 9781980595816. 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networks\nWorld Wide Web\nSub-topics\nDataspaces\nHyperdata\nLinked data\nRule-based systems\nApplications\nSemantic analytics\nSemantic broker\nSemantic computing\nSemantic mapper\nSemantic matching\nSemantic publishing\nSemantic reasoner\nSemantic search\nSemantic service-oriented architecture\nSemantic wiki\nRelated topics\nCollective intelligence\nDescription logic\nFolksonomy\nGeotagging\nInformation architecture\nKnowledge extraction\nKnowledge management\nKnowledge representation and reasoning\nLibrary 2.0\nDigital library\nDigital humanities\nMetadata\nReferences\nTopic map\nWeb 2.0\nWeb engineering\nWeb Science Trust\nStandardsSyntax and supporting technologies\nHTTP\nIRI\nURI\nRDF\ntriples\nRDF\/XML\nJSON-LD\nTurtle\nTriG\nNotation3\nN-Triples\nTriX (no W3C standard)\nRRID\nSPARQL\nXML\nSchemas, ontologies and rules\nCommon Logic\nOWL\nRDFS\nRule Interchange Format\nSemantic Web Rule Language\nALPS\nSemantic annotation\neRDF\nGRDDL\nMicrodata\nMicroformats\nRDFa\nSAWSDL\nFacebook Platform\nCommon vocabularies\nDOAP\nDublin Core\nFOAF\nSchema.org\nSIOC\nSKOS\nMicroformat vocabularies\nhAtom\nhCalendar\nhCard\nhProduct\nhRecipe\nhResume\nhReview\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blockchain\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blockchain<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Computer securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 8 May 2018, at 20:25.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 301 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Blockchain skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Blockchain<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For other uses, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Block_chain_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-redirect mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Block chain (disambiguation)\" data-key=\"c7acc35e0d1ee841ca917482943a7bbe\">Block chain (disambiguation)<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux\" style=\"display:none\">distributed data store for digital transactions<\/div>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:152px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Blockchain.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"053e4b6042dc891ec2997355a92e0edf\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/98\/Blockchain.svg\/150px-Blockchain.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"150\" height=\"399\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Blockchain.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"053e4b6042dc891ec2997355a92e0edf\"><\/a><\/div>Blockchain formation. The main chain (black) consists of the longest series of blocks from the genesis block (green) to the current block. Orphan blocks (purple) exist outside of the main chain.<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bitcoin_Block_Data.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"8491d3041822f54ade36cc0c7f6d6dcf\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/55\/Bitcoin_Block_Data.svg\/220px-Bitcoin_Block_Data.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bitcoin_Block_Data.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"8491d3041822f54ade36cc0c7f6d6dcf\"><\/a><\/div><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bitcoin_network\" title=\"Bitcoin network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d1ffe9712a49cc16696a71ab148dfc8\">Bitcoin network<\/a> data<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>A <b>blockchain<\/b>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-te20151031_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-te20151031-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-fortune20160515_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-fortune20160515-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-nyt20160521_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nyt20160521-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> originally <b>block chain<\/b>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-primer_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-primer-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-obmh_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-obmh-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> is a growing list of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Record_(computer_science)\" title=\"Record (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"219d74a7ae6e15dfad31f9f66ef24591\">records<\/a>, called <i>blocks<\/i>, which are linked using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptography\" title=\"Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62b04254e6577239d817b9eb81a22073\">cryptography<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-te20151031_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-te20151031-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cryptocurrencytech_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cryptocurrencytech-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> Each block contains a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptographic_hash_function\" title=\"Cryptographic hash function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"676bb20eaff859ca784b738f7e8c856f\">cryptographic hash<\/a> of the previous block,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cryptocurrencytech_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cryptocurrencytech-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trusted_timestamping\" title=\"Trusted timestamping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5e3b80afc4e4f979b7c8ad935551ad5\">timestamp<\/a>, and transaction data (generally represented as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Merkle_tree\" title=\"Merkle tree\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1605eae5a01fe1869d2346f6d7a77056\">Merkle tree<\/a>).\n<\/p><p>By design, a blockchain is resistant to modification of the data. It is \"an open, distributed ledger that can record transactions between two parties efficiently and in a verifiable and permanent way\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hbr201701_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hbr201701-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> For use as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_ledger\" title=\"Distributed ledger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d569a8006d4e0809d9bfbc135e08af1\">distributed ledger<\/a>, a blockchain is typically managed by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer-to-peer\" title=\"Peer-to-peer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4461153add916f80b39b5acdc03c0764\">peer-to-peer<\/a> network collectively adhering to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protocol_(communication)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Protocol (communication)\" data-key=\"05ef138004d07cda97ee364b39d9397f\">protocol<\/a> for inter-node communication and validating new blocks. Once recorded, the data in any given block cannot be altered retroactively without alteration of all subsequent blocks, which requires consensus of the network majority. Although blockchain records are not unalterable, blockchains may be considered <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure_by_design\" title=\"Secure by design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94e074b7207a0f4c8ed2ccf0ca6b2d6d\">secure by design<\/a> and exemplify a distributed computing system with high <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Byzantine_fault_tolerance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Byzantine fault tolerance\" data-key=\"89acbb0f78bdf6b0676988557c52e410\">Byzantine fault tolerance<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decentralized\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decentralized\" data-key=\"ab13b3081467053fa6a5d9f1d55f45df\">Decentralized<\/a> consensus has therefore been claimed with a blockchain.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-decapp_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-decapp-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Blockchain was invented by a person using the name <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Satoshi_Nakamoto\" title=\"Satoshi Nakamoto\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89d069fd9c0cda75ec8de24639b04b2b\">Satoshi Nakamoto<\/a> in 2008 to serve as the public transaction <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ledger\" title=\"Ledger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7702dff1e3f5329e631ddb8a4d36a40\">ledger<\/a> of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptocurrency\" title=\"Cryptocurrency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3d798d55fbab2216808f1be208c5c94\">cryptocurrency<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bitcoin\" title=\"Bitcoin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ab9b93a16ebeb6b4782bed8f08f90b0\">bitcoin<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-te20151031_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-te20151031-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The identity of Satoshi Nakamoto is unknown. The invention of the blockchain for bitcoin made it the first digital currency to solve the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Double-spending\" title=\"Double-spending\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c92360cd50c0a45b0c13cf0b7b37e37\">double-spending<\/a> problem without the need of a trusted authority or central <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Server_(computing)\" title=\"Server (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e759780e01fd6c300a33285ed217f5c3\">server<\/a>. The bitcoin design has inspired other applications,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-te20151031_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-te20151031-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-nyt20160521_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nyt20160521-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> and blockchains which are readable by the public are widely used by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptocurrencies\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cryptocurrencies\" data-key=\"6758057120b367a7d4e93eca78963ce3\">cryptocurrencies<\/a>. Blockchain is considered a type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Payment_rail\" title=\"Payment rail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f705000e1841842f1ee7f342d97389d4\">payment rail<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> Private blockchains have been proposed for business use. Sources such as <i>Computerworld<\/i> called the marketing of such blockchains without a proper security model \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/snake_oil\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wiktionary:snake oil\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">snake oil<\/a>\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cw20160905_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cw20160905-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"toclimit-3\">\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Confirmed_Transactions_Per_Day.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"0bd232763d474936d5677ae05f9866a0\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fd\/Confirmed_Transactions_Per_Day.png\/220px-Confirmed_Transactions_Per_Day.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"111\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Confirmed_Transactions_Per_Day.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"0bd232763d474936d5677ae05f9866a0\"><\/a><\/div>Bitcoin transactions (January 2009 \u2013 September 2017)<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The first work on a cryptographically secured chain of blocks was described in 1991 by Stuart Haber and W. Scott Stornetta.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cryptocurrencytech_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cryptocurrencytech-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> They wanted to implement a system where document timestamps could not be tampered with. In 1992, Bayer, Haber and Stornetta incorporated <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Merkle_tree\" title=\"Merkle tree\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1605eae5a01fe1869d2346f6d7a77056\">Merkle trees<\/a> to the design, which improved its efficiency by allowing several document certificates to be collected into one block.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cryptocurrencytech_6-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cryptocurrencytech-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The first blockchain was conceptualized by a person (or group of people) known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Satoshi_Nakamoto\" title=\"Satoshi Nakamoto\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89d069fd9c0cda75ec8de24639b04b2b\">Satoshi Nakamoto<\/a> in 2008. Nakamoto improved the design in an important way using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hashcash\" title=\"Hashcash\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"917e96389169190c30b1d263c0dd0034\">Hashcash<\/a>-like method to add blocks to the chain without requiring them to be signed by a trusted party.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cryptocurrencytech_6-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cryptocurrencytech-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> The design was implemented the following year by Nakamoto as a core component of the cryptocurrency <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bitcoin\" title=\"Bitcoin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ab9b93a16ebeb6b4782bed8f08f90b0\">bitcoin<\/a>, where it serves as the public <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ledger\" title=\"Ledger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7702dff1e3f5329e631ddb8a4d36a40\">ledger<\/a> for all transactions on the network.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-te20151031_1-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-te20151031-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In August 2014, the bitcoin blockchain file size, containing records of all transactions that have occurred on the network, reached 20 GB (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gigabyte\" title=\"Gigabyte\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5669ed10525300b9b9ca2a133efc9979\">gigabytes<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hadi_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hadi-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> In January 2015, the size had grown to almost 30 GB, and from January 2016 to January 2017, the bitcoin blockchain grew from 50 GB to 100 GB in size.\n<\/p><p>The words <i>block<\/i> and <i>chain<\/i> were used separately in Satoshi Nakamoto's original paper, but were eventually popularized as a single word, <i>blockchain,<\/i> by 2016.\n<\/p><p>Smart contracts which run on a blockchain, for example ones which \"creat[e] invoices that pay themselves when a shipment arrives or share certificates which automatically send their owners dividends if profits reach a certain level.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-te20151031_1-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-te20151031-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> require an off-chain <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Oracle (computer science)\" data-key=\"72e30cef517a8f1dc79db11951883125\">oracle<\/a> to access any \"external data or events based on time or market conditions [that need] to interact with the blockchain.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bletchleyWP201609_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bletchleyWP201609-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>IBM opened a blockchain innovation research center in Singapore in July 2016.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ibmtof_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ibmtof-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> A working group for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Economic_Forum\" title=\"World Economic Forum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af15da6745b5e1476d4f6b5723472fae\">World Economic Forum<\/a> met in November 2016 to discuss the development of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multistakeholder_governance_model\" title=\"Multistakeholder governance model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27d8ea0079bea5706b234194a10b122f\">governance models<\/a> related to blockchain.\n<\/p><p>According to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accenture\" title=\"Accenture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"431600ac3fd7f171bdba15fcc6786266\">Accenture<\/a>, an application of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diffusion_of_innovations\" title=\"Diffusion of innovations\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b4564575d3496eff5e3d0cceaad45e25\">diffusion of innovations<\/a> theory suggests that blockchains attained a 13.5% adoption rate within financial services in 2016, therefore reaching the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Early_adopter\" title=\"Early adopter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e05ad0393369a23c81a4bec6a6f3b903\">early adopters<\/a> phase.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tfob_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tfob-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> Industry trade groups joined to create the Global Blockchain Forum in 2016, an initiative of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chamber_of_Digital_Commerce\" title=\"Chamber of Digital Commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6233fca31f8d4701be14facfb1695dbb\">Chamber of Digital Commerce<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>In May 2018, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gartner\" title=\"Gartner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f7668963d7e19c93d13754e7e1b8a52\">Gartner<\/a> found that only 1% of CIOs indicated any kind of blockchain adoption within their organisations, and only 8% of CIOs were in the short-term 'planning or [looking at] active experimentation with blockchain'.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Structure\">Structure<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A blockchain is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decentralized_computing\" title=\"Decentralized computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf007fc5af8169494ba202ab505fffc1\">decentralized<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_computing\" title=\"Distributed computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee813a1918606cd02eedc78a4439660f\">distributed<\/a> and public digital ledger that is used to record transactions across many computers so that any involved <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Storage_record\" title=\"Storage record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3c8c089a3ee99540f2c77521231045d\">record<\/a> cannot be altered retroactively, without the alteration of all subsequent blocks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-te20151031_1-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-te20151031-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-wired20161107_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-wired20161107-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> This allows the participants to verify and audit transactions independently and relatively inexpensively.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-:1_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-:1-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> A blockchain database is managed autonomously using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer-to-peer\" title=\"Peer-to-peer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4461153add916f80b39b5acdc03c0764\">peer-to-peer<\/a> network and a distributed timestamping server. They are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Authentication\" title=\"Authentication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c7b74801c769bbf831b273b2d28e09b\">authenticated<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_collaboration\" title=\"Mass collaboration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa7b44edbe6627a11dc617661a2ce4ad\">mass collaboration<\/a> powered by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Collective\" title=\"Collective\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c4d4ee347c0de93d2444721fc5dfa5a\">collective<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-interest\" title=\"Self-interest\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5231f75be92672544255585778c34a6b\">self-interests<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hwb_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hwb-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> Such a design facilitates <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robustness_(computer_science)\" title=\"Robustness (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec624134f994c4218b8c93d54484ffce\">robust<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a7b055462a00234621920f7bd77834c\">workflow<\/a> where participants' uncertainty regarding data security is marginal. The use of a blockchain removes the characteristic of infinite <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reproduction_(economics)\" title=\"Reproduction (economics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7397de33aa3f409a7eb9632a4b4bd2b\">reproducibility<\/a> from a digital asset. It confirms that each unit of value was transferred only once, solving the long-standing problem of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Double_spending\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Double spending\" data-key=\"315c9536b4f041e23a847c991f5423c1\">double spending<\/a>. A blockchain has been described as a <i>value-exchange protocol<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bc2.0_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bc2.0-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> A blockchain can maintain <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Title_(property)\" title=\"Title (property)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7556eb98e54a8ef49c6ce2399756d7cc\">title rights<\/a> because, when properly set up to detail the exchange agreement, it provides a record that compels <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Offer_and_acceptance\" title=\"Offer and acceptance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33e2d16686514b3831512e2055fdb597\">offer and acceptance<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Blocks\">Blocks<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Blocks hold batches of valid <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transaction_processing\" title=\"Transaction processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc4654ebea47d9f14e7ebe49367c965c\">transactions<\/a> that are hashed and encoded into a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Merkle_tree\" title=\"Merkle tree\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1605eae5a01fe1869d2346f6d7a77056\">Merkle tree<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-te20151031_1-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-te20151031-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Each block includes the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptographic_hash\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cryptographic hash\" data-key=\"6bcb7875797d51fb7d72109ba6bcf233\">cryptographic hash<\/a> of the prior block in the blockchain, linking the two. The linked blocks form a chain.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-te20151031_1-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-te20151031-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> This <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iteration\" title=\"Iteration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85b99a797eeab998ceb6bc888721794f\">iterative<\/a> process confirms the integrity of the previous block, all the way back to the original genesis block.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hadc_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hadc-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Sometimes separate blocks can be produced concurrently, creating a temporary fork. In addition to a secure hash-based history, any blockchain has a specified algorithm for scoring different versions of the history so that one with a higher value can be selected over others. Blocks not selected for inclusion in the chain are called orphan blocks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hadc_22-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hadc-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> Peers supporting the database have different versions of the history from time to time. They keep only the highest-scoring version of the database known to them. Whenever a peer receives a higher-scoring version (usually the old version with a single new block added) they extend or overwrite their own database and retransmit the improvement to their peers. There is never an absolute guarantee that any particular entry will remain in the best version of the history forever. Blockchains are typically built to add the score of new blocks onto old blocks and are given incentives to extend with new blocks rather than overwrite old blocks. Therefore, the probability of an entry becoming superseded decreases exponentially<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bsm_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bsm-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> as more blocks are built on top of it, eventually becoming very low.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-te20151031_1-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-te20151031-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-t12_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-t12-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\">:<span>ch. 08<\/span><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-paper_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-paper-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> For example, bitcoin uses a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proof-of-work_system\" title=\"Proof-of-work system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f270287a95c3c87f44c685bc1cab3e06\">proof-of-work system<\/a>, where the chain with the most cumulative proof-of-work is considered the valid one by the network. There are a number of methods that can be used to demonstrate a sufficient level of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computation\" title=\"Computation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"160f2c5ee4b01c17a6dad7bcc8861baa\">computation<\/a>. Within a blockchain the computation is carried out redundantly rather than in the traditional segregated and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parallel_computing\" title=\"Parallel computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5fb00a72928332731aa1b83159647c5\">parallel<\/a> manner.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-permbloc_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-permbloc-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Block_time\">Block time<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The <i>block time<\/i> is the average time it takes for the network to generate one extra block in the blockchain. Some blockchains create a new block as frequently as every five seconds.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-drd_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-drd-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> By the time of block completion, the included data becomes verifiable. In cryptocurrency, this is practically when the transaction takes place, so a shorter block time means faster transactions. The block time for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethereum\" title=\"Ethereum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9abd2ddf33c5751f4d8590233ce89c98\">Ethereum<\/a> is set to between 14 and 15 seconds, while for bitcoin it is 10 minutes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hard_forks\">Hard forks<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable relarticle mainarticle selfreference noprint\">This section is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Transclusion\" title=\"Wikipedia:Transclusion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c873b262af1dc11edb3284f019fd115\">transcluded<\/a> from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fork_(blockchain)\" title=\"Fork (blockchain)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4cd761102bc60fa8c39eec1c87bbf1f6\">Fork (blockchain)<\/a>. <span class=\"plainlinks\" style=\"font-style: normal\"><span style=\"font-size:85%;\">( | <a class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Fork_(blockchain)&action=history\" data-key=\"301e8a6946e092350b3f2e4490a1d1c0\">history<\/a>)<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<p>A <i>hard fork<\/i> is a rule change such that the software validating according to the old rules will see the blocks produced according to the new rules as invalid. In case of a hard fork, all nodes meant to work in accordance with the new rules need to upgrade their software.\n<\/p><p>If one group of nodes continues to use the old software while the other nodes use the new software, a split can occur. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethereum\" title=\"Ethereum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9abd2ddf33c5751f4d8590233ce89c98\">Ethereum<\/a> has hard-forked to \"make whole\" the investors in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_DAO_(organization)\" title=\"The DAO (organization)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6281e835cd9c01fb7f4eb39227e80f13\">The DAO<\/a>, which had been hacked by exploiting a vulnerability in its code. In this case, the fork resulted in a split creating <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethereum\" title=\"Ethereum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9abd2ddf33c5751f4d8590233ce89c98\">Ethereum<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethereum_Classic\" title=\"Ethereum Classic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b67df7e4d6ea6be16431bbe931c0d5d8\">Ethereum Classic<\/a> chains. In 2014 the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nxt\" title=\"Nxt\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c5aeef2704c5c81488c0fca3040a502f\">Nxt<\/a> community was asked to consider a hard fork that would have led to a rollback of the blockchain records to mitigate the effects of a theft of 50 million NXT from a major <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptocurrency_exchange\" title=\"Cryptocurrency exchange\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5fa659dec0d0add4006371a728b924a8\">cryptocurrency exchange<\/a>. The hard fork proposal was rejected, and some of the funds were recovered after negotiations and ransom payment. Alternatively, to prevent a permanent split, a majority of nodes using the new software may return to the old rules, as was the case of bitcoin split on 12 March 2013.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ArsFork_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ArsFork-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Decentralization\">Decentralization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>By storing data across its peer-to-peer network, the blockchain eliminates a number of risks that come with data being held centrally.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-te20151031_1-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-te20151031-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The decentralized blockchain may use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ad-hoc\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ad-hoc\" data-key=\"e41c6cb6ffde421607fce0017eba2002\">ad-hoc<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_passing\" title=\"Message passing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e6e85b396a483ff6b5d4cb91e8eef9a\">message passing<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_networking\" title=\"Distributed networking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"438276b5bb185f151c208a3e7c774afe\">distributed networking<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Peer-to-peer blockchain networks lack centralized points of vulnerability that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_hacker\" title=\"Security hacker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fdfe421068ad083a75ed9384d2b204bc\">computer crackers<\/a> can exploit; likewise, it has no central point of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Failure\" title=\"Failure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d63316c10c642d42098a0b6111fb91c1\">failure<\/a>. Blockchain security methods include the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public-key_cryptography\" title=\"Public-key cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da4f15fe41ac17b9842b2d0202406ddb\">public-key cryptography<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-primer_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-primer-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\">:<span>5<\/span><\/sup> A <i>public key<\/i> (a long, random-looking string of numbers) is an address on the blockchain. Value tokens sent across the network are recorded as belonging to that address. A <i>private key<\/i> is like a password that gives its owner access to their digital assets or the means to otherwise interact with the various capabilities that blockchains now support. Data stored on the blockchain is generally considered incorruptible.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-te20151031_1-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-te20151031-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Every <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Node_(networking)\" title=\"Node (networking)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af830d76119fd05f0c97a8a8e29a79e1\">node<\/a> in a decentralized system has a copy of the blockchain. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_quality\" title=\"Data quality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8771428f8ff5b31246abf8b197186672\">Data quality<\/a> is maintained by massive database <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Replication_(computing)\" title=\"Replication (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4de50f02bd3ff0293cd34b591329bc3e\">replication<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-decapp_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-decapp-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_trust\" title=\"Computational trust\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"979cb96da637833ae8ccbe081e69ecc1\">computational trust<\/a>. No centralized \"official\" copy exists and no user is \"trusted\" more than any other.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-primer_4-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-primer-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> Transactions are broadcast to the network using software. Messages are delivered on a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Best-effort_delivery\" title=\"Best-effort delivery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ce0c58aef4d245c491aa1b6c1cb2486\">best-effort<\/a> basis. Mining nodes validate transactions,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hadc_22-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hadc-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> add them to the block they are building, and then <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Broadcasting_(networking)\" title=\"Broadcasting (networking)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4281697c177b563116fe65d401b720dd\">broadcast<\/a> the completed block to other nodes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-t12_24-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-t12-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference nowrap\">:<span>ch. 08<\/span><\/sup> Blockchains use various time-stamping schemes, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proof-of-work_system\" title=\"Proof-of-work system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f270287a95c3c87f44c685bc1cab3e06\">proof-of-work<\/a>, to serialize changes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-kopstein_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-kopstein-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> Alternative consensus methods include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proof-of-stake\" title=\"Proof-of-stake\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55477e6c88de4cc925611619f329b239\">proof-of-stake<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-hadc_22-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-hadc-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> Growth of a decentralized blockchain is accompanied by the risk of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Centrality\" title=\"Centrality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a17f3a2b7f79de2647894979abcf02fd\">centralization<\/a> because the computer resources required to process larger amounts of data become more expensive.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Openness\">Openness<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Open blockchains are more <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Usability\" title=\"Usability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f8bb9a01a2102ed2348087b0be3b30a\">user-friendly<\/a> than some traditional ownership records, which, while open to the public, still require physical access to view. Because all early blockchains were permissionless, controversy has arisen over the blockchain definition. An issue in this ongoing debate is whether a private system with verifiers tasked and authorized (permissioned) by a central authority should be considered a blockchain.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-t16_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-t16-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-t10_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-t10-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-t11_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-t11-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-t8_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-t8-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-t9_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-t9-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> Proponents of permissioned or private chains argue that the term \"blockchain\" may be applied to any data structure that batches data into time-stamped blocks. These blockchains serve as a distributed version of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multiversion_concurrency_control\" title=\"Multiversion concurrency control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"48cb461b42afe2dd8b85adc85b956806\">multiversion concurrency control<\/a> (MVCC) in databases.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-t4_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-t4-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> Just as MVCC prevents two transactions from concurrently modifying a single object in a database, blockchains prevent two transactions from spending the same single output in a blockchain.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tapscott201605_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tapscott201605-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">:<span>30\u201331<\/span><\/sup> Opponents say that permissioned systems resemble traditional corporate databases, not supporting decentralized data verification, and that such systems are not hardened against operator tampering and revision.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-t16_32-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-t16-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-t11_34-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-t11-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup> Nikolai Hampton of <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computerworld\" title=\"Computerworld\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8213155a2744e5ab08a96367d82662e8\">Computerworld<\/a><\/i> said that \"many in-house blockchain solutions will be nothing more than cumbersome databases,\" and \"without a clear security model, proprietary blockchains should be eyed with suspicion.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cw20160905_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cw20160905-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MarTech_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MarTech-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Permissionless\">Permissionless<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The great advantage to an open, permissionless, or public, blockchain network is that guarding against bad actors is not required and no <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Access_control\" title=\"Access control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f978f594d7eee9299dbb3da18ee80a8c\">access control<\/a> is needed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bsm_23-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bsm-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> This means that applications can be added to the network without the approval or trust of others, using the blockchain as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transport_layer\" title=\"Transport layer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4927a7e90ff6ec0cfa04736516de75e3\">transport layer<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bsm_23-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bsm-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies currently secure their blockchain by requiring new entries to include a proof of work. To prolong the blockchain, bitcoin uses <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hashcash\" title=\"Hashcash\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"917e96389169190c30b1d263c0dd0034\">Hashcash<\/a> puzzles. While Hashcash was designed in 1997 by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Adam_Back\" title=\"Adam Back\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"798568de2cf2789449f1c3ce8105bc07\">Adam Back<\/a>, the original idea was first proposed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cynthia_Dwork\" title=\"Cynthia Dwork\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f45ea24ce173fb9e624eb628a55ccb7c\">Cynthia Dwork<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moni_Naor\" title=\"Moni Naor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4d2ed3bf2bff6f79aa4091b6212feba\">Moni Naor<\/a> and Eli Ponyatovski in their 1992 paper \"Pricing via Processing or Combatting Junk Mail\".\n<\/p><p>Financial companies have not prioritised decentralized blockchains.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-trtb_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-trtb-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>In 2016, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Venture_capital\" title=\"Venture capital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0490c20255cf75887058528805f69627\">venture capital<\/a> investment for blockchain-related projects was weakening in the USA but increasing in China.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-btt17_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-btt17-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> Bitcoin and many other cryptocurrencies use open (public) blockchains. As of April 2018<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, bitcoin has the highest market capitalization.\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Permissioned_.28private.29_blockchain\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Permissioned_(private)_blockchain\">Permissioned (private) blockchain<\/span><\/h4>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_ledger\" title=\"Distributed ledger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d569a8006d4e0809d9bfbc135e08af1\">Distributed ledger<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Permissioned blockchains use an access control layer to govern who has access to the network.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-btit_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-btit-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> In contrast to public blockchain networks, validators on private blockchain networks are vetted by the network owner. They do not rely on anonymous nodes to validate transactions nor do they benefit from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_effect\" title=\"Network effect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c12bcfc5e1ebd4954dec4f91b1fc46dc\">network effect<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-snl_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-snl-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:NOTRS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wikipedia:NOTRS\" data-key=\"4bcb91c7505e5ad07a90cefc6fc71c16\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to better sources. (September 2017)\">better source needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Permissioned blockchains can also go by the name of 'consortium' or 'hybrid' blockchains.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New_York_Times\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"New York Times\" data-key=\"bdcfcf81cd1a433e5f496562a2dae56a\">New York Times<\/a><\/i> noted in both 2016 and 2017 that many corporations are using blockchain networks \"with private blockchains, independent of the public system.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-nyt20160327_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-nyt20160327-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:NOTRS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wikipedia:NOTRS\" data-key=\"4bcb91c7505e5ad07a90cefc6fc71c16\"><span title=\"this claim does not seem to make sense knowing that Ethereum blockchain is public, not private (September 2017)\">better source needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Disadvantages_of_private_blockchain\">Disadvantages of private blockchain<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Nikolai Hampton pointed out in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computerworld\" title=\"Computerworld\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8213155a2744e5ab08a96367d82662e8\">Computerworld<\/a><\/i> that \"There is also no need for a '51 percent' attack on a private blockchain, as the private blockchain (most likely) already controls 100 percent of all block creation resources. If you could attack or damage the blockchain creation tools on a private corporate server, you could effectively control 100 percent of their network and alter transactions however you wished.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cw20160905_10-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cw20160905-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> This has a set of particularly profound adverse implications during a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_crisis\" title=\"Financial crisis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24a0dea0b1cd3593917b118dfc22acd8\">financial crisis<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Debt_crisis\" title=\"Debt crisis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3d838b36300420dd46193f59ff5e772\">debt crisis<\/a> like the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%9308\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Financial crisis of 2007\u201308\" data-key=\"4532637222e1563e87b1088ec13452e3\">financial crisis of 2007\u201308<\/a>, where politically powerful actors may make decisions that favor some groups at the expense of others,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SalsmanTheFinancial13_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SalsmanTheFinancial13-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OKeeffeThePolitical15_48-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OKeeffeThePolitical15-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup> and \"the bitcoin blockchain is protected by the massive group mining effort. It's unlikely that any private blockchain will try to protect records using gigawatts of computing power \u2014 it's time consuming and expensive.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cw20160905_10-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cw20160905-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> He also said, \"Within a private blockchain there is also no 'race'; there's no incentive to use more power or discover blocks faster than competitors. This means that many in-house blockchain solutions will be nothing more than cumbersome databases.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cw20160905_10-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cw20160905-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Uses\">Uses<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Blockchain technology can be integrated into multiple areas. The primary use of blockchains today is as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_ledger\" title=\"Distributed ledger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d569a8006d4e0809d9bfbc135e08af1\">distributed ledger<\/a> for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptocurrency\" title=\"Cryptocurrency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3d798d55fbab2216808f1be208c5c94\">cryptocurrencies<\/a>, most notably <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bitcoin\" title=\"Bitcoin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ab9b93a16ebeb6b4782bed8f08f90b0\">bitcoin<\/a>. There are a few operational products maturing from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proof_of_concept\" title=\"Proof of concept\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4acea505e69a2026bd5977d5df035eeb\">proof of concept<\/a> by late 2016.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-btt17_41-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-btt17-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>As of 2016<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, some observers remain skeptical. Steve Wilson, of Constellation Research, believes the technology has been <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Media_circus\" title=\"Media circus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be548d430b6977aac3ad1dff21f9c097\">hyped<\/a> with unrealistic claims.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-almeve_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-almeve-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup> To mitigate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Risk_management\" title=\"Risk management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8dfffb6fe8cc680af34e88ec60c1c92\">risk<\/a>, businesses are reluctant to place blockchain at the core of the business structure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-clsdips_50-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-clsdips-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cryptocurrencies\">Cryptocurrencies<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptocurrency\" title=\"Cryptocurrency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3d798d55fbab2216808f1be208c5c94\">Cryptocurrency<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Most cryptocurrencies use blockchain technology to record transactions. For example, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bitcoin_network\" title=\"Bitcoin network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d1ffe9712a49cc16696a71ab148dfc8\">bitcoin network<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethereum\" title=\"Ethereum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9abd2ddf33c5751f4d8590233ce89c98\">Ethereum<\/a> network are both based on blockchain. On May 8, 2018 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facebook\" title=\"Facebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"452f745387ec551ed04005e53e079973\">Facebook<\/a> confirmed that it is opening a new blockchain group<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> which will be headed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_A._Marcus\" title=\"David A. Marcus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"948f2cfceac0ef656e0667b9f8e64ff1\">David Marcus<\/a> who previously was in charge of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Facebook_Messenger\" title=\"Facebook Messenger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7a20006e55b264f58a9f4b4b966581f1\">Messenger<\/a>. According to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Verge\" title=\"The Verge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7db36214ad26bc5bf1c201f85ad9803\">The Verge<\/a> Facebook is planning to launch its own <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cryptocurrency\" title=\"Cryptocurrency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3d798d55fbab2216808f1be208c5c94\">cryptocurrency<\/a> for facilitating payments on the platform.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-52\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Smart_contracts\">Smart contracts<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_contract\" title=\"Smart contract\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ce20e48de764d17525f409d1612bead\">Smart contract<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Blockchain-based <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Smart_contract\" title=\"Smart contract\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ce20e48de764d17525f409d1612bead\">smart contracts<\/a> are proposed contracts that could be partially or fully executed or enforced without human interaction.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-unbi_53-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-unbi-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup> One of the main objectives of a smart contract is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automation\" title=\"Automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4566aa9781d28b2291b4efec7b5bdd82\">automated<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Escrow\" title=\"Escrow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5dd94e233413b35ed7736eda2a05c808\">escrow<\/a>. An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Monetary_Fund\" title=\"International Monetary Fund\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bcd9f18b824b55142a6d5121916b178\">IMF<\/a> staff discussion reported that smart contracts based on blockchain technology might reduce <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moral_hazard\" title=\"Moral hazard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fe3a4ecaf5eb3f711b75b83b8dd13eaf\">moral hazards<\/a> and optimize the use of contracts in general. But \"no viable smart contract systems have yet emerged.\" Due to the lack of widespread use their legal status is unclear.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-vcab_54-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-vcab-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Financial_services\">Financial services<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Major portions of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_industry\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Financial industry\" data-key=\"9de4a945e88af7b7ab47a40696763a5c\">financial industry<\/a> are implementing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_ledger\" title=\"Distributed ledger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d569a8006d4e0809d9bfbc135e08af1\">distributed ledgers<\/a> for use in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Banking\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Banking\" data-key=\"130d6ac80c8cbb2debee0d8e2b601b67\">banking<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-reason20160506_55-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-reason20160506-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-afr20160629_56-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-afr20160629-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup> and according to a September 2016 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a> study, this is occurring faster than expected.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Dramatic_Acceptance_of_Blockchain_58-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Dramatic_Acceptance_of_Blockchain-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Banks are interested in this technology because it has potential to speed up <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Back_office\" title=\"Back office\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a49765133be292451e0e22cc36821f7c\">back office<\/a> settlement systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-inbl_59-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-inbl-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bank\" title=\"Bank\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d174489d4b3f593dce6a250ad239ae02\">Banks<\/a> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/UBS\" title=\"UBS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23f516b29867d73fc624c96f7240f3d5\">UBS<\/a> are opening new research labs dedicated to blockchain technology in order to explore how blockchain can be used in financial services to increase efficiency and reduce costs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Berenberg_Bank\" title=\"Berenberg Bank\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84643752e55710f023af36eaf48d02b3\">Berenberg<\/a>, a German bank, believes that blockchain is an \"overhyped technology\" that has had a large number of \"proofs of concept\", but still has major challenges, and very few success stories.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Roy31102017_62-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Roy31102017-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Blockchain_with_video_games\">Blockchain with video games<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Video_game\" title=\"Video game\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba2dd33367e04ee82f370dbcff8aaf34\">video games<\/a> are based on blockchain technology. The first such game, <i>Huntercoin<\/i>, was released in February, 2014.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-gomedici1_63-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-gomedici1-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources\" data-key=\"3416a1084d55479154c434d2940dd68b\"><span title=\"The material near this tag relies on an unreliable source. consulting house's marketing blog (November 2018)\">unreliable source<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Another blockchain game is <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CryptoKitties\" title=\"CryptoKitties\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34df1bcaa0447c0a757d4d1949d51805\">CryptoKitties<\/a><\/i>, launched in November 2017.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup> The game made headlines in December 2017 when a cryptokitty character - an-in game <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_pet\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Virtual pet\" data-key=\"90a5d793770bb26ce5b4efc2c0821196\">virtual pet<\/a> - was sold for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_dollar\" title=\"United States dollar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"178f21d12cce4568a09cd4127aecc4c4\">US$<\/a>100,000.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Verifiability\" title=\"Wikipedia:Verifiability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b70863ff3b9768f27f5ce6cddbbe05eb\"><span title=\"Verification of this source citation failed to find it supporting or even relevant to the material that cites it (November 2018)\">irrelevant citation<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> <i>CryptoKitties<\/i> illustrated scalability problems for games on Ethereum when it created significant congestion on the Ethereum network with about 30% of all Ethereum transactions being for the game.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-fortune_66-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-fortune-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Verifiability\" title=\"Wikipedia:Verifiability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b70863ff3b9768f27f5ce6cddbbe05eb\"><span title=\"Verification of this source citation failed to find it supporting or even relevant to the material that cites it (November 2018)\">irrelevant citation<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Cryptokitties also demonstrated how blockchains can be used to catalog game assets (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_asset\" title=\"Digital asset\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9052a270acae41e453be24757d77bcd9\">digital assets<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The Blockchain Game Alliance was formed in September 2018 to explore alternative uses of blockchains in video gaming with support of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ubisoft\" title=\"Ubisoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14a9031454f789cfd82289aa972e594a\">Ubisoft<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fig_(company)\" title=\"Fig (company)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2cd55900e1325ad2bef84fa5d1010e7f\">Fig<\/a>, among others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-68\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-68\">[68]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Supply_chain\">Supply chain<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There are a number of efforts and industry organizations working to employ blockchains in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain\" title=\"Supply chain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e23757d3e834e0b4658459f0fd50db00\">supply chain<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logistics\" title=\"Logistics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88f16d60896def33bf2dc5a99739770b\">logistics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Supply chain management\" data-key=\"a9ab29cff9b4cb170ab64c685242c8b0\">supply chain management<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>The Blockchain in Transport Alliance (BiTA) works to develop open standards for supply chains.\n<\/p><p>Everledger is one of the inaugural clients of IBM's blockchain-based tracking service.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-wsj20160714_69-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-wsj20160714-69\">[69]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Walmart\" title=\"Walmart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"546875b8b94f481e4a0dc414e8523fdb\">Walmart<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a> are running a trial to use a blockchain-backed system for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain\" title=\"Supply chain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e23757d3e834e0b4658459f0fd50db00\">supply chain<\/a> monitoring \u2014 all nodes of the blockchain are administered by Walmart and are located on the IBM <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b28cb3c1977d5c04401506e9b991f1\">cloud<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-70\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-70\">[70]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hyperledger\" title=\"Hyperledger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"573f870d8c305840cb77eb0c1c0d352d\">Hyperledger<\/a> Grid develops open components for blockchain supply chain solutions. <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-71\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-71\">[71]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-72\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-72\">[72]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_uses\">Other uses<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Blockchain technology can be used to create a permanent, public, transparent ledger system for compiling data on sales, tracking digital use and payments to content creators, such as wireless users<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-73\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-73\">[73]<\/a><\/sup> or musicians.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-74\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-74\">[74]<\/a><\/sup> In 2017, IBM partnered with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ASCAP\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ASCAP\" data-key=\"ab10edaa36a525d4e3f18c7075d56b49\">ASCAP<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PRS_for_Music\" title=\"PRS for Music\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94ad9d9cf85c47e994e82c1999dec958\">PRS for Music<\/a> to adopt blockchain technology in music distribution.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-75\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-75\">[75]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Imogen_Heap\" title=\"Imogen Heap\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed4a685d3dbf42498cec6a58323437f2\">Imogen Heap<\/a>'s Mycelia service has also been proposed as blockchain-based alternative \"that gives artists more control over how their songs and associated data circulate among fans and other musicians.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BurchardiTheBlock18_76-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BurchardiTheBlock18-76\">[76]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-77\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-77\">[77]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>New distribution methods are available for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Insurance\" title=\"Insurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d77f0f5d6a8807cf42570e516d2f5319\">insurance<\/a> industry such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer-to-peer_insurance\" title=\"Peer-to-peer insurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"409a0903f367f3ac0fccbde6fdca64c7\">peer-to-peer insurance<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parametric_insurance\" title=\"Parametric insurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4df123384b60d84bc6f584090f0504d1\">parametric insurance<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microinsurance\" title=\"Microinsurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4966d725138c5b718dc140a4c8cabe69\">microinsurance<\/a> following the adoption of blockchain.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-blis_78-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-blis-78\">[78]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[79]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sharing_economy\" title=\"Sharing economy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa8376bb27d851e4eaab824208d9803e\">sharing economy<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_of_Things\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Internet of Things\" data-key=\"247baf5e89a754e68fab48977f38b4f5\">IoT<\/a> are also set to benefit from blockchains because they involve many collaborating peers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-breac_80-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-breac-80\">[80]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online_voting\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Online voting\" data-key=\"29c32c7c678710eca2656ff6020eb83b\">Online voting<\/a> is another application of the blockchain.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ovpfaq_81-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ovpfaq-81\">[81]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-82\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-82\">[82]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other designs include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hyperledger\" title=\"Hyperledger\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"573f870d8c305840cb77eb0c1c0d352d\">Hyperledger<\/a> is a cross-industry collaborative effort from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linux_Foundation\" title=\"Linux Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b2e6e4fb15cb9f229df996262760ee2\">Linux Foundation<\/a> to support blockchain-based distributed ledgers, with projects under this initiative including Hyperledger Burrow (by Monax) and Hyperledger Fabric (spearheaded by IBM)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-83\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-83\">[83]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Quorum \u2013 a permissionable private blockchain by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JPMorgan_Chase\" title=\"JPMorgan Chase\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f893a331096bd831f9b9d32e4640fdc8\">JPMorgan Chase<\/a> with private storage, used for contract applications<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-84\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-84\">[84]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>, decentralized voting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tapscott201605_38-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tapscott201605-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">:<span>94<\/span><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proof_of_Existence\" title=\"Proof of Existence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1b0cffe032a0e20787fcadc3451d8c9\">Proof of Existence<\/a> is an online service that verifies the existence of computer files as of a specific time<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-swan-2015_85-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-swan-2015-85\">[85]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_blockchains\">Types of blockchains<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Currently, there are three types of blockchain networks \u2014 public blockchains, private blockchains and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consortium\" title=\"Consortium\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a3c79529130ffec77f34bef6a59848e\">consortium<\/a> blockchains.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Public_blockchains\">Public blockchains<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A public blockchain has absolutely no access restrictions. Anyone with an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a> connection can send <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_transaction\" title=\"Financial transaction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"348c00c0e057bb4747314fed42ac2f4e\">transactions<\/a> to it as well as become a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Validator\" title=\"Validator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42581f0252ed3d7f0826056578bc4242\">validator<\/a> (i.e., participate in the execution of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consensus_(computer_science)\" title=\"Consensus (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ba9ce4f92a30c6edcc64482ebe6728b\">consensus protocol<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Perfectial_86-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Perfectial-86\">[86]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources\" title=\"Wikipedia:Verifiability\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91b2b23900cecccb8d2d59b386a3c093\"><span title=\"The material near this tag may rely on a self-published source. (April 2018)\">self-published source?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> Usually, such networks offer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Incentive\" title=\"Incentive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7912e34828d0ffc534a106e5a4319271\">economic incentives<\/a> for those who secure them and utilize some type of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proof-of-stake\" title=\"Proof-of-stake\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"55477e6c88de4cc925611619f329b239\">Proof of Stake<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proof-of-work_system\" title=\"Proof-of-work system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f270287a95c3c87f44c685bc1cab3e06\">Proof of Work<\/a> algorithm.\n<\/p><p>Some of the largest, most known public blockchains are the bitcoin blockchain and the Ethereum blockchain.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Private_blockchains\">Private blockchains<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A private blockchain is permissioned.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-btit_42-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-btit-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> One cannot join it unless invited by the network administrators. Participant and validator access is restricted.\n<\/p><p>This type of blockchains can be considered a middle-ground for companies that are interested in the blockchain technology in general but are not comfortable with a level of control offered by public networks. Typically, they seek to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Incorporation_(business)\" title=\"Incorporation (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6326ee50611247bd97b70f7855ccfb10\">incorporate<\/a> blockchain into their accounting and record-keeping procedures without sacrificing autonomy and running the risk of exposing sensitive data to the public internet.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Consortium_blockchains\">Consortium blockchains<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A consortium blockchain is often said to be semi-decentralized. It, too, is permissioned but instead of a single <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Organization\" title=\"Organization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3f46954c79f7a1fafc5e803bd654e8\">organization<\/a> controlling it, a number of companies might each operate a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Node_(networking)\" title=\"Node (networking)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af830d76119fd05f0c97a8a8e29a79e1\">node<\/a> on such a network. The administrators of a consortium chain restrict users' reading rights as they see fit and only allow a limited set of trusted nodes to execute a consensus protocol.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Academic_research\">Academic research<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:BlockchainPanelDiscussionAtIEEETechIgnite2017.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"467a7d4767405e8e2ba28cb237ad7e0f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/45\/BlockchainPanelDiscussionAtIEEETechIgnite2017.jpg\/220px-BlockchainPanelDiscussionAtIEEETechIgnite2017.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"124\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:BlockchainPanelDiscussionAtIEEETechIgnite2017.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"467a7d4767405e8e2ba28cb237ad7e0f\"><\/a><\/div>Blockchain panel discussion at the first <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IEEE_Computer_Society\" title=\"IEEE Computer Society\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c05bae3845ca95d7032b65bfa47246cf\">IEEE Computer Society<\/a> TechIgnite conference<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>In October 2014, the MIT Bitcoin Club, with funding from MIT alumni, provided undergraduate students at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology\" title=\"Massachusetts Institute of Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6d082af902828b7c6c2395cc18da224\">Massachusetts Institute of Technology<\/a> access to $100 of bitcoin. The adoption rates, as studied by Catalini and Tucker (2016), revealed that when people who typically adopt technologies early are given delayed access, they tend to reject the technology.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-87\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87\">[87]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Energy_use_of_proof-of-work_blockchains\">Energy use of proof-of-work blockchains<\/span><\/h3>\n\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bank_for_International_Settlements\" title=\"Bank for International Settlements\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95c103197f6fb1898f403cfea82223bf\">Bank for International Settlements<\/a> has criticized the public <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proof-of-work\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Proof-of-work\" data-key=\"fada659c59c04e10963864f4a567955a\">proof-of-work<\/a> blockchains for high energy consumption.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-chapterV_90-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-chapterV-90\">[90]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-bis_report_88-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-bis_report-88\">[88]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LATHiltzik_91-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LATHiltzik-91\">[91]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Nicholas Weaver, of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Computer_Science_Institute\" title=\"International Computer Science Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ace97d72cd493513fbc55aac306af837\">International Computer Science Institute<\/a> at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/University_of_California,_Berkeley\" title=\"University of California, Berkeley\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b6d806d57b670ff4059ceff3c6e1a1a\">University of California, Berkeley<\/a> examines blockchain's online security, and the energy efficiency of proof-of-work public blockchains, and in both cases finds it grossly inadequate.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VoxWeaver_89-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VoxWeaver-89\">[89]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WeaverLecture_92-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WeaverLecture-92\">[92]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Journals\">Journals<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ledger_(journal)\" title=\"Ledger (journal)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c809f35e22cd22b21ef743874b09a405\">Ledger (journal)<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In September 2015, the first peer-reviewed academic journal dedicated to cryptocurrency and blockchain technology research, <i>Ledger<\/i>, was announced. The inaugural issue was published in December 2016.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Extance2015_93-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Extance2015-93\">[93]<\/a><\/sup> The journal covers aspects of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mathematics\" title=\"Mathematics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d1fa34d53d056bde259b07ff17a79a1\">mathematics<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">computer science<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engineering\" title=\"Engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f6f08235e1dd8528fc259dfcf543c3f\">engineering<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Law\" title=\"Law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a4bcab6b03bbfbf75baac123e1b8a0b\">law<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economics\" title=\"Economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6a490a031e67e7a7ea4fca8dc646e1c\">economics<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Philosophy\" title=\"Philosophy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14ccd0db1fd666754f9f2f851d3a55f7\">philosophy<\/a> that relate to cryptocurrencies such as bitcoin.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-94\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-94\">[94]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Hertig2015_95-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Hertig2015-95\">[95]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The journal encourages authors to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_signature\" title=\"Digital signature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4619b82a0e21434550c0eaa36d81c82d\">digitally sign<\/a> a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hash_function\" title=\"Hash function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41a2b6efff3b63195b1820d4bedd197a\">file hash<\/a> of submitted papers, which will then be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trusted_timestamping\" title=\"Trusted timestamping\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5e3b80afc4e4f979b7c8ad935551ad5\">timestamped<\/a> into the bitcoin blockchain. Authors are also asked to include a personal bitcoin address in the first page of their papers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-96\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-96\">[96]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"navigation\" aria-label=\"Portals\" class=\"noprint portal plainlist tright\" style=\"margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px\">\n<ul style=\"display:table;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0.1em;max-width:175px;background:#f9f9f9;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold\">\n<li style=\"display:table-row\"><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d7\/Desktop_computer_clipart_-_Yellow_theme.svg\/32px-Desktop_computer_clipart_-_Yellow_theme.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"32\" height=\"23\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/span><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Information_technology\" title=\"Portal:Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ac7571783254d4f084e6042c8b66b35\">Information technology portal<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"display:table-row\"><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Crypto_key.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bb0c04cab12cc6b02f5e8a214028b7e\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/65\/Crypto_key.svg\/32px-Crypto_key.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"32\" height=\"13\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/a><\/span><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Cryptography\" title=\"Portal:Cryptography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d69d4a781d4973fe32f8fb593e59678b\">Cryptography portal<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"display:table-row\"><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Emblem-money.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"87e4f8836da015ec09e06d70cff4e6ff\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f3\/Emblem-money.svg\/28px-Emblem-money.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"28\" height=\"28\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/a><\/span><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Economics\" title=\"Portal:Economics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81a3b965d32d08c8fed764fa9ded13b4\">Economics portal<\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"display:table-row\"><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Internet_map_1024.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"fd645797c9a844410cc36e8d0ba46eea\"><img alt=\"icon\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d2\/Internet_map_1024.jpg\/28px-Internet_map_1024.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"28\" height=\"28\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/a><\/span><span style=\"display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portal:Computer_science\" title=\"Portal:Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d712435f07fb70dff861fb20f4f838d3\">Computer science portal<\/a><\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Changelog\" title=\"Changelog\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2df2fea7e5e1a02f1cd36dbe47e62007\">Changelog<\/a> \u2013 a record of all notable changes made to a project<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Checklist\" title=\"Checklist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e623a54efefce3e954bcee37c13e4ad\">Checklist<\/a> \u2013 an informational aid used to reduce failure<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economics_of_digitization\" title=\"Economics of digitization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2039b252c998f8f953febe2d9148394\">Economics of digitization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_and_blockchain\" title=\"Privacy and blockchain\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f5c943fe3185f14a6ebd6b6bb25f57b\">Privacy and blockchain<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-te20151031-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-te20151031_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-te20151031_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-te20151031_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-te20151031_1-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-te20151031_1-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-te20151031_1-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-te20151031_1-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-te20151031_1-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-te20151031_1-8\"><sup><i><b>i<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-te20151031_1-9\"><sup><i><b>j<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-te20151031_1-10\"><sup><i><b>k<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-te20151031_1-11\"><sup><i><b>l<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.economist.com\/news\/briefing\/21677228-technology-behind-bitcoin-lets-people-who-do-not-know-or-trust-each-other-build-dependable\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blockchains: The great chain of being sure about things\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Economist\" title=\"The Economist\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4158a46c0e55d5660f61e619889b8a1d\">The Economist<\/a><\/i>. 31 October 2015. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160703000844\/http:\/\/www.economist.com\/news\/briefing\/21677228-technology-behind-bitcoin-lets-people-who-do-not-know-or-trust-each-other-build-dependable\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 3 July 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>. <q>The technology behind bitcoin lets people who do not know or trust each other build a dependable ledger. This has implications far beyond the crypto currency.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Blockchains%3A+The+great+chain+of+being+sure+about+things&rft.date=2015-10-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Fbriefing%2F21677228-technology-behind-bitcoin-lets-people-who-do-not-know-or-trust-each-other-build-dependable&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-fortune20160515-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-fortune20160515_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Morris, David Z. (15 May 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/fortune.com\/2016\/05\/15\/leaderless-blockchain-vc-fund\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Leaderless, Blockchain-Based Venture Capital Fund Raises $100 Million, And Counting\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fortune_(magazine)\" title=\"Fortune (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef8ee87f565dde9aafbc2b149d7b70f8\">Fortune<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160521015602\/http:\/\/fortune.com\/2016\/05\/15\/leaderless-blockchain-vc-fund\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 21 May 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fortune&rft.atitle=Leaderless%2C+Blockchain-Based+Venture+Capital+Fund+Raises+%24100+Million%2C+And+Counting&rft.date=2016-05-15&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=David+Z.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffortune.com%2F2016%2F05%2F15%2Fleaderless-blockchain-vc-fund%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-nyt20160521-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-nyt20160521_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-nyt20160521_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Popper, Nathan (21 May 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/05\/22\/business\/dealbook\/crypto-ether-bitcoin-currency.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Venture Fund With Plenty of Virtual Capital, but No Capitalist\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_York_Times\" title=\"The New York Times\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"623c682760636b635e0bd6f2cf164389\">The New York Times<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160522034932\/http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/05\/22\/business\/dealbook\/crypto-ether-bitcoin-currency.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 May 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 May<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Venture+Fund+With+Plenty+of+Virtual+Capital%2C+but+No+Capitalist&rft.date=2016-05-21&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F05%2F22%2Fbusiness%2Fdealbook%2Fcrypto-ether-bitcoin-currency.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-primer-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-primer_4-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-primer_4-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-primer_4-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation report\">Brito, Jerry; Castillo, Andrea (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/mercatus.org\/sites\/default\/files\/Brito_BitcoinPrimer.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Bitcoin: A Primer for Policymakers<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> (Report). Fairfax, VA: Mercatus Center, George Mason University. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130921060724\/http:\/\/mercatus.org\/sites\/default\/files\/Brito_BitcoinPrimer.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 21 September 2013<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 October<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Bitcoin%3A+A+Primer+for+Policymakers&rft.place=Fairfax%2C+VA&rft.pub=Mercatus+Center%2C+George+Mason+University&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Brito&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rft.au=Castillo%2C+Andrea&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmercatus.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FBrito_BitcoinPrimer.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-obmh-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-obmh_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Trottier, Leo (18 June 2016). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#L795-L803\">\"original-bitcoin\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(self-published code collection)<\/span>. github. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#L795-L803\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 April 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>. <q>This is a historical repository of Satoshi Nakamoto's original bit coin sourcecode<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=original-bitcoin&rft.pub=github&rft.date=2016-06-18&rft.au=Trottier%2C+Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgithub.com%2Ftrottier%2Foriginal-bitcoin%2Fblob%2Fmaster%2Fsrc%2Fmain.h%23L795-L803&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-cryptocurrencytech-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-cryptocurrencytech_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-cryptocurrencytech_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-cryptocurrencytech_6-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-cryptocurrencytech_6-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-cryptocurrencytech_6-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Narayanan, Arvind; Bonneau, Joseph; Felten, Edward; Miller, Andrew; Goldfeder, Steven (2016). <i>Bitcoin and cryptocurrency technologies: a comprehensive introduction<\/i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-691-17169-2.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bitcoin+and+cryptocurrency+technologies%3A+a+comprehensive+introduction&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-691-17169-2&rft.aulast=Narayanan&rft.aufirst=Arvind&rft.au=Bonneau%2C+Joseph&rft.au=Felten%2C+Edward&rft.au=Miller%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Goldfeder%2C+Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-hbr201701-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-hbr201701_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Iansiti, Marco; Lakhani, Karim R. (January 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/hbr.org\/2017\/01\/the-truth-about-blockchain\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Truth About Blockchain\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harvard_Business_Review\" title=\"Harvard Business Review\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fdc67a24802d913a6175ca7c3f6571f\">Harvard Business Review<\/a><\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harvard_University\" title=\"Harvard University\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ab8916caf331d92cae577b077c74c57\">Harvard University<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170118052537\/https:\/\/hbr.org\/2017\/01\/the-truth-about-blockchain\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 18 January 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>. <q>The technology at the heart of bitcoin and other virtual currencies, blockchain is an open, distributed ledger that can record transactions between two parties efficiently and in a verifiable and permanent way.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Business+Review&rft.atitle=The+Truth+About+Blockchain&rft.date=2017-01&rft.aulast=Iansiti&rft.aufirst=Marco&rft.au=Lakhani%2C+Karim+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhbr.org%2F2017%2F01%2Fthe-truth-about-blockchain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-decapp-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-decapp_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-decapp_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Raval, Siraj (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fvywDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is a Decentralized Application?\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fvywDAAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Decentralized Applications: Harnessing Bitcoin's Blockchain Technology<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fvywDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\">1<\/a>\u2013<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=fvywDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2\" target=\"_blank\">2<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-4919-2452-5. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC\" title=\"OCLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e119fc7e1d352d47ef5b80f32a4b20c3\">OCLC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/968277125\" target=\"_blank\">968277125<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">6 November<\/span> 2016<\/span> – via Google Books.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+Is+a+Decentralized+Application%3F&rft.btitle=Decentralized+Applications%3A+Harnessing+Bitcoin%27s+Blockchain+Technology&rft.pages=1-2&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F968277125&rft.isbn=978-1-4919-2452-5&rft.aulast=Raval&rft.aufirst=Siraj&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfvywDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/dailyfintech.com\/2018\/02\/10\/bitcoin-will-finally-disrupt-the-credit-card-rails\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blockchain may finally disrupt payments from Micropayments to credit cards to SWIFT\"<\/a>. <i>dailyfintech.com<\/i>. 2018-02-10<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-11-18<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dailyfintech.com&rft.atitle=Blockchain+may+finally+disrupt+payments+from+Micropayments+to+credit+cards+to+SWIFT&rft.date=2018-02-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdailyfintech.com%2F2018%2F02%2F10%2Fbitcoin-will-finally-disrupt-the-credit-card-rails%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-cw20160905-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-cw20160905_10-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-cw20160905_10-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-cw20160905_10-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-cw20160905_10-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-cw20160905_10-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation magazine\">Hampton, Nikolai (5 September 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com.au\/article\/606253\/understanding-blockchain-hype-why-much-it-nothing-more-than-snake-oil-spin\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Understanding the blockchain hype: Why much of it is nothing more than snake oil and spin\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computerworld\" title=\"Computerworld\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8213155a2744e5ab08a96367d82662e8\">Computerworld<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160906171838\/http:\/\/www.computerworld.com.au\/article\/606253\/understanding-blockchain-hype-why-much-it-nothing-more-than-snake-oil-spin\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 September 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 September<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computerworld&rft.atitle=Understanding+the+blockchain+hype%3A+Why+much+of+it+is+nothing+more+than+snake+oil+and+spin&rft.date=2016-09-05&rft.aulast=Hampton&rft.aufirst=Nikolai&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com.au%2Farticle%2F606253%2Funderstanding-blockchain-hype-why-much-it-nothing-more-than-snake-oil-spin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Haber, Stuart; Stornetta, W. Scott (January 1991). \"How to time-stamp a digital document\". <i>Journal of Cryptology<\/i>. <b>3<\/b> (2): 99\u2013111. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.46.8740\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.46.8740<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2Fbf00196791\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/bf00196791<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cryptology&rft.atitle=How+to+time-stamp+a+digital+document&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=99-111&rft.date=1991-01&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.46.8740&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf00196791&rft.aulast=Haber&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft.au=Stornetta%2C+W.+Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Bayer, Dave; Haber, Stuart; Stornetta, W. Scott (March 1992). <i>Improving the Efficiency and Reliability of Digital Time-Stamping<\/i>. <i>Sequences<\/i>. <b>2<\/b>. pp. 329\u2013334. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.71.4891\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.71.4891<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-1-4613-9323-8_24\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-1-4613-9323-8_24<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-4613-9325-2.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Improving+the+Efficiency+and+Reliability+of+Digital+Time-Stamping&rft.pages=329-334&rft.date=1992-03&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.71.4891&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4613-9323-8_24&rft.isbn=978-1-4613-9325-2&rft.aulast=Bayer&rft.aufirst=Dave&rft.au=Haber%2C+Stuart&rft.au=Stornetta%2C+W.+Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-hadi-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-hadi_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Nian, Lam Pak; Chuen, David LEE Kuo (2015). \"A Light Touch of Regulation for Virtual Currencies\". In Chuen, David LEE Kuo. <i>Handbook of Digital Currency: Bitcoin, Innovation, Financial Instruments, and Big Data<\/i>. Academic Press. p. 319. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-12-802351-8.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Light+Touch+of+Regulation+for+Virtual+Currencies&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Digital+Currency%3A+Bitcoin%2C+Innovation%2C+Financial+Instruments%2C+and+Big+Data&rft.pages=319&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-12-802351-8&rft.aulast=Nian&rft.aufirst=Lam+Pak&rft.au=Chuen%2C+David+LEE+Kuo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-bletchleyWP201609-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-bletchleyWP201609_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/github.com\/Azure\/azure-blockchain-projects\/blob\/master\/bletchley\/bletchley-whitepaper.md\" target=\"_blank\">Project Bletchley Whitepaper<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170111135615\/https:\/\/github.com\/Azure\/azure-blockchain-projects\/blob\/master\/bletchley\/bletchley-whitepaper.md\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 11 January 2017 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>, Microsoft, 2016-09-19. Retrieved 2016-12-24.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ibmtof-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ibmtof_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Williams, Ann (12 July 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.straitstimes.com\/business\/economy\/ibm-to-open-first-blockchain-innovation-centre-in-singapore-to-create-applications\" target=\"_blank\">\"IBM to open first blockchain innovation centre in Singapore, to create applications and grow new markets in finance and trade\"<\/a>. <i>The Straits Times<\/i>. Singapore Press Holdings Ltd. Co. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161114165146\/http:\/\/www.straitstimes.com\/business\/economy\/ibm-to-open-first-blockchain-innovation-centre-in-singapore-to-create-applications\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 14 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Straits+Times&rft.atitle=IBM+to+open+first+blockchain+innovation+centre+in+Singapore%2C+to+create+applications+and+grow+new+markets+in+finance+and+trade&rft.date=2016-07-12&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Ann&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.straitstimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Feconomy%2Fibm-to-open-first-blockchain-innovation-centre-in-singapore-to-create-applications&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-tfob-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-tfob_16-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/raconteur.net\/business\/the-future-of-blockchain-in-8-charts\" target=\"_blank\">\"The future of blockchain in 8 charts\"<\/a>. <i>Raconteur<\/i>. 27 June 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161202234125\/http:\/\/raconteur.net\/business\/the-future-of-blockchain-in-8-charts\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Raconteur&rft.atitle=The+future+of+blockchain+in+8+charts&rft.date=2016-06-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fraconteur.net%2Fbusiness%2Fthe-future-of-blockchain-in-8-charts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.artificiallawyer.com\/2018\/05\/04\/hype-killer-only-1-of-companies-are-using-blockchain-gartner-reports\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hype Killer - Only 1% of Companies Are Using Blockchain, Gartner Reports | Artificial Lawyer\"<\/a>. <i>Artificial Lawyer<\/i>. 2018-05-04<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-05-22<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Artificial+Lawyer&rft.atitle=Hype+Killer+-+Only+1%25+of+Companies+Are+Using+Blockchain%2C+Gartner+Reports+%7C+Artificial+Lawyer&rft.date=2018-05-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.artificiallawyer.com%2F2018%2F05%2F04%2Fhype-killer-only-1-of-companies-are-using-blockchain-gartner-reports%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-wired20161107-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-wired20161107_18-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Armstrong, Stephen (7 November 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.co.uk\/article\/unlock-the-blockchain\" target=\"_blank\">\"Move over Bitcoin, the blockchain is only just getting started\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wired_(magazine)\" title=\"Wired (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9af447c1535878dbe66a0916e938b0d\">Wired<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161108130946\/http:\/\/www.wired.co.uk\/article\/unlock-the-blockchain\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 8 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=Move+over+Bitcoin%2C+the+blockchain+is+only+just+getting+started&rft.date=2016-11-07&rft.aulast=Armstrong&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.co.uk%2Farticle%2Funlock-the-blockchain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-:1-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-:1_19-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Catalini, Christian; Gans, Joshua S. (23 November 2016). \"Some Simple Economics of the Blockchain\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139%2Fssrn.2874598\" target=\"_blank\">10.2139\/ssrn.2874598<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_Science_Research_Network\" title=\"Social Science Research Network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faf9d44135e3fc6107b00574c00f06ae\">SSRN<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=2874598\" target=\"_blank\">2874598<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Some+Simple+Economics+of+the+Blockchain&rft.date=2016-11-23&rft_id=%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D2874598&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.2874598&rft.aulast=Catalini&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft.au=Gans%2C+Joshua+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-hwb-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-hwb_20-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation magazine\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Don_Tapscott\" title=\"Don Tapscott\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8b3400de112be02b65e9c14de535947\">Tapscott, Don<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alex_Tapscott\" title=\"Alex Tapscott\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfb58d1726964466ae75153b309a949a\">Tapscott, Alex<\/a> (8 May 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/fortune.com\/2016\/05\/08\/why-blockchains-will-change-the-world\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Here's Why Blockchains Will Change the World\"<\/a>. <i>Fortune<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161113134748\/http:\/\/fortune.com\/2016\/05\/08\/why-blockchains-will-change-the-world\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 13 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fortune&rft.atitle=Here%27s+Why+Blockchains+Will+Change+the+World&rft.date=2016-05-08&rft.aulast=Tapscott&rft.aufirst=Don&rft.au=Tapscott%2C+Alex&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffortune.com%2F2016%2F05%2F08%2Fwhy-blockchains-will-change-the-world%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-bc2.0-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-bc2.0_21-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation magazine\">Bheemaiah, Kariappa (January 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.com\/insights\/2015\/01\/block-chain-2-0\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Block Chain 2.0: The Renaissance of Money\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wired_(magazine)\" title=\"Wired (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9af447c1535878dbe66a0916e938b0d\">Wired<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161114001509\/https:\/\/www.wired.com\/insights\/2015\/01\/block-chain-2-0\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 14 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=Block+Chain+2.0%3A+The+Renaissance+of+Money&rft.date=2015-01&rft.aulast=Bheemaiah&rft.aufirst=Kariappa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Finsights%2F2015%2F01%2Fblock-chain-2-0%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-hadc-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-hadc_22-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-hadc_22-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-hadc_22-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-hadc_22-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Bhaskar, Nirupama Devi; Chuen, David LEE Kuo (2015). \"Bitcoin Mining Technology\". <i>Handbook of Digital Currency<\/i>. pp. 45\u201365. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-802117-0.00003-5\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/B978-0-12-802117-0.00003-5<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-12-802117-0.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bitcoin+Mining+Technology&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Digital+Currency&rft.pages=45-65&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-0-12-802117-0.00003-5&rft.isbn=978-0-12-802117-0&rft.aulast=Bhaskar&rft.aufirst=Nirupama+Devi&rft.au=Chuen%2C+David+LEE+Kuo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-bsm-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-bsm_23-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-bsm_23-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-bsm_23-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Antonopoulos, Andreas (20 February 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/radar.oreilly.com\/2014\/02\/bitcoin-security-model-trust-by-computation.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bitcoin security model: trust by computation\"<\/a>. <i>Radar<\/i>. O'Reilly. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161031132328\/http:\/\/radar.oreilly.com\/2014\/02\/bitcoin-security-model-trust-by-computation.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 31 October 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Radar&rft.atitle=Bitcoin+security+model%3A+trust+by+computation&rft.date=2014-02-20&rft.aulast=Antonopoulos&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fradar.oreilly.com%2F2014%2F02%2Fbitcoin-security-model-trust-by-computation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-t12-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-t12_24-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-t12_24-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Antonopoulos, Andreas M. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161201131627\/http:\/\/chimera.labs.oreilly.com\/books\/1234000001802\/ch01.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Mastering Bitcoin. Unlocking Digital Cryptocurrencies<\/i><\/a>. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly Media. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1449374037. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/chimera.labs.oreilly.com\/books\/1234000001802\/ch01.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 1 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 November<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mastering+Bitcoin.+Unlocking+Digital+Cryptocurrencies&rft.place=Sebastopol%2C+CA&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1449374037&rft.au=Antonopoulos%2C+Andreas+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchimera.labs.oreilly.com%2Fbooks%2F1234000001802%2Fch01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-paper-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-paper_25-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Nakamoto, Satoshi (October 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/bitcoin.org\/bitcoin.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. bitcoin.org. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140320135003\/https:\/\/bitcoin.org\/bitcoin.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 20 March 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 April<\/span> 2014<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bitcoin%3A+A+Peer-to-Peer+Electronic+Cash+System&rft.pub=bitcoin.org&rft.date=2008-10&rft.aulast=Nakamoto&rft.aufirst=Satoshi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbitcoin.org%2Fbitcoin.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-permbloc-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-permbloc_26-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/monax.io\/explainers\/permissioned_blockchains\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Permissioned Blockchains\"<\/a>. <i>Explainer<\/i>. Monax. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161120154948\/https:\/\/monax.io\/explainers\/permissioned_blockchains\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 20 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Explainer&rft.atitle=Permissioned+Blockchains&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmonax.io%2Fexplainers%2Fpermissioned_blockchains%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-drd-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-drd_27-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Redman, Jamie (25 October 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/news.bitcoin.com\/disney-dragonchain-interoperable-ledger\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Disney Reveals Dragonchain, an Interoperable Ledger\"<\/a>. <i>Bitcoin.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161102001523\/https:\/\/news.bitcoin.com\/disney-dragonchain-interoperable-ledger\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bitcoin.com&rft.atitle=Disney+Reveals+Dragonchain%2C+an+Interoperable+Ledger&rft.date=2016-10-25&rft.aulast=Redman&rft.aufirst=Jamie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.bitcoin.com%2Fdisney-dragonchain-interoperable-ledger%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Antonio Madeira (12 January 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.cryptocompare.com\/coins\/guides\/why-is-ethereum-different-to-bitcoin\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why is Ethereum different to Bitcoin?\"<\/a>. <i>CryptoCompare<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180122072118\/https:\/\/www.cryptocompare.com\/coins\/guides\/why-is-ethereum-different-to-bitcoin\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 January 2018.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CryptoCompare&rft.atitle=Why+is+Ethereum+different+to+Bitcoin%3F&rft.date=2018-01-12&rft.au=Antonio+Madeira&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cryptocompare.com%2Fcoins%2Fguides%2Fwhy-is-ethereum-different-to-bitcoin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ArsFork-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ArsFork_29-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Lee, Timothy (12 March 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/arstechnica.com\/business\/2013\/03\/major-glitch-in-bitcoin-network-sparks-sell-off-price-temporarily-falls-23\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Major glitch in Bitcoin network sparks sell-off; price temporarily falls 23%\"<\/a>. Arstechnica. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.webcitation.org\/6G4e02Xd1\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2013-04-22.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Major+glitch+in+Bitcoin+network+sparks+sell-off%3B+price+temporarily+falls+23%25&rft.pub=Arstechnica&rft.date=2013-03-12&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farstechnica.com%2Fbusiness%2F2013%2F03%2Fmajor-glitch-in-bitcoin-network-sparks-sell-off-price-temporarily-falls-23%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-kopstein-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-kopstein_30-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Kopfstein, Janus (12 December 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.newyorker.com\/tech\/elements\/the-mission-to-decentralize-the-internet\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Mission to Decentralize the Internet\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_Yorker\" title=\"The New Yorker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c8155f0446536a3f0823e4c2bcb6fa2\">The New Yorker<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20141231031044\/http:\/\/www.newyorker.com\/tech\/elements\/the-mission-to-decentralize-the-internet\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 31 December 2014<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">30 December<\/span> 2014<\/span>. <q>The network's 'nodes' \u2014 users running the bitcoin software on their computers \u2014 collectively check the integrity of other nodes to ensure that no one spends the same coins twice. All transactions are published on a shared public ledger, called the 'block chain.'<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=The+Mission+to+Decentralize+the+Internet&rft.date=2013-12-12&rft.au=Kopfstein%2C+Janus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Ftech%2Felements%2Fthe-mission-to-decentralize-the-internet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Gervais, Arthur; Karame, Ghassan O.; Capkun, Vedran; Capkun, Srdjan. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.infoq.com\/articles\/is-bitcoin-a-decentralized-currency\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is Bitcoin a Decentralized Currency?\"<\/a>. <i>InfoQ<\/i>. InfoQ & IEEE computer society. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161010042659\/https:\/\/www.infoq.com\/articles\/is-bitcoin-a-decentralized-currency\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 October 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 October<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=InfoQ&rft.atitle=Is+Bitcoin+a+Decentralized+Currency%3F&rft.aulast=Gervais&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft.au=Karame%2C+Ghassan+O.&rft.au=Capkun%2C+Vedran&rft.au=Capkun%2C+Srdjan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoq.com%2Farticles%2Fis-bitcoin-a-decentralized-currency%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-t16-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-t16_32-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-t16_32-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Voorhees, Erik (30 October 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/moneyandstate.com\/its-all-about-the-blockchain\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"It's All About the Blockchain\"<\/a>. <i>Money and State<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151101235750\/http:\/\/moneyandstate.com\/its-all-about-the-blockchain\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 1 November 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 November<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Money+and+State&rft.atitle=It%27s+All+About+the+Blockchain&rft.date=2015-10-30&rft.au=Voorhees%2C+Erik&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmoneyandstate.com%2Fits-all-about-the-blockchain%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-t10-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-t10_33-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Reutzel, Bailey (13 July 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.paymentssource.com\/news\/technology\/a-very-public-confluct-over-private-blockchains-3021831-1.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Very Public Conflict Over Private Blockchains\"<\/a>. <i>PaymentsSource<\/i>. New York, NY: SourceMedia, Inc. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160421112045\/http:\/\/www.paymentssource.com\/news\/technology\/a-very-public-confluct-over-private-blockchains-3021831-1.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 21 April 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PaymentsSource&rft.atitle=A+Very+Public+Conflict+Over+Private+Blockchains&rft.date=2015-07-13&rft.au=Reutzel%2C+Bailey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paymentssource.com%2Fnews%2Ftechnology%2Fa-very-public-confluct-over-private-blockchains-3021831-1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-t11-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-t11_34-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-t11_34-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Casey, Michael J. (15 April 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blogs.wsj.com\/moneybeat\/2015\/04\/14\/bitbeat-blockchains-without-coins-stir-tensions-in-bitcoin-community\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Moneybeat\/BitBeat: Blockchains Without Coins Stir Tensions in Bitcoin Community\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_Wall_Street_Journal\" title=\"The Wall Street Journal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f01ac1e33bbf6d25fdd85331ab0ea2f\">The Wall Street Journal<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160610224428\/http:\/\/blogs.wsj.com\/moneybeat\/2015\/04\/14\/bitbeat-blockchains-without-coins-stir-tensions-in-bitcoin-community\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 June 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Moneybeat%2FBitBeat%3A+Blockchains+Without+Coins+Stir+Tensions+in+Bitcoin+Community&rft.date=2015-04-15&rft.au=Casey%2C+Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.wsj.com%2Fmoneybeat%2F2015%2F04%2F14%2Fbitbeat-blockchains-without-coins-stir-tensions-in-bitcoin-community%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-t8-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-t8_35-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/news.dinbits.com\/2015\/11\/the-blockchain-technology-bandwagon-has.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The 'Blockchain Technology' Bandwagon Has A Lesson Left To Learn\"<\/a>. <i>dinbits.com<\/i>. 3 November 2015. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160629234654\/http:\/\/news.dinbits.com\/2015\/11\/the-blockchain-technology-bandwagon-has.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 29 June 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dinbits.com&rft.atitle=The+%27Blockchain+Technology%27+Bandwagon+Has+A+Lesson+Left+To+Learn&rft.date=2015-11-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.dinbits.com%2F2015%2F11%2Fthe-blockchain-technology-bandwagon-has.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-t9-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-t9_36-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">DeRose, Chris (26 June 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.americanbanker.com\/bankthink\/why-the-bitcoin-blockchain-beats-out-competitors-1075100-1.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why the Bitcoin Blockchain Beats Out Competitors\"<\/a>. <i>American Banker<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160330060709\/http:\/\/www.americanbanker.com\/bankthink\/why-the-bitcoin-blockchain-beats-out-competitors-1075100-1.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 March 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Banker&rft.atitle=Why+the+Bitcoin+Blockchain+Beats+Out+Competitors&rft.date=2015-06-26&rft.au=DeRose%2C+Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanbanker.com%2Fbankthink%2Fwhy-the-bitcoin-blockchain-beats-out-competitors-1075100-1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-t4-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-t4_37-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Greenspan, Gideon (19 July 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.multichain.com\/blog\/2015\/07\/bitcoin-vs-blockchain-debate\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ending the bitcoin vs blockchain debate\"<\/a>. <i>multichain.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160608070620\/http:\/\/www.multichain.com\/blog\/2015\/07\/bitcoin-vs-blockchain-debate\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 8 June 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=multichain.com&rft.atitle=Ending+the+bitcoin+vs+blockchain+debate&rft.date=2015-07-19&rft.au=Greenspan%2C+Gideon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.multichain.com%2Fblog%2F2015%2F07%2Fbitcoin-vs-blockchain-debate%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-tapscott201605-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-tapscott201605_38-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-tapscott201605_38-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation book\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Don_Tapscott\" title=\"Don Tapscott\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8b3400de112be02b65e9c14de535947\">Tapscott, Don<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alex_Tapscott\" title=\"Alex Tapscott\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cfb58d1726964466ae75153b309a949a\">Tapscott, Alex<\/a> (May 2016). <i>The Blockchain Revolution: How the Technology Behind Bitcoin is Changing Money, Business, and the World<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-670-06997-2.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blockchain+Revolution%3A+How+the+Technology+Behind+Bitcoin+is+Changing+Money%2C+Business%2C+and+the+World&rft.date=2016-05&rft.isbn=978-0-670-06997-2&rft.aulast=Tapscott&rft.aufirst=Don&rft.au=Tapscott%2C+Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MarTech-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MarTech_39-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Barry, Levine (11 June 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/martechtoday.com\/a-new-report-bursts-the-blockchain-bubble-216959\" target=\"_blank\">\"A new report bursts the blockchain bubble\"<\/a>. MarTech<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=A+new+report+bursts+the+blockchain+bubble&rft.date=2018-06-11&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=Levine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmartechtoday.com%2Fa-new-report-bursts-the-blockchain-bubble-216959&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-trtb-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-trtb_40-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Buntinx, J.P. (1 May 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.newsbtc.com\/2016\/05\/01\/road-bitcoin-adoption-passes-many-stages\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Road To Bitcoin Adoption Passes Through Many Stages\"<\/a>. <i>News BTC<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161220062128\/http:\/\/www.newsbtc.com\/2016\/05\/01\/road-bitcoin-adoption-passes-many-stages\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 20 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=News+BTC&rft.atitle=The+Road+To+Bitcoin+Adoption+Passes+Through+Many+Stages&rft.date=2016-05-01&rft.aulast=Buntinx&rft.aufirst=J.P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsbtc.com%2F2016%2F05%2F01%2Froad-bitcoin-adoption-passes-many-stages%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-btt17-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-btt17_41-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-btt17_41-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Ovenden, James. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/channels.theinnovationenterprise.com\/articles\/blockchain-top-trends-in-2017\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blockchain Top Trends In 2017\"<\/a>. The Innovation Enterprise. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161130143727\/https:\/\/channels.theinnovationenterprise.com\/articles\/blockchain-top-trends-in-2017\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 30 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Blockchain+Top+Trends+In+2017&rft.pub=The+Innovation+Enterprise&rft.aulast=Ovenden&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchannels.theinnovationenterprise.com%2Farticles%2Fblockchain-top-trends-in-2017&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-btit-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-btit_42-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-btit_42-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Bob Marvin (30 August 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/au.pcmag.com\/amazon-web-services\/46389\/feature\/blockchain-the-invisible-technology-thats-changing-the-world\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blockchain: The Invisible Technology That's Changing the World\"<\/a>. <i>PC MAG Australia<\/i>. ZiffDavis, LLC. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170925180800\/http:\/\/au.pcmag.com\/amazon-web-services\/46389\/feature\/blockchain-the-invisible-technology-thats-changing-the-world\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 25 September 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 September<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PC+MAG+Australia&rft.atitle=Blockchain%3A+The+Invisible+Technology+That%27s+Changing+the+World&rft.date=2017-08-30&rft.au=Bob+Marvin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fau.pcmag.com%2Famazon-web-services%2F46389%2Ffeature%2Fblockchain-the-invisible-technology-thats-changing-the-world&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-snl-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-snl_43-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Prisco, Giulio (25 August 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/bitcoinmagazine.com\/articles\/sandia-national-laboratories-joins-the-war-on-bitcoin-anonymity-1472151009\" target=\"_blank\">\"Sandia National Laboratories Joins the War on Bitcoin Anonymity\"<\/a>. <i>Bitcoin Magazine<\/i>. BTC Inc. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161125045410\/https:\/\/bitcoinmagazine.com\/articles\/sandia-national-laboratories-joins-the-war-on-bitcoin-anonymity-1472151009\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 25 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bitcoin+Magazine&rft.atitle=Sandia+National+Laboratories+Joins+the+War+on+Bitcoin+Anonymity&rft.date=2016-08-25&rft.aulast=Prisco&rft.aufirst=Giulio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbitcoinmagazine.com%2Farticles%2Fsandia-national-laboratories-joins-the-war-on-bitcoin-anonymity-1472151009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-44\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blockchainhub.net\/blockchains-and-distributed-ledger-technologies-in-general\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blockchains & Distributed Ledger Technologies\"<\/a>. <i>BlockchainHub<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180119120102\/https:\/\/blockchainhub.net\/blockchains-and-distributed-ledger-technologies-in-general\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 January 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BlockchainHub&rft.atitle=Blockchains+%26+Distributed+Ledger+Technologies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblockchainhub.net%2Fblockchains-and-distributed-ledger-technologies-in-general%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-nyt20160327-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-nyt20160327_45-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Popper, Nathan (27 March 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/03\/28\/business\/dealbook\/ethereum-a-virtual-currency-enables-transactions-that-rival-bitcoins.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ethereum, a Virtual Currency, Enables Transactions That Rival Bitcoin's\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/The_New_York_Times\" title=\"The New York Times\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"623c682760636b635e0bd6f2cf164389\">The New York Times<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160724214904\/http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/03\/28\/business\/dealbook\/ethereum-a-virtual-currency-enables-transactions-that-rival-bitcoins.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 24 July 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 February<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Ethereum%2C+a+Virtual+Currency%2C+Enables+Transactions+That+Rival+Bitcoin%27s&rft.date=2016-03-27&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F03%2F28%2Fbusiness%2Fdealbook%2Fethereum-a-virtual-currency-enables-transactions-that-rival-bitcoins.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Popper, Nathaniel (27 February 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2017\/02\/27\/business\/dealbook\/ethereum-alliance-business-banking-security.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Business Giants to Announce Creation of a Computing System Based on Ethereum\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170620134100\/https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2017\/02\/27\/business\/dealbook\/ethereum-alliance-business-banking-security.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 20 June 2017 – via <i>The New York Times<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Business+Giants+to+Announce+Creation+of+a+Computing+System+Based+on+Ethereum&rft.date=2017-02-27&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Nathaniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F02%2F27%2Fbusiness%2Fdealbook%2Fethereum-alliance-business-banking-security.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SalsmanTheFinancial13-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SalsmanTheFinancial13_47-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Salsman, R.M. (19 September 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/richardsalsman\/2013\/09\/19\/the-financial-crisis-was-a-failure-of-government-not-free-markets\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Financial Crisis Was A Failure Of Government, Not Free Markets\"<\/a>. <i>Forbes<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=The+Financial+Crisis+Was+A+Failure+Of+Government%2C+Not+Free+Markets&rft.date=2013-09-19&rft.au=Salsman%2C+R.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Frichardsalsman%2F2013%2F09%2F19%2Fthe-financial-crisis-was-a-failure-of-government-not-free-markets%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OKeeffeThePolitical15-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-OKeeffeThePolitical15_48-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">O'Keeffe, M.; Terzi, A. (7 July 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/bruegel.org\/2015\/07\/the-political-economy-of-financial-crisis-policy\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The political economy of financial crisis policy\"<\/a>. <i>Bruegel<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bruegel&rft.atitle=The+political+economy+of+financial+crisis+policy&rft.date=2015-07-07&rft.au=O%27Keeffe%2C+M.%3B+Terzi%2C+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbruegel.org%2F2015%2F07%2Fthe-political-economy-of-financial-crisis-policy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-almeve-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-almeve_49-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Wilson, Steve (3 May 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.constellationr.com\/blog-news\/blockchain-almost-everything-you-read-wrong\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blockchain: Almost Everything You Read Is Wrong\"<\/a>. Constellation Research Inc. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161114002256\/https:\/\/www.constellationr.com\/blog-news\/blockchain-almost-everything-you-read-wrong\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 14 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Blockchain%3A+Almost+Everything+You+Read+Is+Wrong&rft.pub=Constellation+Research+Inc.&rft.date=2016-05-03&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.constellationr.com%2Fblog-news%2Fblockchain-almost-everything-you-read-wrong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-clsdips-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-clsdips_50-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Katie Martin (27 September 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ft.com\/content\/c905b6fc-4dd2-3170-9d2a-c79cdbb24f16\" target=\"_blank\">\"CLS dips into blockchain to net new currencies\"<\/a>. <i>Financial Times<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161109152317\/https:\/\/www.ft.com\/content\/c905b6fc-4dd2-3170-9d2a-c79cdbb24f16\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 9 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=CLS+dips+into+blockchain+to+net+new+currencies&rft.date=2016-09-27&rft.au=Katie+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2Fc905b6fc-4dd2-3170-9d2a-c79cdbb24f16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-51\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Wagner, Kurt (8 May 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.recode.net\/2018\/5\/8\/17330226\/facebook-reorg-mark-zuckerberg-whatsapp-messenger-ceo-blockchain\" target=\"_blank\">\"Facebook is making its biggest executive shuffle in company history\"<\/a>. <i>Recode<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 September<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Recode&rft.atitle=Facebook+is+making+its+biggest+executive+shuffle+in+company+history&rft.date=2018-05-08&rft.aulast=Wagner&rft.aufirst=Kurt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.recode.net%2F2018%2F5%2F8%2F17330226%2Ffacebook-reorg-mark-zuckerberg-whatsapp-messenger-ceo-blockchain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-52\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Gartenberg, Chaim (11 May 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theverge.com\/2018\/5\/11\/17344318\/facebook-cryptocurrency-token-blockchain-report-david-marcus\" target=\"_blank\">\"Facebook reportedly plans to launch its own cryptocurrency\"<\/a>. <i>The Verge<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 September<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Verge&rft.atitle=Facebook+reportedly+plans+to+launch+its+own+cryptocurrency&rft.date=2018-05-11&rft.aulast=Gartenberg&rft.aufirst=Chaim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F2018%2F5%2F11%2F17344318%2Ffacebook-cryptocurrency-token-blockchain-report-david-marcus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-unbi-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-unbi_53-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Franco, Pedro (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=YHfCBwAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Understanding Bitcoin: Cryptography, Engineering and Economics<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 9. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-119-01916-9. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170214204859\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=YHfCBwAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 14 February 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 January<\/span> 2017<\/span> – via Google Books.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Bitcoin%3A+Cryptography%2C+Engineering+and+Economics&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-119-01916-9&rft.aulast=Franco&rft.aufirst=Pedro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYHfCBwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-vcab-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-vcab_54-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.imf.org\/external\/pubs\/ft\/sdn\/2016\/sdn1603.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Virtual Currencies and Beyond: Initial Considerations<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. IMF Discussion Note. International Monetary Fund. 2016. p. 23. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-5135-5297-2. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180414210721\/https:\/\/www.imf.org\/external\/pubs\/ft\/sdn\/2016\/sdn1603.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 2018-04-14<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-04-19<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Virtual+Currencies+and+Beyond%3A+Initial+Considerations&rft.series=IMF+Discussion+Note&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=International+Monetary+Fund&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-5135-5297-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imf.org%2Fexternal%2Fpubs%2Fft%2Fsdn%2F2016%2Fsdn1603.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-reason20160506-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-reason20160506_55-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Epstein, Jim (6 May 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/reason.com\/reasontv\/2016\/05\/06\/bitcoin-consensus-blockchain-wall-street\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is Blockchain Technology a Trojan Horse Behind Wall Street's Walled Garden?\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reason_(magazine)\" title=\"Reason (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a60bc83b6495d6b625eb2fc8f96848b9\">Reason<\/a><\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160708170429\/http:\/\/reason.com\/reasontv\/2016\/05\/06\/bitcoin-consensus-blockchain-wall-street\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 8 July 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>. <q>mainstream misgivings about working with a system that's open for anyone to use. Many banks are partnering with companies building so-called private blockchains that mimic some aspects of Bitcoin's architecture except they're designed to be closed off and accessible only to chosen parties. ... [but some believe] that open and permission-less blockchains will ultimately prevail even in the banking sector simply because they're more efficient.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reason&rft.atitle=Is+Blockchain+Technology+a+Trojan+Horse+Behind+Wall+Street%27s+Walled+Garden%3F&rft.date=2016-05-06&rft.aulast=Epstein&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freason.com%2Freasontv%2F2016%2F05%2F06%2Fbitcoin-consensus-blockchain-wall-street&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-afr20160629-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-afr20160629_56-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Redrup, Yolanda (29 June 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.afr.com\/technology\/anz-backs-private-blockchain-but-wont-go-public-20160629-gpuf9z\" target=\"_blank\">\"ANZ backs private blockchain, but won't go public\"<\/a>. <i>Australia Financial Review<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160703103852\/http:\/\/www.afr.com\/technology\/anz-backs-private-blockchain-but-wont-go-public-20160629-gpuf9z\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 3 July 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 July<\/span> 2016<\/span>. <q>Blockchain networks can be either public or private. Public blockchains have many users and there are no controls over who can read, upload or delete the data and there are an unknown number of pseudonymous participants. In comparison, private blockchains also have multiple data sets, but there are controls in place over who can edit data and there are a known number of participants.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australia+Financial+Review&rft.atitle=ANZ+backs+private+blockchain%2C+but+won%27t+go+public&rft.date=2016-06-29&rft.aulast=Redrup&rft.aufirst=Yolanda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.afr.com%2Ftechnology%2Fanz-backs-private-blockchain-but-wont-go-public-20160629-gpuf9z&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-57\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Shah, Rakesh (1 March 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.postboxcommunications.com\/blog\/can-banking-sector-leverage-blockchain-technology\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Can The Banking Sector Leverage Blockchain Technology?\"<\/a>. <i>PostBox Communications<\/i>. PostBox Communications Blog. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180317232141\/http:\/\/www.postboxcommunications.com\/blog\/can-banking-sector-leverage-blockchain-technology\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 17 March 2018. <q>Banks preferably have a notable interest in utilizing Blockchain Technology because it is a great source to avoid fraudulent transactions. Blockchain is considered hassle free, because of the extra level of security it offers.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PostBox+Communications&rft.atitle=How+Can+The+Banking+Sector+Leverage+Blockchain+Technology%3F&rft.date=2018-03-01&rft.aulast=Shah&rft.aufirst=Rakesh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.postboxcommunications.com%2Fblog%2Fcan-banking-sector-leverage-blockchain-technology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Dramatic_Acceptance_of_Blockchain-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Dramatic_Acceptance_of_Blockchain_58-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Kelly, Jemima (28 September 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-tech-blockchain-ibm-idUSKCN11Y28D\" target=\"_blank\">\"Banks adopting blockchain 'dramatically faster' than expected: IBM\"<\/a>. Reuters. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160928163048\/http:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-tech-blockchain-ibm-idUSKCN11Y28D\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 28 September 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 September<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Banks+adopting+blockchain+%27dramatically+faster%27+than+expected%3A+IBM&rft.date=2016-09-28&rft.au=Kelly%2C+Jemima&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-tech-blockchain-ibm-idUSKCN11Y28D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-inbl-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-inbl_59-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Arnold, Martin (23 September 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ft.com\/content\/719f4e7e-80e1-11e6-bc52-0c7211ef3198\" target=\"_blank\">\"IBM in blockchain project with China UnionPay\"<\/a>. <i>Financial Times<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161109152822\/https:\/\/www.ft.com\/content\/719f4e7e-80e1-11e6-bc52-0c7211ef3198\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 9 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=IBM+in+blockchain+project+with+China+UnionPay&rft.date=2013-09-23&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2F719f4e7e-80e1-11e6-bc52-0c7211ef3198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-banks-blockchain-ubs-idUSKCN10Z147\" target=\"_blank\">\"UBS leads team of banks working on blockchain settlement system\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reuters\" title=\"Reuters\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfab9b4b45961798a138decde5fe8cf8\">Reuters<\/a>. 24 August 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170519073429\/http:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-banks-blockchain-ubs-idUSKCN10Z147\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 19 May 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 May<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=UBS+leads+team+of+banks+working+on+blockchain+settlement+system&rft.date=2016-08-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-banks-blockchain-ubs-idUSKCN10Z147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-61\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-61\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.capgemini.com\/beyond-the-buzz\/cryptocurrency-blockchain\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cryptocurrency Blockchain\"<\/a>. <i>capgemini.com<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161205202317\/https:\/\/www.capgemini.com\/beyond-the-buzz\/cryptocurrency-blockchain\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 5 December 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 May<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=capgemini.com&rft.atitle=Cryptocurrency+Blockchain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.capgemini.com%2Fbeyond-the-buzz%2Fcryptocurrency-blockchain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Roy31102017-62\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Roy31102017_62-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Kelly, Jemima (31 October 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.reuters.com\/article\/us-banks-blockchain-r3\/top-banks-and-r3-build-blockchain-based-payments-system-idUSKBN1D00ZB\" target=\"_blank\">\"Top banks and R3 build blockchain-based payments system\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Top+banks+and+R3+build+blockchain-based+payments+system&rft.date=2017-10-31&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Jemima&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-banks-blockchain-r3%2Ftop-banks-and-r3-build-blockchain-based-payments-system-idUSKBN1D00ZB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-gomedici1-63\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-gomedici1_63-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Chiraag Patel (2014-02-26). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/gomedici.com\/huntercoin-worlds-first-peer-peer-massively-multiplayer-online-cryptocurrency-game\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Huntercoin is the World's First Peer to Peer Massively Multiplayer Online Cryptocurrency Game\"<\/a>. <i>Medici<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-05-17<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medici&rft.atitle=Huntercoin+is+the+World%27s+First+Peer+to+Peer+Massively+Multiplayer+Online+Cryptocurrency+Game&rft.date=2014-02-26&rft.au=Chiraag+Patel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgomedici.com%2Fhuntercoin-worlds-first-peer-peer-massively-multiplayer-online-cryptocurrency-game%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-64\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-64\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.atimes.com\/article\/internet-firms-try-luck-blockchain-games\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Internet firms try their luck at blockchain games\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Asia_Times\" title=\"Asia Times\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e92214f10dd1a316bf1a92702c25f0b4\">Asia Times<\/a><\/i>. 2018-02-22<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Can Ethereum Handle the Traffic?\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fortune_(magazine)\" title=\"Fortune (magazine)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef8ee87f565dde9aafbc2b149d7b70f8\">Fortune<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 December<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=From+Farm+to+Blockchain%3A+Walmart+Tracks+Its+Lettuce&rft.date=2018-09-24&rft.aulast=Corkery&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Popper%2C+Nathaniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2018%2F09%2F24%2Fbusiness%2Fwalmart-blockchain-lettuce.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-71\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-71\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Mearian, Lucas (23 January 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/article\/3336036\/blockchain\/linuxs-hyperledger-to-give-developers-supply-chain-building-blocks.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Grid, a new project from the Linux Foundation, will offer developers tools to create supply chain-specific applications running atop distributed ledger technology\"<\/a>. <i>ComputerWorld<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 March<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ComputerWorld&rft.atitle=Grid%2C+a+new+project+from+the+Linux+Foundation%2C+will+offer+developers+tools+to+create+supply+chain-specific+applications+running+atop+distributed+ledger+technology&rft.date=2019-01-23&rft.aulast=Mearian&rft.aufirst=Lucas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Farticle%2F3336036%2Fblockchain%2Flinuxs-hyperledger-to-give-developers-supply-chain-building-blocks.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-72\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-72\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Hyperledger (22 January 2019). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hyperledger.org\/blog\/2019\/01\/22\/announcing-hyperledger-grid-a-new-project-to-help-build-and-deliver-supply-chain-solutions\" target=\"_blank\">\"Announcing Hyperledger Grid, a new project to help build and deliver supply chain solutions!\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 March<\/span> 2019<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Announcing+Hyperledger+Grid%2C+a+new+project+to+help+build+and+deliver+supply+chain+solutions%21&rft.date=2019-01-22&rft.au=Hyperledger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hyperledger.org%2Fblog%2F2019%2F01%2F22%2Fannouncing-hyperledger-grid-a-new-project-to-help-build-and-deliver-supply-chain-solutions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-73\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-73\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">K. Kotobi, and S. G. Bilen, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/stamp\/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=8269834\" target=\"_blank\">\"Secure Blockchains for Dynamic Spectrum Access : A Decentralized Database in Moving Cognitive Radio Networks Enhances Security and User Access\"<\/a>, IEEE Vehicular Technology Magazine, 2018.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-74\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-74\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/fortune.com\/2016\/09\/22\/blockchain-music-disruption\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blockchain Could Be Music's Next Disruptor\"<\/a>. 22 September 2016. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160923180800\/http:\/\/fortune.com\/2016\/09\/22\/blockchain-music-disruption\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 23 September 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Blockchain+Could+Be+Music%27s+Next+Disruptor&rft.date=2016-09-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffortune.com%2F2016%2F09%2F22%2Fblockchain-music-disruption%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-75\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-75\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.musicbusinessworldwide.com\/ascap-prs-sacem-join-forces-blockchain-copyright-system\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASCAP, PRS and SACEM Join Forces for Blockchain Copyright System\"<\/a>. Music Business Worldwide. 9 April 2017. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170410050815\/http:\/\/www.musicbusinessworldwide.com\/ascap-prs-sacem-join-forces-blockchain-copyright-system\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 April 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ASCAP%2C+PRS+and+SACEM+Join+Forces+for+Blockchain+Copyright+System&rft.pub=Music+Business+Worldwide&rft.date=2017-04-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.musicbusinessworldwide.com%2Fascap-prs-sacem-join-forces-blockchain-copyright-system%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BurchardiTheBlock18-76\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BurchardiTheBlock18_76-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Burchardi, K.; Harle, N. (20 January 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.wired.co.uk\/article\/blockchain-disrupting-music-mycelia\" target=\"_blank\">\"The blockchain will disrupt the music business and beyond\"<\/a>. <i>Wired<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=The+blockchain+will+disrupt+the+music+business+and+beyond&rft.date=2018-01-20&rft.au=Burchardi%2C+K.%3B+Harle%2C+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.co.uk%2Farticle%2Fblockchain-disrupting-music-mycelia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-77\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-77\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Bartlett, Jamie (6 September 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/music\/2015\/sep\/06\/imogen-heap-saviour-of-music-industry\" target=\"_blank\">\"Imogen Heap: saviour of the music industry?\"<\/a>. <i>The Guardian<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160422213153\/http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/music\/2015\/sep\/06\/imogen-heap-saviour-of-music-industry\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 22 April 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 June<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Imogen+Heap%3A+saviour+of+the+music+industry%3F&rft.date=2015-09-06&rft.aulast=Bartlett&rft.aufirst=Jamie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fmusic%2F2015%2Fsep%2F06%2Fimogen-heap-saviour-of-music-industry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-blis-78\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-blis_78-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Wang, Kevin; Safavi, Ali (29 October 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2016\/10\/29\/blockchain-is-empowering-the-future-of-insurance\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blockchain is empowering the future of insurance\"<\/a>. <i>Tech Crunch<\/i>. AOL Inc. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161107160418\/https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2016\/10\/29\/blockchain-is-empowering-the-future-of-insurance\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tech+Crunch&rft.atitle=Blockchain+is+empowering+the+future+of+insurance&rft.date=2016-10-29&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft.au=Safavi%2C+Ali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechcrunch.com%2F2016%2F10%2F29%2Fblockchain-is-empowering-the-future-of-insurance%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-79\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Gatteschi, Valentina; Lamberti, Fabrizio; Demartini, Claudio; Pranteda, Chiara; Santamar\u00eda, V\u00edctor (20 February 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/10\/2\/20\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blockchain and Smart Contracts for Insurance: Is the Technology Mature Enough?\"<\/a>. <i>Future Internet<\/i>. <b>10<\/b> (2): 20. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390%2Ffi10020020\" target=\"_blank\">10.3390\/fi10020020<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180315070449\/http:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1999-5903\/10\/2\/20\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 15 March 2018.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Future+Internet&rft.atitle=Blockchain+and+Smart+Contracts+for+Insurance%3A+Is+the+Technology+Mature+Enough%3F&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=20&rft.date=2018-02-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Ffi10020020&rft.aulast=Gatteschi&rft.aufirst=Valentina&rft.au=Lamberti%2C+Fabrizio&rft.au=Demartini%2C+Claudio&rft.au=Pranteda%2C+Chiara&rft.au=Santamar%C3%ADa%2C+V%C3%ADctor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F1999-5903%2F10%2F2%2F20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-breac-80\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-breac_80-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ey.com\/Publication\/vwLUAssets\/ey-blockchain-reaction-tech-companies-plan-for-critical-mass\/$FILE\/ey-blockchain-reaction.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blockchain reaction: Tech companies plan for critical mass\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Ernst & Young. p. 5. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161114001423\/http:\/\/www.ey.com\/Publication\/vwLUAssets\/ey-blockchain-reaction-tech-companies-plan-for-critical-mass\/$FILE\/ey-blockchain-reaction.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 14 November 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 November<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Blockchain+reaction%3A+Tech+companies+plan+for+critical+mass&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Ernst+%26+Young&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ey.com%2FPublication%2FvwLUAssets%2Fey-blockchain-reaction-tech-companies-plan-for-critical-mass%2F%24FILE%2Fey-blockchain-reaction.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ovpfaq-81\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ovpfaq_81-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/followmyvote.com\/online-voting-platform-faqs\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Online Voting Platform FAQ's\"<\/a>. <i>Follow My Vote<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20161027082454\/https:\/\/followmyvote.com\/online-voting-platform-faqs\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 27 October 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 December<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Follow+My+Vote&rft.atitle=Online+Voting+Platform+FAQ%27s&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffollowmyvote.com%2Fonline-voting-platform-faqs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-82\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-82\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Chandra, Prabhul. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.democracywithoutborders.org\/de\/4625\/reimagining-democracy-what-if-votes-were-a-crypto-currency\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Reimagining Democracy: What if votes were a crypto-currency?\"<\/a>. <i>democracywithoutborders.org<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180205184846\/https:\/\/www.democracywithoutborders.org\/de\/4625\/reimagining-democracy-what-if-votes-were-a-crypto-currency\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 5 February 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">5 February<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=democracywithoutborders.org&rft.atitle=Reimagining+Democracy%3A+What+if+votes+were+a+crypto-currency%3F&rft.aulast=Chandra&rft.aufirst=Prabhul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.democracywithoutborders.org%2Fde%2F4625%2Freimagining-democracy-what-if-votes-were-a-crypto-currency%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-83\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-83\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ibm.com\/blockchain\/hyperledger.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"IBM Blockchain based on Hyperledger Fabric from the Linux Foundation\"<\/a>. <i>IBM.com<\/i>. 9 January 2018. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20171207035925\/https:\/\/www.ibm.com\/blockchain\/hyperledger.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 December 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IBM.com&rft.atitle=IBM+Blockchain+based+on+Hyperledger+Fabric+from+the+Linux+Foundation&rft.date=2018-01-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fblockchain%2Fhyperledger.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-84\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-84\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/fortune.com\/2016\/10\/04\/jp-morgan-chase-blockchain-ethereum-quorum\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why J.P. Morgan Chase Is Building a Blockchain on Ethereum\"<\/a>. <i>Fortune<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170202033844\/http:\/\/fortune.com\/2016\/10\/04\/jp-morgan-chase-blockchain-ethereum-quorum\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2 February 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fortune&rft.atitle=Why+J.P.+Morgan+Chase+Is+Building+a+Blockchain+on+Ethereum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffortune.com%2F2016%2F10%2F04%2Fjp-morgan-chase-blockchain-ethereum-quorum%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-swan-2015-85\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-swan-2015_85-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Melanie Swan (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/?id=RHJmBgAAQBAJ&q=%22Proof%20of%20Existence%22\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Blockchain: Blueprint for a New Economy<\/i><\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/O%27Reilly_Media\" title=\"O'Reilly Media\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b77a7740cb45cf1ff412fcf304745fe4\">O'Reilly Media<\/a>. pp. 38\u201339. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781491920473.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blockchain%3A+Blueprint+for+a+New+Economy&rft.pages=38-39&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781491920473&rft.au=Melanie+Swan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DRHJmBgAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522Proof%2520of%2520Existence%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Perfectial-86\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Perfectial_86-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/perfectial.com\/blog\/leveraging-private-blockchains-improve-efficiency-streamline-business-processes\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Companies Can Leverage Private Blockchains to Improve Efficiency and Streamline Business Processes\"<\/a>. <i>Perfectial<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Perfectial&rft.atitle=How+Companies+Can+Leverage+Private+Blockchains+to+Improve+Efficiency+and+Streamline+Business+Processes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fperfectial.com%2Fblog%2Fleveraging-private-blockchains-improve-efficiency-streamline-business-processes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-87\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-87\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Catalini, Christian; Tucker, Catherine E. (11 August 2016). \"Seeding the S-Curve? The Role of Early Adopters in Diffusion\". <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139%2Fssrn.2822729\" target=\"_blank\">10.2139\/ssrn.2822729<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_Science_Research_Network\" title=\"Social Science Research Network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faf9d44135e3fc6107b00574c00f06ae\">SSRN<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=2822729\" target=\"_blank\">2822729<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Seeding+the+S-Curve%3F+The+Role+of+Early+Adopters+in+Diffusion&rft.date=2016-08-11&rft_id=%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D2822729&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2139%2Fssrn.2822729&rft.aulast=Catalini&rft.aufirst=Christian&rft.au=Tucker%2C+Catherine+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-bis_report-88\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-bis_report_88-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-bis_report_88-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Janda, Michael (18 June 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.abc.net.au\/news\/2018-06-18\/cryptocurrencies-cannot-replace-money-bis\/9879448\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cryptocurrencies like bitcoin cannot replace money, says Bank for International Settlements\"<\/a>. ABC (Australia)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Cryptocurrencies+like+bitcoin+cannot+replace+money%2C+says+Bank+for+International+Settlements&rft.date=2018-06-18&rft.aulast=Janda&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2018-06-18%2Fcryptocurrencies-cannot-replace-money-bis%2F9879448&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-VoxWeaver-89\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-VoxWeaver_89-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-VoxWeaver_89-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Illing, Sean (11 April 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.vox.com\/conversations\/2018\/4\/11\/17206018\/bitcoin-blockchain-cryptocurrency-weaver\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why Bitcoin is bullshit, explained by an expert\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Vox_(website)\" title=\"Vox (website)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"950e4daab99069c8aa202bf1f4ae34e4\">Vox<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Why+Bitcoin+is+bullshit%2C+explained+by+an+expert&rft.date=2018-04-11&rft.aulast=Illing&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2Fconversations%2F2018%2F4%2F11%2F17206018%2Fbitcoin-blockchain-cryptocurrency-weaver&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-chapterV-90\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-chapterV_90-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Hyun Song Shin (June 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.bis.org\/publ\/arpdf\/ar2018e5.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter V. Cryptocurrencies: looking beyond the hype\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>BIS 2018 Annual Economic Report<\/i>. Bank for International Settlements<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>. <q>Put in the simplest terms, the quest for decentralised trust has quickly become an environmental disaster.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BIS+2018+Annual+Economic+Report&rft.atitle=Chapter+V.+Cryptocurrencies%3A+looking+beyond+the+hype&rft.date=2018-06&rft.au=Hyun+Song+Shin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bis.org%2Fpubl%2Farpdf%2Far2018e5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LATHiltzik-91\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LATHiltzik_91-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Hiltzik, Michael (18 June 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.latimes.com\/business\/hiltzik\/la-fi-hiltzik-bitcoin-bank-20180618-story.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is this scathing report the death knell for bitcoin?\"<\/a>. Los Angeles Times<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Is+this+scathing+report+the+death+knell+for+bitcoin%3F&rft.date=2018-06-18&rft.aulast=Hiltzik&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Fhiltzik%2Fla-fi-hiltzik-bitcoin-bank-20180618-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WeaverLecture-92\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WeaverLecture_92-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Weaver, Nicholas. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=xCHab0dNnj4\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blockchains and Cryptocurrencies: Burn It With Fire\"<\/a>. <i>YouTube video<\/i>. Berkeley School of Information<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube+video&rft.atitle=Blockchains+and+Cryptocurrencies%3A+Burn+It+With+Fire&rft.aulast=Weaver&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DxCHab0dNnj4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Extance2015-93\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Extance2015_93-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Extance, Andy (30 September 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nature.com\/news\/the-future-of-cryptocurrencies-bitcoin-and-beyond-1.18447\" target=\"_blank\">\"The future of cryptocurrencies: Bitcoin and beyond\"<\/a>. <i>Nature<\/i>. <b>526<\/b> (7571): 21\u201323. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2F526021a\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/526021a<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0028-0836\" target=\"_blank\">0028-0836<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC\" title=\"OCLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e119fc7e1d352d47ef5b80f32a4b20c3\">OCLC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/421716612\" target=\"_blank\">421716612<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/26432223\" target=\"_blank\">26432223<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170512070503\/http:\/\/www.nature.com\/news\/the-future-of-cryptocurrencies-bitcoin-and-beyond-1.18447\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 12 May 2017.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+future+of+cryptocurrencies%3A+Bitcoin+and+beyond&rft.volume=526&rft.issue=7571&rft.pages=21-23&rft.date=2015-09-30&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F421716612&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26432223&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F526021a&rft.aulast=Extance&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnews%2Fthe-future-of-cryptocurrencies-bitcoin-and-beyond-1.18447&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-94\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-94\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\"><i>Ledger (eJournal \/ eMagazine, 2015)<\/i>. OCLC. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC\" title=\"OCLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e119fc7e1d352d47ef5b80f32a4b20c3\">OCLC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/910895894\" target=\"_blank\">910895894<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ledger+%28eJournal+%2F+eMagazine%2C+2015%29&rft.pub=OCLC&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F910895894&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Hertig2015-95\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Hertig2015_95-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Hertig, Alyssa (15 September 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/motherboard.vice.com\/read\/introducing-ledger-the-first-bitcoin-only-academic-journal\" target=\"_blank\">\"Introducing Ledger, the First Bitcoin-Only Academic Journal\"<\/a>. <i>Motherboard<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170110172807\/http:\/\/motherboard.vice.com\/read\/introducing-ledger-the-first-bitcoin-only-academic-journal\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 January 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Motherboard&rft.atitle=Introducing+Ledger%2C+the+First+Bitcoin-Only+Academic+Journal&rft.date=2015-09-15&rft.aulast=Hertig&rft.aufirst=Alyssa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmotherboard.vice.com%2Fread%2Fintroducing-ledger-the-first-bitcoin-only-academic-journal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-96\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-96\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Rizun, Peter R.; Wilmer, Christopher E.; Burley, Richard Ford; Miller, Andrew (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ledger.pitt.edu\/ojs\/public\/journals\/1\/AuthorGuide.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to Write and Format an Article for Ledger\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Ledger<\/i>. <b>1<\/b> (1): 1\u201312. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5195%2FLEDGER.2015.1\" target=\"_blank\">10.5195\/LEDGER.2015.1<\/a> (inactive 14 March 2019). <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2379-5980\" target=\"_blank\">2379-5980<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC\" title=\"OCLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e119fc7e1d352d47ef5b80f32a4b20c3\">OCLC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/910895894\" target=\"_blank\">910895894<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150922190603\/http:\/\/ledger.pitt.edu\/ojs\/public\/journals\/1\/AuthorGuide.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> from the original on 22 September 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ledger&rft.atitle=How+to+Write+and+Format+an+Article+for+Ledger&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-12&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F910895894&rft.issn=2379-5980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5195%2FLEDGER.2015.1&rft.aulast=Rizun&rft.aufirst=Peter+R.&rft.au=Wilmer%2C+Christopher+E.&rft.au=Burley%2C+Richard+Ford&rft.au=Miller%2C+Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fledger.pitt.edu%2Fojs%2Fpublic%2Fjournals%2F1%2FAuthorGuide.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> <span style=\"position:relative; top: -2px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_access\" title=\"open access publication \u2013 free to read\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66dc6aa007b271bdcc889fc8924589a7\"><img alt=\"open access\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/7\/77\/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg\/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"9\" height=\"14\" \/><\/a><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><cite class=\"citation report\">Crosby, Michael; Nachiappan; Pattanayak, Pradhan; Verma, Sanjeev; Kalyanaraman, Vignesh (16 October 2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/scet.berkeley.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/BlockchainPaper.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">BlockChain Technology: Beyond Bitcoin<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> (Report). Sutardja Center for Entrepreneurship & Technology Technical Report. University of California, Berkeley<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2017-03-19<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=BlockChain+Technology%3A+Beyond+Bitcoin&rft.series=Sutardja+Center+for+Entrepreneurship+%26+Technology+Technical+Report&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Berkeley&rft.date=2015-10-16&rft.aulast=Crosby&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Nachiappan&rft.au=Pattanayak%2C+Pradhan&rft.au=Verma%2C+Sanjeev&rft.au=Kalyanaraman%2C+Vignesh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscet.berkeley.edu%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2FBlockchainPaper.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Jaikaran, Chris (February 28, 2018). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/crsreports.congress.gov\/product\/pdf\/R\/R45116\/3\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Blockchain: Background and Policy Issues<\/i><\/a>. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 December<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blockchain%3A+Background+and+Policy+Issues&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Congressional+Research+Service&rft.date=2018-02-28&rft.aulast=Jaikaran&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcrsreports.congress.gov%2Fproduct%2Fpdf%2FR%2FR45116%2F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation report\">Kakavand, Hossein; De Sevres, Nicolette Kost; Chilton, Bart (12 October 2016). The Blockchain Revolution: An Analysis of Regulation and Technology Related to Distributed Ledger Technologies (Report). Luther Systems & DLA Piper. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_Science_Research_Network\" title=\"Social Science Research Network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faf9d44135e3fc6107b00574c00f06ae\">SSRN<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=2849251\" target=\"_blank\">2849251<\/a><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+Blockchain+Revolution%3A+An+Analysis+of+Regulation+and+Technology+Related+to+Distributed+Ledger+Technologies&rft.pub=Luther+Systems+%26+DLA+Piper&rft.date=2016-10-12&rft_id=%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D2849251&rft.aulast=Kakavand&rft.aufirst=Hossein&rft.au=De+Sevres%2C+Nicolette+Kost&rft.au=Chilton%2C+Bart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation web\">Mazonka, Oleg (29 December 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/jrxv.net\/x\/16\/chain.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Blockchain: Simple Explanation\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Journal of Reference<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Reference&rft.atitle=Blockchain%3A+Simple+Explanation&rft.date=2016-12-29&rft.aulast=Mazonka&rft.aufirst=Oleg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjrxv.net%2Fx%2F16%2Fchain.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Tapscott, Don; Tapscott, Alex (2016). <i>Blockchain Revolution: How the Technology Behind Bitcoin Is Changing Money, Business and the World<\/i>. London: Portfolio Penguin. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-241-23785-4. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC\" title=\"OCLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e119fc7e1d352d47ef5b80f32a4b20c3\">OCLC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/971395169\" target=\"_blank\">971395169<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Blockchain+Revolution%3A+How+the+Technology+Behind+Bitcoin+Is+Changing+Money%2C+Business+and+the+World&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Portfolio+Penguin&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F971395169&rft.isbn=978-0-241-23785-4&rft.aulast=Tapscott&rft.aufirst=Don&rft.au=Tapscott%2C+Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation conference\">Saito, Kenji; Yamada, Hiroyuki (June 2016). <i>What's So Different about Blockchain? Blockchain is a Probabilistic State Machine<\/i>. IEEE 36th International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems Workshops. Nara, Nara, Japan: IEEE. pp. 168\u201375. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FICDCSW.2016.28\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/ICDCSW.2016.28<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-5090-3686-8. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2332-5666\" target=\"_blank\">2332-5666<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=What%27s+So+Different+about+Blockchain%3F+Blockchain+is+a+Probabilistic+State+Machine&rft.place=Nara%2C+Nara%2C+Japan&rft.pages=168-75&rft.pub=IEEE&rft.date=2016-06&rft.issn=2332-5666&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FICDCSW.2016.28&rft.isbn=978-1-5090-3686-8&rft.aulast=Saito&rft.aufirst=Kenji&rft.au=Yamada%2C+Hiroyuki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span> <span class=\"cs1-visible-error error citation-comment\"><code class=\"cs1-code\">|access-date=<\/code> requires <code class=\"cs1-code\">|url=<\/code> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Help:CS1_errors#accessdate_missing_url\" title=\"Help:CS1 errors\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"440b88ceb7c4785eb645f138089a028e\">help<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Raval, Siraj (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/shop.oreilly.com\/product\/0636920039334.do?sortby=publicationDate\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Decentralized Applications: Harnessing Bitcoin's Blockchain Technology<\/i><\/a>. Oreilly.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decentralized+Applications%3A+Harnessing+Bitcoin%27s+Blockchain+Technology&rft.pub=Oreilly&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Raval&rft.aufirst=Siraj&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fshop.oreilly.com%2Fproduct%2F0636920039334.do%3Fsortby%3DpublicationDate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Bashir, Imran (2017). <i>Mastering Blockchain<\/i>. Packt Publishing, Ltd. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-78712-544-5. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC\" title=\"OCLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e119fc7e1d352d47ef5b80f32a4b20c3\">OCLC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/967373845\" target=\"_blank\">967373845<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mastering+Blockchain&rft.pub=Packt+Publishing%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F967373845&rft.isbn=978-1-78712-544-5&rft.aulast=Bashir&rft.aufirst=Imran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlockchain\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li>D. Puthal, N. Malik, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Saraju_Mohanty\" title=\"Saraju Mohanty\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce6fa862eca538d19e95bb3e49cd0957\">S. P. Mohanty<\/a>, E. Kougianos, and G. Das, \"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.smohanty.org\/Publications_Journals\/2018\/Mohanty_IEEE-CEM_2018-Jul_Blockchain.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Everything you Wanted to Know about the Blockchain<\/a>\", <i>IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine<\/i>, Volume 7, Issue 4, July 2018, pp. 06\u201314.<\/li>\n<li>Subbiah, Kannan; Ferrarini, Benno; Maupin, Julie; Hinojales, Marthe; Guhathakurta, Rahul; Kulshrestha, Sanatan; Wright, Danika \"The Age of Blockchain: A Collection of Articles\" <i>IndraStra Open Access<\/i>, 18 March 2018, <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781980595816. Retrieved 2018-06-23.<\/li><\/ul>\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Commons-logo.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"56c1eee72d1be207b2a9d9bcedb4ef6f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"12\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/a> Media related to <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Blockchain\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Blockchain\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">Blockchain<\/a> at Wikimedia Commons<\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1333\nCached time: 20190402132200\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 1.484 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.727 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 8524\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 315673\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 9478\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 20\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 18\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 326517\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 6\/400\nLua time usage: 0.787\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 8.51 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 1434.389 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>53.68% 769.913 1 Template:Reflist\n12.66% 181.578 40 Template:Cite_web\n11.77% 168.864 9 Template:Cite_journal\n 9.88% 141.710 31 Template:Cite_news\n 9.34% 133.902 15 Template:Cite_book\n 5.20% 74.602 6 Template:Fix\n 4.36% 62.531 8 Template:Navbox\n 3.84% 55.033 1 Template:External_media\n 3.12% 44.763 1 Template:Commonscatinline\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:44065971-1!canonical and timestamp 20190402132158 and revision id 889836019\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blockchain\" data-key=\"3ef3b1d4fae83e61ea5cdd1c13e0fc31\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203000\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.178 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.314 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 298.665 1 - wikipedia:Blockchain\n100.00% 298.665 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10560-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403203000 and revision id 33193\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blockchain\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Blockchain<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/98\/Blockchain.svg\/300px-Blockchain.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/5\/55\/Bitcoin_Block_Data.svg\/440px-Bitcoin_Block_Data.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/fd\/Confirmed_Transactions_Per_Day.png\/440px-Confirmed_Transactions_Per_Day.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/45\/BlockchainPanelDiscussionAtIEEETechIgnite2017.jpg\/440px-BlockchainPanelDiscussionAtIEEETechIgnite2017.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/6\/65\/Crypto_key.svg\/64px-Crypto_key.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f3\/Emblem-money.svg\/56px-Emblem-money.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/d2\/Internet_map_1024.jpg\/56px-Internet_map_1024.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png"],"ae8b186c311716aca561aaee91944f8e_timestamp":1554323400,"e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde_type":"article","e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde_title":"Backup","e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Backup","e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tBackup\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThis article is about backup in computer systems. For other uses, see Backup (disambiguation).\n\nIn information technology, a backup, or data backup, or the process of backing up, refers to the copying into an archive file[note 1] of computer data that is already in secondary storage\u2014so that it may be used to restore the original after a data loss event. The verb form is \"back up\" (a phrasal verb), whereas the noun and adjective form is \"backup\".[1] (This article assumes at least a random access index to the secondary storage data to be backed up, and therefore does not discuss the venerable practice of pure tape-to-tape copying.)\nBackups have two distinct purposes. The primary purpose is to recover data after its loss, be it by data deletion or corruption. Data loss can be a common experience of computer users; a 2008 survey found that 66% of respondents had lost files on their home PC.[2] The secondary purpose of backups is to recover data from an earlier time, according to a user-defined data retention policy, typically configured within a backup application for how long copies of data are required.[3] Though backups represent a simple form of disaster recovery and should be part of any disaster recovery plan, backups by themselves should not be considered a complete disaster recovery plan. One reason for this is that not all backup systems are able to reconstitute a computer system or other complex configuration such as a computer cluster, active directory server, or database server by simply restoring data from a backup.[4]\nSince a backup system contains at least one copy of all data considered worth saving, the data storage requirements can be significant. Organizing this storage space and managing the backup process can be a complicated undertaking. A data repository model may be used to provide structure to the storage. Nowadays, there are many different types of data storage devices that are useful for making backups. There are also many different ways in which these devices can be arranged to provide geographic redundancy, data security, and portability.\nBefore data are sent to their storage locations, they are selected, extracted, and manipulated. Many different techniques have been developed to optimize the backup procedure. These include optimizations for dealing with open files and live data sources as well as compression, encryption, and de-duplication, among others. Every backup scheme should include dry runs that validate the reliability of the data being backed up. It is important to recognize the limitations and human factors involved in any backup scheme.\n\nContents \n\n1 Storage, the base of a backup system \n\n1.1 Data repository models \n1.2 Storage media \n1.3 Managing the data repository \n\n\n2 Selection and extraction of data \n\n2.1 Files \n2.2 Filesystems \n2.3 Live data \n2.4 Metadata \n\n\n3 Manipulation of data and dataset optimization \n4 Managing the backup process \n\n4.1 Objectives \n4.2 Limitations \n4.3 Implementation \n4.4 Measuring the process \n\n\n5 Enterprise client-server backup \n\n5.1 Performance \n5.2 Source file integrity \n5.3 User interface \n5.4 LAN\/WAN\/Cloud \n\n\n6 See also \n7 Notes \n8 References \n9 External links \n\n\n Storage, the base of a backup system \nData repository models \nAny backup strategy starts with a concept of a data repository. The backup data needs to be stored, and probably should be organized to a degree. The organisation could be as simple as a sheet of paper with a list of all backup media (CDs, etc.) and the dates they were produced. A more sophisticated setup could include a computerized index, catalog, or relational database. Different approaches have different advantages. Part of the model is the backup rotation scheme.[5]\n\nUnstructured \nAn unstructured repository may simply be a stack of tapes or CD-Rs or DVD-Rs with minimal information about what was backed up and when. This is the easiest to implement, but probably the least likely to achieve a high level of recoverability as it lacks automation.\nFull only \/ System imaging \nA repository of this type contains complete system images taken at one or more specific points in time.[5] This technology is frequently used by computer technicians to record known good configurations. Imaging[6] is generally more useful for deploying a standard configuration to many systems rather than as a tool for making ongoing backups of diverse systems.\nIncremental \nAn incremental style repository aims to make it more feasible to store backups from more points in time by organizing the data into increments of change between points in time. This eliminates the need to store duplicate copies of unchanged data: with full backups a lot of the data will be unchanged from what has been backed up previously.[5] Typically, a full backup (of all files) is made on one occasion (or at infrequent intervals) and serves as the reference point for an incremental backup set. After that, a number of incremental backups are made after successive time periods. Restoring the whole system to the date of the last incremental backup would require starting from the last full backup taken before the data loss, and then applying in turn each of the incremental backups since then.[7] Additionally, some backup systems can reorganize the repository to synthesize full backups from a series of incrementals.\nDifferential \nEach differential backup saves the data that has changed since the last full backup.[5] It has the advantage that only a maximum of two data sets are needed to restore the data. One disadvantage, compared to the incremental backup method, is that as time from the last full backup (and thus the accumulated changes in data) increases, so does the time to perform the differential backup. Restoring an entire system would require starting from the most recent full backup and then applying just the last differential backup since the last full backup.\nBy standard definition, a differential backup copies files that have been created or changed since the last full backup, regardless of whether any other differential backups have been made since then, whereas an incremental backup copies files that have been created or changed since the most recent backup of any type (full or incremental). Other variations of incremental backup include multi-level incrementals and incremental backups that compare parts of files instead of just the whole file.<\/dd>\nReverse delta \nA reverse delta type repository stores a recent \"mirror\" of the source data and a series of differences between the mirror in its current state and its previous states. A reverse delta backup will start with a normal full backup. After the full backup is performed, the system will periodically synchronize the full backup with the live copy, while storing the data necessary to reconstruct older versions.[8] This can either be done using hard links, or using binary diffs. This system works particularly well for large, slowly changing, data sets.\nContinuous data protection \nInstead of scheduling periodic backups, the system immediately logs every change on the host system. This is generally done by saving byte or block-level differences rather than file-level differences.[9] It differs from simple disk mirroring in that it enables a roll-back of the log and thus restoration of old images of data.\nStorage media \n From left to right, a DVD disc in plastic cover, a USB flash drive and an external hard drive\nRegardless of the repository model that is used, the data has to be copied onto some data storage medium.\n\nMagnetic tape \nMagnetic tape has long been the most commonly used medium for bulk data storage, backup, archiving, and interchange. Tape has typically had an order of magnitude better capacity-to-price ratio when compared to hard disk, but the ratios for tape and hard disk have become closer.[10] Many tape formats have been proprietary or specific to certain markets like mainframes or a particular brand of personal computer, but by 2014 LTO was edging out two other remaining viable \"super\" formats\u2014IBM 3592 (now also referred to as the TS11xx series) and Oracle StorageTek T10000,[11] and further development of the smaller-capacity DDS format had been canceled. By 2017 Spectra Logic, which builds tape libraries for both the LTO and TS11xx formats, was predicting that \"Linear Tape Open (LTO) technology has been and will continue to be the primary tape technology.\"[12] Tape is a sequential access medium, so even though access times may be poor, the rate of continuously writing or reading data can actually be very fast.\nHard disk\nThe capacity-to-price ratio of hard disks has been improving for many years, making them more competitive with magnetic tape as a bulk storage medium. The main advantages of hard disk storage are low access times, availability, capacity and ease of use.[13] External disks can be connected via local interfaces like SCSI, USB, FireWire, or eSATA, or via longer distance technologies like Ethernet, iSCSI, or Fibre Channel. Some disk-based backup systems, via Virtual Tape Libraries or otherwise, support data deduplication, which can dramatically reduce the amount of disk storage capacity consumed by daily and weekly backup data.[14][15][16] One disadvantage of hard disk backups vis-a-vis tape is that hard drives are close-tolerance mechanical devices and may be more easily damaged, especially while being transported (e.g., for off-site backups).[17] In the mid-2000s, several drive manufacturers began to produce portable drives employing ramp loading and accelerometer technology (sometimes termed a \"shock sensor\"),[18][19] and\u2014by 2010\u2014the industry average in drop tests for drives with that technology showed drives remaining intact and working after a 36-inch non-operating drop onto industrial carpeting.[20] The manufacturers do not, however, guarantee these results and note that a drive may fail to survive even a shorter drop.[20] Some manufacturers also offer 'ruggedized' portable hard drives, which include a shock-absorbing case around the hard disk, and claim a range of higher drop specifications.[20][21][22] Another disadvantage is that over a period of years the stability of hard disk backups is shorter than that of tape backups.[11][23][17]\nOptical storage \nRecordable CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs are commonly used with personal computers and generally have low media unit costs. However, the capacities and speeds of these and other optical discs have traditionally been lower than that of hard disks or tapes (though advances in optical media are slowly shrinking that gap[24][25]). Many optical disk formats are WORM type, which makes them useful for archival purposes since the data cannot be changed. The use of an auto-changer or jukebox can make optical discs a feasible option for larger-scale backup systems. Some optical storage systems allow for cataloged data backups without human contact with the discs, allowing for longer data integrity. A 2008 French study indicated the lifespan of typically-sold CD-Rs was 2-10 years,[26] but one manufacturer later estimated the longevity of its CD-Rs with a gold-sputtered layer to be as high as 100 years.[27]\nSSD\/Solid-state drive\nAlso known as flash memory, thumb drives, USB flash drives, CompactFlash, SmartMedia, Memory Stick, Secure Digital cards, etc., these devices are relatively expensive for their low capacity in comparison to hard disk drives, but are very convenient for backing up relatively low data volumes. A solid-state drive does not contain any movable parts unlike its magnetic drive counterpart, making it less susceptible to physical damage, and can have huge throughput in the order of 500Mbit\/s to 6Gbit\/s. The capacity offered from SSDs continues to grow and prices are gradually decreasing as they become more common.[28][21] Over a period of years the stability of flash memory backups is shorter than that of hard disk backups.[11]\nRemote backup service AKA cloud backup \nAs broadband Internet access becomes more widespread, remote backup services are gaining in popularity. Backing up via the Internet to a remote location can protect against events such as fires, floods, or earthquakes which could destroy locally stored backups.[29] There are, however, a number of drawbacks to remote backup services. First, Internet connections are usually slower than local data storage devices. Residential broadband is especially problematic as routine backups must use an upstream link that's usually much slower than the downstream link used only occasionally to retrieve a file from backup. This tends to limit the use of such services to relatively small amounts of high value data, even if a particular service provides initial seed loading. Secondly, users must trust a third party service provider to maintain the privacy and integrity of their data, although confidentiality can be assured by encrypting the data before transmission to the backup service with an encryption key known only to the user. Ultimately the backup service must itself use one of the above methods so this could be seen as a more complex way of doing traditional backups.\nFloppy disk and its derivatives \nDuring the 1980s and early 1990s, many personal\/home computer users associated backing up mostly with copying to floppy disks. However, the data capacity of floppy disks did not keep pace with growing demands, rendering them effectively obsolete. Later \"superfloppy\" devices and related \"non-floppy\" devices provide greater storage capacity and remain supported as backup media by some developers.[14]\nManaging the data repository \nRegardless of the data repository model, or data storage media used for backups, a balance needs to be struck between accessibility, security and cost. These media management methods are not mutually exclusive and are frequently combined to meet the user's needs. Using on-line disks for staging data before it is sent to a near-line tape library is a common example.\nData repository implementations include[30][31]:\n\nOn-line \nOn-line backup storage is typically the most accessible type of data storage, which can begin a restore in milliseconds. An internal hard disk or a disk array (maybe connected to SAN) is one example of an on-line backup. This type of storage is convenient and speedy, but is relatively expensive and is vulnerable to being deleted or overwritten, either by accident, by malevolent action, or in the wake of a data-deleting virus payload.\nNear-line \nNear-line storage is typically less accessible and less expensive than on-line storage, but still useful for backup data storage. A good example would be a tape library with restore times ranging from seconds to a few minutes. A mechanical device is usually used to move media units from storage into a drive where the data can be read or written. Generally it has safety properties similar to on-line storage.\nOff-line \nOff-line storage requires some direct action to provide access to the storage media: for example inserting a tape into a tape drive or plugging in a cable. Because the data are not accessible via any computer except during limited periods in which they are written or read back, they are largely immune to a whole class of on-line backup failure modes. Access time will vary depending on whether the media are on-site or off-site.\nOff-site data protection\nBackup media may be sent to an off-site vault to protect against a disaster or other site-specific problem. The vault can be as simple as a system administrator's home office or as sophisticated as a disaster-hardened, temperature-controlled, high-security bunker with facilities for backup media storage. Importantly a data replica can be off-site but also on-line (e.g., an off-site RAID mirror). Such a replica has fairly limited value as a backup, and should not be confused with an off-line backup.\nBackup site or disaster recovery center (DR center)\nIn the event of a disaster, the data on backup media will not be sufficient to recover. Computer systems onto which the data can be restored and properly configured networks are necessary too. Some organizations have their own data recovery centers that are equipped for this scenario. Other organizations contract this out to a third-party recovery center. Because a DR site is itself a huge investment, backing up is very rarely considered the preferred method of moving data to a DR site. A more typical way would be remote disk mirroring, which keeps the DR data as up to date as possible.\nSelection and extraction of data \nA successful backup job starts with selecting and extracting coherent units of data. Most data on modern computer systems is stored in discrete units, known as files. These files are organized into filesystems. Files that are actively being updated can be thought of as \"live\" and present a challenge to back up. It is also useful to save metadata that describes the computer or the filesystem being backed up.\nDeciding what to back up at any given time involves tradeoffs. By backing up too much redundant data, the data repository will fill up too quickly. Backing up an insufficient amount of data can eventually lead to the loss of critical information.[32]\n\nFiles \nCopying files \nWith file-level approach, making copies of files is the simplest and most common way to perform a backup. A means to perform this basic function is included in all backup software and all operating systems.\nPartial file copying\nInstead of copying whole files, a backup may include only the blocks or bytes within a file that have changed in a given period of time. This technique can substantially reduce needed storage space, but requires a high level of sophistication to reconstruct files in a restore situation. Some implementations require integration with the source file system.\nDeleted files \nTo prevent the unintentional restoration of files that have been intentionally deleted, a record of the deletion must be kept.\nFilesystems \nFilesystem dump\nInstead of copying files within a file system, a copy of the whole filesystem itself in block-level can be made. This is also known as a raw partition backup and is related to disk imaging. The process usually involves unmounting the filesystem and running a program like dd (Unix).[33] Because the disk is read sequentially and with large buffers, this type of backup can be much faster than reading every file normally, especially when the filesystem contains many small files, is highly fragmented, or is nearly full. But because this method also reads the free disk blocks that contain no useful data, this method can also be slower than conventional reading, especially when the filesystem is nearly empty. Some filesystems, such as XFS, provide a \"dump\" utility that reads the disk sequentially for high performance while skipping unused sections. The corresponding restore utility can selectively restore individual files or the entire volume at the operator's choice.[34]\nIdentification of changes\nSome filesystems have an archive bit for each file that says it was recently changed. Some backup software looks at the date of the file and compares it with the last backup to determine whether the file was changed.\nVersioning file system \nA versioning filesystem keeps track of all changes to a file and makes those changes accessible to the user. Generally this gives access to any previous version, all the way back to the file's creation time. An example of this is the Wayback versioning filesystem for Linux.[35]\nLive data \nA snapshot is an instantaneous function of some filesystems that presents a copy of the filesystem as if it were frozen at a specific point in time, often by a copy-on-write mechanism. An effective way to back up live data is to temporarily quiesce them (e.g., close all files), take a snapshot, and then resume live operations. At this point the snapshot can be backed up through normal methods.[36] Snapshotting a file while it is being changed results in a corrupted file that is unusable, as most large files contain internal references between their various parts that must remain consistent throughout the file. This is also the case across interrelated files, as may be found in a conventional database or in applications such as Microsoft Exchange Server. The term fuzzy backup can be used to describe a backup of live data that looks like it ran correctly, but does not represent the state of the data at a single point in time.[37]\nBackup options for data files that cannot be or are not quiesced include:[38]\n\nOpen file backup\nMany backup software applications undertake to back up open files in an internally consistent state.[39] File locking would be useful for regulating access to open files, but this may be inconvenient for the user. Some applications simply check whether open files are in use and try again later.[14] Other applications exclude open files that are updated very frequently.[40]\nInterrelated database files backup\nSome interrelated database file systems offer a means to generate a \"hot backup\"[41] of the database while it is online and usable. This may include a snapshot of the data files plus a snapshotted log of changes made while the backup is running. Upon a restore, the changes in the log files are applied to bring the copy of the database up to the point in time at which the initial backup ended.[42]\nMetadata \nNot all information stored on the computer is stored in files. Accurately recovering a complete system from scratch requires keeping track of this non-file data too.[43]\n\nSystem description\nSystem specifications are needed to procure an exact replacement after a disaster.\nBoot sector \nThe boot sector can sometimes be recreated more easily than saving it. Still, it usually isn't a normal file and the system won't boot without it.\nPartition layout\nThe layout of the original disk, as well as partition tables and filesystem settings, is needed to properly recreate the original system.\nFile metadata \nEach file's permissions, owner, group, ACLs, and any other metadata need to be backed up for a restore to properly recreate the original environment.\nSystem metadata\nDifferent operating systems have different ways of storing configuration information. Microsoft Windows keeps a registry of system information that is more difficult to restore than a typical file.\nManipulation of data and dataset optimization \nIt is frequently useful or required to manipulate the data being backed up to optimize the backup process. These manipulations can provide many benefits including improved backup speed, restore speed, data security, media usage and\/or reduced bandwidth requirements.\n\nCompression \nVarious schemes can be employed to shrink the size of the source data to be stored so that it uses less storage space. Compression is frequently a built-in feature of tape drive hardware.[44]\nDeduplication \nWhen multiple similar systems are backed up to the same destination storage device, there exists the potential for much redundancy within the backed up data. For example, if 20 Windows workstations were backed up to the same archive file, they might share a common set of system files. The archive file only needs to store one copy of those files to be able to restore any one of those workstations. This technique can be applied at the file level or even on raw blocks of data, potentially resulting in a massive reduction in required storage space.[44] Deduplication can occur on a server before any data moves to backup media, sometimes referred to as source\/client side deduplication. This approach also reduces bandwidth required to send backup data to its target media. The process can also occur at the target storage device, sometimes referred to as inline or back-end deduplication.\nDuplication \nSometimes backup jobs are duplicated to a second set of storage media. This can be done to rearrange the backup images to optimize restore speed or to have a second copy at a different location or on a different storage medium.\nEncryption \nHigh-capacity removable storage media such as backup tapes present a data security risk if they are lost or stolen.[45] Encrypting the data on these media can mitigate this problem, but presents new problems. Encryption is a CPU intensive process that can slow down backup speeds, and the security of the encrypted backups is only as effective as the security of the key management policy.[44]\nMultiplexing \nWhen there are many more computers to be backed up than there are destination storage devices, the ability to use a single storage device with several simultaneous backups can be useful.[46]\nRefactoring\nThe process of rearranging the backup sets in a archive file is known as refactoring. For example, if a backup system uses a single tape each day to store the incremental backups for all the protected computers, restoring one of the computers could potentially require many tapes. Refactoring could be used to consolidate all the backups for a single computer onto a single tape. This is especially useful for backup systems that do incrementals forever style backups.\nStaging \nSometimes backup jobs are copied to a staging disk before being copied to tape.[46] This process is sometimes referred to as D2D2T, an acronym for Disk to Disk to Tape. This can be useful if there is a problem matching the speed of the final destination device with the source device as is frequently faced in network-based backup systems. It can also serve as a centralized location for applying other data manipulation techniques.\nManaging the backup process \nAs long as new data are being created and changes are being made, backups will need to be performed at frequent intervals. Individuals and organizations with anything from one computer to thousands of computer systems all require protection of data. The scales may be very different, but the objectives and limitations are essentially the same. Those who perform backups need to know how successful the backups are, regardless of scale.\n\nObjectives \nRecovery point objective (RPO) \nThe point in time that the restarted infrastructure will reflect. Essentially, this is the roll-back that will be experienced as a result of the recovery. The most desirable RPO would be the point just prior to the data loss event. Making a more recent recovery point achievable requires increasing the frequency of synchronization between the source data and the backup repository.[47][48]\nRecovery time objective (RTO) \nThe amount of time elapsed between disaster and restoration of business functions.[49]\nData security \nIn addition to preserving access to data for its owners, data must be restricted from unauthorized access. Backups must be performed in a manner that does not compromise the original owner's undertaking. This can be achieved with data encryption and proper media handling policies.[50]\nData retention period \nRegulations and policy can lead to situations where backups are expected to be retained for a particular period, but not any further. Retaining backups after this period can lead to unwanted liability and sub-optimal use of storage media.[50]\nLimitations \nAn effective backup scheme will take into consideration the following situational limitations[51]:\n\nBackup window\nThe period of time when backups are permitted to run on a system is called the backup window. This is typically the time when the system sees the least usage and the backup process will have the least amount of interference with normal operations. The backup window is usually planned with users' convenience in mind. If a backup extends past the defined backup window, a decision is made whether it is more beneficial to abort the backup or to lengthen the backup window.\nPerformance impact\nAll backup schemes have some performance impact on the system being backed up. For example, for the period of time that a computer system is being backed up, the hard drive is busy reading files for the purpose of backing up, and its full bandwidth is no longer available for other tasks. Such impacts should be analyzed.\nCosts of hardware, software, labor\nAll types of storage media have a finite capacity with a real cost. Matching the correct amount of storage capacity (over time) with the backup needs is an important part of the design of a backup scheme. Any backup scheme has some labor requirement, but complicated schemes have considerably higher labor requirements. The cost of commercial backup software can also be considerable.\nNetwork bandwidth\nDistributed backup systems can be affected by limited network bandwidth.\nImplementation \nMeeting the defined objectives in the face of the above limitations can be a difficult task. The tools and concepts below can make that task more achievable.\n\nScheduling\nUsing a job scheduler can greatly improve the reliability and consistency of backups by removing part of the human element. Many backup software packages include this functionality.\nAuthentication\nOver the course of regular operations, the user accounts and\/or system agents that perform the backups need to be authenticated at some level. The power to copy all data off of or onto a system requires unrestricted access. Using an authentication mechanism is a good way to prevent the backup scheme from being used for unauthorized activity.\nChain of trust \nRemovable storage media are physical items and must only be handled by trusted individuals. Establishing a chain of trusted individuals (and vendors) is critical to defining the security of the data.\nMeasuring the process \nTo ensure that the backup scheme is working as expected, the following best practices should be enacted[52][53][54]:\n\nBackup validation \n(also known as \"backup success validation\") Provides information about the backup, and proves compliance to regulatory bodies outside the organization: for example, an insurance company in the USA might be required under HIPAA to demonstrate that its client data meet records retention requirements.[55] Disaster, data complexity, data value and increasing dependence upon ever-growing volumes of data all contribute to the anxiety around and dependence upon successful backups to ensure business continuity. Thus many organizations rely on third-party or \"independent\" solutions to test, validate, and optimize their backup operations (backup reporting).\nReporting\nIn larger configurations, reports are useful for monitoring media usage, device status, errors, vault coordination and other information about the backup process.\nLogging\nIn addition to the history of computer generated reports, activity and change logs are useful for monitoring backup system events.\nValidation\nMany backup programs use checksums or hashes to validate that the data was accurately copied. These offer several advantages. First, they allow data integrity to be verified without reference to the original file: if the file as copied to the archive file has the same checksum as the saved value, then it is very probably correct. Second, some backup programs can use checksums to avoid making redundant copies of files, and thus improve backup speed. This is particularly useful for the de-duplication process.\nMonitored backup\nBackup processes can be monitored locally via a software dashboard or by a third party monitoring center. Both alert users to any errors that occur during automated backups. Some third-party monitoring services also allow collection of historical metadata, that can be used for storage resource management purposes like projection of data growth and locating redundant primary storage capacity and reclaimable backup capacity.\nEnterprise client-server backup \n A computer sends its data to a backup server, during a scheduled backup window.\n\"Enterprise client-server\" backup software describes a class of software applications that back up data from a variety of client computers centrally to one or more server computers, with the particular needs of enterprises in mind. They may employ a scripted client\u2013server[56] backup model[57] with a backup server program running on one computer, and with small-footprint client programs (referred to as \"agents\" in some applications) running on the other computer(s) being backed up\u2014or alternatively as another process on the same computer as the backup server program. Enterprise-specific requirements[57] include the need to back up large amounts of data on a systematic basis, to adhere to legal requirements for the maintenance and archiving of files and data, and to satisfy short-recovery-time objectives. To satisfy these requirements, which World Backup Day (31 March)[58][59][60] highlights, it is typical for an enterprise to appoint a backup administrator, who is a part of office administration rather than of the IT staff, and whose role is \"being the keeper of the data\".[61]\nIn a client-server backup application, the server program initiates the backup activity by the client program.[62] This is distinct from a \"personal\" backup application such as Apple's Time Machine, in which \"Time Machine runs on each Mac, independently of any other Macs, whether they're backing-up to the same destination or a different one.\" [63] If the backup server and client programs are running on separate computers, they are connected in either a single platform or mixed platform network. The client-server backup model was originated when magnetic tape was the only financially-feasible storage medium for doing backups of multiple computers onto a single archive file[note 1][note 2];[64] because magnetic tape is a sequential access medium, it was imperative (barring \"multiplexed backup\") that the client computers be backed up one at a time\u2014as initiated by the backup server program.\nWhat is described in the preceding paragraph is the \"two-tier\" configuration (in the diagram, the second-tier backup server program is named \"server\" preceded by the name of the application, and first-tier \"agents\" are backing up interactive server applications). That configuration controls the backup server program via either an integrated GUI or a separate Administration Console. In some client-server backup applications, a \"three-tier\" configuration splits off the backup and restore functions of the server program to run on what are called media servers\u2014computers to which devices containing archive files are attached either locally or as Network-attached storage (NAS). In those applications the decision on which media server a script is to run on is controlled using another program called either a master server[65] or an optional central admin. server.[66]\n\nPerformance \nThe steady improvement in hard disk drive price per byte has made feasible a disk-to-disk-to-tape strategy, combining the speed of disk backup and restore with the capacity and low cost of tape for offsite archival and disaster recovery purposes.[67] This, with file system technology, has led to features suited to optimization such as:\n\nImproved disk-to-disk-to-tape capabilities\nEnable automated transfers to tape for safe offsite storage of disk archive files that were created for fast onsite restores.[68][69][70]\nCreate synthetic full backups\nFor example, onto tapes from existing disk archive files\u2014by copying multiple backups of the same source(s) from one archive file to another. This is termed a \"synthetic full backup\" because, after the transfer, the destination archive file contains the same data it would after full backups.[68][71][72] One application can exclude[note 3] files and folders from the synthetic full backup.[14]\nAutomated data grooming\nFrees up space on disk archive files by removing out-of-date backup data\u2014usually based on an administrator-defined retention period.[60][67][68][73][74][75][note 4] One method of removing data is to keep the last backup of each day\/week\/month for the last respective week\/month\/specified-number-of-months, permitting compliance with regulatory requirements.[76] One application has a \"performance-optimized grooming\" mode that only removes outdated information from an archive file that it can quickly delete.[77] This is the only mode of grooming allowed for cloud archive files, and is also up to 5 times as fast when used on locally stored disk archive files. The \"storage-optimized grooming\" mode reclaims more space because it rewrites the archive file, and in this application also permits exclusion compliance with the GDPR \"right of erasure\" [78] via rules[note 3]\u2014that can instead be used for other filtering.[79]\nMultithreaded backup server\nCapable of simultaneously performing multiple backup, restore, and copy operations in separate \"activity threads\" (once needed only by those who could afford multiple tape drives).[57][80][81] In one application, all the categories of information for a particular \"backup server\" are stored by it; when an \"Administration Console\" process is started, its process synchronizes information with all running LAN\/WAN backup servers.[64]\nBlock-level incremental backup\nThe ability to back up only the blocks of a file that have changed, a refinement of incremental backup that saves space[82][83][84] and may save time.[57][85] Such partial file copying is especially applicable to a database.\n\"Instant\" scanning of client volumes\nUses the USN Journal on Windows NTFS and FSEvents on macOS to reduce the scanning component[78] time on both incremental backups, fitting more sources into the scheduled backup window,[57][86][87] and on restores.[88]\nCramming or evading the scheduled backup window\nOne application has the \"multiplexed backup\" capability of cramming the scheduled backup window by sending data from multiple clients to a single tape drive simultaneously; \"this is useful for low end clients with slow throughput ... [that] cannot send data fast enough to keep the tape drive busy .... will reduce the performance of restores.\"[80] Another application allows an enterprise that has computers transiently connecting to the network over a long workday to evade the scheduled window by using Proactive scripts.\nSource file integrity \nBacking up interactive applications via pausing\nInteractive applications can be protected by having their services paused while their live data is being backed up, and then unpaused.[89] Alternatively, the backup application can back up a snapshot initiated at a natural pause.[14][78] Some enterprise backup applications accomplish pausing and unpausing of services via built-in provisions\u2014for many specific databases and other interactive applications\u2014that become automatically part of the backup software's script execution; these provisions may be purchased separately.[90][91][14] However another application has also added \"script hooks\" that enable the optional automatic execution\u2014at specific events during runs of a GUI-coded backup script\u2014of portions of an external script containing commands pre-written in a standard scripting language.[78] For some databases\u2014such as MongoDB and MySQL\u2014that can be run on filesystems that do not support snapshots, the external script can pause writing during backup.[78] Since the external script is provided by an installation's backup administrator, its code activated by the \"script hooks\" may accomplish not only data protection\u2014via pausing\/unpausing interactive services\u2014[78]but also integration with monitoring systems.[92]\nBacking up interactive applications via coordinated snapshots\nSome interactive applications such as databases must have all portions of their component files coordinated while their live data is being backed up. One database system\u2014PostgreSQL\u2014can do this via its own \"snapshotting\" MVCC running on filesystems that do not support snapshots, and can therefore be backed up without pausing using an external script containing commands that use \"script hooks\".[78] Another equivalent approach is to use some filesystems' capability of taking a snapshot, and to back up the snapshot without pausing the application itself. An enterprise backup application using filesystem snapshotting can be used either to back up all user applications running on a virtual machine[93][94] or to back up a particular interactive application that directly uses its filesystem's snapshot capability.[14] Conceptually this approach can still be considered client-server backup; the snapshotting capability by itself constitutes the client, and the backup server runs as a separate process that initiates (second paragraph) and then reads the snapshot on the machine that generated it. The software installed on each machine to be backed up is referred to as an \"agent\"; if \"agents\" are being used to back up all user applications running on a virtual machine, one or more such \"agents\" are controlled by a console.[95][94]\nUser interface \nTo accommodate the requirements of a backup administrator who may not be part of the IT staff with access to the secure server area, enterprise client-server software may include features such as:\n\nAdministration Console\n\nThe backup administrator's backup server GUI management and near-term reporting tool.[53] Its window shows the selected backup server, with a standard toolbar on top. A sidebar on the left or navigation bar shows the clickable categories of backup server information for it; each category shows a panel, which may have a specialized toolbar below or in place of the standard toolbar. The built-in categories include activities\u2014thus providing monitored backup, past backups of each individual source, scripts\/policies\/jobs (terminology depending on the application), sources (directly\/indirectly), archive files, and storage devices.[92][96][97]\nUser-initiated backups and restores\nThese supplement the administrator-initiated backups and restores which backup applications have always had, and relieve the administrator of time-consuming tasks.[61] The user designates the date of the past backup from which files or folders are to be restored\u2014once IT staff has mounted the proper volume(s) of the relevant archive file on the backup server.[67][92][98][99]\nHigh-level\/medium-term reports supplementing the Administration Console[53]\nWithin one application's Console panel displayed by clicking the name of the backup server itself in the sidebar, an activities pane on the top left of the displayed Dashboard has a moving bar graph for each activity going on for the backup server together with a pause and stop button for the activity. Three more backup validation panes give the results of activities in the past week: backups each day, sources backed up, and sources not backed up. Finally a storage reporting pane has a line for each archive file, showing the last-modified date and depictions of the total bytes used and available.[82][92] For the application's Windows variant, the Dashboard acts as a display-only substitute for a non-existent Console[14]\u2014but was upgraded in 2019 into an optional two-way Web-based Management Console.[78] Other applications have a separate reporting and monitored backup facility that can cover multiple backup servers.[100][101]\nE-mailing of notifications about operations to chosen recipients[53]\nCan alert the recipient to, e.g., errors or warnings, including extracts of logging to assist in pinpointing problems.[14][100][102]\nIntegration with monitoring systems[53]\nSuch systems provide longer-term backup validation. One application's administrators can deploy custom scripts that\u2014invoking webhook code via script hooks\u2014populate such systems as the freeware Nagios and IFTTT and the freemium Slack with script successes and failures corresponding to the activities category of the Console, per-source backup information corresponding to the past backups category of the Console, and media requests.[92] Another application has integration with two of the developer's monitoring systems, one that is part of the client-server backup application and one that is more generalized.[100] Yet another application has integration with a monitoring system that is part of the client-server backup application,[103] but can also be integrated with Nagios.[104]\n LAN\/WAN\/Cloud \nAdvanced network client support\nAll applications includes support for multiple network interfaces.[57][105][106] However one application, unless deduplication is done by a separate sub-application between the client and the backup server, cannot provide \"resilient network connections\" for machines on a WAN.[107] One application can extend support to \"remote\" clients anywhere on the Internet for a Proactive script and for user-initiated backups\/restores.[78]\nCloud seeding and Large-Scale Recovery\nBecause of a large amount of data already backed up,[57] an enterprise adopting cloud backup likely will need to do \"seeding\". This service uses a synthetic full backup to copy a large locally-stored archive file onto a large-capacity disk device, which is then physically shipped to the cloud storage site and uploaded.[108][109] After the large initial upload, the enterprise's backup software may facilitate reconfiguration for writing to and reading from the archive file incrementally in its cloud location.[110] The service may need to be employed in reverse for faster large-scale data recovery times than would be possible via an Internet connection.[108] Some applications offer seeding and large-scale recovery via third-party services, which may use a high-speed Internet channel to\/from cloud storage rather than a shipable physical device.[111][112]\nSee also \nAbout backup\nBackup software\nList of backup software\nGlossary of backup terms\nRemote backup service\nVirtual backup appliance\nRelated topics\nData consistency\nData degradation\nData proliferation\nDatabase dump\nDigital preservation\nDisaster recovery and business continuity auditing\nFile synchronization\nInformation repository\nNotes \n\n\n^ a b In contrast to everyday use of the term \"archive\", the data stored in an \"archive file\" is not necessarily old or of historical interest. \n\n^ Several client-server applications use the term \"archiving\" to describe a backup operation that deletes data from a client source once the data's backup is complete. 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Retrieved 18 November 2017 . \n\n^ \"Windows\u00ae Enterprise Data Protection with Symantec Backup Exec\u2122\" (PDF) . Symantec. Veritas Technologies LLC. 2007. pp. 5\u20138 (CASO). Retrieved 14 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"How to configure notification recipients in Backup Exec 12.0 and above\". Veritas Support. Veritas Technologies LLC. 10 November 2017. Retrieved 15 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Veritas Backup Exec Administrator's Guide: About the Job Monitor\". Veritas Support. Veritas Technologies LLC. 11 November 2017. Retrieved 15 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Nagios plugins for monitoring BackupExec\". Nagios Exchange. Nagios Enterprises. Retrieved 15 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"EMC Announces Retrospect 8.0 Backup and Recovery Software For Mac\". DellEMC [current]. EMC Corp. [orig. publisher]. 6 January 2009. Retrieved 10 November 2016 . \n\n^ \"Veritas Backup Exec Administrator's Guide: Configuring network options for backup jobs\". Veritas Support. Veritas Technologies LLC. 17 November 2017. Retrieved 15 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Veritas NetBackup\u2122 Deduplication Guide\" (PDF) . Veritas. Veritas Technologies LLC (US). 2016. p. 171(Resilient network properties). Retrieved 18 November 2017 . \n\n^ a b \"What Is an AWS Snowball Appliance?\". AWS. Amazon.com. 2018. Retrieved 8 March 2018 . \n\n^ Rouse, Margaret (December 2011). \"Definition: cloud seeding\". TechTarget. Tech Target Inc. Retrieved 16 November 2017 . \n\n^ \"Changing paths Cloud Mac\" (Video) . Retrospect Inc. 29 February 2016. Retrieved 7 October 2016 – via YouTube. \n\n^ High, Dave; Mahmud, Fozz (10 March 2016). \"NBU and the Amazon Storage Gateway VTL\" (Video) . Veritas. Veritas Technologies LLC. Retrieved 17 January 2018 . \n\n^ \"Backup Exec 16: Best Practices for Using the Veritas Backup Exec Cloud Connector\". Veritas Support. Veritas Technologies LLC. 25 October 2017. Retrieved 15 January 2018 . \n\n\nExternal links \n\n\n\nLook up back up in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\n\n\n\nLook up backup in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\n\n\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Backup.\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Backup\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Backup<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Business and data managementSoftware and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 2 March 2019, at 22:07.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 290 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Backup skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Backup<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">This article is about backup in computer systems. For other uses, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Backup (disambiguation)\" data-key=\"3711578130483b6af0d6a261c0dcc7d4\">Backup (disambiguation)<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p>\nIn <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology\" title=\"Information technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b414df9b7e2daade2ebaed767aa23ec\">information technology<\/a>, a <b>backup<\/b>, or <b>data backup<\/b>, or the process of backing up, refers to the copying into an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archive_file\" title=\"Archive file\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fff13c8c1215446b01795e95cec59907\">archive file<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ArchiveFileMayNotContainOld\/HistoricalMaterial_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ArchiveFileMayNotContainOld\/HistoricalMaterial-1\">[note 1]<\/a><\/sup> of computer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data\" title=\"Data\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f97d13c149ad595955ad7b91990e0119\">data<\/a> that is already in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_data_storage#Secondary_storage\" title=\"Computer data storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b952d6b922185b73b24f415f541a50d\">secondary storage<\/a>\u2014so that it may be used to restore the original after a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_loss\" title=\"Data loss\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38786c97c9ccb26dced6621e1adf74bf\">data loss<\/a> event. The verb form is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/back_up\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:back up\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">\"back up\"<\/a> (a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phrasal_verb\" title=\"Phrasal verb\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"560af2ff1763499504e0cb60e55debbf\">phrasal verb<\/a>), whereas the noun and adjective form is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/backup\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:backup\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">\"backup\"<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AHDictionaryBackup_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AHDictionaryBackup-2\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> (This article assumes at least a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_data_storage#Accessibility\" title=\"Computer data storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c8acdc2ba410f6f16b4c5eedc906cb29\">random access<\/a> index to the secondary storage data to be backed up, and therefore does not discuss the venerable practice of pure tape-to-tape copying.)\n<\/p><p>Backups have two distinct purposes. The primary purpose is to recover data after its loss, be it by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_deletion\" title=\"File deletion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bbc8f83f21b686857d521eb81a4b040\">data deletion<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_corruption\" title=\"Data corruption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"012248352da338b332ab959566612a39\">corruption<\/a>. Data loss can be a common experience of computer users; a 2008 survey found that 66% of respondents had lost files on their home PC.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> The secondary purpose of backups is to recover data from an earlier time, according to a user-defined <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_retention\" title=\"Data retention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7319085a4f0e9c849d3614b6d796cdb5\">data retention<\/a> policy, typically configured within a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup_software\" title=\"Backup software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d058a49009f32424e5b3e82c21e26f4c\">backup application<\/a> for how long copies of data are required.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NelsonPro11_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NelsonPro11-4\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Though backups represent a simple form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disaster_recovery\" title=\"Disaster recovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33aecbc3a0a3d980c88f37fbeb85d1a6\">disaster recovery<\/a> and should be part of any <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disaster_recovery_plan\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Disaster recovery plan\" data-key=\"087866b7ea43f9f22ab1207694e81b93\">disaster recovery plan<\/a>, backups by themselves should not be considered a complete disaster recovery plan. One reason for this is that not all backup systems are able to reconstitute a computer system or other complex configuration such as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_cluster\" title=\"Computer cluster\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d594638bfcfa89293bf1a86e43374d4\">computer cluster<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Active_directory\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Active directory\" data-key=\"aba654ac6f9e00b57a29103992243842\">active directory<\/a> server, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_server\" title=\"Database server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"caf14d725e0ee06a75c529c76d8a1b04\">database server<\/a> by simply restoring data from a backup.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CougiasTheBackup03_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CougiasTheBackup03-5\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Since a backup system contains at least one copy of all data considered worth saving, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_data_storage\" title=\"Computer data storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c06a35ae9ff26906dd57849f8067bfdb\">data storage<\/a> requirements can be significant. Organizing this storage space and managing the backup process can be a complicated undertaking. A data repository model may be used to provide structure to the storage. Nowadays, there are many different types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_storage_device\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data storage device\" data-key=\"3ed5a8a7abc6bc6fbf516d6728e74e3a\">data storage devices<\/a> that are useful for making backups. There are also many different ways in which these devices can be arranged to provide geographic redundancy, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_security\" title=\"Data security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7e9e5ee008f52b19272642e6cf8fb9\">data security<\/a>, and portability.\n<\/p><p>Before data are sent to their storage locations, they are selected, extracted, and manipulated. Many different techniques have been developed to optimize the backup procedure. These include optimizations for dealing with open files and live data sources as well as compression, encryption, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_deduplication\" title=\"Data deduplication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9b17b0488fe7880a660a6af2d9ef71d\">de-duplication<\/a>, among others. Every backup scheme should include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dry_run_(testing)\" title=\"Dry run (testing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b73ca3bd744d2d9e865d14b40f5caed\">dry runs<\/a> that validate the reliability of the data being backed up. It is important to recognize the limitations and human factors involved in any backup scheme.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Storage.2C_the_base_of_a_backup_system\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Storage,_the_base_of_a_backup_system\">Storage, the base of a backup system<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_repository_models\">Data repository models<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Any backup strategy starts with a concept of a data repository. The backup data needs to be stored, and probably should be organized to a degree. The organisation could be as simple as a sheet of paper with a list of all backup media (CDs, etc.) and the dates they were produced. A more sophisticated setup could include a computerized index, catalog, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Relational_database\" title=\"Relational database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"86b6b5174c671988f4e5dba65702a9c0\">relational database<\/a>. Different approaches have different advantages. Part of the model is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup_rotation_scheme\" title=\"Backup rotation scheme\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"085d3e4305515b492ac57265a4168f40\">backup rotation scheme<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeanComp09_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeanComp09-6\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Unstructured <\/dt>\n<dd>An unstructured repository may simply be a stack of tapes or CD-Rs or DVD-Rs with minimal information about what was backed up and when. This is the easiest to implement, but probably the least likely to achieve a high level of recoverability as it lacks automation.<\/dd>\n<dt>Full only \/ <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_image\" title=\"System image\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea4db31501f2fffbf0c6a5e6b0081c14\">System imaging<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>A repository of this type contains complete system images taken at one or more specific points in time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeanComp09_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeanComp09-6\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> This technology is frequently used by computer technicians to record known good configurations. Imaging<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> is generally more useful for deploying a standard configuration to many systems rather than as a tool for making ongoing backups of diverse systems.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Incremental_backup\" title=\"Incremental backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1badf5b48f730e065c1ebc037abf675d\">Incremental<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>An incremental style repository aims to make it more feasible to store backups from more points in time by organizing the data into increments of change between points in time. This eliminates the need to store duplicate copies of unchanged data: with full backups a lot of the data will be unchanged from what has been backed up previously.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeanComp09_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeanComp09-6\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Typically, a full backup (of all files) is made on one occasion (or at infrequent intervals) and serves as the reference point for an incremental backup set. After that, a number of incremental backups are made after successive time periods. Restoring the whole system to the date of the last incremental backup would require starting from the last full backup taken before the data loss, and then applying in turn each of the incremental backups since then.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, some backup systems can reorganize the repository to synthesize full backups from a series of incrementals.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Differential_backup\" title=\"Differential backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d57a1a3e39ec95d4d6543c93c3b78b79\">Differential<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>Each differential backup saves the data that has changed since the last full backup.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DeanComp09_6-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DeanComp09-6\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> It has the advantage that only a maximum of two data sets are needed to restore the data. One disadvantage, compared to the incremental backup method, is that as time from the last full backup (and thus the accumulated changes in data) increases, so does the time to perform the differential backup. Restoring an entire system would require starting from the most recent full backup and then applying just the last differential backup since the last full backup.\n<dl><dd>By standard definition, a differential backup copies files that have been created or changed since the last full backup, regardless of whether any other differential backups have been made since then, whereas an incremental backup copies files that have been created or changed since the most recent backup of any type (full or incremental). Other variations of incremental backup include multi-level incrementals and incremental backups that compare parts of files instead of just the whole file.<\/dd><\/dl><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Reverse delta <\/dt>\n<dd>A reverse delta type repository stores a recent \"mirror\" of the source data and a series of differences between the mirror in its current state and its previous states. A reverse delta backup will start with a normal full backup. After the full backup is performed, the system will periodically synchronize the full backup with the live copy, while storing the data necessary to reconstruct older versions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeonSoftware15_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeonSoftware15-9\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> This can either be done using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard_links\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hard links\" data-key=\"5aa6642e5672691d956b5c635f6fa18f\">hard links<\/a>, or using binary <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_comparison\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data comparison\" data-key=\"52fb8f046a16843369a00876213d1184\">diffs<\/a>. This system works particularly well for large, slowly changing, data sets.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Continuous_data_protection\" title=\"Continuous data protection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6394e6a65b44ee88722db704d338ba6\">Continuous data protection<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>Instead of scheduling periodic backups, the system immediately logs every change on the host system. This is generally done by saving byte or block-level differences rather than file-level differences.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> It differs from simple <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk_mirroring\" title=\"Disk mirroring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38bb5b2fbb7af6625f4a39b9e6fbb451\">disk mirroring<\/a> in that it enables a roll-back of the log and thus restoration of old images of data.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Storage_media\">Storage media<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:DVD,_USB_flash_drive_and_external_hard_drive.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"da565d222f72f27cebffc58a8cdce296\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/89\/DVD%2C_USB_flash_drive_and_external_hard_drive.jpg\/220px-DVD%2C_USB_flash_drive_and_external_hard_drive.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"165\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:DVD,_USB_flash_drive_and_external_hard_drive.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"da565d222f72f27cebffc58a8cdce296\"><\/a><\/div>From left to right, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DVD\" title=\"DVD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b45969e60a2a59ddc3331aca2446601b\">DVD<\/a> disc in plastic cover, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USB_flash_drive\" title=\"USB flash drive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d8e7cbf4aacbfbc825cf0616ee0c06b\">USB flash drive<\/a> and an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/External_hard_drive\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"External hard drive\" data-key=\"de28bd58b7bc734c5e7721be91be9f5b\">external hard drive<\/a><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Regardless of the repository model that is used, the data has to be copied onto some data storage medium.\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetic_tape_data_storage\" title=\"Magnetic tape data storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3808266e7116432424ef1776b1a2684f\">Magnetic tape<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>Magnetic tape has long been the most commonly used medium for bulk data storage, backup, archiving, and interchange. Tape has typically had an order of magnitude better capacity-to-price ratio when compared to hard disk, but the ratios for tape and hard disk have become closer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetic_tape_data_storage#Chronological_list_of_tape_formats\" title=\"Magnetic tape data storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8531f9c6f379ced17414f5bef04ae23d\">Many tape formats have been<\/a> proprietary or specific to certain markets like mainframes or a particular brand of personal computer, but by 2014 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linear_Tape-Open#Market_performance\" title=\"Linear Tape-Open\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5deae46f40ffc96e393e37dcf818eef\">LTO<\/a> was edging out two other remaining viable \"super\" formats\u2014<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM_3592\" title=\"IBM 3592\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9aa3e6b877eca0e16be732fd056f5e5\">IBM 3592<\/a> (now also referred to as the TS11xx series) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/StorageTek_tape_formats#T10000\" title=\"StorageTek tape formats\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c2daf4198ab786f488df5dda7f7966d\">Oracle StorageTek T10000<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime-12\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Data_Storage#Future\" title=\"Digital Data Storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8eccef75d3a2306204bc7bb4cc1db11\">further development of the smaller-capacity DDS format had been canceled<\/a>. By 2017 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spectra_Logic\" title=\"Spectra Logic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14082c675582c166699956d5db3ae95a\">Spectra Logic<\/a>, which builds <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tape_library\" title=\"Tape library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"506ae245683f4e43d640b9717cb4f033\">tape libraries<\/a> for both the LTO and TS11xx formats, was predicting that \"Linear Tape Open (LTO) technology has been and will continue to be the primary tape technology.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SpectraLogicDigitalDataStorageOutlook2017_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SpectraLogicDigitalDataStorageOutlook2017-13\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Tape is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sequential_access\" title=\"Sequential access\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69a2d84483487d7c36d73da0b1edb2cc\">sequential access<\/a> medium, so even though access times may be poor, the rate of continuously writing or reading data can actually be very fast.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard_disk\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hard disk\" data-key=\"a201de550a3602378df8273685347958\">Hard disk<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd>The capacity-to-price ratio of hard disks has been improving for many years, making them more competitive with magnetic tape as a bulk storage medium. The main advantages of hard disk storage are low access times, availability, capacity and ease of use.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> External disks can be connected via local interfaces like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SCSI\" title=\"SCSI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"763979f0c49e0af7d49af7b1bc62dfcb\">SCSI<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USB\" title=\"USB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a17240fa8e9a3f31e95fb0b748e7da8e\">USB<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FireWire\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"FireWire\" data-key=\"3fe938f0b4ed6da21f3c21d5edea614f\">FireWire<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ESATA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ESATA\" data-key=\"1d212bfe015415d118205cfd2fe6172f\">eSATA<\/a>, or via longer distance technologies like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethernet\" title=\"Ethernet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8604e2ab3dc54bee1192999e4cf7d867\">Ethernet<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISCSI\" title=\"ISCSI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fda606a111af43e42af0dfd302508ac6\">iSCSI<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fibre_Channel\" title=\"Fibre Channel\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d4f08ebf7a5fa69e72393cf987ca817\">Fibre Channel<\/a>. Some disk-based backup systems, via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_tape_library\" title=\"Virtual tape library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90ce91666bcdce296fdf9dc9ffe50bf1\">Virtual Tape Libraries<\/a> or otherwise, support <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_deduplication\" title=\"Data deduplication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9b17b0488fe7880a660a6af2d9ef71d\">data deduplication<\/a>, which can dramatically reduce the amount of disk storage capacity consumed by daily and weekly backup data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectWindows12UG-15\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupDeduplicationGuide_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupDeduplicationGuide-17\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> One disadvantage of hard disk backups vis-a-vis tape is that hard drives are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard_disk_drive#Magnetic_recording\" title=\"Hard disk drive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16685ff27730d1034787fafe348bde80\">close-tolerance mechanical devices<\/a> and may be more easily damaged, especially while being transported (e.g., for off-site backups).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PCWorldHardCoreDataPreservation_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PCWorldHardCoreDataPreservation-18\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> In the mid-2000s, several drive manufacturers began to produce portable drives employing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard_disk_drive_failure#Unloading\" title=\"Hard disk drive failure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"868e698795059108bb37177d5e801744\">ramp loading and accelerometer<\/a> technology (sometimes termed a \"shock sensor\"),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HGSTRampLoadUnload_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HGSTRampLoadUnload-19\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ToshibaCanvio3.0PortableHDD_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ToshibaCanvio3.0PortableHDD-20\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> and\u2014by 2010\u2014the industry average in drop tests for drives with that technology showed drives remaining intact and working after a 36-inch non-operating drop onto industrial carpeting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IomegaDropShock_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IomegaDropShock-21\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> The manufacturers do not, however, guarantee these results and note that a drive may fail to survive even a shorter drop.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IomegaDropShock_21-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IomegaDropShock-21\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> Some manufacturers also offer 'ruggedized' portable hard drives, which include a shock-absorbing case around the hard disk, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIL-STD-810#Applicability_to_\"ruggedized\"_consumer_products\" title=\"MIL-STD-810\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"128a12bf4b4c2b40b65b090cea357c97\">claim<\/a> a range of higher drop specifications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IomegaDropShock_21-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IomegaDropShock-21\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PCMagBestRuggedHDDs&SSDs_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PCMagBestRuggedHDDs&SSDs-22\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WirecutterBestPortableHardDrive2017Don'tBuy_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#39;tBuy-23\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> Another disadvantage is that over a period of years the stability of hard disk backups is shorter than that of tape backups.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime_12-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime-12\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IronMountainBestLong-TermDataArchiveSolutions_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IronMountainBestLong-TermDataArchiveSolutions-24\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PCWorldHardCoreDataPreservation_18-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PCWorldHardCoreDataPreservation-18\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_storage\" title=\"Optical storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25315e51372b0a2cdf9ab00c59bf7d54\">Optical storage<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>Recordable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CD\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"CD\" data-key=\"a330c9220c2eb94384c4d2a7defde593\">CDs<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DVD\" title=\"DVD\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b45969e60a2a59ddc3331aca2446601b\">DVDs<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blu-ray_Disc\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Blu-ray Disc\" data-key=\"b529337c6fa86a85264a727aa8806767\">Blu-ray Discs<\/a> are commonly used with personal computers and generally have low media unit costs. However, the capacities and speeds of these and other optical discs have traditionally been lower than that of hard disks or tapes (though advances in optical media are slowly shrinking that gap<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WanOptical14_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WanOptical14-25\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ZhangHigh18_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ZhangHigh18-26\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>). Many optical disk formats are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Write_Once_Read_Many\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Write Once Read Many\" data-key=\"6415d417724ab57ac2ae4e8f788458ac\">WORM<\/a> type, which makes them useful for archival purposes since the data cannot be changed. The use of an auto-changer or jukebox can make optical discs a feasible option for larger-scale backup systems. Some optical storage systems allow for cataloged data backups without human contact with the discs, allowing for longer data integrity. A 2008 French study indicated the lifespan of typically-sold <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CD-R#Lifespan\" title=\"CD-R\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba2c2a7a3ad2110a82acb2f2ae6c05f4\">CD-Rs<\/a> was 2-10 years,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-INA_CD-R_Study_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-INA_CD-R_Study-27\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> but one manufacturer later estimated the longevity of its CD-Rs with a gold-sputtered layer to be as high as 100 years.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DelkinDevicesArchivalGoldCD-R_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DelkinDevicesArchivalGoldCD-R-28\">[27]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SSD\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SSD\" data-key=\"fba39d8f3e99eee3a41f5f19af025d7f\">SSD<\/a>\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Solid-state_drive\" title=\"Solid-state drive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d25d937eb9cd6f6fa5c6f6b186db6b39\">Solid-state drive<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd>Also known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Flash_memory\" title=\"Flash memory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"de73ea563d1df251bfe81a2a4f37086e\">flash memory<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thumb_drive\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Thumb drive\" data-key=\"190edac4b4b5008ccfe864fb21a6331b\">thumb drives<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USB_flash_drive\" title=\"USB flash drive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d8e7cbf4aacbfbc825cf0616ee0c06b\">USB flash drives<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CompactFlash\" title=\"CompactFlash\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51cc88e69c82c53c12cb8ec35ca50a7e\">CompactFlash<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SmartMedia\" title=\"SmartMedia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3de8b38457cd56b74499e04e236ff00\">SmartMedia<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memory_Stick\" title=\"Memory Stick\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a23212ed4455fe7cc50bf911ad524ee9\">Memory Stick<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secure_Digital_card\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Secure Digital card\" data-key=\"a9083d23664757ef2a77c7d4b45f8247\">Secure Digital cards<\/a>, etc., these devices are relatively expensive for their low capacity in comparison to hard disk drives, but are very convenient for backing up relatively low data volumes. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Solid-state_drive\" title=\"Solid-state drive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d25d937eb9cd6f6fa5c6f6b186db6b39\">solid-state drive<\/a> does not contain any movable parts unlike its magnetic drive counterpart, making it less susceptible to physical damage, and can have huge throughput in the order of 500Mbit\/s to 6Gbit\/s. The capacity offered from SSDs continues to grow and prices are gradually decreasing as they become more common.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MicheloniSolid17_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MicheloniSolid17-29\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PCMagBestRuggedHDDs&SSDs_22-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PCMagBestRuggedHDDs&SSDs-22\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> Over a period of years the stability of flash memory backups is shorter than that of hard disk backups.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime_12-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime-12\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_backup_service\" title=\"Remote backup service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ca3eed5e7713d3ca9e1ee0b3e6dfc74\">Remote backup service AKA cloud backup<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>As <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Broadband_Internet_access\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Broadband Internet access\" data-key=\"a3fc4fe302a1eb39e6075d4e8d17bc42\">broadband Internet access<\/a> becomes more widespread, remote backup services are gaining in popularity. Backing up via the Internet to a remote location can protect against events such as fires, floods, or earthquakes which could destroy locally stored backups.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DellEMC_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DellEMC-30\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> There are, however, a number of drawbacks to remote backup services. First, Internet connections are usually slower than local data storage devices. Residential broadband is especially problematic as routine backups must use an upstream link that's usually much slower than the downstream link used only occasionally to retrieve a file from backup. This tends to limit the use of such services to relatively small amounts of high value data, even if a particular service provides initial <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seed_loading\" title=\"Seed loading\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc0882bdf5626827b3cbf93efc23a213\">seed loading<\/a>. Secondly, users must trust a third party service provider to maintain the privacy and integrity of their data, although confidentiality can be assured by encrypting the data before transmission to the backup service with an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Key_(cryptography)\" title=\"Key (cryptography)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f386cde7c8c131fd3ca8b2e725775fcd\">encryption key<\/a> known only to the user. Ultimately the backup service must itself use one of the above methods so this could be seen as a more complex way of doing traditional backups.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Floppy_disk\" title=\"Floppy disk\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c15f43eab4946b7628ec727d03588e95\">Floppy disk<\/a> and its derivatives <\/dt>\n<dd>During the 1980s and early 1990s, many personal\/home computer users associated backing up mostly with copying to floppy disks. However, the data capacity of floppy disks did not keep pace with growing demands, rendering them effectively obsolete. Later \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Superfloppy\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Superfloppy\" data-key=\"f26bd12b5c48c738ff83eb98b32c52a7\">superfloppy<\/a>\" devices and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Iomega_REV\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Iomega REV\" data-key=\"7134249ba409ff6f3e4de468a60e27a0\">related \"non-floppy\"<\/a> devices provide greater storage capacity and remain supported as backup media by some developers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectWindows12UG-15\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Managing_the_data_repository\">Managing the data repository<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Regardless of the data repository model, or data storage media used for backups, a balance needs to be struck between accessibility, security and cost. These media management methods are not mutually exclusive and are frequently combined to meet the user's needs. Using on-line disks for staging data before it is sent to a near-line <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tape_library\" title=\"Tape library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"506ae245683f4e43d640b9717cb4f033\">tape library<\/a> is a common example.\n<\/p><p>Data repository implementations include<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StackpoleSoftware07_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StackpoleSoftware07-31\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GnanasundaramInfo12_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GnanasundaramInfo12-32\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Online\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Online\" data-key=\"464ff34000c5ac384f3c9cfa2e0a473a\">On-line<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>On-line backup storage is typically the most accessible type of data storage, which can begin a restore in milliseconds. An internal hard disk or a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk_array\" title=\"Disk array\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"578cd9526255797d500823c4d8eda617\">disk array<\/a> (maybe connected to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Storage_area_network\" title=\"Storage area network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d734d52013326b1a58450d2570ca2f7a\">SAN<\/a>) is one example of an on-line backup. This type of storage is convenient and speedy, but is relatively expensive and is vulnerable to being deleted or overwritten, either by accident, by malevolent action, or in the wake of a data-deleting <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_virus\" title=\"Computer virus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91d7100dd3499b98a5308377a38a7b58\">virus<\/a> payload.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nearline_storage\" title=\"Nearline storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a62f87d98d2546be8487b366b1311a8\">Near-line<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>Near-line storage is typically less accessible and less expensive than on-line storage, but still useful for backup data storage. A good example would be a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tape_library\" title=\"Tape library\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"506ae245683f4e43d640b9717cb4f033\">tape library<\/a> with restore times ranging from seconds to a few minutes. A mechanical device is usually used to move media units from storage into a drive where the data can be read or written. Generally it has safety properties similar to on-line storage.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Off-line_storage\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Off-line storage\" data-key=\"e759152248bcc5ccd424d432c533756b\">Off-line<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>Off-line storage requires some direct action to provide access to the storage media: for example inserting a tape into a tape drive or plugging in a cable. Because the data are not accessible via any computer except during limited periods in which they are written or read back, they are largely immune to a whole class of on-line backup failure modes. Access time will vary depending on whether the media are on-site or off-site.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Off-site_data_protection\" title=\"Off-site data protection\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbacccd0a9944b670a646e2d49e810d2\">Off-site data protection<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd>Backup media may be sent to an off-site vault to protect against a disaster or other site-specific problem. The vault can be as simple as a system administrator's home office or as sophisticated as a disaster-hardened, temperature-controlled, high-security bunker with facilities for backup media storage. Importantly a data replica can be off-site but also on-line (e.g., an off-site <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RAID\" title=\"RAID\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5bd07ba03e098130175fc03ba5b0c752\">RAID<\/a> mirror). Such a replica has fairly limited value as a backup, and should not be confused with an off-line backup.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup_site\" title=\"Backup site\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b80496bab0e1db9536f1e070bd7cc9e\">Backup site<\/a> or disaster recovery center (DR center)<\/dt>\n<dd>In the event of a disaster, the data on backup media will not be sufficient to recover. Computer systems onto which the data can be restored and properly configured networks are necessary too. Some organizations have their own data recovery centers that are equipped for this scenario. Other organizations contract this out to a third-party recovery center. Because a DR site is itself a huge investment, backing up is very rarely considered the preferred method of moving data to a DR site. A more typical way would be remote <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk_mirroring\" title=\"Disk mirroring\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38bb5b2fbb7af6625f4a39b9e6fbb451\">disk mirroring<\/a>, which keeps the DR data as up to date as possible.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Selection_and_extraction_of_data\">Selection and extraction of data<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A successful backup job starts with selecting and extracting coherent units of data. Most data on modern computer systems is stored in discrete units, known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_file\" title=\"Computer file\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99bce4432f1e311013bdcb5d3fb6c834\">files<\/a>. These files are organized into <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Filesystem\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Filesystem\" data-key=\"3e6deaedcc75e6750225d3f33c437041\">filesystems<\/a>. Files that are actively being updated can be thought of as \"live\" and present a challenge to back up. It is also useful to save metadata that describes the computer or the filesystem being backed up.\n<\/p><p>Deciding what to back up at any given time involves tradeoffs. By backing up too much redundant data, the data repository will fill up too quickly. Backing up an insufficient amount of data can eventually lead to the loss of critical information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeesWhatTo17_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeesWhatTo17-33\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Files\">Files<\/span><\/h3>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_copying\" title=\"File copying\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b808b6ee8b9b9b203abdf192dfa38bf\">Copying files<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>With <b>file-level<\/b> approach, making copies of files is the simplest and most common way to perform a backup. A means to perform this basic function is included in all backup software and all operating systems.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Partial file copying<\/dt>\n<dd>Instead of copying whole files, a backup may include only the blocks or bytes within a file that have changed in a given period of time. This technique can substantially reduce needed storage space, but requires a high level of sophistication to reconstruct files in a restore situation. Some implementations require integration with the source file system.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Deleted files <\/dt>\n<dd>To prevent the unintentional restoration of files that have been intentionally deleted, a record of the deletion must be kept.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Filesystems\">Filesystems<\/span><\/h3>\n<dl><dt>Filesystem dump<\/dt>\n<dd>Instead of copying files within a file system, a copy of the whole filesystem itself in <b>block-level<\/b> can be made. This is also known as a <i>raw partition backup<\/i> and is related to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk_image\" title=\"Disk image\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"858d3a86ba747f96a63c4d063ed7d21a\">disk imaging<\/a>. The process usually involves unmounting the filesystem and running a program like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dd_(Unix)\" title=\"Dd (Unix)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c526fc0d1fd5eee6314dc3dc919d70df\">dd (Unix)<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrestonBackup07_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrestonBackup07-34\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> Because the disk is read sequentially and with large buffers, this type of backup can be much faster than reading every file normally, especially when the filesystem contains many small files, is highly fragmented, or is nearly full. But because this method also reads the free disk blocks that contain no useful data, this method can also be slower than conventional reading, especially when the filesystem is nearly empty. Some filesystems, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/XFS\" title=\"XFS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b424f48e3d95320f85857a5fed87f15\">XFS<\/a>, provide a \"dump\" utility that reads the disk sequentially for high performance while skipping unused sections. The corresponding restore utility can selectively restore individual files or the entire volume at the operator's choice.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrestonUnix99_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrestonUnix99-35\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Identification of changes<\/dt>\n<dd>Some filesystems have an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Archive_bit\" title=\"Archive bit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bea06c4040bfb4f9706fe55c690fb1af\">archive bit<\/a> for each file that says it was recently changed. Some backup software looks at the date of the file and compares it with the last backup to determine whether the file was changed.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Versioning_file_system\" title=\"Versioning file system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed27f4f2fdd0cc842f4c99d02982ef41\">Versioning file system<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>A versioning filesystem keeps track of all changes to a file and makes those changes accessible to the user. Generally this gives access to any previous version, all the way back to the file's creation time. An example of this is the Wayback versioning filesystem for Linux.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[35]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Live_data\">Live data<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Snapshot_(computer_storage)\" title=\"Snapshot (computer storage)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c9541383cbc196ef5e5c643f643b031\">snapshot<\/a> is an instantaneous function of some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_system\" title=\"File system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7687f830dfdbe09200697ca00721f7b3\">filesystems<\/a> that presents a copy of the filesystem as if it were frozen at a specific point in time, often by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Copy-on-write\" title=\"Copy-on-write\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"871d5491fe70cf36e1f3dabe66eb4f77\">copy-on-write<\/a> mechanism. An effective way to back up live data is to temporarily <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quiesce\" title=\"Quiesce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ed51745ac7b0ed5cc94d6d1a9dfab3b\">quiesce<\/a> them (e.g., close all files), take a snapshot, and then resume live operations. At this point the snapshot can be backed up through normal methods.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TechTargetTypesOfStorageSnapshotTech_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TechTargetTypesOfStorageSnapshotTech-37\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> Snapshotting a file while it is being changed results in a corrupted file that is unusable, as most large files contain internal references between their various parts that must remain consistent throughout the file. This is also the case across interrelated files, as may be found in a conventional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">database<\/a> or in applications such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Exchange_Server\" title=\"Microsoft Exchange Server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f1defad6883b47b31228519060b20612\">Microsoft Exchange Server<\/a>. The term <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuzzy_backup\" title=\"Fuzzy backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c792c444042db57523187ed6b46a9e0e\">fuzzy backup<\/a> can be used to describe a backup of live data that looks like it ran correctly, but does not represent the state of the data at a single point in time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LiotineMission03_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LiotineMission03-38\">[37]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Backup options for data files that cannot be or are not quiesced include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-deGuiseEnterprise08_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-deGuiseEnterprise08-39\">[38]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Open file backup<\/dt>\n<dd>Many backup software applications undertake to back up open files in an internally consistent state.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HandyBackupOpenFileWindows_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HandyBackupOpenFileWindows-40\">[39]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_locking\" title=\"File locking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed02f95e87ac1d1a31fa63958b64944b\">File locking<\/a> would be useful for regulating access to open files, but this may be inconvenient for the user. Some applications simply check whether open files are in use and try again later.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectWindows12UG-15\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Other applications exclude open files that are updated very frequently.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ArqTroubleshootingBackingUpOpen\/lockedFiles_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ArqTroubleshootingBackingUpOpen\/lockedFiles-41\">[40]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Interrelated database files backup<\/dt>\n<dd>Some interrelated database file systems offer a means to generate a \"hot backup\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-UWiscOracleBackups_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-UWiscOracleBackups-42\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> of the database while it is online and usable. This may include a snapshot of the data files plus a snapshotted log of changes made while the backup is running. Upon a restore, the changes in the log files are applied to bring the copy of the database up to the point in time at which the initial backup ended.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ArcserveOracleWhatIsARCHIVE-LOG_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ArcserveOracleWhatIsARCHIVE-LOG-43\">[42]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Metadata\">Metadata<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Not all information stored on the computer is stored in files. Accurately recovering a complete system from scratch requires keeping track of this non-file data too.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Gresovnik1_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Gresovnik1-44\">[43]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>System description<\/dt>\n<dd>System specifications are needed to procure an exact replacement after a disaster.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boot_sector\" title=\"Boot sector\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bbdd6425a4bfc9ac894bb418356efbdb\">Boot sector<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>The boot sector can sometimes be recreated more easily than saving it. Still, it usually isn't a normal file and the system won't boot without it.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk_partitioning\" title=\"Disk partitioning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a94cfe718357ffdd656d910f525afee\">Partition<\/a> layout<\/dt>\n<dd>The layout of the original disk, as well as partition tables and filesystem settings, is needed to properly recreate the original system.<\/dd>\n<dt>File <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">metadata<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>Each file's permissions, owner, group, ACLs, and any other metadata need to be backed up for a restore to properly recreate the original environment.<\/dd>\n<dt>System metadata<\/dt>\n<dd>Different operating systems have different ways of storing configuration information. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Windows\" title=\"Microsoft Windows\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c181121bacd156ee0ddefde38acdb60a\">Microsoft Windows<\/a> keeps a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Windows_Registry\" title=\"Windows Registry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1e4a61bd83dd836464a380df41cd2cd\">registry<\/a> of system information that is more difficult to restore than a typical file.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Manipulation_of_data_and_dataset_optimization\">Manipulation of data and dataset optimization<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>It is frequently useful or required to manipulate the data being backed up to optimize the backup process. These manipulations can provide many benefits including improved backup speed, restore speed, data security, media usage and\/or reduced bandwidth requirements.\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_compression\" title=\"Data compression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cdb5c110a8fe3e451c905c5881f45cdd\">Compression<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>Various schemes can be employed to shrink the size of the source data to be stored so that it uses less storage space. Compression is frequently a built-in feature of tape drive hardware.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CherrySecuring15_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CherrySecuring15-45\">[44]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_deduplication\" title=\"Data deduplication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d9b17b0488fe7880a660a6af2d9ef71d\">Deduplication<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>When multiple similar systems are backed up to the same destination storage device, there exists the potential for much redundancy within the backed up data. For example, if 20 Windows workstations were backed up to the same archive file, they might share a common set of system files. The archive file only needs to store one copy of those files to be able to restore any one of those workstations. This technique can be applied at the file level or even on raw blocks of data, potentially resulting in a massive reduction in required storage space.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CherrySecuring15_45-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CherrySecuring15-45\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> Deduplication can occur on a server before any data moves to backup media, sometimes referred to as source\/client side deduplication. This approach also reduces bandwidth required to send backup data to its target media. The process can also occur at the target storage device, sometimes referred to as inline or back-end deduplication.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Replication_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Replication (computer science)\" data-key=\"708938d3d3aafc7ea88aeac4cc1d3f79\">Duplication<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>Sometimes backup jobs are duplicated to a second set of storage media. This can be done to rearrange the backup images to optimize restore speed or to have a second copy at a different location or on a different storage medium.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" title=\"Encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">Encryption<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>High-capacity removable storage media such as backup tapes present a data security risk if they are lost or stolen.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> Encrypting the data on these media can mitigate this problem, but presents new problems. Encryption is a CPU intensive process that can slow down backup speeds, and the security of the encrypted backups is only as effective as the security of the key management policy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CherrySecuring15_45-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CherrySecuring15-45\">[44]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multiplexing\" title=\"Multiplexing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b496caac0e88dfe9de209cf4482c5485\">Multiplexing<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>When there are many more computers to be backed up than there are destination storage devices, the ability to use a single storage device with several simultaneous backups can be useful.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrestonBackup07-02_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrestonBackup07-02-47\">[46]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt>Refactoring<\/dt>\n<dd>The process of rearranging the backup sets in a archive file is known as refactoring. For example, if a backup system uses a single tape each day to store the incremental backups for all the protected computers, restoring one of the computers could potentially require many tapes. Refactoring could be used to consolidate all the backups for a single computer onto a single tape. This is especially useful for backup systems that do <i>incrementals forever<\/i> style backups.<\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disk_staging\" title=\"Disk staging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"930f51d71f3dc83df2c5aa3c75a4431e\">Staging<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>Sometimes backup jobs are copied to a staging disk before being copied to tape.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PrestonBackup07-02_47-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PrestonBackup07-02-47\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> This process is sometimes referred to as D2D2T, an acronym for Disk to Disk to Tape. This can be useful if there is a problem matching the speed of the final destination device with the source device as is frequently faced in network-based backup systems. It can also serve as a centralized location for applying other data manipulation techniques.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Managing_the_backup_process\">Managing the backup process<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>As long as new data are being created and changes are being made, backups will need to be performed at frequent intervals. Individuals and organizations with anything from one computer to thousands of computer systems all require protection of data. The scales may be very different, but the objectives and limitations are essentially the same. Those who perform backups need to know how successful the backups are, regardless of scale.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Objectives\">Objectives<\/span><\/h3>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recovery_point_objective\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Recovery point objective\" data-key=\"d472662e1ea2c11def81041fa30d4c59\">Recovery point objective<\/a> (RPO) <\/dt>\n<dd>The point in time that the restarted infrastructure will reflect. Essentially, this is the roll-back that will be experienced as a result of the recovery. The most desirable RPO would be the point just prior to the data loss event. Making a more recent recovery point achievable requires increasing the frequency of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_synchronization\" title=\"File synchronization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"677d9a343f74b48fbe698851fc78b735\">synchronization<\/a> between the source data and the backup repository.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[47]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[48]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recovery_time_objective\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Recovery time objective\" data-key=\"d7a4992c9eff6142b374026a17197b05\">Recovery time objective<\/a> (RTO) <\/dt>\n<dd>The amount of time elapsed between disaster and restoration of business functions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[49]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_security\" title=\"Data security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7e9e5ee008f52b19272642e6cf8fb9\">Data security<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>In addition to preserving access to data for its owners, data must be restricted from unauthorized access. Backups must be performed in a manner that does not compromise the original owner's undertaking. This can be achieved with data encryption and proper media handling policies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LittleImplement03_51-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LittleImplement03-51\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_retention\" title=\"Data retention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7319085a4f0e9c849d3614b6d796cdb5\">Data retention<\/a> period <\/dt>\n<dd>Regulations and policy can lead to situations where backups are expected to be retained for a particular period, but not any further. Retaining backups after this period can lead to unwanted liability and sub-optimal use of storage media.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LittleImplement03_51-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LittleImplement03-51\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Limitations\">Limitations<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An effective backup scheme will take into consideration the following situational limitations<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NelsonPro11-2_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NelsonPro11-2-52\">[51]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Backup window<\/dt>\n<dd>The period of time when backups are permitted to run on a system is called the backup window. This is typically the time when the system sees the least usage and the backup process will have the least amount of interference with normal operations. The backup window is usually planned with users' convenience in mind. If a backup extends past the defined backup window, a decision is made whether it is more beneficial to abort the backup or to lengthen the backup window.<\/dd>\n<dt>Performance impact<\/dt>\n<dd>All backup schemes have some performance impact on the system being backed up. For example, for the period of time that a computer system is being backed up, the hard drive is busy reading files for the purpose of backing up, and its full bandwidth is no longer available for other tasks. Such impacts should be analyzed.<\/dd>\n<dt>Costs of hardware, software, labor<\/dt>\n<dd>All types of storage media have a finite capacity with a real cost. Matching the correct amount of storage capacity (over time) with the backup needs is an important part of the design of a backup scheme. Any backup scheme has some labor requirement, but complicated schemes have considerably higher labor requirements. The cost of commercial backup software can also be considerable.<\/dd>\n<dt>Network bandwidth<\/dt>\n<dd>Distributed backup systems can be affected by limited network bandwidth.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Implementation\">Implementation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Meeting the defined objectives in the face of the above limitations can be a difficult task. The tools and concepts below can make that task more achievable.\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Scheduling<\/dt>\n<dd>Using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Job_scheduler\" title=\"Job scheduler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"311109faae3891a977b2a95bc98b3ac2\">job scheduler<\/a> can greatly improve the reliability and consistency of backups by removing part of the human element. Many backup software packages include this functionality.<\/dd>\n<dt>Authentication<\/dt>\n<dd>Over the course of regular operations, the user accounts and\/or system agents that perform the backups need to be authenticated at some level. The power to copy all data off of or onto a system requires unrestricted access. Using an authentication mechanism is a good way to prevent the backup scheme from being used for unauthorized activity.<\/dd>\n<dt>Chain of trust <\/dt>\n<dd>Removable <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Storage_media\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Storage media\" data-key=\"bb3820c764949f5d522a4dd9ae68a5bd\">storage media<\/a> are physical items and must only be handled by trusted individuals. Establishing a chain of trusted individuals (and vendors) is critical to defining the security of the data.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Measuring_the_process\">Measuring the process<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>To ensure that the backup scheme is working as expected, the following best practices should be enacted<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AkhtarDatabase12_53-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AkhtarDatabase12-53\">[52]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DorionBackupReportingTool_54-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DorionBackupReportingTool-54\">[53]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PritchardCloud17_55-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PritchardCloud17-55\">[54]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup_validation\" title=\"Backup validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"83c1f9826f7e74da78c66c19ae4762d5\">Backup validation<\/a> <\/dt>\n<dd>(also known as \"backup success validation\") Provides information about the backup, and proves compliance to regulatory bodies outside the organization: for example, an insurance company in the USA might be required under <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"651fe0fa5498890d1a29b4c1e21db2db\">HIPAA<\/a> to demonstrate that its client data meet records retention requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[55]<\/a><\/sup> Disaster, data complexity, data value and increasing dependence upon ever-growing volumes of data all contribute to the anxiety around and dependence upon successful backups to ensure <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_continuity\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business continuity\" data-key=\"babcd776c145be41270f6ceb078be5a1\">business continuity<\/a>. Thus many organizations rely on third-party or \"independent\" solutions to test, validate, and optimize their backup operations (backup reporting).<\/dd>\n<dt>Reporting<\/dt>\n<dd>In larger configurations, reports are useful for monitoring media usage, device status, errors, vault coordination and other information about the backup process.<\/dd>\n<dt>Logging<\/dt>\n<dd>In addition to the history of computer generated reports, activity and change logs are useful for monitoring backup system events.<\/dd>\n<dt>Validation<\/dt>\n<dd>Many backup programs use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Checksum\" title=\"Checksum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0062da8a4cedf924c709cab7d64dc84\">checksums<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hash_function\" title=\"Hash function\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41a2b6efff3b63195b1820d4bedd197a\">hashes<\/a> to validate that the data was accurately copied. These offer several advantages. First, they allow data integrity to be verified without reference to the original file: if the file as copied to the archive file has the same checksum as the saved value, then it is very probably correct. Second, some backup programs can use checksums to avoid making redundant copies of files, and thus improve backup speed. This is particularly useful for the de-duplication process.<\/dd>\n<dt>Monitored backup<\/dt>\n<dd>Backup processes can be monitored locally via a software dashboard or by a third party monitoring center. Both alert users to any errors that occur during automated backups. Some third-party monitoring services also allow collection of historical metadata, that can be used for storage resource management purposes like projection of data growth and locating redundant primary storage capacity and reclaimable backup capacity.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Enterprise_client-server_backup\">Enterprise client-server backup<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Backup_diagram.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"a5c8a49b101b4001bf1b1a96b995cf82\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/86\/Backup_diagram.svg\/220px-Backup_diagram.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"197\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Backup_diagram.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"a5c8a49b101b4001bf1b1a96b995cf82\"><\/a><\/div>A computer sends its data to a backup server, during a scheduled backup window.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>\"Enterprise client-server\" backup software describes a class of software applications that back up data from a variety of client computers centrally to one or more server computers, with the particular needs of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Company\" title=\"Company\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20ca3ac4f7a819edb106414900801ad6\">enterprises<\/a> in mind. They may employ a scripted client\u2013server<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MacworldRetrospect9_57-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MacworldRetrospect9-57\">[56]<\/a><\/sup> backup model<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EnterpriseBackupChallenges_58-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EnterpriseBackupChallenges-58\">[57]<\/a><\/sup> with a backup <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Server_(computing)\" title=\"Server (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e759780e01fd6c300a33285ed217f5c3\">server<\/a> program running on one computer, and with small-footprint <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Client_(computing)\" title=\"Client (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4412996949bdde132c63ef6034a949e1\">client<\/a> programs (referred to as \"agents\" in some applications) running on the other computer(s) being backed up\u2014or alternatively as another process on the same computer as the backup server program. Enterprise-specific requirements<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EnterpriseBackupChallenges_58-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EnterpriseBackupChallenges-58\">[57]<\/a><\/sup> include the need to back up large amounts of data on a systematic basis, to adhere to legal requirements for the maintenance and archiving of files and data, and to satisfy short-recovery-time objectives. To satisfy these requirements, which World Backup Day (31 March)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CBC-WorldBackupDay_59-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CBC-WorldBackupDay-59\">[58]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ZDNetWorldBackupDay_60-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ZDNetWorldBackupDay-60\">[59]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eWeekWorldBackupDay_61-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eWeekWorldBackupDay-61\">[60]<\/a><\/sup> highlights, it is typical for an enterprise to appoint a backup administrator, who is a part of office administration rather than of the IT staff, and whose role is \"being the keeper of the data\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DorionBackupAdminRole_62-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DorionBackupAdminRole-62\">[61]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In a client-server backup application, the server program initiates the backup activity by the client program.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KissellTakeControl2.0_63-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KissellTakeControl2.0-63\">[62]<\/a><\/sup> This is distinct from a \"personal\" backup application such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_Machine_(macOS)\" title=\"Time Machine (macOS)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"079cfcf2246a990294abb0ef53e5def1\">Apple's Time Machine<\/a>, in which \"Time Machine runs on each Mac, independently of any other Macs, whether they're backing-up to the same destination or a different one.\" <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PondiniBackingUpMultipleMacs_64-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PondiniBackingUpMultipleMacs-64\">[63]<\/a><\/sup> If the backup server and client programs are running on separate computers, they are connected in either a single platform or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heterogeneous_network\" title=\"Heterogeneous network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"31f27b1fa32c9eacfbe872455a1e1900\">mixed platform network<\/a>. The client-server backup model was originated when magnetic tape was the only financially-feasible <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Storage_media\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b503582ca5f70192b25e38674270cde\">storage medium<\/a> for doing backups of multiple computers onto a single archive file<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ArchiveFileMayNotContainOld\/HistoricalMaterial_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ArchiveFileMayNotContainOld\/HistoricalMaterial-1\">[note 1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ArchiveMeansSomethingElseForClient-Server_65-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ArchiveMeansSomethingElseForClient-Server-65\">[note 2]<\/a><\/sup>;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TidBITSEMCShips_66-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TidBITSEMCShips-66\">[64]<\/a><\/sup> because magnetic tape is a sequential access medium, it was imperative (barring <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Performance\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65f649c80669f80284c9ca72d3974cb6\">\"multiplexed backup\"<\/a>) that the client computers be backed up one at a time\u2014as initiated by the backup server program.\n<\/p><p>What is described in the preceding paragraph is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup_Exec#Configuration\" title=\"Backup Exec\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57c05b787a68b21d8eda5dd09e5419b2\">\"two-tier\" configuration<\/a> (in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:BE15Deployment.png\" title=\"File:BE15Deployment.png\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2eaf353eb8209936898ea61f1142f7cc\">diagram<\/a>, the second-tier backup server program is named \"server\" preceded by the name of the application, and first-tier \"agents\" are backing up <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Source_file_integrity\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7211998275ffc97719a59f2cf3645b5\">interactive<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup_Exec#Add-on_components\" title=\"Backup Exec\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0310d583e1995fbd2cc6024bf97b681b\">server applications<\/a>). That configuration controls the backup server program via either an integrated GUI or a separate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#User_interface\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d240a09035f2bee9a5a5cb80f7977847\">Administration Console<\/a>. In some client-server backup applications, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup_Exec#Configuration\" title=\"Backup Exec\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57c05b787a68b21d8eda5dd09e5419b2\">\"three-tier\" configuration<\/a> splits off the backup and restore functions of the server program to run on what are called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Media_server\" title=\"Media server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d2c5067e7138c4ee185cbca427c476b\">media servers<\/a>\u2014computers to which devices containing archive files are attached either locally or as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network-attached_storage\" title=\"Network-attached storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60f0d4ba6ddd4921841f81bd95b02839\">Network-attached storage (NAS)<\/a>. In those applications the decision on which media server a script is to run on is controlled using another program called either a master server<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PivotalBacking_UpDBsWithNetBackup_67-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PivotalBacking_UpDBsWithNetBackup-67\">[65]<\/a><\/sup> or an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Central_Admin_Server_Option_architecture.png\" title=\"File:Central Admin Server Option architecture.png\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cf86b71171807a1f0cd6bdcea9f9c6c\">optional central admin. server<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecHowCASOWorks_68-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecHowCASOWorks-68\">[66]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Performance\">Performance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard_disk_drive#Price_evolution\" title=\"Hard disk drive\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2cfae6508fd964af346f2da7a54dac44\">steady improvement in hard disk drive price per byte<\/a> has made feasible a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Manipulation_of_data_and_dataset_optimization\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f42d45329c7f87c8e475e9a5397ef059\">disk-to-disk-to-tape<\/a> strategy, combining the speed of disk backup and restore with the capacity and low cost of tape for offsite archival and disaster recovery purposes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FernandoCombineDiskTapeBenefits_69-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FernandoCombineDiskTapeBenefits-69\">[67]<\/a><\/sup> This, with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comparison_of_file_systems#File_capabilities\" title=\"Comparison of file systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116d7eba3787e8603ed71603b12b20c8\">file system technology<\/a>, has led to features suited to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Manipulation_of_data_and_dataset_optimization\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f42d45329c7f87c8e475e9a5397ef059\">optimization<\/a> such as:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Improved disk-to-disk-to-tape capabilities<\/dt>\n<dd>Enable automated transfers to tape for safe offsite storage of disk archive files that were created for fast onsite restores.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EMCRetroWindows7_70-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EMCRetroWindows7-70\">[68]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupAboutReplicationDirector_71-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupAboutReplicationDirector-71\">[69]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecDuplicatingBackedUpData_72-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecDuplicatingBackedUpData-72\">[70]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt>Create synthetic full backups<\/dt>\n<dd>For example, onto tapes from existing disk archive files\u2014by copying multiple backups of the same source(s) from one archive file to another. This is termed a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Incremental_backup#Synthetic_full_backup\" title=\"Incremental backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"491d5b964a2a16ad22b9eab9f6f077ee\">\"synthetic full backup\"<\/a> because, after the transfer, the destination archive file contains the same data it would after full backups.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EMCRetroWindows7_70-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EMCRetroWindows7-70\">[68]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupAboutSyntheticBackups_73-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupAboutSyntheticBackups-73\">[71]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecSyntheticFullBackup_74-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecSyntheticFullBackup-74\">[72]<\/a><\/sup> One application can exclude<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectExclusionInclusion_75-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectExclusionInclusion-75\">[note 3]<\/a><\/sup> files and folders from the synthetic full backup.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectWindows12UG-15\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Automated data grooming<\/dt>\n<dd>Frees up space on disk archive files by removing out-of-date backup data\u2014usually based on an administrator-defined retention period.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-eWeekWorldBackupDay_61-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-eWeekWorldBackupDay-61\">[60]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FernandoCombineDiskTapeBenefits_69-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FernandoCombineDiskTapeBenefits-69\">[67]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EMCRetroWindows7_70-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EMCRetroWindows7-70\">[68]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupStorageLifecyclePolicy_76-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupStorageLifecyclePolicy-76\">[73]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecDataGrooming_77-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecDataGrooming-77\">[74]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TechTargetTivoliSMVersusTraditional_78-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TechTargetTivoliSMVersusTraditional-78\">[75]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-79\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-79\">[note 4]<\/a><\/sup> One method of removing data is to keep the last backup of each day\/week\/month for the last respective week\/month\/specified-number-of-months, permitting compliance with regulatory requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectMac12UG_80-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectMac12UG-80\">[76]<\/a><\/sup> One application has a \"performance-optimized grooming\" mode that only removes outdated information from an archive file that it can quickly delete.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TitBITSMacintosh13_81-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TitBITSMacintosh13-81\">[77]<\/a><\/sup> This is the only mode of grooming allowed for cloud archive files, and is also up to 5 times as fast when used on locally stored disk archive files. The \"storage-optimized grooming\" mode reclaims more space because it rewrites the archive file, and in this application also permits exclusion compliance with the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Data_Protection_Regulation#Right_to_erasure\" title=\"General Data Protection Regulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9099929c4595594b2c739b296f4a0b0f\">GDPR \"right of erasure\" <\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectKnowledgeBase_82-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectKnowledgeBase-82\">[78]<\/a><\/sup> via rules<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectExclusionInclusion_75-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectExclusionInclusion-75\">[note 3]<\/a><\/sup>\u2014that can instead be used for other filtering.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TitBITSMacintosh15.1.1_83-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TitBITSMacintosh15.1.1-83\">[79]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt>Multithreaded backup server<\/dt>\n<dd>Capable of simultaneously performing multiple backup, restore, and copy operations in separate \"activity threads\" (once needed only by those who could afford multiple tape drives).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EnterpriseBackupChallenges_58-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EnterpriseBackupChallenges-58\">[57]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupMultistreamMultiplex_84-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupMultistreamMultiplex-84\">[80]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecRunConcurrentJobs_85-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecRunConcurrentJobs-85\">[81]<\/a><\/sup> In one application, all the categories of information for a particular \"backup server\" are stored by it; when an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#User_interface\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d240a09035f2bee9a5a5cb80f7977847\">\"Administration Console\"<\/a> process is started, its process synchronizes information with all running LAN\/WAN backup servers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TidBITSEMCShips_66-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TidBITSEMCShips-66\">[64]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt>Block-level incremental backup<\/dt>\n<dd>The ability to back up only the blocks of a file that have changed, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Incremental_backup#Block_level_incremental\" title=\"Incremental backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8a940fb7c10551e5e211d6e76c54a61\">refinement of incremental backup<\/a> that saves space<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TitBITSMacintosh11_86-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TitBITSMacintosh11-86\">[82]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupBlockLevelOracle_87-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupBlockLevelOracle-87\">[83]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecBlockLevel_88-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecBlockLevel-88\">[84]<\/a><\/sup> and may save time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EnterpriseBackupChallenges_58-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EnterpriseBackupChallenges-58\">[57]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WhitehouseFile-levelBlock-levelDedup_89-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WhitehouseFile-levelBlock-levelDedup-89\">[85]<\/a><\/sup> Such <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Files\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"602e4c7ab829023544f559cdb8f45453\">partial file copying<\/a> is especially applicable to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">database<\/a>.<\/dd>\n<dt>\"Instant\" scanning of client volumes<\/dt>\n<dd>Uses the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/USN_Journal\" title=\"USN Journal\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4beb65033de3957b3f0764f43387daf3\">USN Journal<\/a> on Windows NTFS and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FSEvents\" title=\"FSEvents\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c72a994817b5b170487b6dd187b22b5\">FSEvents<\/a> on macOS to reduce the scanning component<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectKnowledgeBase_82-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectKnowledgeBase-82\">[78]<\/a><\/sup> time on both incremental backups, fitting more sources into the scheduled <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Limitations\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50878012787bbfcbb542732b13402b29\">backup window<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EnterpriseBackupChallenges_58-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EnterpriseBackupChallenges-58\">[57]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupAccelerator_90-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupAccelerator-90\">[86]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecDeterminingIfFileBackedUp_91-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecDeterminingIfFileBackedUp-91\">[87]<\/a><\/sup> and on restores.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TidBITSMac10_92-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TidBITSMac10-92\">[88]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt>Cramming or evading the scheduled <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Limitations\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50878012787bbfcbb542732b13402b29\">backup window<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd>One application has the \"multiplexed backup\" capability of cramming the scheduled <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Limitations\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50878012787bbfcbb542732b13402b29\">backup window<\/a> by sending data from multiple clients to a single tape drive simultaneously; \"this is useful for low end clients with slow throughput ... [that] cannot send data fast enough to keep the tape drive busy .... will reduce the performance of restores.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupMultistreamMultiplex_84-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupMultistreamMultiplex-84\">[80]<\/a><\/sup> Another application allows an enterprise that has computers transiently connecting to the network over a long workday to evade the scheduled window by using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Retrospect_(software)#Small-group_features\" title=\"Retrospect (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b9c6bb5455aef170bf563addb442ff0\">Proactive scripts<\/a>.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Source_file_integrity\">Source file integrity<\/span><\/h3>\n<dl><dt>Backing up interactive applications via pausing<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interactive_computing\" title=\"Interactive computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53555c98f026782b22bb58b81dd2f0e1\">Interactive applications<\/a> can be protected by having their services <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quiesce\" title=\"Quiesce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ed51745ac7b0ed5cc94d6d1a9dfab3b\">paused<\/a> while their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Live_data\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1803c1d2ef20eb18142353aeb727360e\">live data<\/a> is being backed up, and then <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/unpause\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wikt:unpause\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">unpaused<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EnterpriseBackupSoftware:_WorkstationsEmailDatabases_93-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EnterpriseBackupSoftware:_WorkstationsEmailDatabases-93\">[89]<\/a><\/sup> Alternatively, the backup application can back up <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Snapshot_(computer_storage)\" title=\"Snapshot (computer storage)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c9541383cbc196ef5e5c643f643b031\">a snapshot<\/a> initiated at a natural pause.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectWindows12UG-15\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectKnowledgeBase_82-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectKnowledgeBase-82\">[78]<\/a><\/sup> Some enterprise backup applications accomplish pausing and unpausing of services via built-in provisions\u2014for many specific databases and other interactive applications\u2014that become automatically part of the backup software's script execution; these provisions may be purchased separately.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupDatabase&AppAgentCompatibility_94-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupDatabase&AppAgentCompatibility-94\">[90]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecAgents&Options_95-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecAgents&Options-95\">[91]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectWindows12UG-15\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> However another application has also added <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scripting_language#Extension\/embeddable_languages\" title=\"Scripting language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a07d3a4864de2b059689ae53423c2d9d\">\"script hooks\"<\/a> that enable the optional automatic execution\u2014at specific events during runs of a GUI-coded backup script\u2014of portions of an external script containing commands pre-written in a standard <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scripting_language\" title=\"Scripting language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d47750cd366c9a2e8ad377014628e5a2\">scripting language<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectKnowledgeBase_82-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectKnowledgeBase-82\">[78]<\/a><\/sup> For some databases\u2014such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MongoDB\" title=\"MongoDB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e550ba8a593d3e140b4b05600d42e347\">MongoDB<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MySQL\" title=\"MySQL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e19ee1594f7d14ed829012c31e3c1c51\">MySQL<\/a>\u2014that can be run on filesystems that do not support snapshots, the external script can pause writing during backup.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectKnowledgeBase_82-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectKnowledgeBase-82\">[78]<\/a><\/sup> Since the external script is provided by an installation's backup administrator, its code activated by the \"script hooks\" may accomplish not only data protection\u2014via pausing\/unpausing interactive services\u2014<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectKnowledgeBase_82-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectKnowledgeBase-82\">[78]<\/a><\/sup>but also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#User_interface\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d240a09035f2bee9a5a5cb80f7977847\">integration with monitoring systems<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectMac14UG_96-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectMac14UG-96\">[92]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Backing up interactive applications via coordinated snapshots<\/dt>\n<dd>Some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interactive_computing\" title=\"Interactive computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53555c98f026782b22bb58b81dd2f0e1\">interactive applications<\/a> such as databases must have all portions of their component files coordinated while their <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Live_data\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1803c1d2ef20eb18142353aeb727360e\">live data<\/a> is being backed up. One database system\u2014<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PostgreSQL\" title=\"PostgreSQL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69c5fd299d3a1f003dfce0b6e1ec39ea\">PostgreSQL<\/a>\u2014can do this via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PostgreSQL#Multiversion_concurrency_control_(MVCC)\" title=\"PostgreSQL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5aff504b0df2b5fa0e449ab3d9ae2e7a\">its own \"snapshotting\" MVCC<\/a> running on filesystems that do not support snapshots, and can therefore be backed up without pausing using an external script containing commands that use \"script hooks\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectKnowledgeBase_82-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectKnowledgeBase-82\">[78]<\/a><\/sup> Another equivalent approach is to use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comparison_of_file_systems#File_capabilities\" title=\"Comparison of file systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116d7eba3787e8603ed71603b12b20c8\">some filesystems' capability<\/a> of taking <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Snapshot_(computer_storage)\" title=\"Snapshot (computer storage)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c9541383cbc196ef5e5c643f643b031\">a snapshot<\/a>, and to back up the snapshot without pausing the application itself. An enterprise backup application using filesystem snapshotting can be used either to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Veeam_Backup_%26_Replication\" title=\"Veeam Backup & Replication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd4c6109b62d4152368d66d1d9596197\">back up all user applications running on a virtual machine<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VladanVeeamBackup&Replication9-5-u3_97-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VladanVeeamBackup&Replication9-5-u3-97\">[93]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectVirtualProduct_98-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectVirtualProduct-98\">[94]<\/a><\/sup> or to back up a particular interactive application that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shadow_Copy#Overview\" title=\"Shadow Copy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57cbfc25357646b7d9973502b3f1b9a3\">directly uses its filesystem's snapshot capability<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectWindows12UG-15\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Conceptually this approach can still be considered client-server backup; the snapshotting capability by itself constitutes the client, and the backup server runs as a separate process that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Enterprise_client-server_backup\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3f0ac5694546c536ca468f4e902ee54\">initiates (second paragraph)<\/a> and then reads the snapshot on the machine that generated it. The software installed on each machine to be backed up is referred to as an \"agent\"; if \"agents\" are being used to back up all user applications running on a virtual machine, one or more such \"agents\" are controlled by a console.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VeemBackup&ReplicationConsole_99-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VeemBackup&ReplicationConsole-99\">[95]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectVirtualProduct_98-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectVirtualProduct-98\">[94]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"User_interface\">User interface<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>To accommodate the requirements of a backup administrator who may not be part of the IT staff with access to the secure server area, enterprise client-server software may include features such as:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Administration Console<\/dt>\n<dd><\/dd>\n<dd>The backup administrator's backup server <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/GUI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"GUI\" data-key=\"fed5961d0a670fa7b63574d06e59fc93\">GUI<\/a> management and near-term reporting tool.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DorionBackupReportingTool_54-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DorionBackupReportingTool-54\">[53]<\/a><\/sup> Its window shows the selected backup server, with a standard toolbar on top. A sidebar on the left or navigation bar shows the clickable categories of backup server information for it; each category shows a panel, which may have a specialized toolbar below or in place of the standard toolbar. The built-in categories include activities\u2014thus providing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Measuring_the_process\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3958406824e1d4ff81a20dfd0e59ed4d\">monitored backup<\/a>, past backups of each individual source, scripts\/policies\/jobs (terminology depending on the application), sources (directly\/indirectly), archive files, and storage devices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectMac14UG_96-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectMac14UG-96\">[92]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupAdminGuideVol.1_100-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupAdminGuideVol.1-100\">[96]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecAdminConsole_101-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecAdminConsole-101\">[97]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt>User-initiated backups and restores<\/dt>\n<dd>These supplement the administrator-initiated backups and restores which backup applications have always had, and relieve the administrator of time-consuming tasks.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DorionBackupAdminRole_62-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DorionBackupAdminRole-62\">[61]<\/a><\/sup> The user designates the date of the past backup from which files or folders are to be restored\u2014once IT staff has mounted the proper volume(s) of the relevant archive file on the backup server.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FernandoCombineDiskTapeBenefits_69-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FernandoCombineDiskTapeBenefits-69\">[67]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectMac14UG_96-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectMac14UG-96\">[92]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupOperationalRestore_102-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupOperationalRestore-102\">[98]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecUserRetrieve_103-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecUserRetrieve-103\">[99]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt>High-level\/medium-term reports supplementing the Administration Console<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DorionBackupReportingTool_54-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DorionBackupReportingTool-54\">[53]<\/a><\/sup><\/dt>\n<dd>Within one application's Console panel displayed by clicking the name of the backup server itself in the sidebar, an activities pane on the top left of the displayed <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dashboard_(business)\" title=\"Dashboard (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efeb942e7967dcf7a9477c6ed1062d94\">Dashboard<\/a> has a moving bar graph for each activity going on for the backup server together with a pause and stop button for the activity. Three more <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Measuring_the_process\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3958406824e1d4ff81a20dfd0e59ed4d\">backup validation<\/a> panes give the results of activities in the past week: backups each day, sources backed up, and sources not backed up. Finally a storage <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Measuring_the_process\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3958406824e1d4ff81a20dfd0e59ed4d\">reporting<\/a> pane has a line for each archive file, showing the last-modified date and depictions of the total bytes used and available.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TitBITSMacintosh11_86-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TitBITSMacintosh11-86\">[82]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectMac14UG_96-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectMac14UG-96\">[92]<\/a><\/sup> For the application's Windows variant, the Dashboard acts as a display-only substitute for a non-existent Console<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectWindows12UG-15\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\u2014but was upgraded in 2019 into an optional two-way Web-based Management Console.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectKnowledgeBase_82-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectKnowledgeBase-82\">[78]<\/a><\/sup> Other applications have a separate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Measuring_the_process\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3958406824e1d4ff81a20dfd0e59ed4d\">reporting and monitored backup<\/a> facility that can cover multiple backup servers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupOperationsManager_104-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupOperationsManager-104\">[100]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecEnterpriseDataProtection_105-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecEnterpriseDataProtection-105\">[101]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt>E-mailing of notifications about operations to chosen recipients<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DorionBackupReportingTool_54-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DorionBackupReportingTool-54\">[53]<\/a><\/sup><\/dt>\n<dd>Can alert the recipient to, e.g., errors or warnings, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Measuring_the_process\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3958406824e1d4ff81a20dfd0e59ed4d\">extracts of logging<\/a> to assist in pinpointing problems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectWindows12UG-15\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupOperationsManager_104-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupOperationsManager-104\">[100]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecConfigureNotifications_106-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecConfigureNotifications-106\">[102]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt>Integration with monitoring systems<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DorionBackupReportingTool_54-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DorionBackupReportingTool-54\">[53]<\/a><\/sup><\/dt>\n<dd>Such systems provide longer-term <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Measuring_the_process\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3958406824e1d4ff81a20dfd0e59ed4d\">backup validation<\/a>. One application's administrators can deploy custom scripts that\u2014invoking <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Webhook\" title=\"Webhook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8076f15877fbaa1c99cb365be6b805e0\">webhook<\/a> code via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Source_file_integrity\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7211998275ffc97719a59f2cf3645b5\">script hooks<\/a>\u2014populate such systems as the freeware <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nagios\" title=\"Nagios\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1368e5a26c45d363b4e3f2e48a9134bb\">Nagios<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IFTTT\" title=\"IFTTT\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27a9e23ff498979a36d8a2f10157a337\">IFTTT<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Freemium\" title=\"Freemium\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f85b0c889c48065de4ad3e46f642ff79\">freemium<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Slack_(software)\" title=\"Slack (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"82aa29f645c4f7b632a91d64e6ef5bf1\">Slack<\/a> with script successes and failures corresponding to the activities category of the Console, per-source backup information corresponding to the past backups category of the Console, and media requests.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectMac14UG_96-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectMac14UG-96\">[92]<\/a><\/sup> Another application has integration with two of the developer's monitoring systems, one that is part of the client-server backup application and one that is more generalized.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupOperationsManager_104-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupOperationsManager-104\">[100]<\/a><\/sup> Yet another application has integration with a monitoring system that is part of the client-server backup application,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecJobMonitor_107-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecJobMonitor-107\">[103]<\/a><\/sup> but can also be integrated with Nagios.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecNagiosPlugins_108-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecNagiosPlugins-108\">[104]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-LAN.2FWAN.2FCloud\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LAN\/WAN\/Cloud\">LAN\/WAN\/Cloud<\/span><\/h3>\n<dl><dt>Advanced network client support<\/dt>\n<dd>All applications includes support for multiple network interfaces.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EnterpriseBackupChallenges_58-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EnterpriseBackupChallenges-58\">[57]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EMCRetroMac8_109-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EMCRetroMac8-109\">[105]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecConfiguringNetworkOptionsBackup_110-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecConfiguringNetworkOptionsBackup-110\">[106]<\/a><\/sup> However one application, unless <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_deduplication#Source_versus_target_deduplication\" title=\"Data deduplication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4514bd2b6fc140bdd38699aff1c7447a\">deduplication is done by a separate sub-application between the client and the backup server<\/a>, cannot provide \"resilient network connections\" for machines on a WAN.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupDeduplication_111-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupDeduplication-111\">[107]<\/a><\/sup> One application can extend support to \"remote\" clients anywhere on the Internet for a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Retrospect_(software)#Small-group_features\" title=\"Retrospect (software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b9c6bb5455aef170bf563addb442ff0\">Proactive<\/a> script and for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#User_interface\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d240a09035f2bee9a5a5cb80f7977847\">user-initiated backups\/restores<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectKnowledgeBase_82-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectKnowledgeBase-82\">[78]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dt>Cloud seeding and Large-Scale Recovery<\/dt>\n<dd>Because of a large amount of data already backed up,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EnterpriseBackupChallenges_58-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EnterpriseBackupChallenges-58\">[57]<\/a><\/sup> an enterprise adopting <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Storage_media\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b503582ca5f70192b25e38674270cde\">cloud backup<\/a> likely will need to do <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seed_loading\" title=\"Seed loading\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc0882bdf5626827b3cbf93efc23a213\">\"seeding\"<\/a>. This service uses a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup#Performance\" title=\"Backup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65f649c80669f80284c9ca72d3974cb6\">synthetic full backup<\/a> to copy a large locally-stored archive file onto a large-capacity disk device, which is then physically shipped to the cloud storage site and uploaded.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WhatIsAWSSnowball?_112-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WhatIsAWSSnowball?-112\">[108]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RouseCloudSeedingDef_113-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RouseCloudSeedingDef-113\">[109]<\/a><\/sup> After the large initial upload, the enterprise's backup software may facilitate reconfiguration for writing to and reading from the archive file incrementally in its cloud location.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RetrospectChangingPathsMac_114-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RetrospectChangingPathsMac-114\">[110]<\/a><\/sup> The service may need to be employed in reverse for faster <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disaster_recovery\" title=\"Disaster recovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"33aecbc3a0a3d980c88f37fbeb85d1a6\">large-scale data recovery<\/a> times than would be possible via an Internet connection.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WhatIsAWSSnowball?_112-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WhatIsAWSSnowball?-112\">[108]<\/a><\/sup> Some applications offer seeding and large-scale recovery via third-party services, which may use a high-speed Internet channel to\/from cloud storage rather than a shipable physical device.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NetBackupAmazonStorageGateway_115-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NetBackupAmazonStorageGateway-115\">[111]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BackupExecCloudConnector_116-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BackupExecCloudConnector-116\">[112]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<dl><dt>About backup<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>Backup software\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_backup_software\" title=\"List of backup software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0387f91ee7924fa8084058957efa876d\">List of backup software<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_backup_terms\" title=\"Glossary of backup terms\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a681b2ce86a585df687c3e055d22d45\">Glossary of backup terms<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_backup_service\" title=\"Remote backup service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ca3eed5e7713d3ca9e1ee0b3e6dfc74\">Remote backup service<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_backup_appliance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Virtual backup appliance\" data-key=\"66c2bff1f6902fa03ed846a3cfb4be1a\">Virtual backup appliance<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Related topics<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_consistency\" title=\"Data consistency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"36d726866dc15d9e4f6c027f5450192a\">Data consistency<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_degradation\" title=\"Data degradation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b7e9eb3a48310df6161096a7b2d04475\">Data degradation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_proliferation\" title=\"Data proliferation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"385ff440045f7fea4690ac382bed09e8\">Data proliferation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_dump\" title=\"Database dump\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5666491f2faa63587dd79eb1b58ff559\">Database dump<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_preservation\" title=\"Digital preservation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea48f80fdfaa95d7a085e2cde2d342a4\">Digital preservation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disaster_recovery_and_business_continuity_auditing\" title=\"Disaster recovery and business continuity auditing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7e7f8f6b9b0935c9ae328eaeb5d7fd8b\">Disaster recovery and business continuity auditing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_synchronization\" title=\"File synchronization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"677d9a343f74b48fbe698851fc78b735\">File synchronization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_repository\" title=\"Information repository\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"983d22d660b1bb04da4b544a8ff35040\">Information repository<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ArchiveFileMayNotContainOld\/HistoricalMaterial-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ArchiveFileMayNotContainOld\/HistoricalMaterial_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ArchiveFileMayNotContainOld\/HistoricalMaterial_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">In contrast to everyday use of the term \"archive\", the data stored in an \"archive file\" is not necessarily old or of historical interest.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ArchiveMeansSomethingElseForClient-Server-65\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ArchiveMeansSomethingElseForClient-Server_65-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Several client-server applications use the term \"archiving\" to describe a backup operation that deletes data from a client source once the data's backup is complete. <cite class=\"citation web\">Bokelman, Seth (26 February 2012). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#M112727\">\"what is archiving in Netbackup?\"<\/a>. <i>VOX<\/i>. Veritas Technologies LLC<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=VOX&rft.atitle=what+is+archiving+in+Netbackup%3F&rft.date=2012-02-26&rft.aulast=Bokelman&rft.aufirst=Seth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvox.veritas.com%2Ft5%2FNetBackup%2Fwhat-is-archiving-in-Netbackup%2Fm-p%2F490153%23M112727&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/download.retrospect.com\/docs\/mac\/v14\/user_guide\/Retrospect_Mac_User_Guide-EN.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Retrospect \u00ae 14.0 Mac User's Guide\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Retrospect<\/i>. Retrospect Inc. March 2017. pp. 124-126(Archiving)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">28 March<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Retrospect&rft.atitle=Retrospect+%C2%AE+14.0+Mac+User%27s+Guide&rft.pages=124-126%28Archiving%29&rft.date=2017-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.retrospect.com%2Fdocs%2Fmac%2Fv14%2Fuser_guide%2FRetrospect_Mac_User_Guide-EN.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.veritas.com\/support\/en_US\/article.100023956\" target=\"_blank\">\"Backup Exec Archiving Option is no longer supported for Backup Exec 15 Feature Pack 1\"<\/a>. <i>Veritas Support<\/i>. Veritas Technologies LLC. 30 June 2015<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Veritas+Support&rft.atitle=Backup+Exec+Archiving+Option+is+no+longer+supported+for+Backup+Exec+15+Feature+Pack+1&rft.date=2015-06-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.veritas.com%2Fsupport%2Fen_US%2Farticle.100023956&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RetrospectExclusionInclusion-75\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-RetrospectExclusionInclusion_75-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RetrospectExclusionInclusion_75-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Exclusion and\/or inclusion is done with Selectors in the Windows variant; this misleading term has been changed to Rules in the Macintosh variant.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-79\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-79\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Some backup applications\u2014notably <a href=\"#History\" title=\"Rsync\">rsync<\/a> and <a href=\"#File_backup_and_sharing_services\" title=\"Code42\">CrashPlan<\/a>\u2014term removing backup data \"pruning\" instead of \"grooming\".<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"https:\/\/linux.die.net\/man\/1\/rsync\" target=\"_blank\">[1]<\/a><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external autonumber\" href=\"#Prune\">[2]<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-AHDictionaryBackup-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AHDictionaryBackup_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ahdictionary.com\/word\/search.html?q=backup\" target=\"_blank\">\"back\u2022up\"<\/a>. <i>The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language<\/i>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language&rft.atitle=back%E2%80%A2up&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3Dbackup&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kabooza.com\/globalsurvey.html\" target=\"_blank\">Global Backup Survey<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100327235844\/http:\/\/www.kabooza.com\/globalsurvey.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 27 March 2010 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>. Retrieved 15 February 2009<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NelsonPro11-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NelsonPro11_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Nelson, S. (2011). \"Chapter 1: Introduction to Backup and Recovery\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=r4uEEsq3CJYC&printsec=frontcover\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Pro Data Backup and Recovery<\/i><\/a>. Apress. pp. 1\u201316. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-4302-2663-5<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction+to+Backup+and+Recovery&rft.btitle=Pro+Data+Backup+and+Recovery&rft.pages=1-16&rft.pub=Apress&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4302-2663-5&rft.au=Nelson%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr4uEEsq3CJYC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CougiasTheBackup03-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CougiasTheBackup03_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Cougias, D.J.; Heiberger, E.L.; Koop, K. (2003). \"Chapter 1: What's a Disaster Without a Recovery?\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=eLviiTag5A0C&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Backup Book: Disaster Recovery from Desktop to Data Center<\/i><\/a>. Network Frontiers. pp. 1\u201314. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-9729039-0-9.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+What%27s+a+Disaster+Without+a+Recovery%3F&rft.btitle=The+Backup+Book%3A+Disaster+Recovery+from+Desktop+to+Data+Center&rft.pages=1-14&rft.pub=Network+Frontiers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-9729039-0-9&rft.au=Cougias%2C+D.J.&rft.au=Heiberger%2C+E.L.&rft.au=Koop%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeLviiTag5A0C%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DeanComp09-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-DeanComp09_6-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DeanComp09_6-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DeanComp09_6-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DeanComp09_6-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Dean, T. (2009). \"Chapter 14: Ensuring Integrity and Availability\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1QEMAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA602\" target=\"_blank\"><i>CompTIA Network+ 2009 in Depth<\/i><\/a>. Cengage Learning. pp. 571\u2013614. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-59863-878-3<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+14%3A+Ensuring+Integrity+and+Availability&rft.btitle=CompTIA+Network%2B+2009+in+Depth&rft.pages=571-614&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-59863-878-3&rft.au=Dean%2C+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1QEMAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA602&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sysgen.ca\/five-key-backup-questions\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Five key questions to ask about your backup solution\"<\/a>. <i>sysgen.ca<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304042343\/http:\/\/sysgen.ca\/five-key-backup-questions\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 March 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 September<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sysgen.ca&rft.atitle=Five+key+questions+to+ask+about+your+backup+solution&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsysgen.ca%2Ffive-key-backup-questions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tech-faq.com\/incremental-backup.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">Incremental Backup<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160621090117\/http:\/\/www.tech-faq.com\/incremental-backup.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 21 June 2016 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>. Retrieved 10 March 2006<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LeonSoftware15-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LeonSoftware15_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Leon, A. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=pYcTBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA65\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Software Configuration Management Handbook<\/i><\/a>. Artech House. p. 65. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-60807-844-8<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Software+Configuration+Management+Handbook&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Artech+House&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-60807-844-8&rft.au=Leon%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpYcTBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sertdatarecovery.com\/business-data-backup-disaster-recovery-planning-resource.html\" target=\"_blank\">Continuous Protection white paper<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304072358\/http:\/\/www.sertdatarecovery.com\/business-data-backup-disaster-recovery-planning-resource.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 4 March 2016 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>. (1 October 2005). Retrieved 10 March 2007<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.storagesearch.com\/engenio-art2.html\" target=\"_blank\">Disk to Disk Backup versus Tape \u2013 War or Truce?<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160712235906\/http:\/\/www.storagesearch.com\/engenio-art2.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 12 July 2016 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> (9 December 2004). Retrieved 10 March 2007<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime_12-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime_12-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ForbesKeepingDataLongTime_12-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Coughlin, Tom (29 June 2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/tomcoughlin\/2014\/06\/29\/keeping-data-for-a-long-time\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Keeping Data for a Long Time\"<\/a>. <i>Forbes<\/i>. Forbes Media LLC. para. Magnetic Tapes(popular formats, storage life), para. Hard Disk Drives(active archive), para. First consider flash memory in archiving(... may not have good media archive life)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=Keeping+Data+for+a+Long+Time&rft.pages=para.+Magnetic+Tapes%28popular+formats%2C+storage+life%29%2C+para.+Hard+Disk+Drives%28active+archive%29%2C+para.+First+consider+flash+memory+in+archiving%28...+may+not+have+good+media+archive+life%29&rft.date=2014-06-29&rft.aulast=Coughlin&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Ftomcoughlin%2F2014%2F06%2F29%2Fkeeping-data-for-a-long-time%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SpectraLogicDigitalDataStorageOutlook2017-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SpectraLogicDigitalDataStorageOutlook2017_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/spectralogic.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/white-paper-digital-data-storage-outlook-2017-v3.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Digital Data Storage Outlook 2017\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Spectra<\/i>. Spectra Logic. 2017. p. 14(Tape)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">11 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Spectra&rft.atitle=Digital+Data+Storage+Outlook+2017&rft.pages=14%28Tape%29&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectralogic.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fwhite-paper-digital-data-storage-outlook-2017-v3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.tomshardware.com\/2007\/04\/18\/bye_bye_tape\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bye Bye Tape, Hello 5.3TB eSATA\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">22 April<\/span> 2007<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bye+Bye+Tape%2C+Hello+5.3TB+eSATA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tomshardware.com%2F2007%2F04%2F18%2Fbye_bye_tape%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RetrospectWindows12UG-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RetrospectWindows12UG_15-8\"><sup><i><b>i<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/download.retrospect.com\/docs\/win\/v12\/user_guide\/Retrospect_Win_User_Guide-EN.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Retrospect \u00ae 12 Windows User's Guide\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Retrospect<\/i>. Retrospect Inc. 2017. pp. 30-31(deduplication via \"Snapshots\"\u2014a Retrospect term which predates and is distinct from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Snapshot_(computer_storage)\" title=\"Snapshot (computer storage)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c9541383cbc196ef5e5c643f643b031\">Snapshot_(computer_storage)<\/a>), 31-32(Dashboard), 41-43(removable disk drives), 216-218(selector as subset filter for synthetic full backups), 230-233(Scripted Verification), 280(Multiple Executions), 369(Duplicate Execution Options), 420(Startup Preferences\u2014Launcher for auto-launch), 426-427(E-mail), 433-434(Open File Backup Tips\u2014VSS snapshot at natural pause), 530-544(SQL Server Agent\u2014coordinating VSS snapshot), 545-566(Exchange Server Agent\u2014coordinating VSS snapshot)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2 September<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Retrospect&rft.atitle=Retrospect+%C2%AE+12+Windows+User%27s+Guide&rft.pages=30-31%28deduplication+via+%22Snapshots%22%E2%80%94a+Retrospect+term+which+predates+and+is+distinct+from+Snapshot_%28computer_storage%29%29%2C+31-32%28Dashboard%29%2C+41-43%28removable+disk+drives%29%2C+216-218%28selector+as+subset+filter+for+synthetic+full+backups%29%2C+230-233%28Scripted+Verification%29%2C+280%28Multiple+Executions%29%2C+369%28Duplicate+Execution+Options%29%2C+420%28Startup+Preferences%E2%80%94Launcher+for+auto-launch%29%2C+426-427%28E-mail%29%2C+433-434%28Open+File+Backup+Tips%E2%80%94VSS+snapshot+at+natural+pause%29%2C+530-544%28SQL+Server+Agent%E2%80%94coordinating+VSS+snapshot%29%2C+545-566%28Exchange+Server+Agent%E2%80%94coordinating+VSS+snapshot%29&rft.date=2017&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdownload.retrospect.com%2Fdocs%2Fwin%2Fv12%2Fuser_guide%2FRetrospect_Win_User_Guide-EN.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dcig.com\/2009\/07\/symantec-shows-backup-exec-a-l.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Symantec Shows Backup Exec a Little Dedupe Love; Lays out Source Side Deduplication Roadmap \u2013 DCIG\"<\/a>. <i>DCIG<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304212819\/http:\/\/www.dcig.com\/2009\/07\/symantec-shows-backup-exec-a-l.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 March 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 February<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DCIG&rft.atitle=Symantec+Shows+Backup+Exec+a+Little+Dedupe+Love%3B+Lays+out+Source+Side+Deduplication+Roadmap+%E2%80%93+DCIG&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dcig.com%2F2009%2F07%2Fsymantec-shows-backup-exec-a-l.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NetBackupDeduplicationGuide-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NetBackupDeduplicationGuide_17-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.veritas.com\/content\/support\/en_US\/doc\/ka6j00000000ADEAA2\" target=\"_blank\">\"Veritas NetBackup\u2122 Deduplication Guide\"<\/a>. <i>Veritas<\/i>. Veritas Technologies LLC. 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Veritas&rft.atitle=Veritas+NetBackup%E2%84%A2+Deduplication+Guide&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.veritas.com%2Fcontent%2Fsupport%2Fen_US%2Fdoc%2Fka6j00000000ADEAA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PCWorldHardCoreDataPreservation-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-PCWorldHardCoreDataPreservation_18-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-PCWorldHardCoreDataPreservation_18-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Jacobi, John L. (29 Feb 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pcworld.com\/article\/2984597\/storage\/hard-core-data-preservation-the-best-media-and-methods-for-archiving-your-data.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hard-core data preservation: The best media and methods for archiving your data\"<\/a>. <i>PC World<\/i>. sec. External Hard Drives(on the shelf, magnetic properties, mechanical stresses, vulnerable to shocks)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 April<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PC+World&rft.atitle=Hard-core+data+preservation%3A+The+best+media+and+methods+for+archiving+your+data&rft.pages=sec.+External+Hard+Drives%28on+the+shelf%2C+magnetic+properties%2C+mechanical+stresses%2C+vulnerable+to+shocks%29&rft.date=2016-02-29&rft.aulast=Jacobi&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcworld.com%2Farticle%2F2984597%2Fstorage%2Fhard-core-data-preservation-the-best-media-and-methods-for-archiving-your-data.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HGSTRampLoadUnload-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HGSTRampLoadUnload_19-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.hgst.com\/sites\/default\/files\/resources\/LoadUnload_white_paper_FINAL.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ramp Load\/Unload Technology in Hard Disk Drives\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>HGST<\/i>. Western Digital. November 2007. p. 3(sec. Enhanced Shock Tolerance)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/delkin.com\/i-5937134-archival-gold-cd-r-300-year-disc-binder-of-10-discs-with-scratch-armor-surface.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on September 27, 2013.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Delkin+Devices&rft.atitle=Archival+Gold+CD-R+%22300+Year+Disc%22+Binder+of+10+Discs+with+Scratch+Armor+Surface&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdelkin.com%2Fi-5937134-archival-gold-cd-r-300-year-disc-binder-of-10-discs-with-scratch-armor-surface.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MicheloniSolid17-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MicheloniSolid17_29-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Micheloni, R.; Olivo, P. 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(2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=PU7gkW9ArxIC&pg=PA255\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Information Storage and Management: Storing, Managing, and Protecting Digital Information in Classic, Virtualized, and Cloud Environments<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley and Sons. p. 255. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-118-23696-3<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(25 January 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/irontree.co.za\/what-to-backup-a-critical-look-at-your-data-1935.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"What to backup \u2013 a critical look at your data\"<\/a>. <i>Irontree Blog<\/i>. Irontree Internet Services CC<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Irontree+Blog&rft.atitle=What+to+backup+%E2%80%93+a+critical+look+at+your+data&rft.date=2017-01-25&rft.au=Lees%2C+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firontree.co.za%2Fwhat-to-backup-a-critical-look-at-your-data-1935.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PrestonBackup07-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PrestonBackup07_34-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Preston, W.C. (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6-w4fXbBInoC&pg=PA111\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Backup & Recovery: Inexpensive Backup Solutions for Open Systems<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp. 111\u2013114. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-596-55504-7<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Backup+%26+Recovery%3A+Inexpensive+Backup+Solutions+for+Open+Systems&rft.pages=111-114&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-596-55504-7&rft.au=Preston%2C+W.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6-w4fXbBInoC%26pg%3DPA111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PrestonUnix99-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PrestonUnix99_35-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Preston, W.C. (1999). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=_i1sO47qNnMC&pg=PA73\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Unix Backup & Recovery<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp. 73\u201391. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-56592-642-4<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unix+Backup+%26+Recovery&rft.pages=73-91&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-56592-642-4&rft.au=Preston%2C+W.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_i1sO47qNnMC%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aqualab.cs.northwestern.edu\/publications\/Cornell04VFS.html\" target=\"_blank\">Wayback: A User-level V File System for Linux<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070406204849\/http:\/\/www.aqualab.cs.northwestern.edu\/publications\/Cornell04VFS.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 6 April 2007 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> (2004). Retrieved 10 March 2007<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TechTargetTypesOfStorageSnapshotTech-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TechTargetTypesOfStorageSnapshotTech_37-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Staimer, Marc (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/searchdatabackup.techtarget.com\/tip\/Using-different-types-of-storage-snapshot-technologies-for-data-protection\" target=\"_blank\">\"Using different types of storage snapshot technologies for data protection\"<\/a>. <i>TechTarget<\/i>. TechTarget Inc<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">4 December<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TechTarget&rft.atitle=Using+different+types+of+storage+snapshot+technologies+for+data+protection&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Staimer&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearchdatabackup.techtarget.com%2Ftip%2FUsing-different-types-of-storage-snapshot-technologies-for-data-protection&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LiotineMission03-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LiotineMission03_38-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Liotine, M. (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=LecC2BhPPxMC&pg=PA244\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Mission-critical Network Planning<\/i><\/a>. Artech House. p. 244. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-58053-559-5<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mission-critical+Network+Planning&rft.pages=244&rft.pub=Artech+House&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-58053-559-5&rft.au=Liotine%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLecC2BhPPxMC%26pg%3DPA244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-deGuiseEnterprise08-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-deGuiseEnterprise08_39-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">de Guise, P. (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=2OtqvySBTu4C&pg=PA50\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Enterprise Systems Backup and Recovery: A Corporate Insurance Policy<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp. 50\u201354. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-4200-7640-0.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enterprise+Systems+Backup+and+Recovery%3A+A+Corporate+Insurance+Policy&rft.pages=50-54&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4200-7640-0&rft.au=de+Guise%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2OtqvySBTu4C%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HandyBackupOpenFileWindows-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HandyBackupOpenFileWindows_40-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.handybackup.net\/open-file-backup.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"Open File Backup Software for Windows\"<\/a>. <i>Handy Backup<\/i>. Novosoft LLC. 8 November 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 November<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Handy+Backup&rft.atitle=Open+File+Backup+Software+for+Windows&rft.date=2018-11-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.handybackup.net%2Fopen-file-backup.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ArqTroubleshootingBackingUpOpen\/lockedFiles-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ArqTroubleshootingBackingUpOpen\/lockedFiles_41-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Reitshamer, Stefan (5 July 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.arqbackup.com\/blog\/troubleshooting-backing-up-openlocked-files-on-windows\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Troubleshooting backing up open\/locked files on Windows\"<\/a>. <i>Arq Blog<\/i>. Haystack Software. Stefan Reitshamer is the principal developer of Arq<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 November<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Arq+Blog&rft.atitle=Troubleshooting+backing+up+open%2Flocked+files+on+Windows&rft.pages=Stefan+Reitshamer+is+the+principal+developer+of+Arq&rft.date=2017-07-05&rft.aulast=Reitshamer&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.arqbackup.com%2Fblog%2Ftroubleshooting-backing-up-openlocked-files-on-windows%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-UWiscOracleBackups-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-UWiscOracleBackups_42-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Boss, Nina (10 December 1997). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#Hotbackup\">\"Oracle Tips Session #3: Oracle Backups\"<\/a>. <i>www.wisc.edu<\/i>. University of Wisconsin<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">1 December<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.wisc.edu&rft.atitle=Oracle+Tips+Session+%233%3A+Oracle+Backups&rft.date=1997-12-10&rft.aulast=Boss&rft.aufirst=Nina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20070302110933%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wisc.edu%2Fdrmt%2Foratips%2Fsess003.html%23Hotbackup&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ArcserveOracleWhatIsARCHIVE-LOG-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ArcserveOracleWhatIsARCHIVE-LOG_43-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/support.arcserve.com\/s\/article\/202080249?language=en_US\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is ARCHIVE-LOG and NO-ARCHIVE-LOG mode in Oracle and the advantages & disadvantages of these modes?\"<\/a>. <i>Arcserve Backup<\/i>. Arcserve. 27 September 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">29 November<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Arcserve+Backup&rft.atitle=What+is+ARCHIVE-LOG+and+NO-ARCHIVE-LOG+mode+in+Oracle+and+the+advantages+%26+disadvantages+of+these+modes%3F&rft.date=2018-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupport.arcserve.com%2Fs%2Farticle%2F202080249%3Flanguage%3Den_US&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Gresovnik1-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Gresovnik1_44-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Gre\u0161ovnik, Igor (April 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160425113119\/http:\/\/www2.arnes.si\/~ljc3m2\/igor\/blogs\/technical\/bootable_media_creation.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Preparation of Bootable Media and Images\"<\/a>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www2.arnes.si\/~ljc3m2\/igor\/blogs\/technical\/bootable_media_creation.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 25 April 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">21 April<\/span> 2016<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Preparation+of+Bootable+Media+and+Images&rft.date=2016-04&rft.aulast=Gre%C5%A1ovnik&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.arnes.si%2F~ljc3m2%2Figor%2Fblogs%2Ftechnical%2Fbootable_media_creation.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CherrySecuring15-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-CherrySecuring15_45-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CherrySecuring15_45-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-CherrySecuring15_45-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Cherry, D. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=SD_LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA306\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Securing SQL Server: Protecting Your Database from Attackers<\/i><\/a>. Syngress. pp. 306\u2013308. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-12-801375-5<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Securing+SQL+Server%3A+Protecting+Your+Database+from+Attackers&rft.pages=306-308&rft.pub=Syngress&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-12-801375-5&rft.au=Cherry%2C+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSD_LAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA306&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.securityfocus.com\/news\/11048\" target=\"_blank\">Backups tapes a backdoor for identity thieves<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160405033517\/http:\/\/www.securityfocus.com\/news\/11048\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 5 April 2016 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a> (28 April 2004). Retrieved 10 March 2007<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PrestonBackup07-02-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-PrestonBackup07-02_47-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-PrestonBackup07-02_47-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Preston, W.C. (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=6-w4fXbBInoC&pg=PA219\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Backup & Recovery: Inexpensive Backup Solutions for Open Systems<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp. 219\u2013220. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-596-55504-7<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Backup+%26+Recovery%3A+Inexpensive+Backup+Solutions+for+Open+Systems&rft.pages=219-220&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-596-55504-7&rft.au=Preston%2C+W.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6-w4fXbBInoC%26pg%3DPA219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.riskythinking.com\/glossary\/recovery_point_objective.php\" target=\"_blank\">Definition of <i>recovery point objective<\/i><\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070513180844\/http:\/\/www.riskythinking.com\/glossary\/recovery_point_objective.php\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 13 May 2007 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>. Retrieved 10 March 2007<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-49\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sysgen.ca\/top-four-things-business-continuity-planning\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Top four things to consider in business continuity planning\"<\/a>. <i>sysgen.ca<\/i>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304075050\/http:\/\/sysgen.ca\/top-four-things-business-continuity-planning\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 4 March 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">23 September<\/span> 2015<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sysgen.ca&rft.atitle=Top+four+things+to+consider+in+business+continuity+planning&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsysgen.ca%2Ftop-four-things-business-continuity-planning%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.riskythinking.com\/glossary\/recovery_time_objective.php\" target=\"_blank\">Definition of <i>recovery time objective<\/i><\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070516081425\/http:\/\/www.riskythinking.com\/glossary\/recovery_time_objective.php\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 16 May 2007 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>. Retrieved 7 March 2007<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LittleImplement03-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-LittleImplement03_51-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-LittleImplement03_51-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Little, D.B. (2003). \"Chapter 2: Business Requirements of Backup Systems\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=_DqO6kizEDUC&pg=PA17\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Implementing Backup and Recovery: The Readiness Guide for the Enterprise<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 17\u201330. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-471-48081-5<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Business+Requirements+of+Backup+Systems&rft.btitle=Implementing+Backup+and+Recovery%3A+The+Readiness+Guide+for+the+Enterprise&rft.pages=17-30&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-471-48081-5&rft.au=Little%2C+D.B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_DqO6kizEDUC%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NelsonPro11-2-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NelsonPro11-2_52-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Nelson, S. (2011). \"Chapter 9: Putting It All Together: Sample Backup Environments\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=r4uEEsq3CJYC&printsec=frontcover\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Pro Data Backup and Recovery<\/i><\/a>. Apress. pp. 203\u2013246. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-4302-2663-5<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.isaca.org\/Journal\/archives\/2012\/Volume-1\/Pages\/Database-Backup-and-Recovery-Best-Practices.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Database Backup and Recovery Best Practices\"<\/a>. <i>ISACA Journal<\/i>. <b>1<\/b>: 1\u20136<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ISACA+Journal&rft.atitle=Database+Backup+and+Recovery+Best+Practices&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=1-6&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Akhtar%2C+A.N.&rft.au=Buchholtz%2C+J.&rft.au=Ryan%2C+M.&rft.au=Setty%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.isaca.org%2FJournal%2Farchives%2F2012%2FVolume-1%2FPages%2FDatabase-Backup-and-Recovery-Best-Practices.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DorionBackupReportingTool-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-DorionBackupReportingTool_54-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DorionBackupReportingTool_54-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DorionBackupReportingTool_54-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DorionBackupReportingTool_54-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-DorionBackupReportingTool_54-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Dorion, Pierre (June 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/searchdatabackup.techtarget.com\/tip\/Why-you-need-a-data-backup-reporting-tool\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why you need a data backup reporting tool\"<\/a>. <i>TechTarget<\/i>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+Weekly&rft.atitle=Cloud-to-cloud+backup%3A+What+it+is+and+why+you+need+it&rft.date=2017-12&rft.au=Pritchard%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerweekly.com%2Ffeature%2FCloud-to-cloud-backup-What-it-is-and-why-you-need-it&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hipaadvisory.com\/regs\/recordretention.htm\" target=\"_blank\">HIPAA Advisory<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20070411135655\/http:\/\/www.hipaadvisory.com\/regs\/recordretention.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 11 April 2007 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a>. Retrieved 10 March 2007<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MacworldRetrospect9-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MacworldRetrospect9_57-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Gripman, Stuart (27 March 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.pcworld.com\/article\/1166050\/retrospect_9_0.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Retrospect 9.0: powerful backup for professionals, organizations\"<\/a>. <i>MacWorld<\/i>. Scheduling scripts(GUI scripting), Restoring(Proactive priorities)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">3 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MacWorld&rft.atitle=Retrospect+9.0%3A+powerful+backup+for+professionals%2C+organizations&rft.pages=Scheduling+scripts%28GUI+scripting%29%2C+Restoring%28Proactive+priorities%29&rft.date=2012-03-27&rft.aulast=Gripman&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcworld.com%2Farticle%2F1166050%2Fretrospect_9_0.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EnterpriseBackupChallenges-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-EnterpriseBackupChallenges_58-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EnterpriseBackupChallenges_58-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EnterpriseBackupChallenges_58-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EnterpriseBackupChallenges_58-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EnterpriseBackupChallenges_58-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EnterpriseBackupChallenges_58-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-EnterpriseBackupChallenges_58-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Rassokhin?, Alexander? 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">13 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=All+About+Backup&rft.atitle=Enterprise+Network+Backup+Challenges&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Rassokhin%3F&rft.aufirst=Alexander%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.backupschedule.net%2Fenterprise-network-backup.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CBC-WorldBackupDay-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CBC-WorldBackupDay_59-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Misener, Dan (29 March 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cbc.ca\/news\/technology\/world-backup-day-1.3510588\" target=\"_blank\">\"World Backup Day highlights importance of protecting data\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Veritas+Support&rft.atitle=Veritas+Backup+Exec+Administrator%27s+Guide%3A+Configuring+network+options+for+backup+jobs&rft.date=2017-11-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.veritas.com%2Fcontent%2Fsupport%2Fen_US%2Fdoc%2F59226269-99535599-0%2Fv96257307-99535599&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NetBackupDeduplication-111\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NetBackupDeduplication_111-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.veritas.com\/content\/support\/en_US\/doc\/ka6j00000000ADEAA2\" target=\"_blank\">\"Veritas NetBackup\u2122 Deduplication Guide\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>Veritas<\/i>. Veritas Technologies LLC (US). 2016. p. 171(Resilient network properties)<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Veritas&rft.atitle=Veritas+NetBackup%E2%84%A2+Deduplication+Guide&rft.pages=171%28Resilient+network+properties%29&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.veritas.com%2Fcontent%2Fsupport%2Fen_US%2Fdoc%2Fka6j00000000ADEAA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WhatIsAWSSnowball?-112\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-WhatIsAWSSnowball?_112-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-WhatIsAWSSnowball?_112-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/docs.aws.amazon.com\/snowball\/latest\/ug\/whatissnowball.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is an AWS Snowball Appliance?\"<\/a>. <i>AWS<\/i>. Amazon.com. 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">8 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AWS&rft.atitle=What+Is+an+AWS+Snowball+Appliance%3F&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocs.aws.amazon.com%2Fsnowball%2Flatest%2Fug%2Fwhatissnowball.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RouseCloudSeedingDef-113\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-RouseCloudSeedingDef_113-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Rouse, Margaret (December 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/searchdatabackup.techtarget.com\/definition\/cloud-seeding\" target=\"_blank\">\"Definition: cloud seeding\"<\/a>. <i>TechTarget<\/i>. Tech Target Inc<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 November<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TechTarget&rft.atitle=Definition%3A+cloud+seeding&rft.date=2011-12&rft.aulast=Rouse&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearchdatabackup.techtarget.com%2Fdefinition%2Fcloud-seeding&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RetrospectChangingPathsMac-114\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-RetrospectChangingPathsMac_114-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Ac3BhXO4T1g\" target=\"_blank\">\"Changing paths Cloud Mac\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(Video)<\/span>. Retrospect Inc. 29 February 2016<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">7 October<\/span> 2016<\/span> – via YouTube.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Changing+paths+Cloud+Mac&rft.pub=Retrospect+Inc.&rft.date=2016-02-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DAc3BhXO4T1g&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NetBackupAmazonStorageGateway-115\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NetBackupAmazonStorageGateway_115-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">High, Dave; Mahmud, Fozz (10 March 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=rU1rFK9o20s\" target=\"_blank\">\"NBU and the Amazon Storage Gateway VTL\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(Video)<\/span>. <i>Veritas<\/i>. Veritas Technologies LLC<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Veritas&rft.atitle=NBU+and+the+Amazon+Storage+Gateway+VTL&rft.date=2016-03-10&rft.aulast=High&rft.aufirst=Dave&rft.au=Mahmud%2C+Fozz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DrU1rFK9o20s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BackupExecCloudConnector-116\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BackupExecCloudConnector_116-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.veritas.com\/content\/support\/en_US\/doc\/72686287-129480082-0\/v128967126-129480082\" target=\"_blank\">\"Backup Exec 16: Best Practices for Using the Veritas Backup Exec Cloud Connector\"<\/a>. <i>Veritas Support<\/i>. Veritas Technologies LLC. 25 October 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Veritas+Support&rft.atitle=Backup+Exec+16%3A+Best+Practices+for+Using+the+Veritas+Backup+Exec+Cloud+Connector&rft.date=2017-10-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.veritas.com%2Fcontent%2Fsupport%2Fen_US%2Fdoc%2F72686287-129480082-0%2Fv128967126-129480082&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABackup\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1333\nCached time: 20190330205052\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 1.044 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.145 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5346\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 192454\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 646\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 2\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 353466\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 2\/400\nLua time usage: 0.566\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 5.14 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 938.256 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>79.21% 743.235 2 Template:Reflist\n49.07% 460.441 87 Template:Cite_web\n 8.23% 77.242 15 Template:Cite_book\n 5.20% 48.785 4 Template:Cite_journal\n 3.75% 35.215 1 Template:About\n 3.59% 33.716 1 Template:Commons_category\n 2.62% 24.548 9 Template:Webarchive\n 2.21% 20.691 1 Template:Use_dmy_dates\n 1.62% 15.222 1 Template:DMCA\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:533867-1!canonical and timestamp 20190330205051 and revision id 890002866\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Backup\" data-key=\"aa4b45de245f1a05a108097855baf547\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403203000\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.020 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.195 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 173.996 1 - wikipedia:Backup\n100.00% 173.996 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10559-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403202959 and revision id 35089\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Backup\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Backup<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/89\/DVD%2C_USB_flash_drive_and_external_hard_drive.jpg\/440px-DVD%2C_USB_flash_drive_and_external_hard_drive.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/8\/86\/Backup_diagram.svg\/440px-Backup_diagram.svg.png"],"e12548e6bf5f28bfee99099fe8662dde_timestamp":1554323399,"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd_type":"article","ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd_title":"Software as a service","ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service","ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tSoftware as a service\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFile:\u041e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f.jpg Software as a service (SaaS) is the topmost layer, most visible to the end user. Other on-demand services that are less visible to the end user include platform as a service (PaaS) and infrastructure as a service (IaaS).\nSoftware as a service (SaaS) \u2014 sometimes referred to as \"on-demand software\" \u2014 is a software delivery model in which software and its associated data are hosted centrally (on the cloud, for example) and are typically accessed by users using a thin client, normally using a web browser over the Internet. The customer subscribes to this \"service\" rather than requiring a software license, and the software doesn't require an implementation on customer premises.[1][2]\n\nContents\n\n1 Architecture \n2 Distribution \n3 Pricing \n4 Advantages and disadvantages \n5 Further reading \n6 References \n\n\n\nArchitecture \nA SaaS solution is typically a \"multi-tenant solution,\" meaning more than one entity is sharing the server and database resource(s) hosted by the vendor, though in the process potentially limiting customer customization. With this model, a single version of the application with a single configuration (hardware, network, operating system, etc.) is used for all customers. To support scalability, the application is installed on multiple machines.[1][2] In some cases, a second version of the application may be set up to offer a select group of customers a separate instance of the software environment, better enabling customers to customize their configuration. (This could be accomplished with platform as a service (PaaS), for example.[3]) This is contrasted with traditional software, where multiple physical copies of the software \u2014 each potentially of a different version, with a potentially different configuration, and often customized \u2014 are installed across various customer sites.\nWhile an exception rather than the norm, some SaaS solutions do not use multi-tenancy, or use other mechanisms like virtualization to cost-effectively manage a large number of customers in place of multi-tenancy.[4][5] Whether multi-tenancy is a necessary component for software as a service has been debated.[6][7]\n\nDistribution \nThe SaaS delivery model doesn't require indirect physical distribution since it is deployed almost instantaneously across a digital network. The distribution of a SaaS product typically takes on the following steps[8]:\n\n Hardware vendors provide equipment to hosting centers through direct sales or through their support contract and independent software vendor (ISV) hosting policies.\n Hardware vendors then help ISVs migrate to the SaaS model and create marketing programs to find them new clients.\n Software publishers comprise a group dedicated to promoting offers and offering financial support.\n The ecosystem of software publishers then influences customers to subscribe to the offered services and solutions.\nPricing \nUnlike traditional software which is conventionally sold as a perpetual license with an up-front cost (and an optional ongoing support fee), SaaS providers generally price applications using a subscription fee, most commonly a monthly fee or an annual fee. Consequently, the initial setup cost for SaaS is typically lower than the equivalent enterprise software. SaaS vendors typically price their applications based on some usage parameters, such as the number of users using the application. However, because in a SaaS environment customers' data reside with the SaaS vendor, opportunities also exist to charge per transaction, event, or other unit of value.[1][2]\nThe relatively low cost for user provisioning (i.e., setting up a new customer) in a multi-tenant environment enables some SaaS vendors to offer applications using the freemium model. In this model, a free service is made available with limited functionality or scope, and fees are charged for enhanced functionality or larger scope. Some other SaaS applications are completely free to users, with revenue being derived from alternate sources such as advertising.[9][10]\nA key driver of SaaS growth is SaaS vendors' ability to provide a price that is competitive with on-premises software. This is consistent with the traditional rationale for outsourcing IT systems, which involves applying economies of scale to application operation, i.e., an outside service provider may be able to offer better, cheaper, more reliable applications.[1]\n\nAdvantages and disadvantages \nAdvantages of the software as a service model include (but are not limited to)[5][2][11]:\n\n reduce or eliminate the need for an on-site data center\n eliminate the need for application administration, freeing up resources for other activities\n creates pay-on-demand flexibility\n creates hardware and software scalability\n offers device-independent access to applications\n improve disaster recovery and business continuity\n provides cost savings via economies of scale\n adds more options to the pool of host providers due to economy of scale\nDisadvantages of this model include (but are not limited to)[5][2][11]:\n\n control over the location of data may be limited to none\n customization of the application may be costly\n loss of in-house tech knowledge and skills a greater possibility\n damages from outages more difficult for SaaS hosts to quantify\n lock-in to a specific host due to an increase in dependencies\n data transfers may not be as quick and reliable as in-house options\n hidden costs in the form of transactions, performance, and security are more likely\nFurther reading \n Benlian, Alexander; Hess, Thomas; Buxmann, Peter, ed. (2010). Software-As-a-Service: Anbieterstrategien, Kundenbed\u00fcrfnisse und Wertsch\u00f6pfungsstrukturen. Springer DE. pp. 278. ISBN 383498731X. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AS6SH1-HOUQC .   \n Jamsa, Kris (2011). Cloud Computing. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp. 322. ISBN 1449647391. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=msFk8DPZ7noC .   \nReferences \n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Bandulet, Friedrich; Faisst, Wolfgang; Eggs, Holger; Otyepka, Sarah; Wenzel, Stefan (2010). \"Chapter 2: Software-as-a-Service as Disruptive Innovation in the Enterprise Application Market\". Software-As-a-Service: Anbieterstrategien, Kundenbed\u00fcrfnisse und Wertsch\u00f6pfungsstrukturen. Springer DE. pp. 15\u201329. ISBN 383498731X. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AS6SH1-HOUQC .   \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Jamsa, Kris (2011). \"Chapter 2: Software as a Service (SaaS)\". Cloud Computing. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp. 17\u201320. ISBN 1449647391. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=msFk8DPZ7noC .   \n\n\u2191 Smoot, Stephen R.; Tan, Nam-Kee (2012). \"Chapter 1: Next-Generation IT Trends\". Private Cloud Computing: Consolidation, Virtualization, and Service-oriented Infrastructure. Elsevier. pp. 1\u201312. ISBN 0123849195. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=IHsNCjtsvesC .   \n\n\u2191 Wainewright, Phil (19 October 2007). \"Workstream prefers virtualization to multi-tenancy\". ZDNet. CBS Interactive. http:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/blog\/saas\/workstream-prefers-virtualization-to-multi-tenancy\/400 . Retrieved 10 September 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 5.2 Buxmann, Peter; Diefenbach, Heiner; Hess, Thomas (2012). \"Chapter 6: Software as a Service: The Application Level of Cloud Computing\". The Software Industry: Economic Principles, Strategies, Perspectives. Springer. pp. 169\u2013189. ISBN 3642315100. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=J9NzFC7NoxkC .   \n\n\u2191 Carraro, Gianpaolo (21 June 2008). \"I can't believe we are still talking about whether saas == multi-tenancy...\". Gianpaolo's Blog. http:\/\/blogs.msdn.com\/b\/gianpaolo\/archive\/2008\/06\/20\/i-can-t-believe-we-are-still-talking-about-whether-saas-multi-tenancy.aspx . Retrieved 10 September 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Cummings, David (21 September 2011). \"Multi-Tenant SaaS and Virtualization are Two Different Things\". David Cummings on Startups. http:\/\/davidcummings.org\/2011\/09\/21\/multi-tenant-saas-and-virtualization-are-two-different-things\/ . Retrieved 10 September 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"The year of Cloud adoption by the Channel\". compuBase. 14 January 2013. http:\/\/en.compubase.net\/The-year-of-Cloud-adoption-by-the-Channel_a188.html . Retrieved 10 September 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Maltz, Jules (20 February 2011). \"If you like SaaS, try Freemium!\". Jules Maltz. http:\/\/www.julesmaltz.com\/post\/3376586698\/if-you-like-saas-try-freemium . Retrieved 10 September 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Lunn, Bernard (20 January 2010). \"Study: SaaS Pricing Is Still Opaque And Freemium Is Rare\". Say Media Inc. http:\/\/readwrite.com\/2010\/01\/20\/analysis-saas-pricing-is-still . Retrieved 10 September 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 11.0 11.1 Hall, Patrick A. V.; Fernandez-Ramil, Juan; Ramil, Juan Carlos Fern\u00e1ndez (2007). \"Chapter 6: Software acquisition\". Managing the Software Enterprise: Software Engineering and Information Systems in Context. Cengage Learning EMEA. pp. 149\u2013151. ISBN 1844803546. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-40jULoIh0MC .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Pages with broken file linksSoftware and hardware terms\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 13 April 2015, at 16:04.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 10,414 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Software_as_a_service skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Software as a service<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:182px;\">File:\u041e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f.jpg <div class=\"thumbcaption\">Software as a service (SaaS) is the topmost layer, most visible to the end user. Other on-demand services that are less visible to the end user include platform as a service (PaaS) and infrastructure as a service (IaaS).<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Software as a service<\/b> (<b>SaaS<\/b>) \u2014 sometimes referred to as \"on-demand software\" \u2014 is a software delivery model in which software and its associated data are hosted centrally (on the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f\">cloud<\/a>, for example) and are typically accessed by users using a thin client, normally using a web browser over the Internet. The customer subscribes to this \"service\" rather than requiring a software license, and the software doesn't require an implementation on customer premises.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaaSGermanBook-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CloudCompJamsa-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Architecture\">Architecture<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A SaaS solution is typically a \"multi-tenant solution,\" meaning more than one entity is sharing the server and database resource(s) hosted by the vendor, though in the process potentially limiting customer customization. With this model, a single version of the application with a single configuration (hardware, network, operating system, etc.) is used for all customers. To support scalability, the application is installed on multiple machines.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaaSGermanBook-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CloudCompJamsa-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> In some cases, a second version of the application may be set up to offer a select group of customers a separate instance of the software environment, better enabling customers to customize their configuration. (This could be accomplished with platform as a service (PaaS), for example.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PCCSmoot_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PCCSmoot-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>) This is contrasted with traditional software, where multiple physical copies of the software \u2014 each potentially of a different version, with a potentially different configuration, and often customized \u2014 are installed across various customer sites.\n<\/p><p>While an exception rather than the norm, some SaaS solutions do not use multi-tenancy, or use other mechanisms like to cost-effectively manage a large number of customers in place of multi-tenancy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ZDVirt_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ZDVirt-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SoftIndBux_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SoftIndBux-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Whether multi-tenancy is a necessary component for software as a service has been debated.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaaSMultiGian_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaaSMultiGian-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaaSVirt_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaaSVirt-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Distribution\">Distribution<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The SaaS delivery model doesn't require indirect physical distribution since it is deployed almost instantaneously across a digital network. The distribution of a SaaS product typically takes on the following steps<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CompBaseCloudAdopt_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CompBaseCloudAdopt-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li> Hardware vendors provide equipment to hosting centers through direct sales or through their support contract and independent software vendor (ISV) hosting policies.<\/li>\n<li> Hardware vendors then help ISVs migrate to the SaaS model and create marketing programs to find them new clients.<\/li>\n<li> Software publishers comprise a group dedicated to promoting offers and offering financial support.<\/li>\n<li> The ecosystem of software publishers then influences customers to subscribe to the offered services and solutions.<\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Pricing\">Pricing<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Unlike traditional software which is conventionally sold as a perpetual license with an up-front cost (and an optional ongoing support fee), SaaS providers generally price applications using a subscription fee, most commonly a monthly fee or an annual fee. Consequently, the initial setup cost for SaaS is typically lower than the equivalent enterprise software. SaaS vendors typically price their applications based on some usage parameters, such as the number of users using the application. However, because in a SaaS environment customers' data reside with the SaaS vendor, opportunities also exist to charge per transaction, event, or other unit of value.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaaSGermanBook-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CloudCompJamsa-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The relatively low cost for user provisioning (i.e., setting up a new customer) in a multi-tenant environment enables some SaaS vendors to offer applications using the freemium model. In this model, a free service is made available with limited functionality or scope, and fees are charged for enhanced functionality or larger scope. Some other SaaS applications are completely free to users, with revenue being derived from alternate sources such as advertising.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BetterLateFreemium_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BetterLateFreemium-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RWStudy_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RWStudy-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A key driver of SaaS growth is SaaS vendors' ability to provide a price that is competitive with on-premises software. This is consistent with the traditional rationale for outsourcing IT systems, which involves applying economies of scale to application operation, i.e., an outside service provider may be able to offer better, cheaper, more reliable applications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SaaSGermanBook-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Advantages_and_disadvantages\">Advantages and disadvantages<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Advantages of the software as a service model include (but are not limited to)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SoftIndBux_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SoftIndBux-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CloudCompJamsa-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SoftEntHall_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SoftEntHall-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> reduce or eliminate the need for an on-site <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_center\" title=\"Data center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f5f939040d714745138ee295af8be71\">data center<\/a><\/li>\n<li> eliminate the need for application administration, freeing up resources for other activities<\/li>\n<li> creates pay-on-demand flexibility<\/li>\n<li> creates hardware and software scalability<\/li>\n<li> offers device-independent access to applications<\/li>\n<li> improve disaster recovery and business continuity<\/li>\n<li> provides cost savings via economies of scale<\/li>\n<li> adds more options to the pool of host providers due to economy of scale<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Disadvantages of this model include (but are not limited to)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SoftIndBux_5-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SoftIndBux-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CloudCompJamsa-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SoftEntHall_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SoftEntHall-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> control over the location of data may be limited to none<\/li>\n<li> customization of the application may be costly<\/li>\n<li> loss of in-house tech knowledge and skills a greater possibility<\/li>\n<li> damages from outages more difficult for SaaS hosts to quantify<\/li>\n<li> lock-in to a specific host due to an increase in dependencies<\/li>\n<li> data transfers may not be as quick and reliable as in-house options<\/li>\n<li> hidden costs in the form of transactions, performance, and security are more likely<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation book\">Benlian, Alexander; Hess, Thomas; Buxmann, Peter, ed. (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AS6SH1-HOUQC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Software-As-a-Service: Anbieterstrategien, Kundenbed\u00fcrfnisse und Wertsch\u00f6pfungsstrukturen<\/i><\/a>. Springer DE. pp. 278. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 383498731X<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AS6SH1-HOUQC\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AS6SH1-HOUQC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Software-As-a-Service%3A+Anbieterstrategien%2C+Kundenbed%C3%BCrfnisse+und+Wertsch%C3%B6pfungsstrukturen&rft.date=2010&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B278&rft.pub=Springer+DE&rft.isbn=383498731X&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAS6SH1-HOUQC&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li> <span class=\"citation book\">Jamsa, Kris (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=msFk8DPZ7noC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Cloud Computing<\/i><\/a>. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp. 322. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 1449647391<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=msFk8DPZ7noC\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=msFk8DPZ7noC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cloud+Computing&rft.aulast=Jamsa%2C+Kris&rft.au=Jamsa%2C+Kris&rft.date=2011&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B322&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.isbn=1449647391&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmsFk8DPZ7noC&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-SaaSGermanBook-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaaSGermanBook_1-3\">1.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Bandulet, Friedrich; Faisst, Wolfgang; Eggs, Holger; Otyepka, Sarah; Wenzel, Stefan (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AS6SH1-HOUQC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Software-as-a-Service as Disruptive Innovation in the Enterprise Application Market\"<\/a>. <i>Software-As-a-Service: Anbieterstrategien, Kundenbed\u00fcrfnisse und Wertsch\u00f6pfungsstrukturen<\/i>. Springer DE. pp. 15\u201329. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 383498731X<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AS6SH1-HOUQC\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AS6SH1-HOUQC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+2%3A+Software-as-a-Service+as+Disruptive+Innovation+in+the+Enterprise+Application+Market&rft.atitle=Software-As-a-Service%3A+Anbieterstrategien%2C+Kundenbed%C3%BCrfnisse+und+Wertsch%C3%B6pfungsstrukturen&rft.aulast=Bandulet%2C+Friedrich%3B+Faisst%2C+Wolfgang%3B+Eggs%2C+Holger%3B+Otyepka%2C+Sarah%3B+Wenzel%2C+Stefan&rft.au=Bandulet%2C+Friedrich%3B+Faisst%2C+Wolfgang%3B+Eggs%2C+Holger%3B+Otyepka%2C+Sarah%3B+Wenzel%2C+Stefan&rft.date=2010&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B15%E2%80%9329&rft.pub=Springer+DE&rft.isbn=383498731X&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAS6SH1-HOUQC&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CloudCompJamsa-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-3\">2.3<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CloudCompJamsa_2-4\">2.4<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Jamsa, Kris (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=msFk8DPZ7noC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 2: Software as a Service (SaaS)\"<\/a>. <i>Cloud Computing<\/i>. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp. 17\u201320. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 1449647391<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=msFk8DPZ7noC\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=msFk8DPZ7noC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+2%3A+Software+as+a+Service+%28SaaS%29&rft.atitle=Cloud+Computing&rft.aulast=Jamsa%2C+Kris&rft.au=Jamsa%2C+Kris&rft.date=2011&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B17%E2%80%9320&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.isbn=1449647391&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmsFk8DPZ7noC&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PCCSmoot-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PCCSmoot_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Smoot, Stephen R.; Tan, Nam-Kee (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=IHsNCjtsvesC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Next-Generation IT Trends\"<\/a>. <i>Private Cloud Computing: Consolidation, Virtualization, and Service-oriented Infrastructure<\/i>. Elsevier. pp. 1\u201312. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 0123849195<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=IHsNCjtsvesC\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=IHsNCjtsvesC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Next-Generation+IT+Trends&rft.atitle=Private+Cloud+Computing%3A+Consolidation%2C+Virtualization%2C+and+Service-oriented+Infrastructure&rft.aulast=Smoot%2C+Stephen+R.%3B+Tan%2C+Nam-Kee&rft.au=Smoot%2C+Stephen+R.%3B+Tan%2C+Nam-Kee&rft.date=2012&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%9312&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.isbn=0123849195&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIHsNCjtsvesC&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ZDVirt-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ZDVirt_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Wainewright, Phil (19 October 2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/blog\/saas\/workstream-prefers-virtualization-to-multi-tenancy\/400\" target=\"_blank\">\"Workstream prefers virtualization to multi-tenancy\"<\/a>. <i>ZDNet<\/i>. CBS Interactive<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/blog\/saas\/workstream-prefers-virtualization-to-multi-tenancy\/400\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.zdnet.com\/blog\/saas\/workstream-prefers-virtualization-to-multi-tenancy\/400<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 10 September 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Workstream+prefers+virtualization+to+multi-tenancy&rft.atitle=ZDNet&rft.aulast=Wainewright%2C+Phil&rft.au=Wainewright%2C+Phil&rft.date=19+October+2007&rft.pub=CBS+Interactive&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zdnet.com%2Fblog%2Fsaas%2Fworkstream-prefers-virtualization-to-multi-tenancy%2F400&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SoftIndBux-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SoftIndBux_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SoftIndBux_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SoftIndBux_5-2\">5.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Buxmann, Peter; Diefenbach, Heiner; Hess, Thomas (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=J9NzFC7NoxkC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 6: Software as a Service: The Application Level of Cloud Computing\"<\/a>. <i>The Software Industry: Economic Principles, Strategies, Perspectives<\/i>. Springer. pp. 169\u2013189. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 3642315100<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=J9NzFC7NoxkC\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=J9NzFC7NoxkC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+6%3A+Software+as+a+Service%3A+The+Application+Level+of+Cloud+Computing&rft.atitle=The+Software+Industry%3A+Economic+Principles%2C+Strategies%2C+Perspectives&rft.aulast=Buxmann%2C+Peter%3B+Diefenbach%2C+Heiner%3B+Hess%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Buxmann%2C+Peter%3B+Diefenbach%2C+Heiner%3B+Hess%2C+Thomas&rft.date=2012&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B169%E2%80%93189&rft.pub=Springer&rft.isbn=3642315100&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ9NzFC7NoxkC&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SaaSMultiGian-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaaSMultiGian_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Carraro, Gianpaolo (21 June 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blogs.msdn.com\/b\/gianpaolo\/archive\/2008\/06\/20\/i-can-t-believe-we-are-still-talking-about-whether-saas-multi-tenancy.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"I can't believe we are still talking about whether saas == multi-tenancy...\"<\/a>. <i>Gianpaolo's Blog<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/blogs.msdn.com\/b\/gianpaolo\/archive\/2008\/06\/20\/i-can-t-believe-we-are-still-talking-about-whether-saas-multi-tenancy.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/blogs.msdn.com\/b\/gianpaolo\/archive\/2008\/06\/20\/i-can-t-believe-we-are-still-talking-about-whether-saas-multi-tenancy.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 10 September 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=I+can%27t+believe+we+are+still+talking+about+whether+saas+%3D%3D+multi-tenancy...&rft.atitle=Gianpaolo%27s+Blog&rft.aulast=Carraro%2C+Gianpaolo&rft.au=Carraro%2C+Gianpaolo&rft.date=21+June+2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.msdn.com%2Fb%2Fgianpaolo%2Farchive%2F2008%2F06%2F20%2Fi-can-t-believe-we-are-still-talking-about-whether-saas-multi-tenancy.aspx&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SaaSVirt-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SaaSVirt_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Cummings, David (21 September 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/davidcummings.org\/2011\/09\/21\/multi-tenant-saas-and-virtualization-are-two-different-things\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Multi-Tenant SaaS and Virtualization are Two Different Things\"<\/a>. <i>David Cummings on Startups<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/davidcummings.org\/2011\/09\/21\/multi-tenant-saas-and-virtualization-are-two-different-things\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/davidcummings.org\/2011\/09\/21\/multi-tenant-saas-and-virtualization-are-two-different-things\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 10 September 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Multi-Tenant+SaaS+and+Virtualization+are+Two+Different+Things&rft.atitle=David+Cummings+on+Startups&rft.aulast=Cummings%2C+David&rft.au=Cummings%2C+David&rft.date=21+September+2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdavidcummings.org%2F2011%2F09%2F21%2Fmulti-tenant-saas-and-virtualization-are-two-different-things%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CompBaseCloudAdopt-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CompBaseCloudAdopt_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/en.compubase.net\/The-year-of-Cloud-adoption-by-the-Channel_a188.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The year of Cloud adoption by the Channel\"<\/a>. compuBase. 14 January 2013<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/en.compubase.net\/The-year-of-Cloud-adoption-by-the-Channel_a188.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/en.compubase.net\/The-year-of-Cloud-adoption-by-the-Channel_a188.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 10 September 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+year+of+Cloud+adoption+by+the+Channel&rft.atitle=&rft.date=14+January+2013&rft.pub=compuBase&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.compubase.net%2FThe-year-of-Cloud-adoption-by-the-Channel_a188.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BetterLateFreemium-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BetterLateFreemium_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Maltz, Jules (20 February 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.julesmaltz.com\/post\/3376586698\/if-you-like-saas-try-freemium\" target=\"_blank\">\"If you like SaaS, try Freemium!\"<\/a>. Jules Maltz<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.julesmaltz.com\/post\/3376586698\/if-you-like-saas-try-freemium\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.julesmaltz.com\/post\/3376586698\/if-you-like-saas-try-freemium<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 10 September 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=If+you+like+SaaS%2C+try+Freemium%21&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Maltz%2C+Jules&rft.au=Maltz%2C+Jules&rft.date=20+February+2011&rft.pub=Jules+Maltz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.julesmaltz.com%2Fpost%2F3376586698%2Fif-you-like-saas-try-freemium&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RWStudy-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RWStudy_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Lunn, Bernard (20 January 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/readwrite.com\/2010\/01\/20\/analysis-saas-pricing-is-still\" target=\"_blank\">\"Study: SaaS Pricing Is Still Opaque And Freemium Is Rare\"<\/a>. Say Media Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/readwrite.com\/2010\/01\/20\/analysis-saas-pricing-is-still\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/readwrite.com\/2010\/01\/20\/analysis-saas-pricing-is-still<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 10 September 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Study%3A+SaaS+Pricing+Is+Still+Opaque+And+Freemium+Is+Rare&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Lunn%2C+Bernard&rft.au=Lunn%2C+Bernard&rft.date=20+January+2010&rft.pub=Say+Media+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freadwrite.com%2F2010%2F01%2F20%2Fanalysis-saas-pricing-is-still&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SoftEntHall-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SoftEntHall_11-0\">11.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SoftEntHall_11-1\">11.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Hall, Patrick A. V.; Fernandez-Ramil, Juan; Ramil, Juan Carlos Fern\u00e1ndez (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-40jULoIh0MC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 6: Software acquisition\"<\/a>. <i>Managing the Software Enterprise: Software Engineering and Information Systems in Context<\/i>. Cengage Learning EMEA. pp. 149\u2013151. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 1844803546<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-40jULoIh0MC\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-40jULoIh0MC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+6%3A+Software+acquisition&rft.atitle=Managing+the+Software+Enterprise%3A+Software+Engineering+and+Information+Systems+in+Context&rft.aulast=Hall%2C+Patrick+A.+V.%3B+Fernandez-Ramil%2C+Juan%3B+Ramil%2C+Juan+Carlos+Fern%C3%A1ndez&rft.au=Hall%2C+Patrick+A.+V.%3B+Fernandez-Ramil%2C+Juan%3B+Ramil%2C+Juan+Carlos+Fern%C3%A1ndez&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B149%E2%80%93151&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning+EMEA&rft.isbn=1844803546&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-40jULoIh0MC&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Software_as_a_service\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202959\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.286 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.386 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 8759\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 17945\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 62237\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 24877\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 244.741 1 - -total\n 90.20% 220.766 13 - Template:Citation\/core\n 61.35% 150.142 7 - Template:Cite_book\n 35.50% 86.894 6 - Template:Cite_web\n 6.31% 15.433 21 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 5.52% 13.511 7 - Template:Citation\/identifier\n 1.50% 3.675 14 - Template:Hide_in_print\n 1.41% 3.455 7 - Template:Only_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3304-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403202959 and revision id 21262\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd_images":[],"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd_timestamp":1554323399,"b25152b8b4d5b59f8644bed8bd3a660d_type":"article","b25152b8b4d5b59f8644bed8bd3a660d_title":"Scientific instrument","b25152b8b4d5b59f8644bed8bd3a660d_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_instrument","b25152b8b4d5b59f8644bed8bd3a660d_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tScientific instrument\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFurther information: Equipment\nA scientific instrument is, broadly speaking, a device or tool used for scientific purposes, including the study of both natural phenomena and theoretical research.[1]\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Scope \n3 The digital era \n4 Examples of scientific instruments \n5 List of scientific instruments manufacturers \n6 List of scientific instruments designers \n7 History of scientific instruments \n\n7.1 Museums \n\n\n8 Types of scientific instruments \n9 See also \n10 References \n\n\nHistory \nHistorically, the definition of a scientific instrument has varied, based on usage, laws, and historical time period.[1][2] Before the mid-nineteenth century such tools were referred to as \"natural philosophical\" or \"philosophical\" apparatus and instruments, and older tools from antiquity to the Middle Ages (such as the astrolabe and pendulum clock) defy a more modern definition of \"a tool developed to investigate nature qualitatively or quantitatively.\"[1][2] Scientific instruments were made by instrument makers living near a center of learning or research, such as a university or research laboratory. Instrument makers designed, constructed, and refined instruments for specific purposes, but if demand was sufficient, an instrument would go into production as a commercial product.[3][4] By World War II, the demand for improved analyses of wartime products such as medicines, fuels, and weaponized agents pushed instrumentation to new heights.[5] Today, changes to instruments used in scientific endeavors \u2014 particularly analytical instruments \u2014 are occurring rapidly, with interconnections to computers and data management systems becoming increasingly necessary.[6][7]\n\nScope \nScientific instruments vary greatly in size, shape, purpose, complication and complexity. This includes relatively simple laboratory equipment like scales, rulers, chronometers, thermometers, etc. Other simple tools developed in late 20th century or early 21st century are Foldscope (an optical microscope), KAS Periodic Table (SCALE),[8] MasSpec Pen (pen that detects cancer), glucose meter, etc. However, some scientific instruments can be quite large in size and significant in complexity, like particle colliders or radio-telescope antennas. Conversely microscale and nanoscale technologies are advancing to the point where instrument sizes are shifting towards the tiny, including nanoscale surgical instruments, biological nanobots, and bioelectronics.[9][10]\n\nThe digital era \nInstruments are increasingly based upon integration with computers to improve and simplify control; enhance and extend instrumental functions, conditions, and parameter adjustments; and streamline data sampling, collection, resolution, analysis (both during and post-process), and storage and retrieval. Advanced instruments can be connected as a local area network (LAN) directly of via middleware and can be further integrated as part of an information management application such as a laboratory information management system (LIMS).[11][12] Instrument connectivity can be furthered even more using internet of things (IoT) technologies, allowing for example laboratories separated by great distances to connect their instruments to a network that can be monitored from a workstation or mobile device elsewhere.[13]\n\nExamples of scientific instruments \nFor lists of astronomical instruments, see List of telescope types and List of astronomical interferometers at visible and infrared wavelengths.\n\nAccelerometer, physical, acceleration\nAmmeter, electrical, Amperage, current\nAnemometer, wind speed.\nCaliper, distance\nCalorimeter, heat\nDNA sequencer, molecular biology\nDynamometer, torque\/force\nElectrometer, electric charge, potential difference\nElectroscope, electric charge\nElectrostatic analyzer, Kinetic energy of charged particles\nEllipsometer, optical refractive indices\nEudiometer, gas volume\nGravimeter, gravity\nHydrometer\nInclinometer, slope\nInterferometer, optics, infrared light spectra\nMagnetograph, magnetic field\nMagnetometer, magnetic flux\nManometer, air pressure\nMass spectrometer, compound identification\/characterization\nMicrometer, distance\nMicroscope, optical magnification\nNMR spectrometer, chemical compound identification, medical diagnostic imaging\nOhmmeter, electrical resistance\/impedance\nOscilloscope, electric signal voltage, amplitude, wavelength, frequency, waveform shape\/pattern\nSeismometer, acceleration\nSpectrogram, sound frequency, wavelength, amplitude\nSpectrometer, light frequency, wavelength, amplitude\nTelescope, light magnification (astronomy)\nThermometer, temperature measurement\nTheodolite, angles, surveying\nThermocouple, temperature\nVoltmeter, voltage\nList of scientific instruments manufacturers \n\n454 Life Sciences, United States of America\nADInstruments, New Zealand\nAgilent Technologies,Nigeria\nAnton Paar, Austria\nA. Reyrolle & Company\nBeckman Coulter, United States of America\nBruker, United States of America\nCambridge Scientific Instrument Company, United Kingdom\nHoriba, Japan\nJEOL, Japan\nLECO Corporation, United States of America\nMarkes International, United Kingdom\nMalvern Instruments, United Kingdom\nMcPherson Inc, United States of America\nMettler Toledo, Switzerland \/ United States of America\nMTS Systems Corporation, USA, mechanical\nNovacam Technologies, Canada\nOxford Instruments, United Kingdom\nPall Corp., United States of America\nPerkinElmer, United States of America\nPolymer Char, Spain\nShimadzu Corp., Japan\nTechtron, Melbourne, Australia\nThermo Fisher Scientific, United States of America\nWaters Corporation, United States of America\nList of scientific instruments designers \nSee also: List of astronomical instrument makers, Category:Scientific instrument makers, and Worshipful Company of Scientific Instrument Makers\nJones, William\nKipp, Petrus Jacobus\nLe Bon, Gustave\nRoelofs, Arjen\nSch\u00f6ner, Johannes\nVon Reichenbach, Georg Friedrich\nHistory of scientific instruments \nHistory of science and technology in the People's Republic of China\nMuseums \nCollection of Historical Scientific Instruments (CHSI)\nBoerhaave Museum\nChemical Heritage Foundation\nDeutsches Museum\nRoyal Victoria Gallery for the Encouragement of Practical Science\nWhipple Museum of the History of Science\nTypes of scientific instruments \nOptical instrument\nElectronic test equipment\nSee also \nInstrumentation\nInstrumentalism, a philosophic theory\nList of collectibles\n The dictionary definition of -tron at Wiktionary, a suffix to denote a complex scientific instrument, like in cyclotron, phytotron, synchrotron, ...\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c Hackmann, W. (2013). \"Scientific instruments\". In Hessenbruck, A. Reader's Guide to the History of Science. Routledge. pp. 675\u201377. ISBN 9781134263011. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . \n\n^ a b \"United States v. Presbyterian Hospital\". The Federal Reporter. 71: 866\u2013868. 1896. \n\n^ Turner, A.J. (1987). Early Scientific Instruments: Europe, 1400-1800. Phillip Wilson Publishers. \n\n^ Bedini, S.A. (1964). Early American Scientific Instruments and Their Makers. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 18 January 2017 . \n\n^ Mukhopadhyay, R. (2008). \"The Rise of Instruments during World War II\". Analytical Chemistry. 80 (15): 5684\u20135691. doi:10.1021\/ac801205u. PMID 18671339. \n\n^ McMahon, G. (2007). \"Chapter 1: Introduction\". Analytical Instrumentation: A Guide to Laboratory, Portable and Miniaturized Instruments. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1\u20136. ISBN 9780470518557. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . \n\n^ Khandpur, R.S. (2016). \"Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Analytical Instruments\". Handbook of Analytical Instruments. McGraw Hill Education. ISBN 9789339221362. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . \n\n^ Shadab, K.A. (2017). \"KAS PERIODIC TABLE\". International Research Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences. 4 (7): 221\u2013261. \n\n^ Osiander, R. (2016). \"Chapter 6: Micro Electro Mechanical Systems: Systems Engineering's Transition into the Nanoworld\". In Darrin, M.A.G.; Barth, J.L. Systems Engineering for Microscale and Nanoscale Technologies. CRC Press. pp. 137\u2013172. ISBN 9781439837351. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . \n\n^ James, W.S.; Lemole Jr, G.M. (2015). \"Chapter 21: Neuron Based Surgery: Are We There Yet? Technical Developments in the Surgical Treatment of Brain Injury and Disease\". In Latifi, R.; Rhee, P.; Gruessner, R.W.G. Technological Advances in Surgery, Trauma and Critical Care. Springer. pp. 221\u2013230. ISBN 9781493926718. Retrieved 18 January 2018 . \n\n^ Wilkes, R.; Megargle, R. (1994). \"Integration of instruments and a laboratory information management system at the information level: An inductively coupled plasma spectrometer\". Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems. 26 (1): 47\u201354. doi:10.1016\/0169-7439(94)90018-3. \n\n^ Carvalho, M.C. (2013). \"Integration of Analytical Instruments with Computer Scripting\". Journal of Laboratory Automation. 18 (4): 328\u201333. doi:10.1177\/2211068213476288. PMID 23413273. \n\n^ Perkel, J.M. (2017). \"The Internet of Things comes to the lab\". Nature. 542 (7639): 125\u2013126. Bibcode:2017Natur.542..125P. doi:10.1038\/542125a. PMID 28150787. \n\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_instrument\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_instrument<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Laboratory equipmentHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain 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\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 26 January 2018, at 01:30.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 222 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","b25152b8b4d5b59f8644bed8bd3a660d_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Scientific_instrument skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Scientific instrument<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Further information: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Equipment\" title=\"Equipment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67d05f23a8b2eb87b42a56a827a6a9ef\">Equipment<\/a><\/div>\n<p>A <b>scientific instrument<\/b> is, broadly speaking, a device or tool used for scientific purposes, including the study of both natural phenomena and theoretical research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HackmannReaders13_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HackmannReaders13-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Historically, the definition of a scientific instrument has varied, based on usage, laws, and historical time period.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HackmannReaders13_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HackmannReaders13-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FR71USvsPresb_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FR71USvsPresb-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Before the mid-nineteenth century such tools were referred to as \"natural philosophical\" or \"philosophical\" apparatus and instruments, and older tools from antiquity to the Middle Ages (such as the astrolabe and pendulum clock) defy a more modern definition of \"a tool developed to investigate nature qualitatively or quantitatively.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HackmannReaders13_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HackmannReaders13-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FR71USvsPresb_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FR71USvsPresb-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Scientific instruments were made by instrument makers living near a center of learning or research, such as a university or research <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8210956018cb8099c02d4932922f49c\">laboratory<\/a>. Instrument makers designed, constructed, and refined instruments for specific purposes, but if demand was sufficient, an instrument would go into production as a commercial product.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TurnerEarly87_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TurnerEarly87-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BediniEarly64_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BediniEarly64-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> By World War II, the demand for improved analyses of wartime products such as medicines, fuels, and weaponized agents pushed instrumentation to new heights.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MukhopadhyayTheRise08_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MukhopadhyayTheRise08-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Today, changes to instruments used in scientific endeavors \u2014 particularly analytical instruments \u2014 are occurring rapidly, with interconnections to computers and data management systems becoming increasingly necessary.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McMahonAnal07_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McMahonAnal07-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KhandpurHandbook15_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KhandpurHandbook15-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Scope\">Scope<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Scientific instruments vary greatly in size, shape, purpose, complication and complexity. This includes relatively simple <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory_equipment\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Laboratory equipment\" data-key=\"a545eb62bdc41e52336092f5285e6cfb\">laboratory equipment<\/a> like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Weighing_scale\" title=\"Weighing scale\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84c6b338ef45f5af402d12cf428189ff\">scales<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ruler\" title=\"Ruler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3bed331bd451e3c88b7d111f59b6563\">rulers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chronometer_watch\" title=\"Chronometer watch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c54b3eff6f4fd0acca5be4fafdc5e76\">chronometers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thermometer\" title=\"Thermometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e665602da4822cb692da35c21f3d3e61\">thermometers<\/a>, etc. Other simple tools developed in late 20th century or early 21st century are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Foldscope\" title=\"Foldscope\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73a57ee8afd21dc877860f565756b05f\">Foldscope<\/a> (an optical microscope), KAS Periodic Table (SCALE),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShadabKAS17_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShadabKAS17-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> MasSpec Pen (pen that detects cancer), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glucose_meter\" title=\"Glucose meter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2c5a3d73cb6282c27f37fd5d9bf7bb\">glucose meter<\/a>, etc. However, some scientific instruments can be quite large in size and significant in complexity, like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Particle_collider\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Particle collider\" data-key=\"71a27fbdbb9154d683fa122a73bab5e1\">particle colliders<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radio-telescope\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Radio-telescope\" data-key=\"8cd5b6c7e79e59106b68b9c7dd37e329\">radio-telescope<\/a> antennas. Conversely <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Micrometre\" title=\"Micrometre\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e2fa3aa34bde5106df8e782fb638ea5\">microscale<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nanoscopic_scale\" title=\"Nanoscopic scale\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6f333881a4631272050dd52d9772b9d\">nanoscale<\/a> technologies are advancing to the point where instrument sizes are shifting towards the tiny, including nanoscale <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Surgical_instrument\" title=\"Surgical instrument\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"188a4a114a7fa2d0d08ca43ad4f4ff48\">surgical instruments<\/a>, biological <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nanorobotics\" title=\"Nanorobotics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e467bbcd1988835f24d31b54f61b9d4\">nanobots<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bioelectronics\" title=\"Bioelectronics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"abfb770c847e4228b84430ff8f763a7a\">bioelectronics<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OsianderMicro16_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OsianderMicro16-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JamesNeuron15_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JamesNeuron15-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_digital_era\">The digital era<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Instruments are increasingly based upon <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_integration\" title=\"System integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6418d682ca1c64236b013d57e27099f\">integration<\/a> with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer\" title=\"Computer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90ce149db23a6fc17d1d225fac611846\">computers<\/a> to improve and simplify control; enhance and extend instrumental functions, conditions, and parameter adjustments; and streamline data sampling, collection, resolution, analysis (both during and post-process), and storage and retrieval. Advanced instruments can be connected as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local_area_network\" title=\"Local area network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27704f795ba72a77fd1013022ee668e5\">local area network<\/a> (LAN) directly of via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Middleware\" title=\"Middleware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f72adff48045b293a94bb17385443861\">middleware<\/a> and can be further integrated as part of an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_management\" title=\"Information management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6eb7b16b6cf9e903b35914f058a684c1\">information management<\/a> application such as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aeae8b5837c8036a820ad3734624b8d7\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilkesIntegration94_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilkesIntegration94-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CarvalhoIntegration13_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CarvalhoIntegration13-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Instrument connectivity can be furthered even more using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_of_things\" title=\"Internet of things\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08e522f905854fe34747cc25ffb62f63\">internet of things<\/a> (IoT) technologies, allowing for example laboratories separated by great distances to connect their instruments to a network that can be monitored from a workstation or mobile device elsewhere.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PerkelTheInternet17_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PerkelTheInternet17-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Examples_of_scientific_instruments\">Examples of scientific instruments<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For lists of astronomical instruments, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_telescope_types\" title=\"List of telescope types\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42c315f2f8f9bbb610dcc4a4b5d68389\">List of telescope types<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_astronomical_interferometers_at_visible_and_infrared_wavelengths\" title=\"List of astronomical interferometers at visible and infrared wavelengths\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30b16f35dc2efbbe7f52ef7b43b0bb3d\">List of astronomical interferometers at visible and infrared wavelengths<\/a>.<\/div>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accelerometer\" title=\"Accelerometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c60f2ac89c6f785bd81ce458a2d3eadb\">Accelerometer<\/a>, physical, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Acceleration\" title=\"Acceleration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7faee235e1c7a3d7e564074d3403ed66\">acceleration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ammeter\" title=\"Ammeter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"904fb1b716566565861728ad7a82a954\">Ammeter<\/a>, electrical, Amperage, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric_current\" title=\"Electric current\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"314c152ee87f99ba1a5e170a7e02e8f2\">current<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anemometer\" title=\"Anemometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d6a9c1597b6df28b1be98f1d022ac2d\">Anemometer<\/a>, wind speed.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caliper\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Caliper\" data-key=\"6b30eb58d82a6b2375b4067c8a514d04\">Caliper<\/a>, distance<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Calorimeter\" title=\"Calorimeter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5819356dabe1edddad45cd6647163d5\">Calorimeter<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Heat\" title=\"Heat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"74ff76d67d097cbf98fdf3a6be243428\">heat<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DNA_sequencer\" title=\"DNA sequencer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bb4ddc3068cbc74c923778c69764accc\">DNA sequencer<\/a>, molecular biology<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dynamometer\" title=\"Dynamometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"907f608e6725ad86a4ebcb217bdb842a\">Dynamometer<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Torque\" title=\"Torque\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ffc431619ffbfa0e5fa0352bc11a66e\">torque<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/\/\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"\/\" data-key=\"85401ea17745f686cdd053e8d6364238\">\/<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Force\" title=\"Force\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"039770cb26ca6aeccdcb72ac74102b31\">force<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrometer\" title=\"Electrometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45cff67dd14bc8a1547c5154d59a6b9e\">Electrometer<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electric_charge\" title=\"Electric charge\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e02685585f10f70986e95df2d5e5d206\">electric charge<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Potential_difference\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Potential difference\" data-key=\"766438dfd09928360f0d9e2662ed236d\">potential difference<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electroscope\" title=\"Electroscope\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"394d71de9bc1611e83a9db3ae04c3875\">Electroscope<\/a>, electric charge<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electrostatic_analyzer\" title=\"Electrostatic analyzer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f8e4cb8cd10df84d1e4d52dd4766d78\">Electrostatic analyzer<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kinetic_energy\" title=\"Kinetic energy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0cf9128fd2c3eadb54ea4e9b3faba80\">Kinetic energy<\/a> of charged particles<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ellipsometer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ellipsometer\" data-key=\"cef0c2906c22faadffe949275c1475dc\">Ellipsometer<\/a>, optical refractive indices<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eudiometer\" title=\"Eudiometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a42b4e076d2150a15e66a043e38cebbd\">Eudiometer<\/a>, gas volume<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gravimeter\" title=\"Gravimeter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"133c9c989fd126ed0284eec56d0e9492\">Gravimeter<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gravity\" title=\"Gravity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"258a60cbf84131348f6bf3649d79b6d6\">gravity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hydrometer\" title=\"Hydrometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cefafddcbe2e1fb329a4bd5656965c5f\">Hydrometer<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inclinometer\" title=\"Inclinometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6a652ac01de96860394611d94c21251\">Inclinometer<\/a>, slope<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interferometer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Interferometer\" data-key=\"c442c24304030ffda4de8587d869ac48\">Interferometer<\/a>, optics, infrared light spectra<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetograph\" title=\"Magnetograph\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1fa02b86fb46a4a5ec763d8d876a4cbd\">Magnetograph<\/a>, magnetic field<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetometer\" title=\"Magnetometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4cad1ee7e4e11d21b0aa2bc63dad891b\">Magnetometer<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Magnetic_flux\" title=\"Magnetic flux\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92f998f64f5909c5354ceea19f0e0808\">magnetic flux<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manometer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Manometer\" data-key=\"1e1855b9d9715dafad652051671b5126\">Manometer<\/a>, air <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pressure\" title=\"Pressure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"927e5862a349eb8f643d5f409f40dc70\">pressure<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_spectrometer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Mass spectrometer\" data-key=\"92652a507e590316ba70c3fa34a9cdac\">Mass spectrometer<\/a>, compound identification\/characterization<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Micrometer\" title=\"Micrometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a2cbed83e7c2261cf003d8059168375\">Micrometer<\/a>, distance<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microscope\" title=\"Microscope\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"894c33fecd89ae95983a793a8774e8c6\">Microscope<\/a>, optical magnification<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NMR_spectrometer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"NMR spectrometer\" data-key=\"17cf9d820edfcf5868ca9728baf94648\">NMR spectrometer<\/a>, chemical compound identification, medical diagnostic imaging<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ohmmeter\" title=\"Ohmmeter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"282e4d29bec184bb7540a6442b2e41d4\">Ohmmeter<\/a>, electrical resistance\/impedance<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oscilloscope\" title=\"Oscilloscope\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e98736f9fc3582beb3336e4c1991355e\">Oscilloscope<\/a>, electric signal voltage, amplitude, wavelength, frequency, waveform shape\/pattern<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Seismometer\" title=\"Seismometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b08da850bfade465dd1e20ac3845e25d\">Seismometer<\/a>, acceleration<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spectrogram\" title=\"Spectrogram\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"037683018d29a687841d76f1095cf72e\">Spectrogram<\/a>, sound frequency, wavelength, amplitude<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spectrometer\" title=\"Spectrometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"407611832b25b9df32ec0a38d4bd7b62\">Spectrometer<\/a>, light frequency, wavelength, amplitude<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telescope\" title=\"Telescope\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8fc065b85e0911229b2fcf8dd7ed6e7\">Telescope<\/a>, light magnification (astronomy)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thermometer\" title=\"Thermometer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e665602da4822cb692da35c21f3d3e61\">Thermometer<\/a>, temperature measurement<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theodolite\" title=\"Theodolite\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6adff72eef3c3e16463ab349d6725007\">Theodolite<\/a>, angles, surveying<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thermocouple\" title=\"Thermocouple\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"177c5ac0164c2e6c8ec99245ef3e7b19\">Thermocouple<\/a>, temperature<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voltmeter\" title=\"Voltmeter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b009fb2605db49484b9e30f5b47fb5d8\">Voltmeter<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voltage\" title=\"Voltage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5a5e21aa3b332458eb9bce62a3fcd9f\">voltage<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"List_of_scientific_instruments_manufacturers\">List of scientific instruments manufacturers<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/454_Life_Sciences\" title=\"454 Life Sciences\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb2a7b6b040310858fe985fddf4e0322\">454 Life Sciences<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ADInstruments\" title=\"ADInstruments\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b150bed9700a78a29c8d06d44843c6f7\">ADInstruments<\/a>, New Zealand<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Agilent_Technologies\" title=\"Agilent Technologies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16185035934673316848b1ec32133966\">Agilent Technologies<\/a>,Nigeria<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Anton_Paar\" title=\"Anton Paar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"073d745fc694f4d901111a438c06794e\">Anton Paar<\/a>, Austria<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/A._Reyrolle_%26_Company\" title=\"A. Reyrolle & Company\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"beb881487376d9496dcd13e8d3d1d3fc\">A. Reyrolle & Company<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Beckman_Coulter\" title=\"Beckman Coulter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1205ff2d8366a69777e9dc12086809f\">Beckman Coulter<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bruker\" title=\"Bruker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"269aaae204df64a0ce560c99564f529e\">Bruker<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cambridge_Scientific_Instrument_Company\" title=\"Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"207de2d8ad205127cbb00ed4cdf26253\">Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company<\/a>, United Kingdom<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Horiba\" title=\"Horiba\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"06125ec1c476d6d6d701eef0dd556923\">Horiba<\/a>, Japan<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JEOL\" title=\"JEOL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb2f045ae49446faf4559e099c270a94\">JEOL<\/a>, Japan<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/LECO_Corporation\" title=\"LECO Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45cf99540d7012b1fd695156cb271468\">LECO Corporation<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Markes_International\" title=\"Markes International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d25f3ea2157a4033db9a47a2cce7754\">Markes International<\/a>, United Kingdom<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Malvern_Instruments\" title=\"Malvern Instruments\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9d19c467d0c9e8f808d8aea794425a7\">Malvern Instruments<\/a>, United Kingdom<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/McPherson_Inc\" title=\"McPherson Inc\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5307e26ea80870ce4ad66d87753e34e\">McPherson Inc<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mettler_Toledo\" title=\"Mettler Toledo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1c91534a919d5c3780ee19a9fbd6cd1\">Mettler Toledo<\/a>, Switzerland \/ United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MTS_Systems_Corporation\" title=\"MTS Systems Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6719245002b5854df175620150b5eae\">MTS Systems Corporation<\/a>, USA, mechanical<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Novacam_Technologies\" title=\"Novacam Technologies\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4dc383f59cff677bf7a0a0e96191077\">Novacam Technologies<\/a>, Canada<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oxford_Instruments\" title=\"Oxford Instruments\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5efbcabd9aee357a49dcd24d6c1819f4\">Oxford Instruments<\/a>, United Kingdom<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pall_Corp.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Pall Corp.\" data-key=\"3ac1e496705c6d388deb75814eae8e57\">Pall Corp.<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PerkinElmer\" title=\"PerkinElmer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3beacf2c726b69a40efd8c4a3c9f4cd1\">PerkinElmer<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polymer_Char\" title=\"Polymer Char\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30fb11267df08a294cee6ef65aeb4876\">Polymer Char<\/a>, Spain<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shimadzu_Corp.\" title=\"Shimadzu Corp.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d54e816c49e516447e8184501e7427d\">Shimadzu Corp.<\/a>, Japan<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Techtron\" title=\"Techtron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d277bb8eb06d671b287e83d9a1f751b\">Techtron<\/a>, Melbourne, Australia<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thermo_Fisher_Scientific\" title=\"Thermo Fisher Scientific\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89d0256f7fc80c70b9f8ac3d680b9b48\">Thermo Fisher Scientific<\/a>, United States of America<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Waters_Corporation\" title=\"Waters Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"38e8c933f00fd8c164a8a6091403c1ff\">Waters Corporation<\/a>, United States of America<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"List_of_scientific_instruments_designers\">List of scientific instruments designers<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_astronomical_instrument_makers\" title=\"List of astronomical instrument makers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"75009bb9b18bd86e19000b864d71e0a3\">List of astronomical instrument makers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Scientific_instrument_makers\" title=\"Category:Scientific instrument makers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"745f66681221d1d3b367b7bb543526c1\">Category:Scientific instrument makers<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Worshipful_Company_of_Scientific_Instrument_Makers\" title=\"Worshipful Company of Scientific Instrument Makers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"12fb609ee56d6cc2a174bc075b9f80d0\">Worshipful Company of Scientific Instrument Makers<\/a><\/div>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/William_Jones_(optician)\" title=\"William Jones (optician)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a2ce0d66d7ef1ad3afd70ed57b65a41b\">Jones, William<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Petrus_Jacobus_Kipp\" title=\"Petrus Jacobus Kipp\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3bcbce7bd5cf59b0755da6897959434\">Kipp, Petrus Jacobus<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gustave_Le_Bon\" title=\"Gustave Le Bon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3cf6885be25e42fca98940551df676a8\">Le Bon, Gustave<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Arjen_Roelofs\" title=\"Arjen Roelofs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6a0f5804d0a49a1bb49acde557dcb9a\">Roelofs, Arjen<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner\" title=\"Johannes Sch\u00f6ner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e9bc3bcdd04126e18fa9abb26ed9363\">Sch\u00f6ner, Johannes<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Georg_Friedrich_von_Reichenbach\" title=\"Georg Friedrich von Reichenbach\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07c7d2c20bcccb969a412aad66f7d601\">Von Reichenbach, Georg Friedrich<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_scientific_instruments\">History of scientific instruments<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China\" title=\"History of science and technology in the People's Republic of China\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c9966801d730dacdb93fad7cf12abd7\">History of science and technology in the People's Republic of China<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Museums\">Museums<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Harvard_Collection_of_Historical_Scientific_Instruments\" title=\"Harvard Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afefe9119e58dbbe72bba7c40a776a07\">Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments (CHSI)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boerhaave_Museum\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Boerhaave Museum\" data-key=\"dc56339061aa50af661c1d9946f81f67\">Boerhaave Museum<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chemical_Heritage_Foundation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Chemical Heritage Foundation\" data-key=\"960ee9b59fa21e94669ddf38dcfa301d\">Chemical Heritage Foundation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deutsches_Museum\" title=\"Deutsches Museum\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"868dac5f496049aa4ff5032f42f4ec40\">Deutsches Museum<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Royal_Victoria_Gallery_for_the_Encouragement_of_Practical_Science\" title=\"Royal Victoria Gallery for the Encouragement of Practical Science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e16c66b30678fbdf0965639131171edb\">Royal Victoria Gallery for the Encouragement of Practical Science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Whipple_Museum_of_the_History_of_Science\" title=\"Whipple Museum of the History of Science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"337f7b0dbb2ecb30f1dd79c75990d163\">Whipple Museum of the History of Science<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Types_of_scientific_instruments\">Types of scientific instruments<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_instrument\" title=\"Optical instrument\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ad37f90ef31bd623db62db30d6a8dbe\">Optical instrument<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_test_equipment\" title=\"Electronic test equipment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62c5c14bb28dac8a9082b057e37241f0\">Electronic test equipment<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Instrumentation\" title=\"Instrumentation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07a60645c169fae7de855049eb32e485\">Instrumentation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Instrumentalism\" title=\"Instrumentalism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4e4632279ef08001c2c8b04de96e5f9\">Instrumentalism<\/a>, a philosophic theory<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_collectibles\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"List of collectibles\" data-key=\"3e2c99c1effabd90e0d22090ee7691ad\">List of collectibles<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"d73474a3374a758c1347a5185b1e4ad6\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/99\/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg\/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/a> The dictionary definition of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wiktionary.org\/wiki\/-tron\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"wiktionary:-tron\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\"><i>-tron<\/i><\/a> at Wiktionary, a suffix to denote a complex scientific instrument, like in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cyclotron\" title=\"Cyclotron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"941252ba21cd0a206204d54171cccf1a\">cyclotron<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Phytotron\" title=\"Phytotron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c6a931110db8bfefc00472547ebc75f\">phytotron<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synchrotron\" title=\"Synchrotron\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"778c46f223fcdc248b3398c120f30702\">synchrotron<\/a>, ...<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HackmannReaders13-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-HackmannReaders13_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HackmannReaders13_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HackmannReaders13_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Hackmann, W. (2013). \"Scientific instruments\". In Hessenbruck, A. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1wJeAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA676&lpg=PA675\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Reader's Guide to the History of Science<\/i><\/a>. Routledge. pp. 675\u201377. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781134263011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Scientific+instruments&rft.btitle=Reader%27s+Guide+to+the+History+of+Science&rft.pages=675-77&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781134263011&rft.au=Hackmann%2C+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1wJeAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA676%26lpg%3DPA675&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FR71USvsPresb-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FR71USvsPresb_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FR71USvsPresb_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Nyc4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA866\" target=\"_blank\">\"United States v. Presbyterian Hospital\"<\/a>. <i>The Federal Reporter<\/i>. <b>71<\/b>: 866\u2013868. 1896.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Federal+Reporter&rft.atitle=United+States+v.+Presbyterian+Hospital&rft.volume=71&rft.pages=866-868&rft.date=1896&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNyc4AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TurnerEarly87-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TurnerEarly87_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Turner, A.J. (1987). <i>Early Scientific Instruments: Europe, 1400-1800<\/i>. Phillip Wilson Publishers.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Scientific+Instruments%3A+Europe%2C+1400-1800&rft.pub=Phillip+Wilson+Publishers&rft.date=1987&rft.au=Turner%2C+A.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BediniEarly64-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BediniEarly64_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Bedini, S.A. (1964). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/ebooks\/39141\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Early American Scientific Instruments and Their Makers<\/i><\/a>. Smithsonian Institution<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+American+Scientific+Instruments+and+Their+Makers&rft.pub=Smithsonian+Institution&rft.date=1964&rft.au=Bedini%2C+S.A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F39141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MukhopadhyayTheRise08-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MukhopadhyayTheRise08_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Mukhopadhyay, R. (2008). \"The Rise of Instruments during World War II\". <i>Analytical Chemistry<\/i>. <b>80<\/b> (15): 5684\u20135691. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021%2Fac801205u\" target=\"_blank\">10.1021\/ac801205u<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/18671339\" target=\"_blank\">18671339<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Analytical+Chemistry&rft.atitle=The+Rise+of+Instruments+during+World+War+II&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=5684-5691&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fac801205u&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18671339&rft.au=Mukhopadhyay%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-McMahonAnal07-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-McMahonAnal07_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">McMahon, G. (2007). \"Chapter 1: Introduction\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=4paUE12Hw0UC&pg=PA1\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Analytical Instrumentation: A Guide to Laboratory, Portable and Miniaturized Instruments<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1\u20136. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780470518557<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Introduction&rft.btitle=Analytical+Instrumentation%3A+A+Guide+to+Laboratory%2C+Portable+and+Miniaturized+Instruments&rft.pages=1-6&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780470518557&rft.au=McMahon%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4paUE12Hw0UC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KhandpurHandbook15-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-KhandpurHandbook15_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Khandpur, R.S. (2016). \"Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Analytical Instruments\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=yUp_CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT43\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Handbook of Analytical Instruments<\/i><\/a>. McGraw Hill Education. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9789339221362<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+Fundamentals+of+Analytical+Instruments&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Analytical+Instruments&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill+Education&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9789339221362&rft.au=Khandpur%2C+R.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyUp_CgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShadabKAS17-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ShadabKAS17_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Shadab, K.A. (2017). \"KAS PERIODIC TABLE\". <i>International Research Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences<\/i>. <b>4<\/b> (7): 221\u2013261.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Research+Journal+of+Natural+and+Applied+Sciences&rft.atitle=KAS+PERIODIC+TABLE&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=221-261&rft.date=2017&rft.au=Shadab%2C+K.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OsianderMicro16-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-OsianderMicro16_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Osiander, R. (2016). \"Chapter 6: Micro Electro Mechanical Systems: Systems Engineering's Transition into the Nanoworld\". In Darrin, M.A.G.; Barth, J.L. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=tWPRBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA141\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Systems Engineering for Microscale and Nanoscale Technologies<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp. 137\u2013172. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781439837351<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6%3A+Micro+Electro+Mechanical+Systems%3A+Systems+Engineering%27s+Transition+into+the+Nanoworld&rft.btitle=Systems+Engineering+for+Microscale+and+Nanoscale+Technologies&rft.pages=137-172&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781439837351&rft.au=Osiander%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtWPRBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JamesNeuron15-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-JamesNeuron15_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">James, W.S.; Lemole Jr, G.M. (2015). \"Chapter 21: Neuron Based Surgery: Are We There Yet? Technical Developments in the Surgical Treatment of Brain Injury and Disease\". In Latifi, R.; Rhee, P.; Gruessner, R.W.G. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FgWhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA227\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Technological Advances in Surgery, Trauma and Critical Care<\/i><\/a>. Springer. pp. 221\u2013230. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781493926718<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 January<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+21%3A+Neuron+Based+Surgery%3A+Are+We+There+Yet%3F+Technical+Developments+in+the+Surgical+Treatment+of+Brain+Injury+and+Disease&rft.btitle=Technological+Advances+in+Surgery%2C+Trauma+and+Critical+Care&rft.pages=221-230&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781493926718&rft.au=James%2C+W.S.&rft.au=Lemole+Jr%2C+G.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFgWhCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WilkesIntegration94-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WilkesIntegration94_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Wilkes, R.; Megargle, R. (1994). \"Integration of instruments and a laboratory information management system at the information level: An inductively coupled plasma spectrometer\". <i>Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems<\/i>. <b>26<\/b> (1): 47\u201354. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2F0169-7439%2894%2990018-3\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/0169-7439(94)90018-3<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemometrics+and+Intelligent+Laboratory+Systems&rft.atitle=Integration+of+instruments+and+a+laboratory+information+management+system+at+the+information+level%3A+An+inductively+coupled+plasma+spectrometer&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=47-54&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0169-7439%2894%2990018-3&rft.au=Wilkes%2C+R.&rft.au=Megargle%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CarvalhoIntegration13-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CarvalhoIntegration13_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Carvalho, M.C. (2013). \"Integration of Analytical Instruments with Computer Scripting\". <i>Journal of Laboratory Automation<\/i>. <b>18<\/b> (4): 328\u201333. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F2211068213476288\" target=\"_blank\">10.1177\/2211068213476288<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/23413273\" target=\"_blank\">23413273<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Laboratory+Automation&rft.atitle=Integration+of+Analytical+Instruments+with+Computer+Scripting&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=328-33&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2211068213476288&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23413273&rft.au=Carvalho%2C+M.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PerkelTheInternet17-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PerkelTheInternet17_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Perkel, J.M. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nature.com\/news\/the-internet-of-things-comes-to-the-lab-1.21383\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Internet of Things comes to the lab\"<\/a>. <i>Nature<\/i>. <b>542<\/b> (7639): 125\u2013126. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bibcode\" title=\"Bibcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8d53091b41d79b165d88661365dde91\">Bibcode<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2017Natur.542..125P\" target=\"_blank\">2017Natur.542..125P<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038%2F542125a\" target=\"_blank\">10.1038\/542125a<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/28150787\" target=\"_blank\">28150787<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+Internet+of+Things+comes+to+the+lab&rft.volume=542&rft.issue=7639&rft.pages=125-126&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28150787&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F542125a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017Natur.542..125P&rft.au=Perkel%2C+J.M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnews%2Fthe-internet-of-things-comes-to-the-lab-1.21383&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+instrument\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1327\nCached time: 20190401112237\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.272 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.334 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1036\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 36845\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 10465\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 9\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 2\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 41721\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 2\/400\nLua time usage: 0.149\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 3.86 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 284.611 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>66.72% 189.893 1 Template:Reflist\n38.89% 110.686 7 Template:Cite_book\n19.57% 55.689 6 Template:Cite_journal\n10.35% 29.451 1 Template:Further\n 9.48% 26.983 2 Template:Columns-list\n 6.73% 19.147 2 Template:Div_col\n 3.96% 11.267 1 Template:Wiktionary-inline\n 3.74% 10.632 1 Template:For\n 2.54% 7.226 1 Template:Sister-inline\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:274810-1!canonical and timestamp 20190401112237 and revision id 890410368\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_instrument\" data-key=\"31eda2a39d06602bcafaae1fb99b7616\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202959\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.010 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.143 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 136.675 1 - wikipedia:Scientific_instrument\n100.00% 136.675 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10409-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403202958 and revision id 32420\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_instrument\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_instrument<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","b25152b8b4d5b59f8644bed8bd3a660d_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/99\/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg\/32px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png"],"b25152b8b4d5b59f8644bed8bd3a660d_timestamp":1554323398,"05622b8599837512e5cac1e66d2ee5b4_type":"article","05622b8599837512e5cac1e66d2ee5b4_title":"Modularity","05622b8599837512e5cac1e66d2ee5b4_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Modularity","05622b8599837512e5cac1e66d2ee5b4_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tModularity\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFor other uses, see Module (disambiguation).\nBroadly speaking, modularity is the degree to which a system's components may be separated and recombined, often with the benefit of flexibility and variety in use.[1] The concept of modularity is used primarily to reduce complexity by breaking a system into varying degrees of interdependence and independence across and \"hide the complexity of each part behind an abstraction and interface.\"[2] However, the concept of modularity can be extended to multiple disciplines, each with their own nuances. Despite these nuances, consistent themes concerning modular systems arise.[3]\n\nContents \n\n1 Contextual nuances \n2 Modularity in different research areas \n\n2.1 Modularity in technology and management \n2.2 Modularity in biology \n2.3 Modularity in the arts \n2.4 Modularity in American studies \n2.5 Consistent themes \n\n2.5.1 Table 1: The use of modularity by discipline[34] \n\n\n\n\n3 See also \n4 Notes \n\n\nContextual nuances \nThe meaning of the word \"modularity\" can vary somewhat based on context. The following are contextual examples of modularity across several fields of science, technology, industry, and culture:\nScience\n\nIn biology, modularity recognizes that organisms or metabolic pathways are composed of modules.\nIn ecology, modularity is considered a key factor\u2014along with diversity and feedback\u2014in supporting resilience.\nIn nature, modularity may refer to the construction of a cellular organism by joining together standardized units to form larger compositions, as for example, the hexagonal cells in a honeycomb.\nIn cognitive science, the idea of modularity of mind holds that the mind is composed of independent, closed, domain-specific processing modules.\nVisual modularity, the various putative visual modules.\nLanguage module, the putative language module.\nTechnology\n\nIn modular programming, modularity refers to the compartmentalization and interrelation of the parts of a software package.\nIn software design, modularity refers to a logical partitioning of the \"software design\" that allows complex software to be manageable for the purpose of implementation and maintenance. The logic of partitioning may be based on related functions, implementation considerations, data links, or other criteria.\nIn self-reconfiguring modular robotics, modularity refers to the ability of the robotic system to automatically achieve different morphologies to execute the task at hand.\nIndustry\n\nIn modular construction, modules are a bundle of redundant project components that are produced en masse prior to installation.\nIn industrial design, modularity refers to an engineering technique that builds larger systems by combining smaller subsystems.\nIn manufacturing, modularity typically refers to modular design, either as the use of exchangeable parts or options in the fabrication of an object or the design and manufacture of modular components.\nCulture\n\nIn The Language of New Media, author Lev Manovich discusses the principle that new media is composed of modules or self-sufficient parts of the overall media object.\nIn the study of complex networks, modularity is a benefit function that measures the quality of a division of a network into groups or communities.\nIn contemporary art and architecture, modularity can refer to the construction of an object by joining together standardized units to form larger compositions, and\/or to the use of a module as a standardized unit of measurement and proportion.\nIn modular art, modularity refers to the ability to alter the work by reconfiguring, adding to, and\/or removing its parts.\nModularity in different research areas \nModularity in technology and management \nThe term modularity is widely used in studies of technological and organizational systems. Product systems are deemed \u201cmodular\u201d, for example, when they can be decomposed into a number of components that may be mixed and matched in a variety of configurations.[4][5] The components are able to connect, interact, or exchange resources (such as energy or data) in some way, by adhering to a standardized interface. Unlike a tightly integrated product whereby each component is designed to work specifically (and often exclusively) with other particular components in a tightly coupled system, modular products are systems of components that are \u201cloosely coupled.\u201d[6]\nIn The Language of New Media, Lev Manovich proposes five \u201cprinciples of new media\u201d\u2014to be understood \u201cnot as absolute laws but rather as general tendencies of a culture undergoing computerization.\u201d[7] The five principles are numerical representation, modularity, automation, variability, and transcoding. Modularity within new media represents new media as being composed of several separate self-sufficient modules that can act independently or together in synchronisation to complete the new media object. In Photoshop, modularity is most evident in layers; a single image can be composed of many layers, each of which can be treated as an entirely independent and separate entity. Websites can be defined as being modular, their structure is formed in a format that allows their contents to be changed, removed or edited whilst still retaining the structure of the website. This is because the website's content operates separately to the website and does not define the structure of the site. The entire Web, Manovich notes, has a modular structure, composed of independent sites and pages, and each webpage itself is composed of elements and code that can be independently modified.[8]\nOrganizational systems are said to become increasingly modular when they begin to substitute loosely coupled forms for tightly integrated, hierarchical structures.[9] For instance, when the firm utilizes contract manufacturing rather than in-house manufacturing, it is using an organizational component that is more independent than building such capabilities in-house: the firm can switch between contract manufacturers that perform different functions, and the contract manufacturer can similarly work for different firms.[9] As firms in a given industry begin to substitute loose coupling with organizational components that lie outside of firm boundaries for activities that were once conducted in-house, the entire production system (which may encompass many firms) becomes increasingly modular. The firms themselves become more specialized components. Using loosely coupled structures enables firms to achieve greater flexibility in both scope and scale .[9] The firm can switch easily between different providers of these activities (e.g., between different contract manufacturers or alliance partners) compared to building the capabilities for all activities in house, thus responding to different market needs more quickly. However, these flexibility gains come with a price. Therefore, the organization must assess the flexibility gains achievable, and any accompanying loss of performance, with each of these forms.\nModularization within firms leads to the disaggregation of the traditional form of hierarchical governance.[10][11][12] The firm is decomposed into relatively small autonomous organizational units (modules) to reduce complexity. Modularization leads to a structure, in which the modules integrate strongly interdependent tasks, while the interdependencies between the modules are weak. In this connection the dissemination of modular organizational forms has been facilitated by the widespread efforts of the majority of large firms to re-engineer, refocus and restructure. These efforts usually involve a strong process-orientation: the complete service-provision process of the business is split up into partial processes, which can then be handled autonomously by cross-functional teams within organizational units (modules). The co-ordination of the modules is often carried out by using internal market mechanisms, in particular by the implementation of profit centers. Overall, modularization enables more flexible and quicker reaction to changing general or market conditions. Building on the above principles, many alternative forms of modularization of firms are possible. However, it is crucial to note that modularization is not an independent and self-contained organizational concept, but rather consists of several basic ideas, which are integral parts of other organizational concepts. These central ideas can be found in every firm. Accordingly, it is not sensible to characterize a firm as \"modular\" or as \"not modular\", because firms are always modular to a some degree.\nInput systems, or \"domain specific computational mechanisms\" (such as the ability to perceive spoken language) are termed vertical faculties, and according to Jerry Fodor they are modular in that they possess a number of characteristics Fodor argues constitute modularity. Fodor's list of features characterizing modules includes the following:\n\nDomain specific (modules only respond to inputs of a specific class, and thus a \"species of vertical faculty\" (Fodor, 1996\/1983:37)\nInnately specified (the structure is inherent and is not formed by a learning process)\nNot assembled (modules are not put together from a stock of more elementary subprocesses but rather their virtual architecture maps directly onto their neural implementation)\nNeurologically hardwired (modules are associated with specific, localized, and elaborately structured neural systems rather than fungible neural mechanisms)\nAutonomous (modules independent of other modules)\nFodor does not argue that this is formal definition or an all inclusive list of features necessary for modularity. He argues only that cognitive systems characterized by some of the features above are likely to be characterized by them all, and that such systems can be considered modular. He also notes that the characteristics are not an all-or-nothing proposition, but rather each of the characteristics may be manifest in some degree, and that modularity itself is also not a dichotomous construct\u2014something may be more or less modular: \"One would thus expect\u2014what anyhow seems to be desirable\u2014that the notion of modularity ought to admit of degrees\" (Fodor, 1996\/1983:37).\nNotably, Fodor's \"not assembled\" feature contrasts sharply with the use of modularity in other fields in which modular systems are seen to be hierarchically nested (that is, modules are themselves composed of modules, which in turn are composed of modules, etc.) However, Max Coltheart notes that Fodor's commitment to the non-assembled feature appears weak,[13] and other scholars (e.g., Block[14]) have proposed that Fodor's modules could be decomposed into finer modules. For instance, while Fodor distinguishes between separate modules for spoken and written language, Block might further decompose the spoken language module into modules for phonetic analysis and lexical forms:[13] \"Decomposition stops when all the components are primitive processors\u2014because the operation of a primitive processor cannot be further decomposed into suboperations\"[14]\nThough Fodor's work on modularity is one of the most extensive, there is other work in psychology on modularity worth noting for its symmetry with modularity in other disciplines. For instance, while Fodor focused on cognitive input systems as modules, Coltheart proposes that there may be many different kinds of cognitive modules, and distinguishes between, for example, knowledge modules and processing modules. The former is a body of knowledge that is independent of other bodies of knowledge, while the latter is a mental information-processing system independent from other such systems.\nHowever, the data neuroscientists have accumulated have not pointed to an organization system as neat and precise as the modularity theory originally proposed originally by Jerry Fodor. It has been shown to be much messier and different from person to person, even though general patterns exist; through a mixture of neuroimaging and lesion studies, it has been shown that there are certain regions that perform certain functions and other regions that do not perform those functions.[15]\n\nModularity in biology \nAs in some of the other disciplines, the term modularity may be used in multiple ways in biology. For example, it may be used to refer to organisms that have an indeterminate structure wherein modules of various complexity (e.g., leaves, twigs) may be assembled without strict limits on their number or placement. Many plants and sessile benthic invertebrates[clarification needed ] demonstrate this type of modularity (by contrast, many other organisms have a determinate structure that is predefined in embryogenesis).[16] The term has also been used in a broader sense in biology to refer to the reuse of homologous structures across individuals and species. Even within this latter category, there may be differences in how a module is perceived. For instance, evolutionary biologists may focus on the module as a morphological component (subunit) of a whole organism, while developmental biologists may use the term module to refer to some combination of lower-level components (e.g., genes) that are able to act in a unified way to perform a function.[17] In the former, the module is perceived a basic component, while in the latter the emphasis is on the module as a collective.\nBiology scholars have provided a list of features that should characterize a module (much as Fodor did in The Modularity of Mind[18]). For instance, Rudy Raff[19] provides the following list of characteristics that developmental modules should possess:\n\ndiscrete genetic specification\nhierarchical organization\ninteractions with other modules\na particular physical location within a developing organism\nthe ability to undergo transformations on both developmental and evolutionary time scales\nTo Raff's mind, developmental modules are \"dynamic entities representing localized processes (as in morphogenetic fields) rather than simply incipient structures ... (... such as organ rudiments).\"[20] Bolker, however, attempts to construct a definitional list of characteristics that is more abstract, and thus more suited to multiple levels of study in biology. She argues that:\n\nA module is a biological entity (a structure, a process, or a pathway) characterized by more internal than external integration\nModules are biological individuals[21][22] that can be delineated from their surroundings or context, and whose behavior or function reflects the integration of their parts, not simply the arithmetical sum. That is, as a whole, the module can perform tasks that its constituent parts could not perform if dissociated.\nIn addition to their internal integration, modules have external connectivity, yet they can also be delineated from the other entities with which they interact in some way.\nAnother stream of research on modularity in biology that should be of particular interest to scholars in other disciplines is that of G\u00fcnter Wagner and Lee Altenberg. Altenberg's work,[23] Wagner's work,[24] and their joint writing[25] explores how natural selection may have resulted in modular organisms, and the roles modularity plays in evolution. Altenberg's and Wagner's work suggests that modularity is both the result of evolution, and facilitates evolution\u2014an idea that shares a marked resemblance to work on modularity in technological and organizational domains.\n\nModularity in the arts \nThe use of modules in the fine arts has a long pedigree among diverse cultures. In the classical architecture of Greco-Roman antiquity, the module was utilized as a standardized unit of measurement for proportioning the elements of a building. Typically the module was established as one-half the diameter of the lower shaft of a classical column; all the other components in the syntax of the classical system were expressed as a fraction or multiple of that module. In traditional Japanese construction, room sizes were often determined by combinations of standard rice mats called tatami; the standard dimension of a mat was around 3 feet by 6 feet, which approximate the overall proportions of a reclining human figure. The module thus becomes not only a proportional device for use with three-dimensional vertical elements but a two-dimensional planning tool as well.\nModularity as a means of measurement is intrinsic to certain types of building; for example, brick construction is by its nature modular insofar as the fixed dimensions of a brick necessarily yield dimensions that are multiples of the original unit. Attaching bricks to one another to form walls and surfaces also reflects a second definition of modularity: namely, the use of standardized units that physically connect to each other to form larger compositions.\nWith the advent of modernism and advanced construction techniques in the 20th century this latter definition transforms modularity from a compositional attribute to a thematic concern in its own right. A school of Modular Constructivism develops in the 1950s among a circle of sculptors who create sculpture and architectural features out of repetitive units cast in concrete. A decade later modularity becomes an autonomous artistic concern of its own, as several important Minimalist artists adopt it as their central theme. Modular building as both an industrial production model and an object of advanced architectural investigation develops from this same period.\nModularity has found renewed interest among proponents of ModulArt, a form of modular art in which the constituent parts can be physically reconfigured, removed and\/or added to. After a few isolated experiments in ModulArt starting in the 1950s,[26] several artists since the 1990s have explored this flexible, customizable and co-creative form of art.[27]\n\nModularity in American studies \nIn John Blair's Modular America,[28] he argues that as Americans began to replace social structures inherited from Europe (predominantly England and France), they evolved a uniquely American tendency towards modularity in fields as diverse as education, music, and architecture.\nBlair observes that when the word module first emerged in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it meant something very close to model. It implied a small-scale representation or example. By the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the word had come to imply a standard measure of fixed ratios and proportions. For example, in architecture, the proportions of a column could be stated in modules (i.e., \" a height of fourteen modules equaled seven times the diameter measured at the base\"[29]) and thus multiplied to any size while still retaining the desired proportions.\nHowever, in America, the meaning and usage of the word shifted considerably: \"Starting with architectural terminology in the 1930s, the new emphasis was on any entity or system designed in terms of modules as subcomponents. As applications broadened after World War II to furniture, hi-fi equipment, computer programs and beyond, modular construction came to refer to any whole made up of self-contained units designed to be equivalent parts of a system, hence, we might say, \"systemically equivalent.\" Modular parts are implicitly interchangeable and\/or recombinable in one or another of several senses\"[30]\nBlair defines a modular system as \u201cone that gives more importance to parts than to wholes. Parts are conceived as equivalent and hence, in one or more senses, interchangeable and\/or cumulative and\/or recombinable\u201d (pg. 125). Blair describes the emergence of modular structures in education (the college curriculum), industry (modular product assembly), architecture (skyscrapers), music (blues and jazz), and more. In his concluding chapter, Blair does not commit to a firm view of what causes Americans to pursue more modular structures in the diverse domains in which it has appeared; but he does suggest that it may in some way be related to the American ideology of liberal individualism and a preference for anti-hierarchical organization.\n\nConsistent themes \nComparing the use of modularity across these disciplines reveals several themes:\nOne theme that shows up in psychology and biology study is innately specified. Innately specified (as used here) implies that the purpose or structure of the module is predetermined by some biological mandate.\nDomain specificity, that modules respond only to inputs of a specific class (or perform functions only of a specific class) is a theme that clearly spans psychology and biology, and it can be argued that it also spans technological and organizational systems. Domain specificity would be seen in the latter disciplines as specialization of function.\nHierarchically nested is a theme that recurs in most disciplines. Though originally disavowed by Jerry Fodor, other psychologists have embraced it, and it is readily apparent in the use of modularity in biology (e.g., each module of an organism can be decomposed into finer modules), social processes and artifacts (e.g., we can think of a skyscraper in terms of blocks of floors, a single floor, elements of a floor, etc.), mathematics (e.g., the modulus 6 may be further divided into the moduli 1, 2 and 3), and technological and organizational systems (e.g., an organization may be composed of divisions, which are composed of teams, which are composed of individuals) [31]\nGreater internal than external integration is a theme that showed up in every discipline but mathematics. Often referred to as autonomy, this theme acknowledged that there may be interaction or integration between modules, but the greater interaction and integration occurs within the module. This theme is very closely related to information encapsulation, which shows up explicitly in both the psychology and technology research.\nNear decomposability (as termed by Simon, 1962) shows up in all of the disciplines, but is manifest in a matter of degrees. For instance, in psychology and biology it may refer merely to the ability to delineate one module from another (recognizing the boundaries of the module). In several of the social artifacts, mathematics, and technological or organizational systems, however, it refers to the ability to actually separate components from one another. In several of the disciplines this decomposability also enables the complexity of a system (or process) to be reduced. This is aptly captured in a quote from David Marr[32] about psychological processes where he notes that, \"any large computation should be split up into a collection of small, nearly independent, specialized subprocesses.\" Reducing complexity is also the express purpose of casting out nines in mathematics.\nSubstitutability and recombinability are closely related constructs. The former refers to the ability to substitute one component for another as in John Blair\u2019s \u201csystemic equivalence\u201d while the latter may refer both to the indeterminate form of the system and the indeterminate use of the component. In US college curricula, for example, each course is designed with a credit system that ensures a uniform number of contact hours, and approximately uniform educational content, yielding substitutability. By virtue of their substitutability, each student may create their own curricula (recombinability of the curriculum as a system) and each course may be said to be recombinable with a variety of students\u2019 curricula (recombinability of the component within multiple systems). Both substitutability and recombinability are immediately recognizable in Blair\u2019s social processes and artifacts, and are also well captured in Garud and Kumaraswamy's[33] discussion of economies of substitution in technological systems.\nBlair\u2019s systemic equivalence also demonstrates the relationship between substitutability and the module as a homologue. Blair\u2019s systemic equivalence refers to the ability for multiple modules to perform approximately the same function within a system, while in biology a module as a homologue refers to different modules sharing approximately the same form or function in different organisms. The extreme of the module as homologue is found in mathematics, where (in the simplest case) the modules refer to the reuse of a particular number and thus each module is exactly alike.\nIn all but mathematics, there has been an emphasis that modules may be different in kind. In Fodor\u2019s discussion of modular cognitive system, each module performs a unique task. In biology, even modules that are considered homologous may be somewhat different in form and function (e.g., a whale\u2019s fin versus a human\u2019s hand). In Blair\u2019s book, he points out that while jazz music may be composed of structural units that conform to the same underlying rules, those components vary significantly. Similarly in studies of technology and organization, modular systems may be composed of modules that are very similar (as in shelving units that may be piled one atop the other) or very different (as in a stereo system where each component performs unique functions) or any combination in between.\n\n Table 1: The use of modularity by discipline[34] \n\n\n\nConcept\n\nTechnology and organizations\n\nPsychology\n\nBiology\n\nAmerican studies\n\nMathematics\n\n\nDomain specific\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\n\n\n\n\nInnately specified\n\n\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\n\n\n\n\nHierarchically nested\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\nMore internal integration than external integration (localized processes and autonomy)\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\n\n\nInformationally encapsulated\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNear decomposability\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\nRecombinability\n\nX\n\n\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\nExpandability\n\nX\n\n\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\nModule as homologue\n\nX\n\n\n\nX\n\nX\n\nX\n\n\nSee also \nModular design\nHolism\nModular programming\nObject-oriented programming\nSelf-similarity\nConfiguration design\nNotes \n\n\n^ \"modular\". Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, Inc. 17 May 2018. Retrieved 18 May 2018 . \n\n^ Baldwin, C.Y.; Clark, K.B. (2000). \"Chapter 3: What Is Modularity?\". Design Rules: The power of modularity. MIT Press. pp. 63\u201392. ISBN 9780262024662. Retrieved 18 May 2018 . \n\n^ Schilling, M.A. \"Towards A General Modular Systems Theory and its Application to Interfirm Product Modularity - Commentary\". In Garud, R.; Kumaraswamy, A.; Langlois, R.N. Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks, and Organizations. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 203\u2013216. ISBN 9781405141949. Retrieved 18 May 2018 . \n\n^ Schilling, M.A. 2000. Towards a general modular systems theory and its application to inter-firm product modularity. Academy of Management Review, Vol 25:312\u2013334. \n\n^ Baldwin, C. Y. & Clark, K. B. 2000. Design rules, Volume 1: The power of modularity, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. \n\n^ Orton, J. & Weick, K. 1990. Loosely coupled systems: A reconceptualization. Academy of Management Review, 15:203\u2013223. \n\n^ Manovich, J. 2001. The Language of New Media. \n\n^ Bradley Dilger, Review of The Language of New Media (Kairos: http:\/\/english.ttu.edu\/kairos\/7.1\/reviews\/dilger\/). \n\n^ a b c Schilling, M.A. & Steensma, K. 2001. The use of modular organizational forms: An industry level analysis. Academy of Management Journal, 44: 1149\u20131169. \n\n^ Miles R.E., Snow, C.C., Mathews, J.A., Miles, G., & Coleman, H.J. Organizing in the knowledge age \u2014 Anticipating the cellular form. Academy of Management Executive 11(4):7\u201320. \n\n^ Zenger, T.R. & Hesterly, W.S. The Disaggregation of Corporations \u2014 Selective Intervention, High-powered Incentives, and Molecular Units. Organization Science 8:209\u2013222. \n\n^ Kuntz, L. & Vera, A. 2007. Modular organization and hospital performance. Health Services Management Research, 20(1): 48\u201358. \n\n^ a b Coltheart, M. 1999. Modularity and cognition. Trends in cognitive sciences, 3(3):115\u2013120. \n\n^ a b Block, N. 1995. The mind as the software of the brain, in Smith, E. and Osherson, D. (Eds) Thinking: An invitation to cognitive science. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. \n\n^ Spunt, R. P. & Adolphs, R., (2017). A new look at domain specificity: insights from social neuroscience. Nature Reviews: Neuroscience. Advance online publication. DOI: 10.1038\/nrn.2017.76 \n\n^ Andrews, J. 1998. Bacteria as modular organisms. Annual Review of Microbiology, 52:105\u2013126. \n\n^ Bolker, J. A. 2000. Modularity in development and why it matters to Evo-Devo. American Zoologist, 40: 770\u2013776 \n\n^ Fodor, J. 1983. The modularity of mind. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. \n\n^ Raff, R. A. 1996. The shape of life. Chicago University Press, Chicago. \n\n^ Raff, R. A. 1996. The shape of life. Chicago University Press, Chicago, pg. 326) \n\n^ Hull, D. L. 1980. Individuality and selection. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 11:311\u2013332 \n\n^ Roth, V. L. 1991. Homology and hierarchies: Problems solved and unresolved. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 4:167\u2013194 \n\n^ Altenberg, L. 1995. Genome growth and the evolution of the genotype-phenotype map. In Evolution and Biocomputation: Computational Models of Evolution, ed. Wolfgang Banzhaf and Frank H. Eeckman. Lecture Notes in Computer Science vol. 899. Springer-Verlag, pp. 205\u2013259. \n\n^ Wagner, G. 1996. Homologues, natural kinds and the evolution of modularity. American Zoologist, 36:36\u201343. \n\n^ Wagner, G. and Altenberg, L. 1996a. Perspective: complex adaptations and the evolution of evolvability. Evolution, 50:967\u2013976. \n\n^ Notably, cubic sculptures by Mitzi Cunliffe in the 1950s and 1960s, and prints by the sculptor Norman Carlberg from the 1970s and after. \n\n^ See \"Modulartists and Their Works\" in ModulArt. \n\n^ Blair, J.G. 1988. Modular America: Cross-cultural perspectives on the emergence of an American way. New York: Greenwood Press. \n\n^ Blair, J.G. 1988. Modular America: Cross-cultural perspectives on the emergence of an American way. New York: Greenwood Press, pg. 2 \n\n^ Blair, J.G. 1988. Modular America: Cross-cultural perspectives on the emergence of an American way. New York: Greenwood Press, pg. 3 \n\n^ Schilling, M.A. 2002. Modularity in multiple disciplines. In Garud, R., Langlois, R., & Kumaraswamy, A. (eds) Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks and Organizations. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishers, pg. 203\u2013214 \n\n^ Marr, D. 1982. Vision. W.H. Freeman, pg. 325 \n\n^ Garud, R. and Kumaraswamy, A. 1995. Technological and organizational designs to achieve economies of substitution. Strategic Management Journal, 16:93\u2013110. \n\n^ Adapted with permission from Schilling, M.A. 2002. \"Modularity in multiple disciplines\". In Garud, R., Langlois, R., & Kumaraswamy, A. (eds) Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks and Organizations. 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Despite these nuances, consistent themes concerning modular systems arise.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SchillingManaging09_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SchillingManaging09-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Contextual_nuances\">Contextual nuances<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The meaning of the word \"modularity\" can vary somewhat based on context. The following are contextual examples of modularity across several fields of science, technology, industry, and culture:\n<\/p><p><b>Science<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>In biology, modularity recognizes that <a href=\"#Modularity_in_biology\">organisms or metabolic pathways are composed of modules<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>In ecology, modularity is considered a key factor\u2014along with diversity and feedback\u2014in supporting <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Resilience_(ecology)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Resilience (ecology)\" data-key=\"d503b609bc0fad5aa7ed69e736e7bee9\">resilience<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>In nature, modularity may refer to the construction of a cellular organism by joining together standardized units to form larger compositions, as for example, the hexagonal cells in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Honeycomb\" title=\"Honeycomb\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ec871a6653230eabbb34461a9964dea\">honeycomb<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>In cognitive science, the idea of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modularity_of_mind\" title=\"Modularity of mind\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b907badbca3edabc38f643adba095c9\">modularity of mind<\/a> holds that the mind is composed of independent, closed, domain-specific processing modules.\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visual_modularity\" title=\"Visual modularity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"79f6a72af8eac8cd549ff16d5cc7f3a2\">Visual modularity<\/a>, the various putative visual modules.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language_module\" title=\"Language module\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8038c563bd9efcb50245d555dfa125ba\">Language module<\/a>, the putative language module.<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>Technology<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_programming\" title=\"Modular programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3e2efa63b2358882429ccde40078f8f\">modular programming<\/a>, modularity refers to the compartmentalization and interrelation of the parts of a software package.<\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_design\" title=\"Software design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a55d7b4eae036da0116290ea5720c670\">software design<\/a>, modularity refers to a logical partitioning of the \"software design\" that allows complex software to be manageable for the purpose of implementation and maintenance. The logic of partitioning may be based on related functions, implementation considerations, data links, or other criteria.<\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-reconfiguring_modular_robot\" title=\"Self-reconfiguring modular robot\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b74b1940d9c678b5272c90567fed6681\">self-reconfiguring modular robotics<\/a>, modularity refers to the ability of the robotic system to automatically achieve different morphologies to execute the task at hand.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>Industry<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_construction\" title=\"Modular construction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c24a44e60c5d9137c3e2f7b9d55e8075\">modular construction<\/a>, modules are a bundle of redundant project components that are produced en masse prior to installation.<\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_design\" title=\"Industrial design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"82b1e474bdc83a74a87818d81d827133\">industrial design<\/a>, modularity refers to an engineering technique that builds larger systems by combining smaller subsystems.<\/li>\n<li>In manufacturing, modularity typically refers to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_design\" title=\"Modular design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b61048fad491bc269095b96850d1d518\">modular design<\/a>, either as the use of exchangeable parts or options in the fabrication of an object or the design and manufacture of modular components.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><b>Culture<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>In <i>The Language of New Media<\/i>, author <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lev_Manovich\" title=\"Lev Manovich\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c26ce96e80f20b266aae34039f26c491\">Lev Manovich<\/a> discusses the principle that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/New_media\" title=\"New media\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be3a95896e68a8582a1e9d97258167c2\">new media<\/a> is composed of modules or self-sufficient parts of the overall media object.<\/li>\n<li>In the study of complex networks, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modularity_(networks)\" title=\"Modularity (networks)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"766dc5b11ec06811fe0062254afc926f\">modularity<\/a> is a benefit function that measures the quality of a division of a network into groups or communities.<\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contemporary_art\" title=\"Contemporary art\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27e013c00e7291896fdf23c4ff4d6a26\">contemporary art<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Architecture\" title=\"Architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d26ac28597f73f5019c944d76b0193c8\">architecture<\/a>, modularity can refer to the construction of an object by joining together standardized units to form larger compositions, and\/or to the use of a module as a standardized unit of measurement and proportion.<\/li>\n<li>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_art\" title=\"Modular art\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"696e736255c3cc1e7a04881899c28c58\">modular art<\/a>, modularity refers to the ability to alter the work by reconfiguring, adding to, and\/or removing its parts.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modularity_in_different_research_areas\">Modularity in different research areas<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modularity_in_technology_and_management\">Modularity in technology and management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The term modularity is widely used in studies of technological and organizational systems. Product systems are deemed \u201cmodular\u201d, for example, when they can be decomposed into a number of components that may be mixed and matched in a variety of configurations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A_2000_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schilling,_M.A_2000-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> The components are able to connect, interact, or exchange resources (such as energy or data) in some way, by adhering to a standardized interface. Unlike a tightly integrated product whereby each component is designed to work specifically (and often exclusively) with other particular components in a tightly coupled system, modular products are systems of components that are \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loose_coupling\" title=\"Loose coupling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6d1b4ac5b67abf91346da09f615ae57\">loosely coupled<\/a>.\u201d<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In <i>The Language of New Media<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lev_Manovich\" title=\"Lev Manovich\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c26ce96e80f20b266aae34039f26c491\">Lev Manovich<\/a> proposes five \u201cprinciples of new media\u201d\u2014to be understood \u201cnot as absolute laws but rather as general tendencies of a culture undergoing computerization.\u201d<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> The five principles are numerical representation, modularity, automation, variability, and transcoding. Modularity within new media represents new media as being composed of several separate self-sufficient modules that can act independently or together in synchronisation to complete the new media object. In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Photoshop\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Photoshop\" data-key=\"60c348b826ce48c93ce43162beb3297d\">Photoshop<\/a>, modularity is most evident in layers; a single image can be composed of many layers, each of which can be treated as an entirely independent and separate entity. Websites can be defined as being modular, their structure is formed in a format that allows their contents to be changed, removed or edited whilst still retaining the structure of the website. This is because the website's content operates separately to the website and does not define the structure of the site. The entire <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Wide_Web\" title=\"World Wide Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8167fa2a43229db150009f4a93e3a779\">Web<\/a>, Manovich notes, has a modular structure, composed of independent sites and pages, and each webpage itself is composed of elements and code that can be independently modified.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Organizational systems are said to become increasingly modular when they begin to substitute loosely coupled forms for tightly integrated, hierarchical structures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A._1169_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schilling,_M.A._1169-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> For instance, when the firm utilizes contract manufacturing rather than in-house manufacturing, it is using an organizational component that is more independent than building such capabilities in-house: the firm can switch between contract manufacturers that perform different functions, and the contract manufacturer can similarly work for different firms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A._1169_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schilling,_M.A._1169-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> As firms in a given industry begin to substitute loose coupling with organizational components that lie outside of firm boundaries for activities that were once conducted in-house, the entire production system (which may encompass many firms) becomes increasingly modular. The firms themselves become more specialized components. Using loosely coupled structures enables firms to achieve greater flexibility in both scope and scale .<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A._1169_9-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Schilling,_M.A._1169-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> The firm can switch easily between different providers of these activities (e.g., between different contract manufacturers or alliance partners) compared to building the capabilities for all activities in house, thus responding to different market needs more quickly. However, these flexibility gains come with a price. Therefore, the organization must assess the flexibility gains achievable, and any accompanying loss of performance, with each of these forms.\n<\/p><p>Modularization within firms leads to the disaggregation of the traditional form of hierarchical governance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Miles,_R.E._et_al._1997_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Miles,_R.E._et_al._1997-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Zenger,_T.R._&_Hesterly,_W.S._1997_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Zenger,_T.R._&_Hesterly,_W.S._1997-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kuntz,_L._&_Vera,_A._2007_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kuntz,_L._&_Vera,_A._2007-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> The firm is decomposed into relatively small autonomous organizational units (modules) to reduce complexity. Modularization leads to a structure, in which the modules integrate strongly interdependent tasks, while the interdependencies between the modules are weak. In this connection the dissemination of modular organizational forms has been facilitated by the widespread efforts of the majority of large firms to re-engineer, refocus and restructure. These efforts usually involve a strong process-orientation: the complete service-provision process of the business is split up into partial processes, which can then be handled autonomously by cross-functional teams within organizational units (modules). The co-ordination of the modules is often carried out by using internal market mechanisms, in particular by the implementation of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Profit_center\" title=\"Profit center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93a775f2fde06bf147e3342c96e7d200\">profit centers<\/a>. Overall, modularization enables more flexible and quicker reaction to changing general or market conditions. Building on the above principles, many alternative forms of modularization of firms are possible. However, it is crucial to note that modularization is not an independent and self-contained organizational concept, but rather consists of several basic ideas, which are integral parts of other organizational concepts. These central ideas can be found in every firm. Accordingly, it is not sensible to characterize a firm as \"modular\" or as \"not modular\", because firms are always modular to a some degree.\n<\/p><p>Input systems, or \"domain specific computational mechanisms\" (such as the ability to perceive spoken language) are termed vertical faculties, and according to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerry_Fodor\" title=\"Jerry Fodor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c83b56fe5ece316c18b5952cee322198\">Jerry Fodor<\/a> they are modular in that they possess a number of characteristics Fodor argues constitute modularity. Fodor's list of features characterizing modules includes the following:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Domain specific (modules only respond to inputs of a specific class, and thus a \"species of vertical faculty\" (Fodor, 1996\/1983:37)<\/li>\n<li>Innately specified (the structure is inherent and is not formed by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Learning_process\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Learning process\" data-key=\"3da762167e5636620a9df1dca213237a\">learning process<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>Not assembled (modules are not put together from a stock of more elementary subprocesses but rather their virtual architecture maps directly onto their neural implementation)<\/li>\n<li>Neurologically hardwired (modules are associated with specific, localized, and elaborately structured neural systems rather than fungible neural mechanisms)<\/li>\n<li>Autonomous (modules independent of other modules)<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Fodor does not argue that this is formal definition or an all inclusive list of features necessary for modularity. He argues only that cognitive systems characterized by some of the features above are likely to be characterized by them all, and that such systems can be considered modular. He also notes that the characteristics are not an all-or-nothing proposition, but rather each of the characteristics may be manifest in some degree, and that modularity itself is also not a dichotomous construct\u2014something may be more or less modular: \"One would thus expect\u2014what anyhow seems to be desirable\u2014that the notion of modularity ought to admit of degrees\" (Fodor, 1996\/1983:37).\n<\/p><p>Notably, Fodor's \"not assembled\" feature contrasts sharply with the use of modularity in other fields in which modular systems are seen to be hierarchically nested (that is, modules are themselves composed of modules, which in turn are composed of modules, etc.) However, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Max_Coltheart\" title=\"Max Coltheart\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7d0029665b8763306814da3541708bf\">Max Coltheart<\/a> notes that Fodor's commitment to the non-assembled feature appears weak,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Coltheart,_M_1999_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Coltheart,_M_1999-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> and other scholars (e.g., Block<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Block,_N_1995_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Block,_N_1995-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>) have proposed that Fodor's modules could be decomposed into finer modules. For instance, while Fodor distinguishes between separate modules for spoken and written language, Block might further decompose the spoken language module into modules for and lexical forms:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Coltheart,_M_1999_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Coltheart,_M_1999-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> \"Decomposition stops when all the components are primitive processors\u2014because the operation of a primitive processor cannot be further decomposed into suboperations\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Block,_N_1995_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Block,_N_1995-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Though Fodor's work on modularity is one of the most extensive, there is other work in psychology on modularity worth noting for its symmetry with modularity in other disciplines. For instance, while Fodor focused on cognitive input systems as modules, Coltheart proposes that there may be many different kinds of cognitive modules, and distinguishes between, for example, knowledge modules and processing modules. The former is a body of knowledge that is independent of other bodies of knowledge, while the latter is a mental information-processing system independent from other such systems.\n<\/p><p>However, the data neuroscientists have accumulated have not pointed to an organization system as neat and precise as the modularity theory originally proposed originally by Jerry Fodor. It has been shown to be much messier and different from person to person, even though general patterns exist; through a mixture of neuroimaging and lesion studies, it has been shown that there are certain regions that perform certain functions and other regions that do not perform those functions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modularity_in_biology\">Modularity in biology<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As in some of the other disciplines, the term modularity may be used in multiple ways in biology. For example, it may be used to refer to organisms that have an indeterminate structure wherein modules of various complexity (e.g., leaves, twigs) may be assembled without strict limits on their number or placement. Many plants and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sessility_(zoology)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sessility (zoology)\" data-key=\"9356d75c22f2cc21b297b83b90505431\">sessile<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benthic\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Benthic\" data-key=\"4aa8f21ee2ba10fa8975ab2b13e7af7b\">benthic<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Invertebrate\" title=\"Invertebrate\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9768a1e79dcae042d51217de73efa1a2\">invertebrates<\/a><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Please_clarify\" title=\"Wikipedia:Please clarify\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42f809a0943a5d548f1a80f2e4a0f0bf\"><span title=\"The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (July 2010)\">clarification needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> demonstrate this type of modularity (by contrast, many other organisms have a determinate structure that is predefined in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embryogenesis\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Embryogenesis\" data-key=\"2d1ae93b33f40a5e596d2685626877e4\">embryogenesis<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> The term has also been used in a broader sense in biology to refer to the reuse of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Homologous_structure\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Homologous structure\" data-key=\"8cb06a3ad5eb56907cee6276373fe57f\">homologous structures<\/a> across individuals and species. Even within this latter category, there may be differences in how a module is perceived. For instance, evolutionary biologists may focus on the module as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morphology_(biology)\" title=\"Morphology (biology)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"93791d6e66215788648ce167bd5015f8\">morphological<\/a> component (subunit) of a whole organism, while <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Developmental_biologist\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Developmental biologist\" data-key=\"55b16662f8f49c99bc939c7590c6636f\">developmental biologists<\/a> may use the term module to refer to some combination of lower-level components (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gene\" title=\"Gene\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4ccd06bcf19c184bbe5d278ee7dd0ff\">genes<\/a>) that are able to act in a unified way to perform a function.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> In the former, the module is perceived a basic component, while in the latter the emphasis is on the module as a collective.\n<\/p><p>Biology scholars have provided a list of features that should characterize a module (much as Fodor did in <i>The Modularity of Mind<\/i><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-fodor1983_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-fodor1983-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>). For instance, Rudy Raff<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> provides the following list of characteristics that developmental modules should possess:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>discrete genetic specification<\/li>\n<li>hierarchical organization<\/li>\n<li>interactions with other modules<\/li>\n<li>a particular physical location within a developing organism<\/li>\n<li>the ability to undergo transformations on both developmental and evolutionary time scales<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>To Raff's mind, developmental modules are \"dynamic entities representing localized processes (as in morphogenetic fields) rather than simply incipient structures ... (... such as organ rudiments).\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> Bolker, however, attempts to construct a definitional list of characteristics that is more abstract, and thus more suited to multiple levels of study in biology. She argues that:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>A module is a biological entity (a structure, a process, or a pathway) characterized by more internal than external integration<\/li>\n<li>Modules are biological individuals<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> that can be delineated from their surroundings or context, and whose behavior or function reflects the integration of their parts, not simply the arithmetical sum. That is, as a whole, the module can perform tasks that its constituent parts could not perform if dissociated.<\/li>\n<li>In addition to their internal integration, modules have external connectivity, yet they can also be delineated from the other entities with which they interact in some way.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>Another stream of research on modularity in biology that should be of particular interest to scholars in other disciplines is that of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/G%C3%BCnter_Wagner\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"G\u00fcnter Wagner\" data-key=\"a01d7da4a913e95906e677fb91dff15e\">G\u00fcnter Wagner<\/a> and . Altenberg's work,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> Wagner's work,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> and their joint writing<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> explores how natural selection may have resulted in modular organisms, and the roles modularity plays in evolution. Altenberg's and Wagner's work suggests that modularity is both the result of evolution, and facilitates evolution\u2014an idea that shares a marked resemblance to work on modularity in technological and organizational domains.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modularity_in_the_arts\">Modularity in the arts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The use of modules in the fine arts has a long pedigree among diverse cultures. In the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Classical_architecture\" title=\"Classical architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3708506f5c3230245ab638418d30c2e3\">classical architecture<\/a> of Greco-Roman antiquity, the module was utilized as a standardized unit of measurement for proportioning the elements of a building. Typically the module was established as one-half the diameter of the lower shaft of a classical column; all the other components in the syntax of the classical system were expressed as a fraction or multiple of that module. In traditional Japanese construction, room sizes were often determined by combinations of standard rice mats called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tatami\" title=\"Tatami\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f321aa6ec191e80f24aef2517f7c9e17\">tatami<\/a>; the standard dimension of a mat was around 3 feet by 6 feet, which approximate the overall proportions of a reclining human figure. The module thus becomes not only a proportional device for use with three-dimensional vertical elements but a two-dimensional planning tool as well.\n<\/p><p>Modularity as a means of measurement is intrinsic to certain types of building; for example, brick construction is by its nature modular insofar as the fixed dimensions of a brick necessarily yield dimensions that are multiples of the original unit. Attaching bricks to one another to form walls and surfaces also reflects a second definition of modularity: namely, the use of standardized units that physically connect to each other to form larger compositions.\n<\/p><p>With the advent of modernism and advanced construction techniques in the 20th century this latter definition transforms modularity from a compositional attribute to a thematic concern in its own right. A school of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_Constructivism\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Modular Constructivism\" data-key=\"f331dfc1d6532262dd9d4d0676d63f49\">Modular Constructivism<\/a> develops in the 1950s among a circle of sculptors who create sculpture and architectural features out of repetitive units cast in concrete. A decade later modularity becomes an autonomous artistic concern of its own, as several important <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Minimalist\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Minimalist\" data-key=\"0f6c3601a8929fa908d1afdfbb31ed10\">Minimalist<\/a> artists adopt it as their central theme. Modular building as both an industrial production model and an object of advanced architectural investigation develops from this same period.\n<\/p><p>Modularity has found renewed interest among proponents of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ModulArt\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ModulArt\" data-key=\"f08e1140501d64e863cbe41baacfb671\">ModulArt<\/a>, a form of modular art in which the constituent parts can be physically reconfigured, removed and\/or added to. After a few isolated experiments in ModulArt starting in the 1950s,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> several artists since the 1990s have explored this flexible, customizable and co-creative form of art.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modularity_in_American_studies\">Modularity in American studies<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In John Blair's <i>Modular America<\/i>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> he argues that as Americans began to replace social structures inherited from Europe (predominantly England and France), they evolved a uniquely American tendency towards modularity in fields as diverse as education, music, and architecture.\n<\/p><p>Blair observes that when the word <i>module<\/i> first emerged in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it meant something very close to <i>model<\/i>. It implied a small-scale representation or example. By the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the word had come to imply a standard measure of fixed ratios and proportions. For example, in architecture, the proportions of a column could be stated in modules (i.e., \" a height of fourteen modules equaled seven times the diameter measured at the base\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>) and thus multiplied to any size while still retaining the desired proportions.\n<\/p><p>However, in America, the meaning and usage of the word shifted considerably: \"Starting with architectural terminology in the 1930s, the new emphasis was on any entity or system designed in terms of modules as subcomponents. As applications broadened after World War II to furniture, hi-fi equipment, computer programs and beyond, modular construction came to refer to any whole made up of self-contained units designed to be equivalent parts of a system, hence, we might say, \"systemically equivalent.\" Modular parts are implicitly interchangeable and\/or recombinable in one or another of several senses\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Blair defines a modular system as \u201cone that gives more importance to parts than to wholes. Parts are conceived as equivalent and hence, in one or more senses, interchangeable and\/or cumulative and\/or recombinable\u201d (pg. 125). Blair describes the emergence of modular structures in education (the college curriculum), industry (modular product assembly), architecture (skyscrapers), music (blues and jazz), and more. In his concluding chapter, Blair does not commit to a firm view of what causes Americans to pursue more modular structures in the diverse domains in which it has appeared; but he does suggest that it may in some way be related to the American ideology of liberal individualism and a preference for anti-hierarchical organization.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Consistent_themes\">Consistent themes<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Comparing the use of modularity across these disciplines reveals several themes:\n<\/p><p>One theme that shows up in psychology and biology study is innately specified. <i>Innately specified<\/i> (as used here) implies that the purpose or structure of the module is predetermined by some biological mandate.\n<\/p><p><i>Domain specificity<\/i>, that modules respond only to inputs of a specific class (or perform functions only of a specific class) is a theme that clearly spans psychology and biology, and it can be argued that it also spans technological and organizational systems. Domain specificity would be seen in the latter disciplines as specialization of function.\n<\/p><p><i>Hierarchically nested<\/i> is a theme that recurs in most disciplines. Though originally disavowed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jerry_Fodor\" title=\"Jerry Fodor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c83b56fe5ece316c18b5952cee322198\">Jerry Fodor<\/a>, other psychologists have embraced it, and it is readily apparent in the use of modularity in biology (e.g., each module of an organism can be decomposed into finer modules), social processes and artifacts (e.g., we can think of a skyscraper in terms of blocks of floors, a single floor, elements of a floor, etc.), mathematics (e.g., the modulus 6 may be further divided into the moduli 1, 2 and 3), and technological and organizational systems (e.g., an organization may be composed of divisions, which are composed of teams, which are composed of individuals) <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><i>Greater internal than external integration<\/i> is a theme that showed up in every discipline but mathematics. Often referred to as autonomy, this theme acknowledged that there may be interaction or integration between modules, but the greater interaction and integration occurs within the module. This theme is very closely related to <i>information encapsulation<\/i>, which shows up explicitly in both the psychology and technology research.\n<\/p><p><i>Near decomposability<\/i> (as termed by Simon, 1962) shows up in all of the disciplines, but is manifest in a matter of degrees. For instance, in psychology and biology it may refer merely to the ability to delineate one module from another (recognizing the boundaries of the module). In several of the social artifacts, mathematics, and technological or organizational systems, however, it refers to the ability to actually separate components from one another. In several of the disciplines this decomposability also enables the complexity of a system (or process) to be reduced. This is aptly captured in a quote from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Marr_(neuroscientist)\" title=\"David Marr (neuroscientist)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a3cbf8f6d7c91627993995d3fa9c80b\">David Marr<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> about psychological processes where he notes that, \"any large computation should be split up into a collection of small, nearly independent, specialized subprocesses.\" Reducing complexity is also the express purpose of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Casting_out_nines\" title=\"Casting out nines\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f55ddc7cc137033082a07f2d7c39963b\">casting out nines<\/a> in mathematics.\n<\/p><p><i>Substitutability<\/i> and <i>recombinability<\/i> are closely related constructs. The former refers to the ability to substitute one component for another as in John Blair\u2019s \u201csystemic equivalence\u201d while the latter may refer both to the indeterminate form of the system and the indeterminate use of the component. In US college curricula, for example, each course is designed with a credit system that ensures a uniform number of contact hours, and approximately uniform educational content, yielding substitutability. By virtue of their substitutability, each student may create their own curricula (recombinability of the curriculum as a system) and each course may be said to be recombinable with a variety of students\u2019 curricula (recombinability of the component within multiple systems). Both substitutability and recombinability are immediately recognizable in Blair\u2019s social processes and artifacts, and are also well captured in Garud and Kumaraswamy's<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> discussion of economies of substitution in technological systems.\n<\/p><p>Blair\u2019s systemic equivalence also demonstrates the relationship between substitutability and the <i>module as a homologue<\/i>. Blair\u2019s systemic equivalence refers to the ability for multiple modules to perform approximately the same function within a system, while in biology a module as a homologue refers to different modules sharing approximately the same form or function in different organisms. The extreme of the module as homologue is found in mathematics, where (in the simplest case) the modules refer to the reuse of a particular number and thus each module is exactly alike.\n<\/p><p>In all but mathematics, there has been an emphasis that modules may be different in kind. In Fodor\u2019s discussion of modular cognitive system, each module performs a unique task. In biology, even modules that are considered homologous may be somewhat different in form and function (e.g., a whale\u2019s fin versus a human\u2019s hand). In Blair\u2019s book, he points out that while jazz music may be composed of structural units that conform to the same underlying rules, those components vary significantly. Similarly in studies of technology and organization, modular systems may be composed of modules that are very similar (as in shelving units that may be piled one atop the other) or very different (as in a stereo system where each component performs unique functions) or any combination in between.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Table_1:_The_use_of_modularity_by_discipline.5B34.5D\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Table_1:_The_use_of_modularity_by_discipline[34]\">Table 1: The use of modularity by discipline<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><\/span><\/h4>\n<table class=\"wikitable\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th>Concept\n<\/th>\n<th>Technology and organizations\n<\/th>\n<th>Psychology\n<\/th>\n<th>Biology\n<\/th>\n<th>American studies\n<\/th>\n<th>Mathematics\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Domain specific\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Innately specified\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Hierarchically nested\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>More internal integration than external integration (localized processes and autonomy)\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Informationally encapsulated\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Near decomposability\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Recombinability\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Expandability\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Module as homologue\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td>\n<td>X\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<\/tbody><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_design\" title=\"Modular design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b61048fad491bc269095b96850d1d518\">Modular design<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Holism\" title=\"Holism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"28491c6f0aa8823b3588f80e2409f3d1\">Holism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_programming\" title=\"Modular programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3e2efa63b2358882429ccde40078f8f\">Modular programming<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object-oriented_programming\" title=\"Object-oriented programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89f19c8e4c919ea2942014fec0ff7a8d\">Object-oriented programming<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-similarity\" title=\"Self-similarity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2bd998bf61da2463aecf7201d2d6ca82\">Self-similarity<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Configuration_design\" title=\"Configuration design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf4b04bdc492b0f8d23bc2d80a4aeb43\">Configuration design<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-MWModular-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MWModular_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/modularity\" target=\"_blank\">\"modular\"<\/a>. <i>Merriam-Webster<\/i>. Merriam-Webster, Inc. 17 May 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster&rft.atitle=modular&rft.date=2018-05-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fmodularity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModularity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BaldwinDesign00-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BaldwinDesign00_2-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Baldwin, C.Y.; Clark, K.B. (2000). \"Chapter 3: What Is Modularity?\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=oaBOuo4mId8C&pg=PA63\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Design Rules: The power of modularity<\/i><\/a>. MIT Press. pp. 63\u201392. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780262024662<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+What+Is+Modularity%3F&rft.btitle=Design+Rules%3A+The+power+of+modularity&rft.pages=63-92&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780262024662&rft.au=Baldwin%2C+C.Y.&rft.au=Clark%2C+K.B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoaBOuo4mId8C%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModularity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SchillingManaging09-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SchillingManaging09_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Schilling, M.A. \"Towards A General Modular Systems Theory and its Application to Interfirm Product Modularity - Commentary\". In Garud, R.; Kumaraswamy, A.; Langlois, R.N. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=i3kzJWdlfXkC&pg=PA203\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks, and Organizations<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 203\u2013216. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781405141949<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">18 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Towards+A+General+Modular+Systems+Theory+and+its+Application+to+Interfirm+Product+Modularity+-+Commentary&rft.btitle=Managing+in+the+Modular+Age%3A+Architectures%2C+Networks%2C+and+Organizations&rft.pages=203-216&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.isbn=9781405141949&rft.au=Schilling%2C+M.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di3kzJWdlfXkC%26pg%3DPA203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModularity\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Schilling,_M.A_2000-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A_2000_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Schilling, M.A. 2000. Towards a general modular systems theory and its application to inter-firm product modularity. Academy of Management Review, Vol 25:312\u2013334.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Baldwin, C. Y. & Clark, K. B. 2000. Design rules, Volume 1: The power of modularity, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Orton, J. & Weick, K. 1990. Loosely coupled systems: A reconceptualization. Academy of Management Review, 15:203\u2013223.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Manovich, J. 2001. The Language of New Media.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bradley Dilger, Review of The Language of New Media (Kairos: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/english.ttu.edu\/kairos\/7.1\/reviews\/dilger\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/english.ttu.edu\/kairos\/7.1\/reviews\/dilger\/<\/a>).<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Schilling,_M.A._1169-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A._1169_9-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A._1169_9-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Schilling,_M.A._1169_9-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Schilling, M.A. & Steensma, K. 2001. The use of modular organizational forms: An industry level analysis. Academy of Management Journal, 44: 1149\u20131169.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Miles,_R.E._et_al._1997-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Miles,_R.E._et_al._1997_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Miles R.E., Snow, C.C., Mathews, J.A., Miles, G., & Coleman, H.J. Organizing in the knowledge age \u2014 Anticipating the cellular form. Academy of Management Executive 11(4):7\u201320.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Zenger,_T.R._&_Hesterly,_W.S._1997-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Zenger,_T.R._&_Hesterly,_W.S._1997_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Zenger, T.R. & Hesterly, W.S. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/profile\/Todd_Zenger\/publication\/228282744_The_Disaggregation_of_Organizations_Selective_Intervention_High-Powered_Incentives_and_Molecular_Units\/links\/0046351dda904b2cc4000000\/The-Disaggregation-of-Organizations-Selective-Intervention-High-Powered-Incentives-and-Molecular-Units.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">The Disaggregation of Corporations \u2014 Selective Intervention, High-powered Incentives, and Molecular Units<\/a>. Organization Science 8:209\u2013222.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Kuntz,_L._&_Vera,_A._2007-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Kuntz,_L._&_Vera,_A._2007_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Kuntz, L. & Vera, A. 2007. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/download?doi=10.1.1.951.9266&rep=rep1&type=pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Modular organization and hospital performance<\/a>. 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P. & Adolphs, R., (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bobspunt.com\/papers\/pdf\/Spunt_Adolphs_InPress_NatRevNeurosci.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">A new look at domain specificity: insights from social neuroscience<\/a>. Nature Reviews: Neuroscience. Advance online publication. DOI: 10.1038\/nrn.2017.76<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Andrews, J. 1998. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.annualreviews.org\/doi\/abs\/10.1146\/annurev.micro.52.1.105\" target=\"_blank\">Bacteria as modular organisms<\/a>. Annual Review of Microbiology, 52:105\u2013126.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Bolker, J. A. 2000. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/icb\/article-pdf\/40\/5\/770\/369180\/i0003-1569-040-05-0770.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Modularity in development and why it matters to Evo-Devo<\/a>. American Zoologist, 40: 770\u2013776<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-fodor1983-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-fodor1983_18-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Fodor, J. 1983. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#v=onepage&q=%22The%20modularity%20of%20mind%22&f=false\">The modularity of mind<\/a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Raff, R. A. 1996. The shape of life. Chicago University Press, Chicago.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Raff, R. A. 1996. The shape of life. Chicago University Press, Chicago, pg. 326)<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Hull, D. L. 1980. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.joelvelasco.net\/teaching\/167\/Hull%201980%20-%20Individuality%20and%20Selection.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Individuality and selection<\/a>. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 11:311\u2013332<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Roth, V. L. 1991. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1046\/j.1420-9101.1991.4020167.x\" target=\"_blank\">Homology and hierarchies: Problems solved and unresolved<\/a>. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 4:167\u2013194<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Altenberg, L. 1995. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/download?doi=10.1.1.39.3876&rep=rep1&type=pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Genome growth and the evolution of the genotype-phenotype map<\/a>. In Evolution and Biocomputation: Computational Models of Evolution, ed. Wolfgang Banzhaf and Frank H. Eeckman. Lecture Notes in Computer Science vol. 899. Springer-Verlag, pp. 205\u2013259.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Wagner, G. 1996. Homologues, natural kinds and the evolution of modularity. American Zoologist, 36:36\u201343.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Wagner, G. and Altenberg, L. 1996a. Perspective: complex adaptations and the evolution of evolvability. Evolution, 50:967\u2013976.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Notably, cubic sculptures by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mitzi_Cunliffe\" title=\"Mitzi Cunliffe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a95e4697a0c52c23021330ccc01661a8\">Mitzi Cunliffe<\/a> in the 1950s and 1960s, and prints by the sculptor <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Norman_Carlberg\" title=\"Norman Carlberg\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"81915b4cf9fe199d1978b09f662b1200\">Norman Carlberg<\/a> from the 1970s and after.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See \"Modulartists and Their Works\" in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ModulArt\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ModulArt\" data-key=\"f08e1140501d64e863cbe41baacfb671\">ModulArt<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-28\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Blair, J.G. 1988. Modular America: Cross-cultural perspectives on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emergence\" title=\"Emergence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"30dae6119dd088da989740848862bbd6\">emergence<\/a> of an American way. New York: Greenwood Press.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Blair, J.G. 1988. Modular America: Cross-cultural perspectives on the emergence of an American way. New York: Greenwood Press, pg. 2<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Blair, J.G. 1988. Modular America: Cross-cultural perspectives on the emergence of an American way. New York: Greenwood Press, pg. 3<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Schilling, M.A. 2002. Modularity in multiple disciplines. In Garud, R., Langlois, R., & Kumaraswamy, A. (eds) Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks and Organizations. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishers, pg. 203\u2013214<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Marr, D. 1982. Vision. W.H. Freeman, pg. 325<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-33\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Garud, R. and Kumaraswamy, A. 1995. Technological and organizational designs to achieve economies of substitution. Strategic Management Journal, 16:93\u2013110.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-34\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Adapted with permission from Schilling, M.A. 2002. \"Modularity in multiple disciplines\". In Garud, R., Langlois, R., & Kumaraswamy, A. (eds) <i>Managing in the Modular Age: Architectures, Networks and Organizations<\/i>. Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishers, pg. 203\u2013214<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1320\nCached time: 20190314202929\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.208 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.281 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 767\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 8338\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 544\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 11\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 24244\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\nLua time usage: 0.084\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 2.64 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 227.240 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>49.88% 113.339 1 Template:Reflist\n30.41% 69.111 1 Template:Cite_web\n27.34% 62.119 1 Template:Clarify\n24.55% 55.783 1 Template:Fix-span\n13.83% 31.436 2 Template:Category_handler\n13.28% 30.180 1 Template:Other_uses\n 8.60% 19.547 1 Template:Replace\n 5.87% 13.330 2 Template:Cite_book\n 5.68% 12.909 1 Template:Delink\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:585648-1!canonical and timestamp 20190314202929 and revision id 887764099\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modularity\" data-key=\"35446b707174c7d05397964b795e9203\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202958\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.011 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.157 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 150.454 1 - wikipedia:Modularity\n100.00% 150.454 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10589-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403202958 and revision id 35097\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Modularity\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Modularity<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","05622b8599837512e5cac1e66d2ee5b4_images":[],"05622b8599837512e5cac1e66d2ee5b4_timestamp":1554323398,"82ee1d9577571b4f9e4d83d6d6124c81_type":"article","82ee1d9577571b4f9e4d83d6d6124c81_title":"Middleware","82ee1d9577571b4f9e4d83d6d6124c81_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Middleware","82ee1d9577571b4f9e4d83d6d6124c81_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tMiddleware\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t Anything between the kernel and user applications is considered middleware.\nMiddleware is computer software that provides services to software applications beyond those available from the operating system. It can be described as \"software glue\".[1]\nMiddleware makes it easier for software developers to implement communication and input\/output, so they can focus on the specific purpose of their application. It gained popularity in the 1980s as a solution to the problem of how to link newer applications to older legacy systems, although the term had been in use since 1968.[2] \n\nContents \n\n1 In distributed applications \n2 Other examples \n3 See also \n4 References \n\n\nIn distributed applications \nMain article: Middleware (distributed applications)\n Software architecture: Middleware\nThe term is most commonly used for software that enables communication and management of data in distributed applications. An IETF workshop in 2000 defined middleware as \"those services found above the transport (i.e. over TCP\/IP) layer set of services but below the application environment\" (i.e. below application-level APIs).[3] In this more specific sense middleware can be described as the dash (\"-\") in client-server, or the -to- in peer-to-peer. Middleware includes web servers, application servers, content management systems, and similar tools that support application development and delivery.[4]\nObjectWeb defines middleware as: \"The software layer that lies between the operating system and applications on each side of a distributed computing system in a network.\"[5] Services that can be regarded as middleware include enterprise application integration, data integration, message oriented middleware (MOM), object request brokers (ORBs), and the enterprise service bus (ESB).[6]\nDatabase access services are often characterised as middleware. Some of them are language specific implementations and support heterogeneous features and other related communication features.[7] Examples of database-oriented middleware include ODBC, JDBC and transaction processing monitors.[8]\nDistributed computing system middleware can loosely be divided into two categories\u2014those that provide human-time services (such as web request servicing) and those that perform in machine-time. This latter middleware is somewhat standardized through the Service Availability Forum[9] and is commonly used in complex, embedded systems within telecom, defense and aerospace industries.[10]\n\nOther examples \nThe term middleware is used in other contexts as well. Middleware is sometimes used in a similar sense to a software driver, an abstraction layer that hides detail about hardware devices or other software from an application.\n\nThe Android operating system uses the Linux kernel at its core, and also provides an application framework that developers incorporate into their applications. In addition, Android provides a middleware layer including libraries that provide services such as data storage, screen display, multimedia, and web browsing. Because the middleware libraries are compiled to machine language, services execute quickly. Middleware libraries also implement device-specific functions, so applications and the application framework need not concern themselves with variations between various Android devices. Android's middleware layer also contains the ART virtual machine and its core Java application libraries.[11]\nGame engine software such as Gamebryo and RenderWare are sometimes described as middleware, because they provide many services to simplify game development.[12]\nIn simulation technology, middleware is generally used in the context of the high level architecture (HLA) that applies to many distributed simulations. It is a layer of software that lies between the application code and the run-time infrastructure. Middleware generally consists of a library of functions, and enables a number of applications\u2014simulations or federates in HLA terminology\u2014to page these functions from the common library rather than re-create them for each application.[13]\nWireless networking developers can use middleware to meet the challenges associated with a wireless sensor network (WSN). Implementing a middleware application allows WSN developers to integrate operating systems and hardware with the wide variety of various applications that are currently available.[14]\nThe QNX operating system offers middleware for providing multimedia services for use in automobiles, aircraft and other environments.[15]\nRadio-frequency identification (RFID) software toolkits provide middleware to filter noisy and redundant raw data.[16]\nSee also \n\n\n\nLook up middleware in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\nLanguage-agnostic\nThird-party software component\nReferences \n\n\n^ \"What is Middleware?\". Middleware.org. Defining Technology. 2008. Archived from the original on June 29, 2012. Retrieved 2013-08-11 . CS1 maint: Unfit url (link) \n\n^ Gall, Nick (July 30, 2005). \"Origin of the term middleware\". \n\n^ \"Home\". IETF. \n\n^ Etzkorn, L. H. (2017). Introduction to Middleware: Web Services, Object Components, and Cloud Computing. CRC Press. pp. 4\u20135. ISBN 9781498754101. \n\n^ Krakowiak, Sacha. \"What's middleware?\". ObjectWeb.org. Archived from the original on 2005-05-07. Retrieved 2005-05-06 . \n\n^ Luckham, D. C. (2011). Event Processing for Business: Organizing the Real-Time Enterprise. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 27\u201328. ISBN 9781118171851. \n\n^ Simon, A. R.; Wheeler, T. (2014). Open Client\/Server Computing and Middleware. Academic Press. pp. 43\u201349. ISBN 9781483214276. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Arregoces, M.; Portolani, M. (2003). Data Center Fundamentals. Cisco Press. pp. 92\u201393. ISBN 9781587140747. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ \"Service Availability Interface Specification\" (PDF) . Service Availability Forum. 30 September 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2018 . \n\n^ Jokiaho, T.; Fryer, J. (2012). \"Foreward\". Service Availability: Principles and Practice. John Wiley & Sons. p. xv. ISBN 9781119941675. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Charlie Collins, Michael Galpin and Matthias Kaeppler, Android in Practice, Manning Publications, 2011 \n\n^ Moore, M. E. (2006). Introduction to the Game Industry. Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 169. ISBN 9780131687431. \n\n^ Becchini, R.; Chilaev, P.; Krivtsov, V.; et al. (2003). \"Chapter 4: Middleware\". In Drira, K.; Martelli, A.; Villemur, T. Cooperative Environments for Distributed Systems Engineering: The Distributed Systems Environment Report. Springer. pp. 41\u20134. ISBN 9783540455820. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Hadim, S. and Mohamed, N. (2006). Middleware challenges and approaches for wireless sensor networks. IEEE Distributed Systems Online vol 7. Issue 3. Retrieved March 4, 2009 from\niEEE Distributed Systems Online \n\n^ \"QNX Software Joins Internet ITS Consortium of Japan\". QNX News Releases. QNX. 6 May 2008. Retrieved 26 July 2018 . \n\n^ Glover, B.; Bhatt, H. (2006). RFID Essentials. O'Reilly Media. pp. 38\u201344. ISBN 9780596009441. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n\nvteComputer scienceNote: This template roughly follows the 2012 ACM Computing Classification System.Hardware\nPrinted circuit board\nPeripheral\nIntegrated circuit\nVery Large Scale Integration\nSystems on Chip (SoCs)\nEnergy consumption (Green computing)\nElectronic design automation\nHardware acceleration\nComputer systems\r\norganization\nComputer architecture\nEmbedded system\nReal-time computing\nDependability\nNetworks\nNetwork architecture\nNetwork protocol\nNetwork components\nNetwork scheduler\nNetwork performance evaluation\nNetwork service\nSoftware organization\nInterpreter\nMiddleware\nVirtual machine\nOperating system\nSoftware quality\nSoftware notations\r\nand tools\nProgramming paradigm\nProgramming language\nCompiler\nDomain-specific language\nModeling language\nSoftware framework\nIntegrated development environment\nSoftware configuration management\nSoftware library\nSoftware repository\nSoftware development\nSoftware development process\nRequirements analysis\nSoftware design\nSoftware construction\nSoftware deployment\nSoftware maintenance\nProgramming team\nOpen-source model\nTheory of computation\nModel of computation\nFormal language\nAutomata theory\nComputational complexity theory\nLogic\nSemantics\nAlgorithms\nAlgorithm design\nAnalysis of algorithms\nAlgorithmic efficiency\nRandomized algorithm\nComputational geometry\nMathematics\r\nof computing\nDiscrete mathematics\nProbability\nStatistics\nMathematical software\nInformation theory\nMathematical analysis\nNumerical analysis\nInformation\r\nsystems\nDatabase management system\nInformation storage systems\nEnterprise information system\nSocial information systems\nGeographic information system\nDecision support system\nProcess control system\nMultimedia information system\nData mining\nDigital library\nComputing platform\nDigital marketing\nWorld Wide Web\nInformation retrieval\nSecurity\nCryptography\nFormal 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LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","82ee1d9577571b4f9e4d83d6d6124c81_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Middleware skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Middleware<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Linux_kernel_and_gaming_input-output_latency.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"410219cf7baf0bbf6bca044ee236b179\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/91\/Linux_kernel_and_gaming_input-output_latency.svg\/220px-Linux_kernel_and_gaming_input-output_latency.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"124\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Linux_kernel_and_gaming_input-output_latency.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"410219cf7baf0bbf6bca044ee236b179\"><\/a><\/div>Anything between the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kernel_(computing)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Kernel (computing)\" data-key=\"f03be41712b62bb475d488fbb4857caa\">kernel<\/a> and user applications is considered middleware.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Middleware<\/b> is computer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a> that provides services to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_application\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software application\" data-key=\"fb12f33772a2f01db9e7bc4aee1e1818\">software applications<\/a> beyond those available from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_system\" title=\"Operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115155e5fbeaa764ceaa4a8714a8951\">operating system<\/a>. It can be described as \"software glue\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MW-00_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MW-00-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Middleware makes it easier for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_developer\" title=\"Software developer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0985fdcb8765ad9e0611e9072e2acd0\">software developers<\/a> to implement communication and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Input\/output\" title=\"Input\/output\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52f8bc60be30c4a0fe544943142caa2b\">input\/output<\/a>, so they can focus on the specific purpose of their application. It gained popularity in the 1980s as a solution to the problem of how to link newer applications to older legacy systems, although the term had been in use since 1968.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_distributed_applications\">In distributed applications<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Middleware_(distributed_applications)\" title=\"Middleware (distributed applications)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ee323233827355e2cf51c0b96ffbf72\">Middleware (distributed applications)<\/a><\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:222px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Middleware_Schema.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"1e7ca25a0281a88548f7c3651750af91\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/20\/Middleware_Schema.svg\/220px-Middleware_Schema.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"220\" height=\"185\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Middleware_Schema.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"1e7ca25a0281a88548f7c3651750af91\"><\/a><\/div>Software architecture: Middleware<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The term is most commonly used for software that enables communication and management of data in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_application\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Distributed application\" data-key=\"3a1e3ad16b161d550b47445d9820863b\">distributed applications<\/a>. An <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IETF\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IETF\" data-key=\"e532f4fb10a864e40a224e94bfe75cb5\">IETF<\/a> workshop in 2000 defined middleware as \"those services found above the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transport_layer\" title=\"Transport layer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4927a7e90ff6ec0cfa04736516de75e3\">transport<\/a> (i.e. over TCP\/IP) layer set of services but below the application environment\" (i.e. below application-level <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_programming_interface\" title=\"Application programming interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3b6475d989fc4f46d473299c5f0a76b\">APIs<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> In this more specific sense <i>middleware<\/i> can be described as the dash (\"-\") in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Client-server\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Client-server\" data-key=\"0abd600e0e3dc7939c38eac2b97e174e\">client-server<\/a><\/i>, or the <i>-to-<\/i> in <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer-to-peer\" title=\"Peer-to-peer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4461153add916f80b39b5acdc03c0764\">peer-to-peer<\/a><\/i>. Middleware includes <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_server\" title=\"Web server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"594f91c19b26d6e9b03722d08d9be4f0\">web servers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_server\" title=\"Application server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8dcd8b1b4d7be0f2ab53000b24d9ca5e\">application servers<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_management_system\" title=\"Content management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3eac85f5c05cd41688150c2d211e93cf\">content management systems<\/a>, and similar tools that support application development and delivery.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EtzkornIntro17_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EtzkornIntro17-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>ObjectWeb defines middleware as: \"The software layer that lies between the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_system\" title=\"Operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115155e5fbeaa764ceaa4a8714a8951\">operating system<\/a> and applications on each side of a distributed computing system in a network.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Services that can be regarded as middleware include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_application_integration\" title=\"Enterprise application integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d697403942408f923065543d60e5bda1\">enterprise application integration<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_integration\" title=\"Data integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ef20102ff5fd42522c9e879f31e999e\">data integration<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_oriented_middleware\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Message oriented middleware\" data-key=\"45e9cf8004261003245fc4e445f03a16\">message oriented middleware<\/a> (MOM), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object_request_broker\" title=\"Object request broker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b22e00def84db2793c402cce6464f70b\">object request brokers<\/a> (ORBs), and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_service_bus\" title=\"Enterprise service bus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce981b6f02bbc3bb69223b94e79357ad\">enterprise service bus<\/a> (ESB).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LuckhamEvent11_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LuckhamEvent11-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DBMS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"DBMS\" data-key=\"4496d739c18def31b0c1ecf77152cf78\">Database<\/a> access services are often characterised as middleware. Some of them are language specific implementations and support heterogeneous features and other related communication features.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SimonOpen14_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SimonOpen14-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Examples of database-oriented middleware include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ODBC\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ODBC\" data-key=\"c791e2afdea9280d52f9dfc8c20b9e68\">ODBC<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JDBC\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JDBC\" data-key=\"6e82fa8ca5eccab74b65438504682dad\">JDBC<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transaction_processing\" title=\"Transaction processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc4654ebea47d9f14e7ebe49367c965c\">transaction processing<\/a> monitors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ArregocesData03_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ArregocesData03-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Distributed computing system middleware can loosely be divided into two categories\u2014those that provide human-time services (such as web request servicing) and those that perform in machine-time. This latter middleware is somewhat standardized through the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SA_Forum\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SA Forum\" data-key=\"7eae55106a3421fe5205c5cef9b05076\">Service Availability Forum<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SAFService11_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SAFService11-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> and is commonly used in complex, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Embedded_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Embedded systems\" data-key=\"51d9c3c401ff6ee2ae6781e1b5b920ea\">embedded systems<\/a> within telecom, defense and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aerospace\" title=\"Aerospace\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14c57dc120261c7e15449a4934e43c20\">aerospace<\/a> industries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JokiahoService12_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JokiahoService12-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_examples\">Other examples<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The term <i>middleware<\/i> is used in other contexts as well. <i>Middleware<\/i> is sometimes used in a similar sense to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_driver\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software driver\" data-key=\"baf0c1f251f71ec0c85ca66391a6a26c\">software driver<\/a>, an abstraction layer that hides detail about hardware devices or other software from an application.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Android_(operating_system)\" title=\"Android (operating system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4367a4e67ff6009ca76098e827576ad\">Android<\/a> operating system uses the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Linux\" title=\"Linux\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccfb1826b029961cb72ef84704ee2bcb\">Linux<\/a> kernel at its core, and also provides an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_framework\" title=\"Application framework\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96d379a1275dbf1bee1ace830dc09e3b\">application framework<\/a> that developers incorporate into their applications. In addition, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Android_(operating_system)#Design\" title=\"Android (operating system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e283f50064268239e38b679e7adf833d\">Android<\/a> provides a middleware layer including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_library\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software library\" data-key=\"0a777d95355b6c51af74cda9403b2b1f\">libraries<\/a> that provide services such as data storage, screen display, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multimedia\" title=\"Multimedia\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df86fe239ea0adc7fef2b979534a0990\">multimedia<\/a>, and web browsing. Because the middleware libraries are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Compiler\" title=\"Compiler\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1bacf6f1d998f0c6010da2357979e04c\">compiled<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_language\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Machine language\" data-key=\"f337b36b96dc06c704f19860804c8e77\">machine language<\/a>, services execute quickly. Middleware libraries also implement device-specific functions, so applications and the application framework need not concern themselves with variations between various Android devices. Android's middleware layer also contains the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Android_Runtime\" title=\"Android Runtime\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a7345863b921e4e0e10515f43b0bda7\">ART<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_machine\" title=\"Virtual machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"16440b9ad77e099b05018bbcf21066c7\">virtual machine<\/a> and its core <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_(programming_language)\" title=\"Java (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"444fa6d23d72fee4750d4189e5a53f53\">Java<\/a> application libraries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_engine\" title=\"Game engine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01869a44239c3ab46956aafad8d7fc51\">Game engine<\/a> software such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gamebryo\" title=\"Gamebryo\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebe4601e7ce3e201d30f30e898db44b5\">Gamebryo<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RenderWare\" title=\"RenderWare\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"54d1c3569bf5d1c900608aef384a3086\">RenderWare<\/a> are sometimes described as middleware, because they provide many services to simplify game development.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MooreIntro06_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MooreIntro06-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In simulation technology, <i>middleware<\/i> is generally used in the context of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/High_level_architecture_(simulation)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"High level architecture (simulation)\" data-key=\"affd33532b7afe70c6a00cf714144de5\">high level architecture<\/a> (HLA) that applies to many distributed simulations. It is a layer of software that lies between the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_code\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Application code\" data-key=\"46940dd3ee08ec2f67e59bcf33da70dd\">application code<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Run-Time_Infrastructure_(simulation)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Run-Time Infrastructure (simulation)\" data-key=\"2b517045761249e4563487fad1e427e1\">run-time infrastructure<\/a>. Middleware generally consists of a library of functions, and enables a number of applications\u2014simulations or federates in HLA terminology\u2014to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paging\" title=\"Paging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc9488a32bb4b3e6e6850767eb4829e4\">page<\/a> these functions from the common library rather than re-create them for each application.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DriraCoop03_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DriraCoop03-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Wireless networking developers can use middleware to meet the challenges associated with a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wireless_sensor_network\" title=\"Wireless sensor network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6de477762202654fbd88d90d554bf13\">wireless sensor network<\/a> (WSN). Implementing a middleware application allows WSN <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Middleware_Analysts\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Middleware Analysts\" data-key=\"57a68eb474643132ab4d49499899b0fa\">developers<\/a> to integrate operating systems and hardware with the wide variety of various applications that are currently available.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/QNX\" title=\"QNX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5510238b2df9dcb363e65814185ae24a\">QNX<\/a> operating system offers middleware for providing multimedia services for use in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Automobile\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Automobile\" data-key=\"095c0fffb160e81c17a5e0e780d6fbfd\">automobiles<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aircraft\" title=\"Aircraft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fc19d38e5285f33624093a237e3a2d5\">aircraft<\/a> and other environments.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-QNX08_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-QNX08-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Radio-frequency_identification\" title=\"Radio-frequency identification\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"142e22fc78bf4acc0c1806ea4d00e395\">Radio-frequency identification<\/a> (RFID) software toolkits provide middleware to filter noisy and redundant raw data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GloverRFID06_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GloverRFID06-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language-agnostic\" title=\"Language-agnostic\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7df79e56a2f428e6269e345e913a345\">Language-agnostic<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Third-party_software_component\" title=\"Third-party software component\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea12e41331834fba8290ccad0f00e14e\">Third-party software component<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-MW-00-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MW-00_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120629211518\/http:\/\/www.middleware.org\/whatis.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is Middleware?\"<\/a>. <i>Middleware.org<\/i>. Defining Technology. 2008. Archived from the original on June 29, 2012<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-08-11<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Middleware.org&rft.atitle=What+is+Middleware%3F&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.middleware.org%2Fwhatis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Unfit url (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Unfit_url\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Unfit url\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"821605743bcd70b1722ce05d5532b01e\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Gall, Nick (July 30, 2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ironick.typepad.com\/ironick\/2005\/07\/update_on_the_o.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Origin of the term <i>middleware<\/i>\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Origin+of+the+term+middleware&rft.date=2005-07-30&rft.aulast=Gall&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fironick.typepad.com%2Fironick%2F2005%2F07%2Fupdate_on_the_o.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ietf.org\" target=\"_blank\">\"Home\"<\/a>. <i>IETF<\/i>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IETF&rft.atitle=Home&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ietf.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EtzkornIntro17-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-EtzkornIntro17_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Etzkorn, L. H. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=AZgnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT45\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Introduction to Middleware: Web Services, Object Components, and Cloud Computing<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp. 4\u20135. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781498754101.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Middleware%3A+Web+Services%2C+Object+Components%2C+and+Cloud+Computing&rft.pages=4-5&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781498754101&rft.au=Etzkorn%2C+L.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAZgnDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Krakowiak, Sacha. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20050507151935\/http:\/\/middleware.objectweb.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What's middleware?\"<\/a>. ObjectWeb.org. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/middleware.objectweb.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2005-05-07<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2005-05-06<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What%27s+middleware%3F&rft.pub=ObjectWeb.org&rft.aulast=Krakowiak&rft.aufirst=Sacha&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmiddleware.objectweb.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LuckhamEvent11-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-LuckhamEvent11_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Luckham, D. C. (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=dqWxewxhyq8C&pg=PA27\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Event Processing for Business: Organizing the Real-Time Enterprise<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 27\u201328. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781118171851.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Event+Processing+for+Business%3A+Organizing+the+Real-Time+Enterprise&rft.pages=27-28&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781118171851&rft.au=Luckham%2C+D.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdqWxewxhyq8C%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SimonOpen14-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SimonOpen14_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Simon, A. R.; Wheeler, T. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=jyOjBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA43\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Open Client\/Server Computing and Middleware<\/i><\/a>. Academic Press. pp. 43\u201349. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781483214276.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Open+Client%2FServer+Computing+and+Middleware&rft.pages=43-49&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781483214276&rft.au=Simon%2C+A.+R.%3B+Wheeler%2C+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjyOjBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ArregocesData03-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ArregocesData03_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Arregoces, M.; Portolani, M. (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=IcoqBXbG9IsC&pg=PA92\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Data Center Fundamentals<\/i><\/a>. Cisco Press. pp. 92\u201393. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781587140747.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+Center+Fundamentals&rft.pages=92-93&rft.pub=Cisco+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781587140747&rft.au=Arregoces%2C+M.%3B+Portolani%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIcoqBXbG9IsC%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SAFService11-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SAFService11_9-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/devel.opensaf.org\/SAI-Overview-B.05.03.AL.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Service Availability Interface Specification\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Service Availability Forum. 30 September 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Service+Availability+Interface+Specification&rft.pub=Service+Availability+Forum&rft.date=2011-09-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdevel.opensaf.org%2FSAI-Overview-B.05.03.AL.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-JokiahoService12-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-JokiahoService12_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Jokiaho, T.; Fryer, J. (2012). \"Foreward\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Ql1oHlKkHOsC&pg=PT9&lpg=PT9\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Service Availability: Principles and Practice<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. xv. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781119941675.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Foreward&rft.btitle=Service+Availability%3A+Principles+and+Practice&rft.pages=xv&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781119941675&rft.au=Jokiaho%2C+T.%3B+Fryer%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQl1oHlKkHOsC%26pg%3DPT9%26lpg%3DPT9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Charlie Collins, Michael Galpin and Matthias Kaeppler, Android in Practice, Manning Publications, 2011<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MooreIntro06-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MooreIntro06_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Moore, M. E. (2006). <i>Introduction to the Game Industry<\/i>. Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 169. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780131687431.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Game+Industry&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780131687431&rft.au=Moore%2C+M.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DriraCoop03-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-DriraCoop03_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Becchini, R.; Chilaev, P.; Krivtsov, V.; et al. (2003). \"Chapter 4: Middleware\". In Drira, K.; Martelli, A.; Villemur, T. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=2clrCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA41\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Cooperative Environments for Distributed Systems Engineering: The Distributed Systems Environment Report<\/i><\/a>. Springer. pp. 41\u20134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783540455820.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4%3A+Middleware&rft.btitle=Cooperative+Environments+for+Distributed+Systems+Engineering%3A+The+Distributed+Systems+Environment+Report&rft.pages=41-4&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9783540455820&rft.au=Becchini%2C+R.%3B+Chilaev%2C+P.%3B+Krivtsov%2C+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2clrCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Hadim, S. and Mohamed, N. (2006). Middleware challenges and approaches for wireless sensor networks. IEEE Distributed Systems Online vol 7. Issue 3. Retrieved March 4, 2009 from\n<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dsonline.computer.org\/portal\/site\/dsonline\/menuitem.3a529f3832e8f1e13587e0606bcd45f3\/index.jsp\" target=\"_blank\">iEEE Distributed Systems Online<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-QNX08-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-QNX08_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.qnx.com\/news\/pr_2901_1.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"QNX Software Joins Internet ITS Consortium of Japan\"<\/a>. <i>QNX News Releases<\/i>. QNX. 6 May 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">26 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=QNX+News+Releases&rft.atitle=QNX+Software+Joins+Internet+ITS+Consortium+of+Japan&rft.date=2008-05-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qnx.com%2Fnews%2Fpr_2901_1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GloverRFID06-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GloverRFID06_16-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Glover, B.; Bhatt, H. (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=cKKZoH48D4cC&pg=PA38\" target=\"_blank\"><i>RFID Essentials<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly Media. pp. 38\u201344. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780596009441.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=RFID+Essentials&rft.pages=38-44&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780596009441&rft.au=Glover%2C+B.%3B+Bhatt%2C+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcKKZoH48D4cC%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMiddleware\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1262\nCached time: 20190329063905\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.312 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.404 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 984\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 60163\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 221\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 8\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 43005\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\nLua time usage: 0.151\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 3.46 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 294.281 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>49.27% 144.988 1 Template:Reflist\n28.29% 83.248 6 Template:Cite_web\n19.47% 57.285 1 Template:Authority_control\n12.18% 35.854 1 Template:Main_article\n11.87% 34.942 8 Template:Cite_book\n 9.88% 29.081 1 Template:Computer_science\n 8.72% 25.675 1 Template:Navbox\n 6.55% 19.281 1 Template:Wiktionary\n 5.10% 15.010 1 Template:Sister_project\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:34658368-1!canonical and timestamp 20190329063905 and revision id 888864264\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Middleware\" data-key=\"f72adff48045b293a94bb17385443861\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202958\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.176 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.270 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 257.467 1 - wikipedia:Middleware\n100.00% 257.467 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10702-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403202958 and revision id 33620\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Middleware\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Middleware<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","82ee1d9577571b4f9e4d83d6d6124c81_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/91\/Linux_kernel_and_gaming_input-output_latency.svg\/440px-Linux_kernel_and_gaming_input-output_latency.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/2\/20\/Middleware_Schema.svg\/440px-Middleware_Schema.svg.png"],"82ee1d9577571b4f9e4d83d6d6124c81_timestamp":1554323398,"b12197caa5cd46f27cfddf3a61d7d73b_type":"article","b12197caa5cd46f27cfddf3a61d7d73b_title":"Message broker","b12197caa5cd46f27cfddf3a61d7d73b_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Message_broker","b12197caa5cd46f27cfddf3a61d7d73b_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tMessage broker\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t Sequence diagram for depicting the Message Broker pattern\nA message broker (also known as an integration broker or interface engine[1]) is an intermediary computer program module that translates a message from the formal messaging protocol of the sender to the formal messaging protocol of the receiver. Message brokers are elements in telecommunication or computer networks where software applications communicate by exchanging formally-defined messages.[1] Message brokers are a building block of message-oriented middleware (MOM) but are typically not a replacement for traditional middleware like MOM and remote procedure call (RPC).[2][3]\n\nContents \n\n1 Purpose, functionality, and architecture \n2 List of message broker software \n3 See also \n4 References \n\n\n Purpose, functionality, and architecture \nA message broker is an architectural pattern for message validation, transformation, and routing. It mediates communication among applications, minimizing the mutual awareness that applications should have of each other in order to be able to exchange messages, effectively implementing decoupling.[4] \nThe primary purpose of a broker is to take incoming messages from applications and perform some action on them. Message brokers can decouple end-points, meet specific non-functional requirements, and facilitate reuse of intermediary functions. For example, a message broker may be used to manage a workload queue or message queue for multiple receivers, providing reliable storage, guaranteed message delivery and perhaps transaction management. The following represent other examples of actions that might be handled by the broker[2][3]:\n\nRoute messages to one or more destinations\nTransform messages to an alternative representation\nPerform message aggregation, decomposing messages into multiple messages and sending them to their destination, then recomposing the responses into one message to return to the user\nInteract with an external repository to augment a message or store it\nInvoke web services to retrieve data\nRespond to events or errors\nProvide content and topic-based message routing using the publish\u2013subscribe pattern\nMessage brokers are generally based on one of two fundamental architectures: hub-and-spoke and message bus. In the first, a central server acts as the mechanism that provides integration services, whereas with the latter, the message broker is a communication backbone or distributed service that acts on the bus.[3] Additionally, a more scalable multi-hub approach can be used to integrate multiple brokers.[3]\n\nList of message broker software \nAmazon Web Services (AWS) Simple Queue Service (SQS)\nApache ActiveMQ\nApache Kafka\nApache Qpid\nCloverleaf (E-Novation Lifeline)\nComverse Message Broker (Comverse Technology)\nEclipse Mosquitto MQTT Broker (Eclipse Foundation)\nEnduro\/X Transactional Message Queue (TMQ)\nFinancial Fusion Message Broker (Sybase)\nFuse Message Broker (enterprise ActiveMQ)\nGearman\nHornetQ (Red Hat)\nIBM App Connect\nIBM MQ\nJBoss Messaging (JBoss)\nJORAM\nMicrosoft Azure Service Bus (Microsoft)\nMicrosoft BizTalk Server (Microsoft)\nNATS (MIT Open Source License, written in Go)\nOpen Message Queue\nOracle Message Broker (Oracle Corporation)\nRabbitMQ (Mozilla Public License, written in Erlang)\nRedis An open source, in-memory data structure store, used as a database, cache and message broker.\nSAP PI (SAP AG)\nSolace PubSub+\nSpread Toolkit\nTarantool, a NoSQL database, with a set of stored procedures for message queues\nTIBCO Enterprise Message Service\nWSO2 Message Broker\nSee also \nPublish\u2013subscribe pattern\nComparison of business integration software\nMessage-oriented middleware\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b \"IB (integration broker)\". IT Glossary. Gartner, Inc. Retrieved 17 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b Kale, V. (2014). \"Integration Technologies\". Guide to Cloud Computing for Business and Technology Managers: From Distributed Computing to Cloudware Applications. CRC Press. pp. 107\u2013134. ISBN 9781482219227. Retrieved 17 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b c d Samtani, G.; Sadhwani, D. (2013). \"Integration Brokers and Web Services\". In Clark, M.; Fletcher, P.; Hanson, J.J.; et al. Web Services Business Strategies and Architectures. Apress. pp. 71\u201384. ISBN 9781430253563. Retrieved 17 May 2018 . \n\n^ Ejsmont, A. (2015). \"Asynchronous Processing\". Web Scalability for Startup Engineers. McGraw Hill Professional. pp. 275\u2013276. ISBN 9780071843669. \n\n\n\r\n\n\nThis network-related software article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Message_broker\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Message_broker<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 17 May 2018, at 16:38.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 163 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","b12197caa5cd46f27cfddf3a61d7d73b_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Message_broker skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Message broker<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:402px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Message_Broker.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"aec39bb4deffd9c7c0a2f014f58fa781\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/9\/91\/Message_Broker.png\/400px-Message_Broker.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Message_Broker.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"aec39bb4deffd9c7c0a2f014f58fa781\"><\/a><\/div>Sequence diagram for depicting the Message Broker pattern<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>A <b>message broker<\/b> (also known as an <b>integration broker<\/b> or <b>interface engine<\/b><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GartnerIB_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GartnerIB-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>) is an intermediary computer <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_programming\" title=\"Modular programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3e2efa63b2358882429ccde40078f8f\">program module<\/a> that translates a message from the formal messaging protocol of the sender to the formal messaging protocol of the receiver. Message brokers are elements in telecommunication or computer networks where software applications communicate by exchanging formally-defined messages.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GartnerIB_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GartnerIB-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Message brokers are a building block of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message-oriented_middleware\" title=\"Message-oriented middleware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94a5844cb549ce9a0267739dbcc1527e\">message-oriented middleware<\/a> (MOM) but are typically not a replacement for traditional middleware like MOM and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_procedure_call\" title=\"Remote procedure call\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10077982c79b5ee8217a4e149067b183\">remote procedure call<\/a> (RPC).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KaleGuide14_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KaleGuide14-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ClarkWeb13-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Purpose.2C_functionality.2C_and_architecture\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Purpose,_functionality,_and_architecture\">Purpose, functionality, and architecture<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A message broker is an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Architectural_pattern\" title=\"Architectural pattern\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6a1abf65d70008835f7642a4b8816b7\">architectural pattern<\/a> for message validation, transformation, and routing. It mediates communication among applications, minimizing the mutual awareness that applications should have of each other in order to be able to exchange messages, effectively implementing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coupling_(computer_programming)\" title=\"Coupling (computer programming)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0f7f4547d7ccc9fc102dd2fa9516574\">decoupling<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EjsmontWeb15_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EjsmontWeb15-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>The primary purpose of a broker is to take incoming messages from applications and perform some action on them. Message brokers can decouple end-points, meet specific non-functional requirements, and facilitate reuse of intermediary functions. For example, a message broker may be used to manage a workload queue or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_queue\" title=\"Message queue\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5037968264e171024bb4c156dca1535\">message queue<\/a> for multiple receivers, providing reliable storage, guaranteed message delivery and perhaps transaction management. The following represent other examples of actions that might be handled by the broker<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KaleGuide14_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KaleGuide14-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ClarkWeb13-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Route messages to one or more destinations<\/li>\n<li>Transform messages to an alternative representation<\/li>\n<li>Perform message aggregation, decomposing messages into multiple messages and sending them to their destination, then recomposing the responses into one message to return to the user<\/li>\n<li>Interact with an external repository to augment a message or store it<\/li>\n<li>Invoke <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_service\" title=\"Web service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e72dffc79d570a758fb072280ae0ca6e\">web services<\/a> to retrieve data<\/li>\n<li>Respond to events or errors<\/li>\n<li>Provide content and topic-based message routing using the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Publish%E2%80%93subscribe_pattern\" title=\"Publish\u2013subscribe pattern\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7e6d1dbf849a89e3c58978a884a3ba0\">publish\u2013subscribe pattern<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Message brokers are generally based on one of two fundamental architectures: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spoke%E2%80%93hub_distribution_paradigm\" title=\"Spoke\u2013hub distribution paradigm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34d68fac269ac6138d3c58fa3e92f56d\">hub-and-spoke<\/a> and message bus. In the first, a central server acts as the mechanism that provides integration services, whereas with the latter, the message broker is a communication backbone or distributed service that acts on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bus_(computing)\" title=\"Bus (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95968ed6042d4a5c7b6f94639c427032\">bus<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ClarkWeb13-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, a more scalable multi-hub approach can be used to integrate multiple brokers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ClarkWeb13-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"List_of_message_broker_software\">List of message broker software<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Amazon Web Services (AWS) <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Amazon_Simple_Queue_Service\" title=\"Amazon Simple Queue Service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60e2032bcccf5a0dc6e6b95437b3fbda\">Simple Queue Service<\/a> (SQS)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_ActiveMQ\" title=\"Apache ActiveMQ\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"684fe76fefe1793d8b1293744a501793\">Apache ActiveMQ<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Kafka\" title=\"Apache Kafka\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14bdc4a7a7b448924b5fe68d2a843973\">Apache Kafka<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Apache_Qpid\" title=\"Apache Qpid\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f8502c2015ca053cc8cf334ed1ba2210\">Apache Qpid<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Cloverleaf (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-Novation\" title=\"E-Novation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"400f8697ff1e4708737f00508b4152e2\">E-Novation<\/a> Lifeline)<\/li>\n<li>Comverse Message Broker (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comverse_Technology\" title=\"Comverse Technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4cb9d9f09a5a2803c8cde19b7d79fde2\">Comverse Technology<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li>Eclipse Mosquitto MQTT Broker (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Eclipse_Foundation\" title=\"Eclipse Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dab822bf7c52148ea0cf36b590c9089e\">Eclipse Foundation<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enduro\/X\" title=\"Enduro\/X\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"660e7901e5dfc3566040255e59262bd7\">Enduro\/X<\/a> Transactional Message Queue (TMQ)<\/li>\n<li>Financial Fusion Message Broker (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sybase\" title=\"Sybase\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca011efd2c98bff936f8ac9cb85d1e50\">Sybase<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fuse_Message_Broker\" title=\"Fuse Message Broker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6d512f7551a06aae96c7805c6c5826bb\">Fuse Message Broker<\/a> (enterprise ActiveMQ)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gearman\" title=\"Gearman\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3af646d5152f45a323591e324e3efcd\">Gearman<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HornetQ\" title=\"HornetQ\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9704940eaac7b9f57a6109ab8534dd38\">HornetQ<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Red_Hat\" title=\"Red Hat\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"253d923f8074cef53ef50b4ef712b97c\">Red Hat<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM_Integration_Bus\" title=\"IBM Integration Bus\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a577040484fe727512d384965c49461\">IBM App Connect<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM_MQ\" title=\"IBM MQ\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3259671a657adc38779383b54a86eedc\">IBM MQ<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JBoss_Messaging\" title=\"JBoss Messaging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbc691c564adc7a082b5d663568baf56\">JBoss Messaging<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JBoss\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JBoss\" data-key=\"a2398b82dee3b755456db58990bc008c\">JBoss<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JORAM\" title=\"JORAM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d63df0415d294396a4913455eaa1f591\">JORAM<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Azure\" title=\"Microsoft Azure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7425502813a74a72d2910d4a8d90b67d\">Microsoft Azure Service Bus<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_BizTalk_Server\" title=\"Microsoft BizTalk Server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cff1fd2defba6cda3ff99f30b64c700c\">Microsoft BizTalk Server<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NATS_Messaging\" title=\"NATS Messaging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c7225ecca32938b1a00a1f31873027f\">NATS<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT_License\" title=\"MIT License\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bee9d3f121960cbfa0ae07370a5683f\">MIT Open Source License<\/a>, written in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Go_(programming_language)\" title=\"Go (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09866cb455e9888d5414909a5485a6cb\">Go<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Open_Message_Queue\" title=\"Open Message Queue\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27108d0351b8d2ebf62490aabacacf23\">Open Message Queue<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Oracle Message Broker (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Oracle_Corporation\" title=\"Oracle Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b9d9b95cef4bc5e02dc8a6d510f8fca6\">Oracle Corporation<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/RabbitMQ\" title=\"RabbitMQ\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a678ba8cb002ba3ccc3f712460aec7c1\">RabbitMQ<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mozilla_Public_License\" title=\"Mozilla Public License\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2403ce5dcf81913db700a1e7b5e20cc\">Mozilla Public License<\/a>, written in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Erlang_(programming_language)\" title=\"Erlang (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff93e3c10bc46058db6677fc33a73db4\">Erlang<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Redis\" title=\"Redis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cab339d3c3565b75aebe346235f67015\">Redis<\/a> An open source, in-memory data structure store, used as a database, cache and message broker.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SAP_PI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SAP PI\" data-key=\"4ba8f9e0f61dc68cbc74fd31601ebfe9\">SAP PI<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SAP_AG\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SAP AG\" data-key=\"e4822db7bb4c0990aaa9da26be2738c8\">SAP AG<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Solace_Corporation\" title=\"Solace Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"043f8e1d61337dff40941388a671634a\">Solace<\/a> PubSub+<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Spread_Toolkit\" title=\"Spread Toolkit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0d1479120885c56146b6c5d7952f7428\">Spread Toolkit<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tarantool\" title=\"Tarantool\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"63cd6c7428014ea77a436ff78d66127d\">Tarantool<\/a>, a NoSQL database, with a set of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stored_procedure\" title=\"Stored procedure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19acea913a06de007ede354d505e650a\">stored procedures<\/a> for message queues<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/TIBCO_Software\" title=\"TIBCO Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0458f620448b7ba027b12c26d5361ca3\">TIBCO<\/a> Enterprise Message Service<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WSO2\" title=\"WSO2\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ab61ffc19acd117c2a537123a459572e\">WSO2 Message Broker<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Publish%E2%80%93subscribe_pattern\" title=\"Publish\u2013subscribe pattern\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7e6d1dbf849a89e3c58978a884a3ba0\">Publish\u2013subscribe pattern<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Comparison_of_business_integration_software\" title=\"Comparison of business integration software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b52200439eb2ecfe0cf69c555cf079e\">Comparison of business integration software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message-oriented_middleware\" title=\"Message-oriented middleware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94a5844cb549ce9a0267739dbcc1527e\">Message-oriented middleware<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-GartnerIB-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-GartnerIB_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-GartnerIB_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gartner.com\/it-glossary\/ib-integration-broker\" target=\"_blank\">\"IB (integration broker)\"<\/a>. <i>IT Glossary<\/i>. Gartner, Inc<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IT+Glossary&rft.atitle=IB+%28integration+broker%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gartner.com%2Fit-glossary%2Fib-integration-broker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMessage+broker\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KaleGuide14-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-KaleGuide14_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-KaleGuide14_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Kale, V. (2014). \"Integration Technologies\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1IuZBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA117\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Guide to Cloud Computing for Business and Technology Managers: From Distributed Computing to Cloudware Applications<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp. 107\u2013134. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781482219227<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Integration+Technologies&rft.btitle=Guide+to+Cloud+Computing+for+Business+and+Technology+Managers%3A+From+Distributed+Computing+to+Cloudware+Applications&rft.pages=107-134&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781482219227&rft.au=Kale%2C+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1IuZBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMessage+broker\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ClarkWeb13-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-ClarkWeb13_3-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Samtani, G.; Sadhwani, D. (2013). \"Integration Brokers and Web Services\". In Clark, M.; Fletcher, P.; Hanson, J.J.; et al. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=2EonCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Web Services Business Strategies and Architectures<\/i><\/a>. Apress. pp. 71\u201384. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781430253563<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">17 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Integration+Brokers+and+Web+Services&rft.btitle=Web+Services+Business+Strategies+and+Architectures&rft.pages=71-84&rft.pub=Apress&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781430253563&rft.au=Samtani%2C+G.&rft.au=Sadhwani%2C+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2EonCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMessage+broker\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EjsmontWeb15-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-EjsmontWeb15_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Ejsmont, A. (2015). \"Asynchronous Processing\". <i>Web Scalability for Startup Engineers<\/i>. McGraw Hill Professional. pp. 275\u2013276. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780071843669.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Asynchronous+Processing&rft.btitle=Web+Scalability+for+Startup+Engineers&rft.pages=275-276&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill+Professional&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780071843669&rft.au=Ejsmont%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMessage+broker\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1266\nCached time: 20190403060100\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.140 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.182 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 352\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 9768\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 83\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 7\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 13326\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\nLua time usage: 0.069\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 2.49 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 135.090 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>85.05% 114.894 1 Template:Reflist\n57.82% 78.104 1 Template:Cite_web\n14.90% 20.124 1 Template:Network-software-stub\n13.40% 18.104 1 Template:Asbox\n12.40% 16.746 3 Template:Cite_book\n 2.39% 3.227 1 Template:Main_other\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:7423668-1!canonical and timestamp 20190403060059 and revision id 883665804\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_broker\" data-key=\"c5464074ad4d7a1c9f7f0413a977b027\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202957\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.009 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.130 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 124.542 1 - wikipedia:Message_broker\n100.00% 124.542 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10586-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403202957 and revision id 33257\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Message_broker\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Message_broker<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","b12197caa5cd46f27cfddf3a61d7d73b_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/91\/Message_Broker.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/ca\/Bus_icon.svg\/70px-Bus_icon.svg.png"],"b12197caa5cd46f27cfddf3a61d7d73b_timestamp":1554323397,"668f65c4856e77e76092c3cee15bf981_type":"article","668f65c4856e77e76092c3cee15bf981_title":"Internationalization and localization","668f65c4856e77e76092c3cee15bf981_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internationalization_and_localization","668f65c4856e77e76092c3cee15bf981_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tInternationalization and localization\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFor the term in economics, see Internationalization. For other uses, see Localization.\n\"Multilingual software\" redirects here. For the Microsoft Windows-specific term, see Multilingual User Interface.\n Screenshot of TDE software programs mostly localized to Chinese (Traditional).\nPart of a series onTranslation\nTypes\nLegal\nLiterary\nBible\nQuran\nLinguistic validation\nMedical\nRegulatory\nTechnical\nInterpretation\nCultural\nWord-for-word vs. Sense-for-sense\n\nTheory\nTranslation studies\nSkopos theory\nTranslation project\nTranslation criticism\nDynamic and formal equivalence\nContrastive linguistics\n\nTechnologies\nCAT\nMachine translation\nMobile (machine) translation\nDubbing\nSubtitling\nPre-editing\nPostediting\nMultimedia translation\n\nLocalization\nGlocalization\nInternationalization and localization\nLanguage localisation\nGame localization\nDub localization\n\nInstitutional\nAssociations\nAwards\nOrganizations\nSchools\n\nRelated topics\nTranscription\nTransliteration\nVideo relay service (VRS)\nTelephone interpreting\nLanguage barrier\nFan translation\nFansub\nFandub\nJournalistic translation\nBooks and magazines on translation\nBible translations by language\nTranslated books\nTranslators\nvte\nIn computing, internationalization and localization are means of adapting computer software to different languages, regional peculiarities and technical requirements of a target locale.[1] Internationalization is the process of designing a software application so that it can be adapted to various languages and regions without engineering changes. Localization is the process of adapting internationalized software for a specific region or language by translating text and adding locale-specific components. Localization (which is potentially performed multiple times, for different locales) uses the infrastructure or flexibility provided by internationalization (which is ideally performed only once, or as an integral part of ongoing development).[2]\n\nContents \n\n1 Naming \n2 Scope \n\n2.1 Standard locale data \n2.2 National conventions \n\n\n3 Business process for internationalizing software \n4 Engineering \n5 Process \n6 Commercial considerations \n7 See also \n8 References \n9 Further reading \n10 External links \n\n\nNaming \nThe terms are frequently abbreviated to the numeronyms i18n (where 18 stands for the number of letters between the first i and the last n in the word internationalization, a usage coined at Digital Equipment Corporation in the 1970s or 1980s)[3][4] and L10n for localization, due to the length of the words.[5]\nSome companies, like IBM and Sun Microsystems, use the term globalization, g11n, for the combination of internationalization and localization.[6] Also known as \"glocalization\" (a portmanteau of globalization and localization).\nMicrosoft defines internationalization as a combination of world-readiness and localization. World-readiness is a developer task, which enables a product to be used with multiple scripts and cultures (globalization) and separating user interface resources in a localizable format (localizability, abbreviated to L12y).[7][8]\nHewlett-Packard and HP-UX created a system called \"National Language Support\" or \"Native Language Support\" (NLS) to produce localizable software.[1]\n\nScope \n The internationalization and localization process\r\n(based on a chart from the LISA website)\nAccording to Software without frontiers, the design aspects to consider when internationalizing a product are \"data encoding, data and documentation, software construction, hardware device support, user interaction\"; while the key design areas to consider when making a fully internationalized product from scratch are \"user interaction, algorithm design and data formats, software services, documentation\".[1]\nTranslation is typically the most time-consuming component of language localization.[1] This may involve:\n\nFor film, video, and audio, translation of spoken words or music lyrics, often using either dubbing or subtitles\nText translation for printed materials, digital media (possibly including error messages and documentation)\nPotentially altering images and logos containing text to contain translations or generic icons[1]\nDifferent translation length and differences in character sizes (e.g. between Latin alphabet letters and Chinese characters) can cause layouts that work well in one language to work poorly in others[1]\nConsideration of differences in dialect, register or variety[1]\nWriting conventions like:\nFormatting of numbers (especially decimal separator and digit grouping)\nDate and time format, possibly including use of different calendars\nStandard locale data \nComputer software can encounter differences above and beyond straightforward translation of words and phrases, because computer programs can generate content dynamically. These differences may need to be taken into account by the internationalization process in preparation for translation. Many of these differences are so regular that a conversion between languages can be easily automated. The Common Locale Data Repository by Unicode provides a collection of such differences. Its data is used by major operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, macOS and Debian, and by major Internet companies or projects such as Google and the Wikimedia Foundation. Examples of such differences include:\n\nDifferent \"scripts\" in different writing systems use different characters \u2013 a different set of letters, syllograms, logograms, or symbols. Modern systems use the Unicode standard to represent many different languages with a single character encoding.\nWriting direction is left to right in most European languages, right-to-left in Hebrew and Arabic, or both in boustrophedon scripts, and optionally vertical in some Asian languages.[1]\nComplex text layout, for languages where characters change shape depending on context\nCapitalization exists in some scripts and not in others\nDifferent languages and writing systems have different text sorting rules\nDifferent languages have different numeral systems, which might need to be supported if Western Arabic numerals are not used\nDifferent languages have different pluralization rules, which can complicate programs that dynamically display numerical content.[9] Other grammar rules might also vary, e.g. genitive.\nDifferent languages use different punctuation (e.g. quoting text using double-quotes (\" \") as in English, or guillemets (\u00ab \u00bb) as in French)\nKeyboard shortcuts can only make use of buttons actually on the keyboard layout which is being localized for. If a shortcut corresponds to a word in a particular language (e.g. Ctrl-s stands for \"save\" in English), it may need to be changed.[10]\nNational conventions \nDifferent countries have different economic conventions, including variations in:\n\nPaper sizes\nBroadcast television systems and popular storage media\nTelephone number formats\nPostal address formats, postal codes, and choice of delivery services\nCurrency (symbols, positions of currency markers, and reasonable amounts due to different inflation histories) \u2013 ISO 4217 codes are often used for internationalization\nSystem of measurement\nBattery sizes\nVoltage and current standards\nIn particular, the United States and Europe differ in most of these cases. Other areas often follow one of these.\nSpecific third-party services, such as online maps, weather reports, or payment service providers, might not be available worldwide from the same carriers, or at all.\nTime zones vary across the world, and this must be taken into account if a product originally only interacted with people in a single time zone. For internationalization, UTC is often used internally and then converted into a local time zone for display purposes.\nDifferent countries have different legal requirements, meaning for example:\n\nRegulatory compliance may require customization for a particular jurisdiction, or a change to the product as a whole, such as:\nPrivacy law compliance\nAdditional disclaimers on a web site or packaging\nDifferent consumer labelling requirements\nCompliance with export restrictions and regulations on encryption\nCompliance with an Internet censorship regime or subpoena procedures\nRequirements for accessibility\nCollecting different taxes, such as sales tax, value added tax, or customs duties\nSensitivity to different political issues, like geographical naming disputes and disputed borders shown on maps (e.g., India has proposed a controversial bill that would make failing to show Kashmir and other areas as intended by the government a crime[11][12][13])\nGovernment-assigned numbers have different formats (such as passports, Social Security Numbers and other national identification numbers)\nLocalization also may take into account differences in culture, such as:\n\nLocal holidays\nPersonal name and title conventions\nAesthetics\nComprehensibility and cultural appropriateness of images and color symbolism\nEthnicity, clothing, and socioeconomic status of people and architecture of locations pictured\nLocal customs and conventions, such as social taboos, popular local religions, or superstitions such as blood types in Japanese culture vs. astrological signs in other cultures\nBusiness process for internationalizing software \nIn order to internationalize a product, it is important to look at a variety of markets that the product will foreseeably enter.[1]\nDetails such as field length for street addresses, unique format for the address, ability to make the postal code field optional to address countries that do not have postal codes or the state field for countries that do not have states, plus the introduction of new registration flows that adhere to local laws are just some of the examples that make internationalization a complex project.[14][15]\nA broader approach takes into account cultural factors regarding for example the adaptation of the business process logic or the inclusion of individual cultural (behavioral) aspects.[1][16]\nAlready in the 1990s, companies such as Bull used machine translation (Systran) in large scale, for all their translation activity: human translators handled pre-editing (making the input machine-readable) and post-editing.[1]\n\nEngineering \nBoth in re-engineering an existing software or designing a new internationalized software, the first step of internationalization is to split each potentially locale-dependent part (whether code, text or data) into a separate module.[1] Each module can then either rely on a standard library\/dependency or be independently replaced as needed for each locale.\nThe current prevailing practice is for applications to place text in resource strings which are loaded during program execution as needed.[1] These strings, stored in resource files, are relatively easy to translate. Programs are often built to reference resource libraries depending on the selected locale data.\nThe storage for translatable and translated strings is sometimes called a message catalog[1] as the strings are called messages. The catalog generally comprises a set of files in a specific localization format and a standard library to handle said format. One software library and format that aids this is gettext.\nThus to get an application to support multiple languages one would design the application to select the relevant language resource file at runtime. The code required to manage data entry verification and many other locale-sensitive data types also must support differing locale requirements. Modern development systems and operating systems include sophisticated libraries for international support of these types, see also Standard locale data above.\nMany localization issues (e.g. writing direction, text sorting) require more profound changes in the software than text translation. For example, OpenOffice.org achieves this with compilation switches.\n\nProcess \nA globalization method includes, after planning, three implementation steps: internationalization, localization and quality assurance.[1]\nTo some degree (e.g. for quality assurance), development teams include someone who handles the basic\/central stages of the process which then enable all the others.[1] Such persons typically understand foreign languages and cultures and have some technical background. Specialized technical writers are required to construct a culturally appropriate syntax for potentially complicated concepts, coupled with engineering resources to deploy and test the localization elements.\nOnce properly internationalized, software can rely on more decentralized models for localization: free and open source software usually rely on self-localization by end-users and volunteers, sometimes organized in teams.[17] The KDE3 project, for example, has been translated into over 100 languages;[18] MediaWiki in 270 languages, of which 100 mostly complete as of 2016[update].[19]\nWhen translating existing text to other languages, it is difficult to maintain the parallel versions of texts throughout the life of the product.[20] For instance, if a message displayed to the user is modified, all of the translated versions must be changed.\n\nCommercial considerations \nIn a commercial setting, the benefit from localization is access to more markets. In the early 1980s, Lotus 1-2-3 took two years to separate program code and text and lost the market lead in Europe over Microsoft Multiplan.[1] MicroPro found that using an Austrian translator for the West German market caused its WordStar documentation to, an executive said, not \"have the tone it should have had\".[21]\nHowever, there are considerable costs involved, which go far beyond engineering. Further, business operations must adapt to manage the production, storage and distribution of multiple discrete localized products, which are often being sold in completely different currencies, regulatory environments and tax regimes.\nFinally, sales, marketing and technical support must also facilitate their own operations in the new languages, in order to support customers for the localized products. Particularly for relatively small language populations, it may never be economically viable to offer a localized product. Even where large language populations could justify localization for a given product, and a product's internal structure already permits localization, a given software developer or publisher may lack the size and sophistication to manage the ancillary functions associated with operating in multiple locales.\n\nSee also \nSubcomponents and standards\nBidirectional script support\nInternational Components for Unicode\nLanguage code\nLanguage localization\nWebsite localization\nRelated concepts\nComputer accessibility\nComputer russification, localization into Russian language\nSeparation of concerns\nMethods and examples\nGame localization\nGlobalization Management System\nPseudolocalization, a software testing method for testing a software product's readiness for localization.\nTagged-Item Performance Protocol (TIPP), Common Translation Interface (COTI), Structured Translation Specifications (STS) and other formats\nOther\nInput method editor\nLanguage industry\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Patrick A.V. Hall, Martyn A. Ould, eds. (1996). Software Without Frontiers: A multi-platform, multi-cultural, multi-nation approach. With contributions and leadership by Ray Hudson, Costas Spyropoulos, Timo Honkela et al. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-96974-7. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link) \n\n^ Bert Esselink (2003). The Evolution of Localization (PDF) . Guide to Localization. Multilingual Computing and Technology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-09-07. In a nutshell, localization revolves around combining language and technology to produce a product that can cross cultural and language barriers. No more, no less. \n\n^ \"Glossary of W3C Jargon\". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 2008-10-13 . \n\n^ \"Origin of the Abbreviation I18n\". \n\n^ \"Localization vs. Internationalization\". World Wide Web Consortium. \n\n^ \"IBM Globalization\". 17 March 2016. \n\n^ \"Software Internationalization\". \n\n^ \"Software Internationalization\". \n\n^ \"GNU gettext utilities: Plural forms\". \n\n^ languagetranslationsservices.wordpress.com Archived April 3, 2015, at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ Haider, M. (17 May 2016). \"Pakistan expresses concern over India's controversial 'maps bill' \". Dawn. Pakistan Herald Publication (Pvt.) Ltd. Retrieved 9 May 2018 . \n\n^ Hamdani, Y.L. (18 May 2016). \"Changing maps will not mean Kashmir is a part of you, India\". The Express Tribune Blogs. Express Tribune News Network. Retrieved 9 May 2018 . \n\n^ Madrad Courier (24 July 2017). \"An Overview Of The Geospatial Information Regulation Bill\". Madras Courier. Vipra Holdings Ltd. Retrieved 9 May 2018 . \n\n^ Internationalizing a Product: What is Internationalization (i18n), Localization (L10n) and Globalization (g11n) Archived April 2, 2015, at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ \"International Address Formats\". Microsoft Developer Network. Microsoft. Retrieved 10 December 2013 . \n\n^ Pawlowski, J.M. (2008): Culture Profiles: Facilitating Global Learning and Knowledge Sharing. Proc.\nof ICCE 2008, Taiwan, Nov. 2008. Draft Version \n\n^ Reina, Laura Arjona; Robles, Gregorio; Gonz\u00e1lez-Barahona, Jes\u00fas M. (2013-06-25). Petrinja, Etiel; Succi, Giancarlo; Ioini, Nabil El; Sillitti, Alberto, eds. A Preliminary Analysis of Localization in Free Software: How Translations Are Performed. IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 153\u2013167. doi:10.1007\/978-3-642-38928-3_11 . ISBN 978-3-642-38927-6. \n\n^ For the current list see KDE.org \n\n^ \"Translating:Group statistics \u2013 translatewiki.net\". \n\n^ \"How to translate a game into 20 languages and avoid going to hell\". \n\n^ Schrage, Michael (1985-02-17). \"IBM Wins Dominance in European Computer Market\". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2018-08-29 . \n\n\nFurther reading \n\n.NET Internationalization: The Developer's Guide to Building Global Windows and Web Applications, Guy Smith-Ferrier, Addison-Wesley Professional, 7 August 2006. ISBN 0-321-34138-4\nA Practical Guide to Localization, Bert Esselink, John Benjamins Publishing, [2000]. ISBN 1-58811-006-0\nLydia Ash: The Web Testing Companion: The Insider's Guide to Efficient and Effective Tests, Wiley, May 2, 2003. ISBN 0-471-43021-8\nBusiness Without Borders: A Strategic Guide to Global Marketing, Donald A. DePalma, Globa Vista Press [2004]. ISBN 978-0-9765169-0-3\n\nExternal links \n\n\n\nLook up internationalization or localization in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.\n FOSS Localization at Wikibooks\n Media related to Internationalization and localization at Wikimedia Commons\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internationalization_and_localization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internationalization_and_localization<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 9 May 2018, at 21:09.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 755 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","668f65c4856e77e76092c3cee15bf981_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Internationalization_and_localization skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Internationalization and localization<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For the term in economics, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internationalization\" title=\"Internationalization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cadb6ad82bbe2d9139d1a17f384b2b0\">Internationalization<\/a>. For other uses, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Localization_(disambiguation)\" class=\"mw-redirect mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Localization (disambiguation)\" data-key=\"b9e64c0dabd5517ff6de880cccb33d98\">Localization<\/a>.<\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"Multilingual software\" redirects here. For the Microsoft Windows-specific term, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multilingual_User_Interface\" title=\"Multilingual User Interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d34c26e795675f4acc658da01153475e\">Multilingual User Interface<\/a>.<\/div>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:352px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Debian72Trinity35132.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"73e5c29b9bf55126eb5d8eb4588f17b8\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/36\/Debian72Trinity35132.png\/350px-Debian72Trinity35132.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"350\" height=\"263\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Debian72Trinity35132.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"73e5c29b9bf55126eb5d8eb4588f17b8\"><\/a><\/div>Screenshot of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Trinity_Desktop_Environment\" title=\"Trinity Desktop Environment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca8ed7ab4d735ca8730a39a28ec2bc59\">TDE<\/a> software programs mostly localized to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Traditional_Chinese_characters\" title=\"Traditional Chinese characters\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e8ea8d114cc546c936635221d71993a\">Chinese (Traditional)<\/a>.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing\" title=\"Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e2b41b4b3636a02cae6b06d1b0b6378\">computing<\/a>, <b>internationalization and localization<\/b> are means of adapting <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer software\" data-key=\"e8a365bf2f5a19030dc6a6c1629a22ea\">computer software<\/a> to different languages, regional peculiarities and technical requirements of a target locale.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Internationalization is the process of designing a software application so that it can be adapted to various languages and regions without engineering changes. Localization is the process of adapting internationalized software for a specific region or language by translating text and adding <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Locale_(computer_software)\" title=\"Locale (computer software)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19add046884f615e75e2555fc397adc2\">locale<\/a>-specific components. Localization (which is potentially performed multiple times, for different locales) uses the infrastructure or flexibility provided by internationalization (which is ideally performed only once, or as an integral part of ongoing development).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Naming\">Naming<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The terms are frequently abbreviated to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Numeronym\" title=\"Numeronym\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"faa6f604c328c0653c04315fe762c0a6\">numeronyms<\/a> <i><b>i18n<\/b><\/i> (where <i>18<\/i> stands for the number of letters between the first <i>i<\/i> and the last <i>n<\/i> in the word <i>internationalization<\/i>, a usage coined at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_Equipment_Corporation\" title=\"Digital Equipment Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3c857e38d5dedf2bc308a93a67955ad\">Digital Equipment Corporation<\/a> in the 1970s or 1980s)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> and <i>L10n<\/i> for <i>localization<\/i>, due to the length of the words.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Some companies, like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sun_Microsystems\" title=\"Sun Microsystems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cb42aeb8819d4b7b30d0d668f5642ee\">Sun Microsystems<\/a>, use the term <i>globalization<\/i>, <i>g11n<\/i>, for the combination of internationalization and localization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> Also known as \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glocalization\" title=\"Glocalization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"110d541e10d94111620db4795ee534a4\">glocalization<\/a>\" (a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Portmanteau\" title=\"Portmanteau\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0064a37c7f5e0908f42db6fceff5d7b6\">portmanteau<\/a> of <i>globalization<\/i> and <i>localization<\/i>).\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft\" title=\"Microsoft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"552bdc43bfc9c7d67618e071d33e5e97\">Microsoft<\/a> defines internationalization as a combination of world-readiness and localization. World-readiness is a developer task, which enables a product to be used with multiple scripts and cultures (globalization) and separating user interface resources in a localizable format (localizability, abbreviated to <i>L12y<\/i>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hewlett-Packard\" title=\"Hewlett-Packard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3071e67fd131546e44720a6d8dc9510b\">Hewlett-Packard<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HP-UX\" title=\"HP-UX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"105a1e3a1c0d553660f9fbbb8b490f63\">HP-UX<\/a> created a system called \"National Language Support\" or \"Native Language Support\" (NLS) to produce localizable software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Scope\">Scope<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:402px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Globalisationchart.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"1249973e932714f87c01594218051b58\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/e\/e3\/Globalisationchart.jpg\/400px-Globalisationchart.jpg\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Globalisationchart.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"1249973e932714f87c01594218051b58\"><\/a><\/div>The internationalization and localization process<br \/>(based on a chart from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Localization_Industry_Standards_Association\" title=\"Localization Industry Standards Association\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"83fe7bbeb4c4fe7e6bc619d7744f8c21\">LISA<\/a> website)<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>According to <i>Software without frontiers<\/i>, the design aspects to consider when internationalizing a product are \"data encoding, data and documentation, software construction, hardware device support, user interaction\"; while the key design areas to consider when making a fully internationalized product from scratch are \"user interaction, algorithm design and data formats, software services, documentation\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Translation is typically the most time-consuming component of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language_localization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Language localization\" data-key=\"2a9c154d60732066ec766090aebf61f6\">language localization<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> This may involve:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>For film, video, and audio, translation of spoken words or music lyrics, often using either <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dub_localization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Dub localization\" data-key=\"5782e556aad5570dda5ece87f07cf39a\">dubbing<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subtitle_(captioning)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Subtitle (captioning)\" data-key=\"b7ce1eb2ee73a32a3675468d709943f0\">subtitles<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Text translation for printed materials, digital media (possibly including error messages and documentation)<\/li>\n<li>Potentially altering images and logos containing text to contain translations or generic icons<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Different translation length and differences in character sizes (e.g. between <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Latin_alphabet\" title=\"Latin alphabet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb6f0075c5a2863fed73c138aa146795\">Latin alphabet<\/a> letters and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chinese_characters\" title=\"Chinese characters\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b5461b097f5cb7860fc960ca35c239a\">Chinese characters<\/a>) can cause layouts that work well in one language to work poorly in others<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Consideration of differences in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dialect\" title=\"Dialect\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b093f5e7dfe858cc9ff8240814b12839\">dialect<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Register_(sociolinguistics)\" title=\"Register (sociolinguistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"116ad546d4ecebae05b79c77dc8d2a50\">register<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Variety_(linguistics)\" title=\"Variety (linguistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b187ee7167c4e6f6830c921d16b3992\">variety<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Writing conventions like:\n<ul><li>Formatting of numbers (especially <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decimal_separator\" title=\"Decimal separator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3b3faead75619cfd8a0e5cf6757037ef\">decimal separator<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digit_grouping\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digit grouping\" data-key=\"00d4a1a166692517020b60da8c8dc714\">digit grouping<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Date_and_time_representation_by_country\" title=\"Date and time representation by country\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a89ae1d3187b8ac618c13f4098f838cc\">Date and time format<\/a>, possibly including use of different calendars<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standard_locale_data\">Standard locale data<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer software\" data-key=\"e8a365bf2f5a19030dc6a6c1629a22ea\">Computer software<\/a> can encounter differences above and beyond straightforward translation of words and phrases, because computer programs can generate content dynamically. These differences may need to be taken into account by the internationalization process in preparation for translation. Many of these differences are so regular that a conversion between languages can be easily automated. The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Common_Locale_Data_Repository\" title=\"Common Locale Data Repository\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df56eb87a03d458cee92ff7f3d4909a6\">Common Locale Data Repository<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unicode\" title=\"Unicode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a0e9aab68b420ba7a330cc49decd193\">Unicode<\/a> provides a collection of such differences. Its data is used by major <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_system\" title=\"Operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115155e5fbeaa764ceaa4a8714a8951\">operating systems<\/a>, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Windows\" title=\"Microsoft Windows\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c181121bacd156ee0ddefde38acdb60a\">Microsoft Windows<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MacOS\" title=\"MacOS\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a584fd7f5fac3a71eb8e2da838f07874\">macOS<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Debian\" title=\"Debian\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f5b06586cbf6aa99f897d7d8a1597cf8\">Debian<\/a>, and by major Internet companies or projects such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Google\" title=\"Google\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b915ee8daf11a90fecc2d0bd0513feb\">Google<\/a> and the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikimedia_Foundation\" title=\"Wikimedia Foundation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9cb17db82e9c5b860e6af82a8fee456f\">Wikimedia Foundation<\/a>. Examples of such differences include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Different \"scripts\" in different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Writing_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Writing systems\" data-key=\"5ce9fa3c37817963d421c1636ab90224\">writing systems<\/a> use different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Character_(symbol)\" title=\"Character (symbol)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e21a60d8854ff5a35cd9a2dfc0704a66\">characters<\/a> \u2013 a different set of letters, syllograms, logograms, or symbols. Modern systems use the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Unicode\" title=\"Unicode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a0e9aab68b420ba7a330cc49decd193\">Unicode<\/a> standard to represent many different languages with a single <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Character_encoding\" title=\"Character encoding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d96fb1a8ea579113325958ec79ec0ce\">character encoding<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Writing_direction\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Writing direction\" data-key=\"2bc6823dfdc5174a9e3bb9848247adbc\">Writing direction<\/a> is left to right in most European languages, right-to-left in Hebrew and Arabic, or both in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boustrophedon\" title=\"Boustrophedon\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"318a532f60f6f6d8a35bc5a589e5b2fc\">boustrophedon<\/a> scripts, and optionally vertical in some Asian languages.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Complex_text_layout\" title=\"Complex text layout\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0eb1df13e7d72d3bb0a2a295595a6cef\">Complex text layout<\/a>, for languages where characters change shape depending on context<\/li>\n<li>Capitalization exists in some scripts and not in others<\/li>\n<li>Different languages and writing systems have different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Collation\" title=\"Collation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"da2695502f23682f0de176e61bf2405d\">text sorting<\/a> rules<\/li>\n<li>Different languages have different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Numeral_(linguistics)\" title=\"Numeral (linguistics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"817bc739675c2c591fe915d82eab3d2a\">numeral systems<\/a>, which might need to be supported if <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Western_Arabic_numerals\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Western Arabic numerals\" data-key=\"d6ebc33d54e0c4250b93206356727418\">Western Arabic numerals<\/a> are not used<\/li>\n<li>Different languages have different pluralization rules, which can complicate programs that dynamically display numerical content.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> Other grammar rules might also vary, e.g. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Genitive\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Genitive\" data-key=\"3ff6e115247abc634ad4f53feb6361a4\">genitive<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Different languages use different punctuation (e.g. quoting text using double-quotes (\" \") as in English, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Guillemet\" title=\"Guillemet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b36190aefda271ffab9f8a9ee1bf2191\">guillemets<\/a> (\u00ab \u00bb) as in French)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Keyboard_shortcut\" title=\"Keyboard shortcut\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3bfcc778f571651e197019e476ddffbc\">Keyboard shortcuts<\/a> can only make use of buttons actually on the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Keyboard_layout\" title=\"Keyboard layout\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"78ea27d9fbf83c9dfe19c7eaeaa6981c\">keyboard layout<\/a> which is being localized for. If a shortcut corresponds to a word in a particular language (e.g. Ctrl-s stands for \"save\" in English), it may need to be changed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"National_conventions\">National conventions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Different countries have different economic conventions, including variations in:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Paper_size\" title=\"Paper size\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d52e6df3aa8a12f8ac1c9d0ea6e6c10f\">Paper sizes<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Broadcast_television_systems\" title=\"Broadcast television systems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37a4cfc6568bee714323fcef0deb7d0e\">Broadcast television systems<\/a> and popular <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Storage_media\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Storage media\" data-key=\"bb3820c764949f5d522a4dd9ae68a5bd\">storage media<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_conventions_for_writing_telephone_numbers\" title=\"National conventions for writing telephone numbers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d03c4089ac39a8e97bff3d9a9264352\">Telephone number formats<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Address_(geography)#Mailing_address_format_by_country\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Address (geography)\" data-key=\"3a46fc564215e4193368115eec5234a6\">Postal address formats<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Postal_code\" title=\"Postal code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cba0893d5cd7819e40664caf8bef883d\">postal codes<\/a>, and choice of delivery services<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Currency\" title=\"Currency\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"053e1dee5124718be03da09e69afb0d3\">Currency<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Currency_symbol\" title=\"Currency symbol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"955ce12edc40e6dfb5295d6918874562\">symbols<\/a>, positions of currency markers, and reasonable amounts due to different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inflation\" title=\"Inflation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4db2b4a56b4710bd7aa339c71bbe86d\">inflation<\/a> histories) \u2013 <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_4217\" title=\"ISO 4217\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db13e23918ccc7cc83dae317c32a5d58\">ISO 4217<\/a> codes are often used for internationalization<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/System_of_measurement\" title=\"System of measurement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a352a3dd9b8999046b904a2d152b176\">System of measurement<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Battery_sizes\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Battery sizes\" data-key=\"c641d7b1c79ef6071e9311e64b568304\">Battery sizes<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mains_electricity_by_country\" title=\"Mains electricity by country\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccffdffcca3e1bfaa7cd524c135f9122\">Voltage and current standards<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In particular, the United States and Europe differ in most of these cases. Other areas often follow one of these.\n<\/p><p>Specific third-party services, such as online maps, weather reports, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Payment_service_provider\" title=\"Payment service provider\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"724b9407bc104fc5431bb0e62e8d06ae\">payment service providers<\/a>, might not be available worldwide from the same carriers, or at all.\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Time_zone\" title=\"Time zone\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5fb1f55b2aee848ffe0a1e3f287e0191\">Time zones<\/a> vary across the world, and this must be taken into account if a product originally only interacted with people in a single time zone. For internationalization, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coordinated_Universal_Time\" title=\"Coordinated Universal Time\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8cfebd5e225b699fff6c11e6fa3669d0\">UTC<\/a> is often used internally and then converted into a local time zone for display purposes.\n<\/p><p>Different countries have different legal requirements, meaning for example:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Compliance_(regulation)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Compliance (regulation)\" data-key=\"71644bbee68707280e54bbdddeb0d129\">Regulatory compliance<\/a> may require customization for a particular jurisdiction, or a change to the product as a whole, such as:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Privacy_law\" title=\"Privacy law\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58442113e93c1e202fc66e92aac1c44f\">Privacy law<\/a> compliance<\/li>\n<li>Additional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Disclaimer\" title=\"Disclaimer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e67eece729c9dfcd6d3d28297106e72\">disclaimers<\/a> on a web site or packaging<\/li>\n<li>Different consumer labelling requirements<\/li>\n<li>Compliance with <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Export_restrictions\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Export restrictions\" data-key=\"c993433099c89aa9554dd15f77270e29\">export restrictions<\/a> and regulations on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" title=\"Encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">encryption<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Compliance with an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet_censorship\" title=\"Internet censorship\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa48850fb711db41319d4bcc9252f385\">Internet censorship<\/a> regime or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subpoena\" title=\"Subpoena\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"87524346be29b3d644d79e9f35d6a112\">subpoena<\/a> procedures<\/li>\n<li>Requirements for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accessibility\" title=\"Accessibility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b03a29f12fb22a58105751f50b00570\">accessibility<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Collecting different taxes, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sales_tax\" title=\"Sales tax\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b0cf7630c7e785f4dea76f029e3d1e57\">sales tax<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Value_added_tax\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Value added tax\" data-key=\"62729dc79171cd1d7349654ea3358509\">value added tax<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customs_duties\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Customs duties\" data-key=\"aeb02064b2275b3c3ce249c78ee03e00\">customs duties<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Sensitivity to different political issues, like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Geographical_naming_disputes\" title=\"Category:Geographical naming disputes\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2852fb8c3ab6218187c6bad255965085\">geographical naming disputes<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Border_dispute\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Border dispute\" data-key=\"3c87a8884c98521d0e7b0790b5707213\">disputed borders<\/a> shown on maps (e.g., India has proposed a controversial bill that would make failing to show <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Kashmir\" title=\"Kashmir\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"708ef66f9970762190c6a18a458562c5\">Kashmir<\/a> and other areas as intended by the government a crime<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HaiderPakistan16_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HaiderPakistan16-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HamdaniChanging16_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HamdaniChanging16-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CourierAnOver17_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CourierAnOver17-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>)<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Government-assigned numbers have different formats (such as passports, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Social_Security_Number\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Social Security Number\" data-key=\"ccc5c552cd2697341af0aa14477decd7\">Social Security Numbers<\/a> and other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/National_identification_number\" title=\"National identification number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85b37a753769471a3bf9822521500be7\">national identification numbers<\/a>)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Localization also may take into account differences in culture, such as:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_holidays_by_country\" title=\"List of holidays by country\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ae2a569711d6a2420606f909e61a5d8\">Local holidays<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personal_name\" title=\"Personal name\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a0f11871ddce2ee6b68c4125d77b6f4\">Personal name<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Title\" title=\"Title\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"187385a469661b1254770648a7d7d41b\">title<\/a> conventions<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aesthetics\" title=\"Aesthetics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6829afee8f425a2a2a0ea817d690d0c\">Aesthetics<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Comprehensibility and cultural appropriateness of images and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Color_symbolism\" title=\"Color symbolism\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ed0959bb9eb5e22d2f897dd4ab04f24c\">color symbolism<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethnicity\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Ethnicity\" data-key=\"d73a062adab00019a037f93710882704\">Ethnicity<\/a>, clothing, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Socioeconomic_status\" title=\"Socioeconomic status\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50a25c149219070b1683c2b7e366ea62\">socioeconomic status<\/a> of people and architecture of locations pictured<\/li>\n<li>Local customs and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Convention_(norm)\" title=\"Convention (norm)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa1fb38a5092425b1d25772f6a0af4ae\">conventions<\/a>, such as social taboos, popular local religions, or superstitions such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Blood_types_in_Japanese_culture\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Blood types in Japanese culture\" data-key=\"a83bd79302ed150f366f0462e747d7e4\">blood types in Japanese culture<\/a> vs. astrological signs in other cultures<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Business_process_for_internationalizing_software\">Business process for internationalizing software<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In order to <i>internationalize<\/i> a product, it is important to look at a variety of markets that the product will foreseeably enter.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Details such as field length for street addresses, unique format for the address, ability to make the postal code field optional to address countries that do not have postal codes or the state field for countries that do not have states, plus the introduction of new registration flows that adhere to local laws are just some of the examples that make internationalization a complex project.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A broader approach takes into account cultural factors regarding for example the adaptation of the business process logic or the inclusion of individual cultural (behavioral) aspects.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Already in the 1990s, companies such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Groupe_Bull\" title=\"Groupe Bull\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5f35070b2fef18a926b284eafb32f1c4\">Bull<\/a> used <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Machine_translation\" title=\"Machine translation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14267942afd7a6873d7e227d71ba74d2\">machine translation<\/a> (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systran\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Systran\" data-key=\"a0484b481caa3af015d0e331fd0db488\">Systran<\/a>) in large scale, for all their translation activity: human translators handled pre-editing (making the input machine-readable) and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Post-editing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Post-editing\" data-key=\"2b8828682bc4b1079c3f6f0cecfb3507\">post-editing<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Engineering\">Engineering<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Both in re-engineering an existing software or designing a new internationalized software, the first step of internationalization is to split each potentially locale-dependent part (whether code, text or data) into a separate module.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Each module can then either rely on a standard library\/dependency or be independently replaced as needed for each locale.\n<\/p><p>The current prevailing practice is for applications to place text in resource strings which are loaded during program execution as needed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> These strings, stored in resource files, are relatively easy to translate. Programs are often built to reference resource libraries depending on the selected locale data.\n<\/p><p>The storage for translatable and translated strings is sometimes called a message catalog<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> as the strings are called messages. The catalog generally comprises a set of files in a specific localization format and a standard library to handle said format. One <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_library\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software library\" data-key=\"0a777d95355b6c51af74cda9403b2b1f\">software library<\/a> and format that aids this is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gettext\" title=\"Gettext\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d5227fdc37db91b74129b17f7de2e4a\">gettext<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Thus to get an application to support multiple languages one would design the application to select the relevant language resource file at runtime. The code required to manage data entry verification and many other locale-sensitive data types also must support differing locale requirements. Modern development systems and operating systems include sophisticated libraries for international support of these types, see also <a href=\"#Standard_locale_data\">Standard locale data<\/a> above.\n<\/p><p>Many localization issues (e.g. writing direction, text sorting) require more profound changes in the software than text translation. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OpenOffice.org\" title=\"OpenOffice.org\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"485845ffaac26b6ac3d9d53934f1ee33\">OpenOffice.org<\/a> achieves this with compilation switches.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Process\">Process<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A globalization method includes, after planning, three implementation steps: internationalization, localization and quality assurance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>To some degree (e.g. for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_assurance\" title=\"Quality assurance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"680f2f1a2b91429b38fd9a1d2b226d01\">quality assurance<\/a>), development teams include someone who handles the basic\/central stages of the process which then enable all the others.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Such persons typically understand foreign languages and cultures and have some technical background. Specialized technical writers are required to construct a culturally appropriate syntax for potentially complicated concepts, coupled with engineering resources to deploy and test the localization elements.\n<\/p><p>Once properly internationalized, software can rely on more decentralized models for localization: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Free_and_open_source_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Free and open source software\" data-key=\"3a9e898c7bf0d3c2faa6348de35770a5\">free and open source software<\/a> usually rely on self-localization by end-users and volunteers, sometimes organized in teams.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/KDE3\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"KDE3\" data-key=\"75e812ca0d2116a7c89c18c703c30af3\">KDE3<\/a> project, for example, has been translated into over 100 languages;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MediaWiki\" title=\"MediaWiki\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9effd79eb3752573591ae7660601f7c7\">MediaWiki<\/a> in 270 languages, of which 100 mostly complete as of 2016<sup class=\"plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>When translating existing text to other languages, it is difficult to maintain the parallel versions of texts throughout the life of the product.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> For instance, if a message displayed to the user is modified, all of the translated versions must be changed.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Commercial_considerations\">Commercial considerations<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In a commercial setting, the benefit from localization is access to more markets. In the early 1980s, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lotus_1-2-3\" title=\"Lotus 1-2-3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ad1b7ca10bb1fcc91c6d9a022b610a53\">Lotus 1-2-3<\/a> took two years to separate program code and text and lost the market lead in Europe over <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Microsoft_Multiplan\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Microsoft Multiplan\" data-key=\"8360df2f877df906d8dcb9ddbb6d2a18\">Microsoft Multiplan<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SFW_1-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SFW-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> MicroPro found that using an Austrian translator for the West German market caused its <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WordStar\" title=\"WordStar\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"69108ffb7406928f8fedc6e394ef7dce\">WordStar<\/a> documentation to, an executive said, not \"have the tone it should have had\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-schrage19850217_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-schrage19850217-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, there are considerable costs involved, which go far beyond engineering. Further, business operations must adapt to manage the production, storage and distribution of multiple discrete localized products, which are often being sold in completely different currencies, regulatory environments and tax regimes.\n<\/p><p>Finally, sales, marketing and technical support must also facilitate their own operations in the new languages, in order to support customers for the localized products. Particularly for relatively small language populations, it may never be economically viable to offer a localized product. Even where large language populations could justify localization for a given product, and a product's internal structure already permits localization, a given software developer or publisher may lack the size and sophistication to manage the ancillary functions associated with operating in multiple locales.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li>Subcomponents and standards\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bidirectional_script_support\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Bidirectional script support\" data-key=\"6f9186bd4d558f0dabab60751ef32c82\">Bidirectional script support<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Components_for_Unicode\" title=\"International Components for Unicode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"332ac3b6300662bf8869845c9e792a68\">International Components for Unicode<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language_code\" title=\"Language code\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"28f98ded144e097ddadd243c0f082e7b\">Language code<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language_localisation\" title=\"Language localisation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0f9e65e38690f3ab81443c0ecf2cd64b\">Language localization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Website_localization\" title=\"Website localization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26b6a5378a707d97cfdf5f0f7b204271\">Website localization<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Related concepts\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_accessibility\" title=\"Computer accessibility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0c27beeac790ce7f11fb7b8c12f7a11c\">Computer accessibility<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_russification\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer russification\" data-key=\"65fefc4323fc053771788dfca32379ad\">Computer russification<\/a>, localization into Russian language<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Separation_of_concerns\" title=\"Separation of concerns\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"197246818d742abe6a8113558b6d257b\">Separation of concerns<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Methods and examples\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Game_localization\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Game localization\" data-key=\"895d1e51b631bfadea78ea3a73de301c\">Game localization<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Globalization_Management_System\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Globalization Management System\" data-key=\"55035abaea814eef725b4ca41f49251b\">Globalization Management System<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pseudolocalization\" title=\"Pseudolocalization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"14ee636c07cf25fa9297805865bbd661\">Pseudolocalization<\/a>, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_testing\" title=\"Software testing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b1f063d549d38c63342218d62a80c724\">software testing<\/a> method for testing a software product's readiness for localization.<\/li>\n<li> (<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gs1.org\/epc-rfid\/tagged-item-performance-protocol-tipp-guideline\" target=\"_blank\">TIPP<\/a>), (<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dercom.de\/en\/projects\" target=\"_blank\">COTI<\/a>), (STS) and other formats<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>Other\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Input_method_editor\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Input method editor\" data-key=\"cfd1a4b6a4de01eae933f83dd6a643a3\">Input method editor<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Language_industry\" title=\"Language industry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6367c0f21a8ab14b9ff279f7a99e0557\">Language industry<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-SFW-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-4\"><sup><i><b>e<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-5\"><sup><i><b>f<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-6\"><sup><i><b>g<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-7\"><sup><i><b>h<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-8\"><sup><i><b>i<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-9\"><sup><i><b>j<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-10\"><sup><i><b>k<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-11\"><sup><i><b>l<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-12\"><sup><i><b>m<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-13\"><sup><i><b>n<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-14\"><sup><i><b>o<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-15\"><sup><i><b>p<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-SFW_1-16\"><sup><i><b>q<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Patrick A.V. Hall, Martyn A. Ould, eds. (1996). <i>Software Without Frontiers: A multi-platform, multi-cultural, multi-nation approach<\/i>. With contributions and leadership by Ray Hudson, Costas Spyropoulos, Timo Honkela et al. Wiley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-471-96974-7.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Software+Without+Frontiers%3A+A+multi-platform%2C+multi-cultural%2C+multi-nation+approach&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-471-96974-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Uses_editors_parameter\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"232de444156b8d53d82d032fb7d72222\">link<\/a>)<\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Bert Esselink (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120907235057\/http:\/\/isg.urv.es\/library\/papers\/Esselink_Evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Evolution of Localization<\/i><\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Guide to Localization. Multilingual Computing and Technology. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/isg.urv.es\/library\/papers\/Esselink_Evolution.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 2012-09-07. <q>In a nutshell, localization revolves around combining language and technology to produce a product that can cross cultural and language barriers. No more, no less.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Localization&rft.series=Guide+to+Localization&rft.pub=Multilingual+Computing+and+Technology&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Bert+Esselink&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fisg.urv.es%2Flibrary%2Fpapers%2FEsselink_Evolution.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#I18N\">\"Glossary of W3C Jargon\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Wide_Web_Consortium\" title=\"World Wide Web Consortium\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a7d6573e2fcfc286d41eac96c275923\">World Wide Web Consortium<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2008-10-13<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Glossary+of+W3C+Jargon&rft.pub=World+Wide+Web+Consortium&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2001%2F12%2FGlossary%23I18N&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.i18nguy.com\/origini18n.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Origin of the Abbreviation I18n\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Origin+of+the+Abbreviation+I18n&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.i18nguy.com%2Forigini18n.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/International\/questions\/qa-i18n\" target=\"_blank\">\"Localization vs. Internationalization\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Wide_Web_Consortium\" title=\"World Wide Web Consortium\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a7d6573e2fcfc286d41eac96c275923\">World Wide Web Consortium<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Localization+vs.+Internationalization&rft.pub=World+Wide+Web+Consortium&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2FInternational%2Fquestions%2Fqa-i18n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ibm.com\/software\/globalization\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"IBM Globalization\"<\/a>. 17 March 2016.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IBM++Globalization&rft.date=2016-03-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fsoftware%2Fglobalization%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/msdn.microsoft.com\/en-us\/goglobal\/bb688110.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Software Internationalization\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Software+Internationalization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmsdn.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Fgoglobal%2Fbb688110.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/msdn.microsoft.com\/en-us\/goglobal\/bb688112.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Software Internationalization\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Software+Internationalization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmsdn.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Fgoglobal%2Fbb688112.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.gnu.org\/software\/hello\/manual\/gettext\/Plural-forms.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"GNU gettext utilities: Plural forms\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GNU+gettext+utilities%3A+Plural+forms&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gnu.org%2Fsoftware%2Fhello%2Fmanual%2Fgettext%2FPlural-forms.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/languagetranslationsservices.wordpress.com\/2014\/08\/21\/do-we-need-to-localize-keyboard-shortcuts\/\" target=\"_blank\">languagetranslationsservices.wordpress.com<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150403113353\/http:\/\/languagetranslationsservices.wordpress.com\/2014\/08\/21\/do-we-need-to-localize-keyboard-shortcuts\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> April 3, 2015, at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HaiderPakistan16-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HaiderPakistan16_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Haider, M. (17 May 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dawn.com\/news\/1258908\/pakistan-expresses-concern-over-indias-controversial-maps-bill\" target=\"_blank\">\"Pakistan expresses concern over India's controversial 'maps bill<span class=\"cs1-kern-right\">'<\/span>\"<\/a>. <i>Dawn<\/i>. Pakistan Herald Publication (Pvt.) Ltd<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dawn&rft.atitle=Pakistan+expresses+concern+over+India%27s+controversial+%27maps+bill%27&rft.date=2016-05-17&rft.au=Haider%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dawn.com%2Fnews%2F1258908%2Fpakistan-expresses-concern-over-indias-controversial-maps-bill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HamdaniChanging16-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HamdaniChanging16_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Hamdani, Y.L. (18 May 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/blogs.tribune.com.pk\/story\/34594\/changing-maps-will-not-mean-kashmir-is-a-part-of-you-india\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Changing maps will not mean Kashmir is a part of you, India\"<\/a>. <i>The Express Tribune Blogs<\/i>. Express Tribune News Network<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Express+Tribune+Blogs&rft.atitle=Changing+maps+will+not+mean+Kashmir+is+a+part+of+you%2C+India&rft.date=2016-05-18&rft.au=Hamdani%2C+Y.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.tribune.com.pk%2Fstory%2F34594%2Fchanging-maps-will-not-mean-kashmir-is-a-part-of-you-india%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CourierAnOver17-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-CourierAnOver17_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Madrad Courier (24 July 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/madrascourier.com\/policy\/an-overview-of-the-geospatial-information-regulation-bill\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"An Overview Of The Geospatial Information Regulation Bill\"<\/a>. <i>Madras Courier<\/i>. Vipra Holdings Ltd<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Madras+Courier&rft.atitle=An+Overview+Of+The+Geospatial+Information+Regulation+Bill&rft.date=2017-07-24&rft.au=Madrad+Courier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmadrascourier.com%2Fpolicy%2Fan-overview-of-the-geospatial-information-regulation-bill%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ccjk.com\/what-is-internationalization-i18n-localization-l10n-and-globalization-g11n\/\" target=\"_blank\">Internationalizing a Product: What is Internationalization (i18n), Localization (L10n) and Globalization (g11n)<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150402114350\/http:\/\/www.ccjk.com\/what-is-internationalization-i18n-localization-l10n-and-globalization-g11n\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> April 2, 2015, at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/msdn.microsoft.com\/en-us\/library\/cc195167.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"International Address Formats\"<\/a>. <i>Microsoft Developer Network<\/i>. Microsoft<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 December<\/span> 2013<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Microsoft+Developer+Network&rft.atitle=International+Address+Formats&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmsdn.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Flibrary%2Fcc195167.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Pawlowski, J.M. (2008): Culture Profiles: Facilitating Global Learning and Knowledge Sharing. Proc.\nof ICCE 2008, Taiwan, Nov. 2008. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/users.jyu.fi\/~japawlow\/culture_profiles_pawlowski_draft20080901.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Draft Version<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Reina, Laura Arjona; Robles, Gregorio; Gonz\u00e1lez-Barahona, Jes\u00fas M. (2013-06-25). Petrinja, Etiel; Succi, Giancarlo; Ioini, Nabil El; Sillitti, Alberto, eds. <i>A Preliminary Analysis of Localization in Free Software: How Translations Are Performed<\/i>. IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 153\u2013167. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007%2F978-3-642-38928-3_11\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/978-3-642-38928-3_11<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-3-642-38927-6.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Preliminary+Analysis+of+Localization+in+Free+Software%3A+How+Translations+Are+Performed&rft.series=IFIP+Advances+in+Information+and+Communication+Technology&rft.pages=153-167&rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&rft.date=2013-06-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-38928-3_11&rft.isbn=978-3-642-38927-6&rft.aulast=Reina&rft.aufirst=Laura+Arjona&rft.au=Robles%2C+Gregorio&rft.au=Gonz%C3%A1lez-Barahona%2C+Jes%C3%BAs+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">For the current list see <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/l10n.kde.org\/teams-list.php\" target=\"_blank\">KDE.org<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/translatewiki.net\/wiki\/Translating:Group_statistics\" target=\"_blank\">\"Translating:Group statistics \u2013 translatewiki.net\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Translating%3AGroup+statistics+%E2%80%93+translatewiki.net&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftranslatewiki.net%2Fwiki%2FTranslating%3AGroup_statistics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-20\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pocketgamer.biz\/feature\/58406\/sponsored-feature-how-to-translate-a-game-into-20-languages-and-avoid-going-to-hell\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"How to translate a game into 20 languages and avoid going to hell\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+to+translate+a+game+into+20+languages+and+avoid+going+to+hell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pocketgamer.biz%2Ffeature%2F58406%2Fsponsored-feature-how-to-translate-a-game-into-20-languages-and-avoid-going-to-hell%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-schrage19850217-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-schrage19850217_21-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\">Schrage, Michael (1985-02-17). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/archive\/business\/1985\/02\/17\/ibm-wins-dominance-in-european-computer-market\/bdcb9e21-8107-4dad-88d7-713f2709a8d8\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"IBM Wins Dominance in European Computer Market\"<\/a>. <i>Washington Post<\/i>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/0190-8286\" target=\"_blank\">0190-8286<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-08-29<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=IBM+Wins+Dominance+in+European+Computer+Market&rft.date=1985-02-17&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Schrage&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fbusiness%2F1985%2F02%2F17%2Fibm-wins-dominance-in-european-computer-market%2Fbdcb9e21-8107-4dad-88d7-713f2709a8d8%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternationalization+and+localization\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"refbegin\" style=\"\">\n<ul><li><i>.NET Internationalization: The Developer's Guide to Building Global Windows and Web Applications<\/i>, Guy Smith-Ferrier, Addison-Wesley Professional, 7 August 2006. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-321-34138-4<\/li>\n<li><i>A Practical Guide to Localization<\/i>, Bert Esselink, John Benjamins Publishing, [2000]. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 1-58811-006-0<\/li>\n<li>: <i>The Web Testing Companion: The Insider's Guide to Efficient and Effective Tests<\/i>, Wiley, May 2, 2003. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-471-43021-8<\/li>\n<li><i>Business Without Borders: A Strategic Guide to Global Marketing<\/i>, Donald A. DePalma, Globa Vista Press [2004]. <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-9765169-0-3<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fe0856e3e8185ca28af4f13ffe46310\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/df\/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg\/16px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"16\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikibooks.org\/wiki\/FOSS_Localization\" class=\"extiw wiki-link\" title=\"wikibooks:FOSS Localization\" data-key=\"50d20988b4c3400007be567e2133754b\">FOSS Localization<\/a> at Wikibooks<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Commons-logo.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"56c1eee72d1be207b2a9d9bcedb4ef6f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"12\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/a> Media related to <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Internationalization_and_localization\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Internationalization and localization\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">Internationalization and localization<\/a> at Wikimedia Commons<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1271\nCached time: 20190330192030\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.460 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.618 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 2219\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 49069\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 2911\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 4\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 62410\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 3\/400\nLua time usage: 0.192\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 5.04 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 501.478 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>41.73% 209.246 1 Template:Reflist\n21.79% 109.287 3 Template:Cite_book\n11.64% 58.359 4 Template:ISBN\n10.14% 50.835 1 Template:Commonscatinline\n 9.32% 46.760 1 Template:About\n 9.26% 46.436 13 Template:Cite_web\n 8.39% 42.067 2 Template:Sister-inline\n 6.62% 33.221 2 Template:If_then_show\n 4.94% 24.777 1 Template:As_of\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:126844-1!canonical and timestamp 20190330192029 and revision id 886896357\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internationalization_and_localization\" data-key=\"e35dfdf51d08438a1e84bf1896c28cbf\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202957\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.011 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.159 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 152.570 1 - wikipedia:Internationalization_and_localization\n100.00% 152.570 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10566-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403202957 and revision id 33199\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internationalization_and_localization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Internationalization_and_localization<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","668f65c4856e77e76092c3cee15bf981_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/3\/36\/Debian72Trinity35132.png\/700px-Debian72Trinity35132.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/4\/4e\/%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg\/200px-%C3%86toms_-_Translation.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/e3\/Globalisationchart.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/d\/df\/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg\/32px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png"],"668f65c4856e77e76092c3cee15bf981_timestamp":1554323397,"2ff176595c6c4a8f06d27f35fd27aeec_type":"article","2ff176595c6c4a8f06d27f35fd27aeec_title":"Interface (computing)","2ff176595c6c4a8f06d27f35fd27aeec_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Interface_(computing)","2ff176595c6c4a8f06d27f35fd27aeec_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tInterface (computing)\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThis article is about points of interaction of computer systems. For other uses, see interface (disambiguation) \u00a7 computing.\nThis article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.\r\nFind sources: \"Interface\" computing \u2013 news \u00b7 newspapers \u00b7 books \u00b7 scholar \u00b7 JSTOR (May 2010 ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\nIn computing, an interface is a shared boundary across which two or more separate components of a computer system exchange information. The exchange can be between software, computer hardware, peripheral devices, humans, and combinations of these.[1] Some computer hardware devices, such as a touchscreen, can both send and receive data through the interface, while others such as a mouse or microphone may only provide an interface to send data to a given system.[2]\n\nContents \n\n1 Hardware interfaces \n2 Software interfaces \n\n2.1 In practice \n2.2 In object-oriented languages \n2.3 Programming to the interface \n\n\n3 User interfaces \n4 See also \n5 References \n\n\nHardware interfaces \nMain article: hardware interface\nHardware interfaces exist in many of the components, such as the various buses, storage devices, other I\/O devices, etc. A hardware interface is described by the mechanical, electrical and logical signals at the interface and the protocol for sequencing them (sometimes called signaling).[3] A standard interface, such as SCSI, decouples the design and introduction of computing hardware, such as I\/O devices, from the design and introduction of other components of a computing system, thereby allowing users and manufacturers great flexibility in the implementation of computing systems.[3] Hardware interfaces can be parallel with several electrical connections carrying parts of the data simultaneously, or serial where data are sent one bit at a time.[4]\n\nSoftware interfaces \nSee also: application binary interface and application programming interface\nA software interface may refer to a wide range of different types of interface at different \"levels\": an operating system may interface with pieces of hardware. Applications or programs running on the operating system may need to interact via data streams, filters, and pipelines;[5] and in object oriented programs, objects within an application may need to interact via methods.[6]\n\nIn practice \nA key principle of design is to prohibit access to all resources by default, allowing access only through well-defined entry points, i.e., interfaces.[7] Software interfaces provide access to computer resources (such as memory, CPU, storage, etc.) of the underlying computer system; direct access (i.e., not through well-designed interfaces) to such resources by software can have major ramifications\u2014sometimes disastrous ones\u2014for functionality and stability.[citation needed ]\nInterfaces between software components can provide constants, data types, types of procedures, exception specifications, and method signatures. Sometimes, public variables are also defined as part of an interface.[8]\nThe interface of a software module A is deliberately defined separately from the implementation of that module. The latter contains the actual code of the procedures and methods described in the interface, as well as other \"private\" variables, procedures, etc. Another software module B, for example the client to A, that interacts with A is forced to do so only through the published interface. One practical advantage of this arrangement is that replacing the implementation of A by another implementation of the same interface should not cause B to fail\u2014how A internally meets the requirements of the interface is not relevant to B, which is only concerned with the specifications of the interface. (See also Liskov substitution principle.)[citation needed ]\n\nIn object-oriented languages \nMain articles: protocol (object-oriented programming) and concept (generic programming)\nIn some object-oriented languages, especially those without full multiple inheritance, the term interface is used to define an abstract type that contains no data but defines behaviours as method signatures. A class having code and data for all the methods corresponding to that interface and declaring so is said to implement that interface.[9] Furthermore, even in single-inheritance-languages, one can implement multiple interfaces, and hence can be of different types at the same time.[10]\nAn interface is thus a type definition; anywhere an object can be exchanged (for example, in a function or method call) the type of the object to be exchanged can be defined in terms of one of its implemented interfaces or base-classes rather than specifying the specific class. This approach means that any class that implements that interface can be used.[citation needed ] For example, a dummy implementation may be used to allow development to progress before the final implementation is available. In another case, a fake or mock implementation may be substituted during testing. Such stub implementations are replaced by real code later in the development process.\nUsually a method defined in an interface contains no code and thus cannot itself be called; it must be implemented by non-abstract code to be run when it is invoked.[citation needed ] An interface called \"<a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stack_(data_structure)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Stack (data structure)\">Stack<\/a>\" might define two methods: push() and pop(). It can be implemented in different ways, for example, FastStack and GenericStack\u2014the first being fast, working with a data structure of fixed size, and the second using a data structure that can be resized, but at the cost of somewhat lower speed.\nThough interfaces can contain many methods they may contain only one or even none at all. For example, the Java language defines the interface <span class=\"n\">Readable<\/span> that has the single <span class=\"n\">read<\/span><span class=\"o\">()<\/span> method; various implementations are used for different purposes, including <span class=\"n\">BufferedReader<\/span>, <span class=\"n\">FileReader<\/span>, <span class=\"n\">InputStreamReader<\/span>, <span class=\"n\">PipedReader<\/span>, and <span class=\"n\">StringReader<\/span>. Marker interfaces like <span class=\"n\">Serializable<\/span> contain no methods at all and serve to provide run-time information to generic processing using Reflection.[11]\n\nProgramming to the interface \nThe use of interfaces allows for a programming style called programming to the interface. The idea behind this approach is to base programming logic on the interfaces of the objects used, rather than on internal implementation details. Programming to the interface reduces dependency on implementation specifics and makes code more reusable.[12]\nPushing this idea to the extreme, inversion of control leaves the context to inject the code with the specific implementations of the interface that will be used to perform the work.\n\nUser interfaces \nMain article: user interface\nA user interface is a point of interaction between a computer and humans; it includes any number of modalities of interaction (such as graphics, sound, position, movement, etc.) where data is transferred between the user and the computer system.\n\nSee also \nAbstraction inversion\nApplication binary interface\nApplication programming interface\nBusiness Interoperability Interface\nComputer bus\nHard disk drive interface\nImplementation (computer science)\nImplementation inheritance\nInheritance semantics\nModular programming\nSoftware componentry\nVirtual inheritance\nReferences \n\n\n^ Hookway, B. (2014). \"Chapter 1: The Subject of the Interface\". Interface. MIT Press. pp. 1\u201358. ISBN 9780262525503. \n\n^ IEEE 100 - The Authoritative Dictionary Of IEEE Standards Terms. NYC, NY, USA: IEEE Press. 2000. pp. 574\u2013575. ISBN 9780738126012. \n\n^ a b \nBlaauw, Gerritt A.; Brooks, Jr., Frederick P. (1997), \"Chapter 8.6, Device Interfaces\", Computer Architecture-Concepts and Evolution, Addison-Wesley, pp. 489\u2013493, ISBN 0-201-10557-8 \nSee also:\nPatterson, David A.; Hennessey, John L. (2005), \"Chapter 8.5, Interfacing I\/O Devices to the Processor, Memory and Operating System\", Computer Organization and Design - The Hardware\/Software Interface, Third Edition, Morgan Kaufmann, pp. 588\u2013596, ISBN 1-55860-604-1 \n\n^ Govindarajalu, B. (2008). \"3.15 Peripheral Interfaces and Controllers - OG\". IBM PC And Clones: Hardware, Troubleshooting And Maintenance. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd. pp. 142\u2013144. ISBN 9780070483118. Retrieved 15 June 2018 . \n\n^ Buyya, R. (2013). Mastering Cloud Computing. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 2.13. ISBN 9781259029950. \n\n^ Poo, D.; Kiong, D.; Ashok, S. (2008). \"Chapter 2: Object, Class, Message and Method\". Object-Oriented Programming and Java. Springer-Verlag. pp. 7\u201315. ISBN 9781846289637. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ \nBill Venners (2005-06-06). \"Leading-Edge Java: Design Principles from Design Patterns: Program to an interface, not an implementation - A Conversation with Erich Gamma, Part III\". http:\/\/www.artima.com\/index.jsp: artima developer. Archived from the original on 2011-08-05. Retrieved 2011-08-03 . Once you depend on interfaces only, you're decoupled from the implementation. That means the implementation can vary, and that is a healthy dependency relationship. For example, for testing purposes you can replace a heavy database implementation with a lighter-weight mock implementation. Fortunately, with today's refactoring support you no longer have to come up with an interface up front. You can distill an interface from a concrete class once you have the full insights into a problem. The intended interface is just one 'extract interface' refactoring away. ... \n\n^ Patterson, D.A.; Hennessy, J.L. Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware\/Software Interface (3rd ed.). Elsevier. p. 656. ISBN 9780080502571. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ \"What Is an Interface\". The Java Tutorials. Oracle. Archived from the original on 2012-04-12. Retrieved 2012-05-01 . \n\n^ \"Interfaces\". The Java Tutorials. Oracle. Archived from the original on 2012-05-26. Retrieved 2012-05-01 . \n\n^ \n\"Performance improvement techniques in Serialization\". http:\/\/www.precisejava.com\/: Precise Java. Archived from the original on 2011-08-24. Retrieved 2011-08-04 . We will talk initially about Serializable interface. This is a marker interface and does not have any methods. \n\n^ Gamma; Helm; Johnson; Vlissides (1995). Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software. Addison Wesley. pp. 17\u201318. \n\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Interface_(computing)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Interface_(computing)<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 15 June 2018, at 23:21.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 789 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","2ff176595c6c4a8f06d27f35fd27aeec_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Interface_computing skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Interface (computing)<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">This article is about points of interaction of computer systems. For other uses, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interface_(disambiguation)#computing\" class=\"mw-redirect mw-disambig wiki-link\" title=\"Interface (disambiguation)\" data-key=\"0cd7ab675ff39ac9a0446d42a05b5bec\">interface (disambiguation) \u00a7 computing<\/a>.<\/div>\n\n<p>In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing\" title=\"Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e2b41b4b3636a02cae6b06d1b0b6378\">computing<\/a>, an <b>interface<\/b> is a shared boundary across which two or more separate components of a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer system\" data-key=\"49eba49cde7ee0d508d5b64acba7d82b\">computer system<\/a> exchange information. The exchange can be between <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce5b1d6b0b754ab3878d8d8ee8d1d94c\">software<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_hardware\" title=\"Computer hardware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3af5473d082dc42736a8f0e670ebb91\">computer hardware<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peripheral\" title=\"Peripheral\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be3a141d45881dbe6509d7c9e4c94055\">peripheral<\/a> devices, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_interface\" title=\"User interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d20341f81dd69148536f2ceacaafe0b\">humans<\/a>, and combinations of these.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HookwayInterface14_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HookwayInterface14-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Some computer hardware devices, such as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Touchscreen\" title=\"Touchscreen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c17515d61b8c89aa53bb5e8970f410a6\">touchscreen<\/a>, can both send and receive data through the interface, while others such as a mouse or microphone may only provide an interface to send data to a given system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Hardware_interfaces\">Hardware interfaces<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hardware_interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Hardware interface\" data-key=\"144ab6a07b2b6b36353c56d42a2a4bcc\">hardware interface<\/a><\/div>\n<p>Hardware interfaces exist in many of the components, such as the various <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bus_(computing)\" title=\"Bus (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95968ed6042d4a5c7b6f94639c427032\">buses<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_data_storage\" title=\"Computer data storage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c06a35ae9ff26906dd57849f8067bfdb\">storage devices<\/a>, other <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I\/O\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"I\/O\" data-key=\"6408f2374834f0d38a885341356aff24\">I\/O<\/a> devices, etc. A hardware interface is described by the mechanical, electrical and logical signals at the interface and the protocol for sequencing them (sometimes called signaling).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-87Blaauw_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87Blaauw-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> A standard interface, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SCSI\" title=\"SCSI\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"763979f0c49e0af7d49af7b1bc62dfcb\">SCSI<\/a>, decouples the design and introduction of computing hardware, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/I\/O\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"I\/O\" data-key=\"6408f2374834f0d38a885341356aff24\">I\/O<\/a> devices, from the design and introduction of other components of a computing system, thereby allowing users and manufacturers great flexibility in the implementation of computing systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-87Blaauw_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-87Blaauw-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Hardware interfaces can be <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parallel_communication\" title=\"Parallel communication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6987d8414ff97f19240a0266f1f77c06\">parallel<\/a> with several electrical connections carrying parts of the data simultaneously, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Serial_communication\" title=\"Serial communication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c28a65e356b933baf7ff98cf1a7793aa\">serial<\/a> where data are sent one <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bit\" title=\"Bit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"752f407565ee891b0deb9a745d009c09\">bit<\/a> at a time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GovindarajaluIBM08_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GovindarajaluIBM08-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Software_interfaces\">Software interfaces<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_binary_interface\" title=\"Application binary interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"87485d8bc3ef74435f90662a67971e71\">application binary interface<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_programming_interface\" title=\"Application programming interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3b6475d989fc4f46d473299c5f0a76b\">application programming interface<\/a><\/div>\n<p>A software interface may refer to a wide range of different types of interface at different \"levels\": an operating system may interface with pieces of hardware. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">Applications<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_program\" title=\"Computer program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50546cf7bdd4e8811acbcc3ce79a1f3e\">programs<\/a> running on the operating system may need to interact via data <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stream_(computing)\" title=\"Stream (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"140862a22f28321043faa26357083a68\">streams<\/a>, filters, and pipelines;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BuyyaMastering13_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BuyyaMastering13-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> and in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object-oriented_programming\" title=\"Object-oriented programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89f19c8e4c919ea2942014fec0ff7a8d\">object oriented programs<\/a>, objects within an application may need to interact via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Method_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Method (computer science)\" data-key=\"99a1918951c447535adab95449533d01\">methods<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PooObject08_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PooObject08-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_practice\">In practice<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A key principle of design is to prohibit access to all resources by default, allowing access only through well-defined entry points, i.e., interfaces.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Software interfaces provide access to computer resources (such as memory, CPU, storage, etc.) of the underlying computer system; direct access (i.e., not through well-designed interfaces) to such resources by software can have major ramifications\u2014sometimes disastrous ones\u2014for functionality and stability.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Interfaces between software components can provide <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Constant_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Constant (computer science)\" data-key=\"31a8b18479171aece1a3dc43f821aab7\">constants<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_type\" title=\"Data type\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3beae0a1a0ef5c72cb4cf9a31d42812f\">data types<\/a>, types of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Subroutine\" title=\"Subroutine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0edec6abeb36ac1a8c4fb5aecdb03d00\">procedures<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Exception_handling\" title=\"Exception handling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca7dc56718dc2980c73353e31b11e806\">exception<\/a> specifications, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Method_signature\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Method signature\" data-key=\"339f07f7c0f2d4ce47c3fdfd4cd7398e\">method signatures<\/a>. Sometimes, public <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Variable_(programming)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Variable (programming)\" data-key=\"4af58243e3742fa2ffaca4c7ba9382fe\">variables<\/a> are also defined as part of an interface.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PattersonComputer04_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PattersonComputer04-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The interface of a software module <i>A<\/i> is deliberately defined separately from the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Implementation#Computer_science\" title=\"Implementation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"919f36b4d6184e12ec9bed0f3b88f956\">implementation<\/a> of that module. The latter contains the actual code of the procedures and methods described in the interface, as well as other \"private\" variables, procedures, etc. Another software module <i>B<\/i>, for example the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Client_(computing)\" title=\"Client (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4412996949bdde132c63ef6034a949e1\">client<\/a> to <i>A<\/i>, that interacts with <i>A<\/i> is forced to do so only through the published interface. One practical advantage of this arrangement is that replacing the implementation of <i>A<\/i> by another implementation of the same interface should not cause <i>B<\/i> to fail\u2014how <i>A<\/i> internally meets the requirements of the interface is not relevant to <i>B<\/i>, which <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Separation_of_concerns\" title=\"Separation of concerns\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"197246818d742abe6a8113558b6d257b\">is only concerned<\/a> with the specifications of the interface. (See also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Liskov_substitution_principle\" title=\"Liskov substitution principle\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c495d442ceba5840689e4edf4ee68dc8\">Liskov substitution principle<\/a>.)<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_object-oriented_languages\">In object-oriented languages<\/span><\/h3>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main articles: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protocol_(object-oriented_programming)\" title=\"Protocol (object-oriented programming)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e59064c7d9313069c61dca634c71bd61\">protocol (object-oriented programming)<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concept_(generic_programming)\" title=\"Concept (generic programming)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b5e33ab214efc3e1d2b0fcdff9d2d49\">concept (generic programming)<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In some <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Object-oriented\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Object-oriented\" data-key=\"6cef6d6d0d12cfaf07ccac35d0923f4e\">object-oriented<\/a> languages, especially those without full <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multiple_inheritance\" title=\"Multiple inheritance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"17aa76504396dd23a22edce84e46cd30\">multiple inheritance<\/a>, the term <i>interface<\/i> is used to define an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abstract_data_type\" title=\"Abstract data type\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8052ead951d5ee8eef5cbfbfaa114e93\">abstract type<\/a> that contains no data but defines behaviours as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Method_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Method (computer science)\" data-key=\"99a1918951c447535adab95449533d01\">method<\/a> signatures. A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Class_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Class (computer science)\" data-key=\"299a664e7b473fbd0e63502993cf33e7\">class<\/a> having code and data for all the methods corresponding to that interface and declaring so is said to <i>implement<\/i> that interface.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> Furthermore, even in single-inheritance-languages, one can implement multiple interfaces, and hence can <i>be<\/i> of different types at the same time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An interface is thus a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_type\" title=\"Data type\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3beae0a1a0ef5c72cb4cf9a31d42812f\">type<\/a> definition; anywhere an object can be exchanged (for example, in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Function_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Function (computer science)\" data-key=\"c9c2f3630b244a7bf6ca963040b160c3\">function<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Method_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Method (computer science)\" data-key=\"99a1918951c447535adab95449533d01\">method<\/a> call) the <i>type<\/i> of the object to be exchanged can be defined in terms of one of its implemented <i>interface<\/i>s or base-classes rather than specifying the specific <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Class_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Class (computer science)\" data-key=\"299a664e7b473fbd0e63502993cf33e7\">class<\/a>. This approach means that any class that implements that interface can be used.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> For example, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Skeleton_(computer_programming)\" title=\"Skeleton (computer programming)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce87b3ba5f760d73bb19813df6efee94\">dummy implementation<\/a> may be used to allow development to progress before the final implementation is available. In another case, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Test-driven_development#Fakes,_mocks_and_integration_tests\" title=\"Test-driven development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ddd0061d841891d0dce43d1b324d6f27\">fake or mock<\/a> implementation may be substituted during testing. Such <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Method_stub\" title=\"Method stub\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a75c124da9d672734643e169f76eb262\">stub<\/a> implementations are replaced by real code later in the development process.\n<\/p><p>Usually a method defined in an interface contains no code and thus cannot itself be called; it must be implemented by non-abstract code to be run when it is invoked.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> An interface called \"<code><a href=\"\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stack_(data_structure)\" class=\"mw-redirect\" title=\"Stack (data structure)\">Stack<\/a><\/code>\" might define two methods: <code>push()<\/code> and <code>pop()<\/code>. It can be implemented in different ways, for example, <code>FastStack<\/code> and <code>GenericStack<\/code>\u2014the first being fast, working with a data structure of fixed size, and the second using a data structure that can be resized, but at the cost of somewhat lower speed.\n<\/p><p>Though interfaces can contain many methods they may contain only one or even none at all. For example, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Java_(programming_language)\" title=\"Java (programming language)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"444fa6d23d72fee4750d4189e5a53f53\">Java<\/a> language defines the interface <code class=\"mw-highlight\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">Readable<\/span><\/code> that has the single <code class=\"mw-highlight\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">read<\/span><span class=\"o\">()<\/span><\/code> method; various implementations are used for different purposes, including <code class=\"mw-highlight\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">BufferedReader<\/span><\/code>, <code class=\"mw-highlight\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">FileReader<\/span><\/code>, <code class=\"mw-highlight\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">InputStreamReader<\/span><\/code>, <code class=\"mw-highlight\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">PipedReader<\/span><\/code>, and <code class=\"mw-highlight\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">StringReader<\/span><\/code>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Marker_interface_pattern\" title=\"Marker interface pattern\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7b7d8a35fffb73f6efdc37107df7852d\">Marker interfaces<\/a> like <code class=\"mw-highlight\" dir=\"ltr\"><span class=\"n\">Serializable<\/span><\/code> contain no methods at all and serve to provide run-time information to generic processing using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Reflection_(computer_programming)\" title=\"Reflection (computer programming)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"286018871c8d02381216850d9944818a\">Reflection<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Programming_to_the_interface\">Programming to the interface<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The use of interfaces allows for a programming style called <i>programming to the interface<\/i>. The idea behind this approach is to base programming logic on the interfaces of the objects used, rather than on internal implementation details. Programming to the interface reduces dependency on implementation specifics and makes code more reusable.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Pushing this idea to the extreme, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inversion_of_control\" title=\"Inversion of control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"564b0764b2d253b6187ea64c19312f81\">inversion of control<\/a> leaves the <i>context<\/i> to inject the code with the specific implementations of the interface that will be used to perform the work.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"User_interfaces\">User interfaces<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User_interface\" title=\"User interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d20341f81dd69148536f2ceacaafe0b\">user interface<\/a><\/div>\n<p>A <b>user interface<\/b> is a point of interaction between a computer and humans; it includes any number of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modality_(human%E2%80%93computer_interaction)\" title=\"Modality (human\u2013computer interaction)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"edbd4b6629041d003f3c38f4f8089db7\">modalities<\/a> of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human-computer_interaction\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Human-computer interaction\" data-key=\"4411ebf65dc6bf1410662d24953ced2a\">interaction<\/a> (such as graphics, sound, position, movement, etc.) where data is transferred between the user and the computer system.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Abstraction_inversion\" title=\"Abstraction inversion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d673b7918c053745c3a33e1eb0a0a2fa\">Abstraction inversion<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_binary_interface\" title=\"Application binary interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"87485d8bc3ef74435f90662a67971e71\">Application binary interface<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_programming_interface\" title=\"Application programming interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3b6475d989fc4f46d473299c5f0a76b\">Application programming interface<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_Interoperability_Interface\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business Interoperability Interface\" data-key=\"02f6540810f3e673209d2a113a4c97b4\">Business Interoperability Interface<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_bus\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computer bus\" data-key=\"468ed122d39549dafb445675604b14a7\">Computer bus<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hard_disk_drive_interface\" title=\"Hard disk drive interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0f656e0485f5471b6d41f45be265d36\">Hard disk drive interface<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Implementation_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Implementation (computer science)\" data-key=\"2237903db5aeabbbed1441431ba91b0e\">Implementation (computer science)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Implementation_inheritance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Implementation inheritance\" data-key=\"784f00ec05774e0b6e9562e2d8be7418\">Implementation inheritance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inheritance_semantics\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Inheritance semantics\" data-key=\"bd3656af6322156c96e0f7bbfa1c844d\">Inheritance semantics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Modular_programming\" title=\"Modular programming\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3e2efa63b2358882429ccde40078f8f\">Modular programming<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_componentry\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Software componentry\" data-key=\"181440f81f4ea4caf60035b7c9329dc3\">Software componentry<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_inheritance\" title=\"Virtual inheritance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"643992326a768b72bc427749248afe12\">Virtual inheritance<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HookwayInterface14-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-HookwayInterface14_1-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Hookway, B. (2014). \"Chapter 1: The Subject of the Interface\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=BQM_AwAAQBAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Interface<\/i><\/a>. MIT Press. pp. 1\u201358. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780262525503.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+1%3A+The+Subject+of+the+Interface&rft.btitle=Interface&rft.pages=1-58&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780262525503&rft.au=Hookway%2C+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBQM_AwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation encyclopaedia\"><i>IEEE 100 - The Authoritative Dictionary Of IEEE Standards Terms<\/i>. NYC, NY, USA: IEEE Press. 2000. pp. 574\u2013575. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780738126012.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=IEEE+100+-+The+Authoritative+Dictionary+Of+IEEE+Standards+Terms&rft.place=NYC%2C+NY%2C+USA&rft.pages=574-575&rft.pub=IEEE+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780738126012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-87Blaauw-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-87Blaauw_3-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-87Blaauw_3-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFBlaauwBrooks,_Jr.1997\" class=\"citation\">Blaauw, Gerritt A.; Brooks, Jr., Frederick P. (1997), \"Chapter 8.6, Device Interfaces\", <i>Computer Architecture-Concepts and Evolution<\/i>, Addison-Wesley, pp. 489\u2013493, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-201-10557-8<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+8.6%2C+Device+Interfaces&rft.btitle=Computer+Architecture-Concepts+and+Evolution&rft.pages=489-493&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-201-10557-8&rft.aulast=Blaauw&rft.aufirst=Gerritt+A.&rft.au=Brooks%2C+Jr.%2C+Frederick+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>\nSee also:\n<cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPattersonHennessey2005\" class=\"citation\">Patterson, David A.; Hennessey, John L. (2005), \"Chapter 8.5, Interfacing I\/O Devices to the Processor, Memory and Operating System\", <i>Computer Organization and Design - The Hardware\/Software Interface, Third Edition<\/i>, Morgan Kaufmann, pp. 588\u2013596, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 1-55860-604-1<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+8.5%2C+Interfacing+I%2FO+Devices+to+the+Processor%2C+Memory+and+Operating+System&rft.btitle=Computer+Organization+and+Design+-+The+Hardware%2FSoftware+Interface%2C+Third+Edition&rft.pages=588-596&rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-55860-604-1&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft.au=Hennessey%2C+John+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GovindarajaluIBM08-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-GovindarajaluIBM08_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Govindarajalu, B. (2008). \"3.15 Peripheral Interfaces and Controllers - OG\". <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Hyl8SA1eHzIC&pg=PA142\" target=\"_blank\"><i>IBM PC And Clones: Hardware, Troubleshooting And Maintenance<\/i><\/a>. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd. pp. 142\u2013144. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780070483118<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 June<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3.15+Peripheral+Interfaces+and+Controllers+-+OG&rft.btitle=IBM+PC+And+Clones%3A+Hardware%2C+Troubleshooting+And+Maintenance&rft.pages=142-144&rft.pub=Tata+McGraw-Hill+Publishing+Co.+Ltd&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780070483118&rft.au=Govindarajalu%2C+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHyl8SA1eHzIC%26pg%3DPA142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BuyyaMastering13-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BuyyaMastering13_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Buyya, R. (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=VSDZAgAAQBAJ&pg=SA2-PA13\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Mastering Cloud Computing<\/i><\/a>. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 2.13. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781259029950.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mastering+Cloud+Computing&rft.pages=2.13&rft.pub=Tata+McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781259029950&rft.au=Buyya%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVSDZAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DSA2-PA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PooObject08-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PooObject08_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Poo, D.; Kiong, D.; Ashok, S. (2008). \"Chapter 2: Object, Class, Message and Method\". <i>Object-Oriented Programming and Java<\/i>. Springer-Verlag. pp. 7\u201315. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781846289637.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+Object%2C+Class%2C+Message+and+Method&rft.btitle=Object-Oriented+Programming+and+Java&rft.pages=7-15&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781846289637&rft.au=Poo%2C+D.%3B+Kiong%2C+D.%3B+Ashok%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation web\">Bill Venners (2005-06-06). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.artima.com\/lejava\/articles\/designprinciples.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Leading-Edge Java: Design Principles from Design Patterns: Program to an interface, not an implementation - A Conversation with Erich Gamma, Part III\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.artima.com\/index.jsp\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.artima.com\/index.jsp<\/a>: artima developer. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110805191904\/http:\/\/www.artima.com\/lejava\/articles\/designprinciples.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2011-08-05<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-08-03<\/span><\/span>. <q>Once you depend on interfaces only, you're decoupled from the implementation. That means the implementation can vary, and that is a healthy dependency relationship. For example, for testing purposes you can replace a heavy database implementation with a lighter-weight mock implementation. Fortunately, with today's refactoring support you no longer have to come up with an interface up front. You can distill an interface from a concrete class once you have the full insights into a problem. The intended interface is just one 'extract interface' refactoring away. ...<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Leading-Edge+Java%3A+Design+Principles+from+Design+Patterns%3A+Program+to+an+interface%2C+not+an+implementation+-+A+Conversation+with+Erich+Gamma%2C+Part+III&rft.place=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.artima.com%2Findex.jsp&rft.pub=artima+developer&rft.date=2005-06-06&rft.au=Bill+Venners&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.artima.com%2Flejava%2Farticles%2Fdesignprinciples.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PattersonComputer04-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-PattersonComputer04_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Patterson, D.A.; Hennessy, J.L. <i>Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware\/Software Interface<\/i> (3rd ed.). Elsevier. p. 656. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780080502571.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+Organization+and+Design%3A+The+Hardware%2FSoftware+Interface&rft.pages=656&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.isbn=9780080502571&rft.au=Patterson%2C+D.A.%3B+Hennessy%2C+J.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/docs.oracle.com\/javase\/tutorial\/java\/concepts\/interface.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is an Interface\"<\/a>. <i>The Java Tutorials<\/i>. Oracle. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120412093619\/http:\/\/docs.oracle.com\/javase\/tutorial\/java\/concepts\/interface.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2012-04-12<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2012-05-01<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Java+Tutorials&rft.atitle=What+Is+an+Interface&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocs.oracle.com%2Fjavase%2Ftutorial%2Fjava%2Fconcepts%2Finterface.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/docs.oracle.com\/javase\/tutorial\/java\/IandI\/createinterface.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Interfaces\"<\/a>. <i>The Java Tutorials<\/i>. Oracle. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120526080117\/http:\/\/docs.oracle.com\/javase\/tutorial\/java\/IandI\/createinterface.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2012-05-26<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2012-05-01<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Java+Tutorials&rft.atitle=Interfaces&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocs.oracle.com%2Fjavase%2Ftutorial%2Fjava%2FIandI%2Fcreateinterface.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.precisejava.com\/javaperf\/j2se\/Serialization.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Performance improvement techniques in Serialization\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.precisejava.com\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.precisejava.com\/<\/a>: Precise Java. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110824150046\/http:\/\/www.precisejava.com\/javaperf\/j2se\/Serialization.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 2011-08-24<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2011-08-04<\/span><\/span>. <q>We will talk initially about Serializable interface. This is a marker interface and does not have any methods.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Performance+improvement+techniques+in+Serialization&rft.place=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.precisejava.com%2F&rft.pub=Precise+Java&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.precisejava.com%2Fjavaperf%2Fj2se%2FSerialization.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Gamma; Helm; Johnson; Vlissides (1995). <i>Design Patterns: Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software<\/i>. Addison Wesley. pp. 17\u201318.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Design+Patterns%3A+Elements+of+Reusable+Object-Oriented+Software&rft.pages=17-18&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&rft.date=1995&rft.au=Gamma&rft.au=Helm&rft.au=Johnson&rft.au=Vlissides&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInterface+%28computing%29\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1327\nCached time: 20190330151834\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.336 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.447 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1399\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 43950\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 2048\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 11\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 2\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 41488\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 0\/400\nLua time usage: 0.197\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 4.72 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 401.646 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>43.54% 174.894 1 Template:Reflist\n25.34% 101.790 6 Template:Cite_book\n17.98% 72.226 1 Template:Refimprove\n16.11% 64.707 4 Template:Citation_needed\n15.58% 62.563 1 Template:Ambox\n13.94% 56.009 4 Template:Fix\n12.64% 50.771 1 Template:About\n 7.70% 30.937 1 Template:Find_sources_mainspace\n 6.96% 27.970 4 Template:Delink\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:620746-1!canonical and timestamp 20190330151833 and revision id 877884864\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Interface_(computing)\" data-key=\"644f6c43656f398980925c784ae9372f\">article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202957\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.010 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.151 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 145.370 1 - wikipedia:Interface_(computing)\n100.00% 145.370 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10646-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403202956 and revision id 33442\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Interface_(computing)\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Interface_(computing)<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","2ff176595c6c4a8f06d27f35fd27aeec_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/9\/99\/Question_book-new.svg\/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png"],"2ff176595c6c4a8f06d27f35fd27aeec_timestamp":1554323396,"27ed4ce42fc1b6b5da4be13b7183158b_type":"article","27ed4ce42fc1b6b5da4be13b7183158b_title":"Distributed computing","27ed4ce42fc1b6b5da4be13b7183158b_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Distributed_computing","27ed4ce42fc1b6b5da4be13b7183158b_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tDistributed computing\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\"Distributed application\" redirects here. For trustless applications, see Decentralized application.\n\"Distributed Information Processing\" redirects here. For the computer company, see DIP Research.\nDistributed computing is a field of computer science that studies distributed systems. A distributed system is a system whose components are located on different networked computers, which communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages to one another.[1] The components interact with one another in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant characteristics of distributed systems are: concurrency of components, lack of a global clock, and independent failure of components.[1] Examples of distributed systems vary from SOA-based systems to massively multiplayer online games to peer-to-peer applications.\nA computer program that runs within a distributed system is called a distributed program (and distributed programming is the process of writing such programs).[2] There are many different types of implementations for the message passing mechanism, including pure HTTP, RPC-like connectors and message queues.[3]\nDistributed computing also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve computational problems. In distributed computing, a problem is divided into many tasks, each of which is solved by one or more computers,[4] which communicate with each other via message passing.[5]\n\nContents \n\n1 Introduction \n2 Parallel and distributed computing \n3 History \n4 Architectures \n5 Applications \n6 Examples \n7 Theoretical foundations \n\n7.1 Models \n7.2 An example \n7.3 Complexity measures \n7.4 Other problems \n7.5 Properties of distributed systems \n\n\n8 See also \n9 Notes \n10 References \n11 Further reading \n12 External links \n\n\nIntroduction \nThe word parallel in terms such as \"parallel system\", \"distributed programming\", and \"distributed algorithm\" originally referred to computer networks where individual computers were physically distributed within some geographical area.[6] The terms are nowadays used in a much wider sense, even referring to autonomous processes that run on the same physical computer and interact with each other by message passing.[5]\nWhile there is no single definition of a distributed system,[7] the following defining properties are commonly used as:\n\nThere are several autonomous computational entities (computers or nodes), each of which has its own local memory.[8]\nThe entities communicate with each other by message passing.[9]\nA distributed system may have a common goal, such as solving a large computational problem;[10] the user then perceives the collection of autonomous processors as a unit. Alternatively, each computer may have its own user with individual needs, and the purpose of the distributed system is to coordinate the use of shared resources or provide communication services to the users.[11]\nOther typical properties of distributed systems include the following:\n\nThe system has to tolerate failures in individual computers.[12]\nThe structure of the system (network topology, network latency, number of computers) is not known in advance, the system may consist of different kinds of computers and network links, and the system may change during the execution of a distributed program.[13]\nEach computer has only a limited, incomplete view of the system. Each computer may know only one part of the input.[14]\nParallel and distributed computing \n (a), (b): a distributed system.\r\n(c): a parallel system.\nDistributed systems are groups of networked computers, which have the same goal for their work.\nThe terms \"concurrent computing\", \"parallel computing\", and \"distributed computing\" have a lot of overlap, and no clear distinction exists between them.[15] The same system may be characterized both as \"parallel\" and \"distributed\"; the processors in a typical distributed system run concurrently in parallel.[16] Parallel computing may be seen as a particular tightly coupled form of distributed computing,[17] and distributed computing may be seen as a loosely coupled form of parallel computing.[7] Nevertheless, it is possible to roughly classify concurrent systems as \"parallel\" or \"distributed\" using the following criteria:\n\nIn parallel computing, all processors may have access to a shared memory to exchange information between processors.[18]\nIn distributed computing, each processor has its own private memory (distributed memory). Information is exchanged by passing messages between the processors.[19]\nThe figure on the right illustrates the difference between distributed and parallel systems. Figure (a) is a schematic view of a typical distributed system; the system is represented as a network topology in which each node is a computer and each line connecting the nodes is a communication link. Figure (b) shows the same distributed system in more detail: each computer has its own local memory, and information can be exchanged only by passing messages from one node to another by using the available communication links. Figure (c) shows a parallel system in which each processor has a direct access to a shared memory.\nThe situation is further complicated by the traditional uses of the terms parallel and distributed algorithm that do not quite match the above definitions of parallel and distributed systems (see below for more detailed discussion). Nevertheless, as a rule of thumb, high-performance parallel computation in a shared-memory multiprocessor uses parallel algorithms while the coordination of a large-scale distributed system uses distributed algorithms.[20]\n\nHistory \nThe use of concurrent processes that communicate by message-passing has its roots in operating system architectures studied in the 1960s.[21] The first widespread distributed systems were local-area networks such as Ethernet, which was invented in the 1970s.[22]\nARPANET, the predecessor of the Internet, was introduced in the late 1960s, and ARPANET e-mail was invented in the early 1970s. E-mail became the most successful application of ARPANET,[23] and it is probably the earliest example of a large-scale distributed application. In addition to ARPANET, and its successor, the Internet, other early worldwide computer networks included Usenet and FidoNet from the 1980s, both of which were used to support distributed discussion systems.[24]\nThe study of distributed computing became its own branch of computer science in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The first conference in the field, Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing (PODC), dates back to 1982, and its counterpart International Symposium on Distributed Computing (DISC) was first held in Ottawa in 1985 as the International Workshop on Distributed Algorithms on Graphs.[25]\n\nArchitectures \nVarious hardware and software architectures are used for distributed computing. At a lower level, it is necessary to interconnect multiple CPUs with some sort of network, regardless of whether that network is printed onto a circuit board or made up of loosely coupled devices and cables. At a higher level, it is necessary to interconnect processes running on those CPUs with some sort of communication system.[26]\nDistributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures: client\u2013server, three-tier, n-tier, or peer-to-peer; or categories: loose coupling, or tight coupling.[27]\n\nClient\u2013server: architectures where smart clients contact the server for data then format and display it to the users. Input at the client is committed back to the server when it represents a permanent change.\nThree-tier: architectures that move the client intelligence to a middle tier so that stateless clients can be used. This simplifies application deployment. Most web applications are three-tier.\nn-tier: architectures that refer typically to web applications which further forward their requests to other enterprise services. This type of application is the one most responsible for the success of application servers.\nPeer-to-peer: architectures where there are no special machines that provide a service or manage the network resources.[28]:227 Instead all responsibilities are uniformly divided among all machines, known as peers. Peers can serve both as clients and as servers.[29]\nAnother basic aspect of distributed computing architecture is the method of communicating and coordinating work among concurrent processes. Through various message passing protocols, processes may communicate directly with one another, typically in a master\/slave relationship. Alternatively, a \"database-centric\" architecture can enable distributed computing to be done without any form of direct inter-process communication, by utilizing a shared database.[30]\n\nApplications \nReasons for using distributed systems and distributed computing may include:\n\nThe very nature of an application may require the use of a communication network that connects several computers: for example, data produced in one physical location and required in another location.\nThere are many cases in which the use of a single computer would be possible in principle, but the use of a distributed system is beneficial for practical reasons. For example, it may be more cost-efficient to obtain the desired level of performance by using a cluster of several low-end computers, in comparison with a single high-end computer. A distributed system can provide more reliability than a non-distributed system, as there is no single point of failure. Moreover, a distributed system may be easier to expand and manage than a monolithic uniprocessor system.[31]\nExamples \nExamples of distributed systems and applications of distributed computing include the following:[32]\n\ntelecommunication networks:\ntelephone networks and cellular networks,\ncomputer networks such as the Internet,\nwireless sensor networks,\nrouting algorithms;\nnetwork applications:\nWorld Wide Web and peer-to-peer networks,\nmassively multiplayer online games and virtual reality communities,\ndistributed databases and distributed database management systems,\nnetwork file systems,\ndistributed information processing systems such as banking systems and airline reservation systems;\nreal-time process control:\naircraft control systems,\nindustrial control systems;\nparallel computation:\nscientific computing, including cluster computing and grid computing and various volunteer computing projects (see the list of distributed computing projects),\ndistributed rendering in computer graphics\nTheoretical foundations \nMain article: Distributed algorithm\nModels \nMany tasks that we would like to automate by using a computer are of question\u2013answer type: we would like to ask a question and the computer should produce an answer. In theoretical computer science, such tasks are called computational problems. Formally, a computational problem consists of instances together with a solution for each instance. Instances are questions that we can ask, and solutions are desired answers to these questions.\nTheoretical computer science seeks to understand which computational problems can be solved by using a computer (computability theory) and how efficiently (computational complexity theory). Traditionally, it is said that a problem can be solved by using a computer if we can design an algorithm that produces a correct solution for any given instance. Such an algorithm can be implemented as a computer program that runs on a general-purpose computer: the program reads a problem instance from input, performs some computation, and produces the solution as output. Formalisms such as random access machines or universal Turing machines can be used as abstract models of a sequential general-purpose computer executing such an algorithm.[33][34]\nThe field of concurrent and distributed computing studies similar questions in the case of either multiple computers, or a computer that executes a network of interacting processes: which computational problems can be solved in such a network and how efficiently? However, it is not at all obvious what is meant by \"solving a problem\" in the case of a concurrent or distributed system: for example, what is the task of the algorithm designer, and what is the concurrent or distributed equivalent of a sequential general-purpose computer?[citation needed ]\nThe discussion below focuses on the case of multiple computers, although many of the issues are the same for concurrent processes running on a single computer.\nThree viewpoints are commonly used:\n\nParallel algorithms in shared-memory model\nAll processors have access to a shared memory. The algorithm designer chooses the program executed by each processor.\nOne theoretical model is the parallel random access machines (PRAM) that are used.[35] However, the classical PRAM model assumes synchronous access to the shared memory.\nShared-memory programs can be extended to distributed systems if the underlying operating system encapsulates the communication between nodes and virtually unifies the memory across all individual systems.\nA model that is closer to the behavior of real-world multiprocessor machines and takes into account the use of machine instructions, such as Compare-and-swap (CAS), is that of asynchronous shared memory. There is a wide body of work on this model, a summary of which can be found in the literature.[36][37]\nParallel algorithms in message-passing model\nThe algorithm designer chooses the structure of the network, as well as the program executed by each computer.\nModels such as Boolean circuits and sorting networks are used.[38] A Boolean circuit can be seen as a computer network: each gate is a computer that runs an extremely simple computer program. Similarly, a sorting network can be seen as a computer network: each comparator is a computer.\nDistributed algorithms in message-passing model\nThe algorithm designer only chooses the computer program. All computers run the same program. The system must work correctly regardless of the structure of the network.\nA commonly used model is a graph with one finite-state machine per node.\nIn the case of distributed algorithms, computational problems are typically related to graphs. Often the graph that describes the structure of the computer network is the problem instance. This is illustrated in the following example.[citation needed ]\n\nAn example \nConsider the computational problem of finding a coloring of a given graph G. Different fields might take the following approaches:\n\nCentralized algorithms[citation needed ]\nThe graph G is encoded as a string, and the string is given as input to a computer. The computer program finds a coloring of the graph, encodes the coloring as a string, and outputs the result.\nParallel algorithms\nAgain, the graph G is encoded as a string. However, multiple computers can access the same string in parallel. Each computer might focus on one part of the graph and produce a coloring for that part.\nThe main focus is on high-performance computation that exploits the processing power of multiple computers in parallel.\nDistributed algorithms\nThe graph G is the structure of the computer network. There is one computer for each node of G and one communication link for each edge of G. Initially, each computer only knows about its immediate neighbors in the graph G; the computers must exchange messages with each other to discover more about the structure of G. Each computer must produce its own color as output.\nThe main focus is on coordinating the operation of an arbitrary distributed system.[citation needed ]\nWhile the field of parallel algorithms has a different focus than the field of distributed algorithms, there is a lot of interaction between the two fields. For example, the Cole\u2013Vishkin algorithm for graph coloring[39] was originally presented as a parallel algorithm, but the same technique can also be used directly as a distributed algorithm.\nMoreover, a parallel algorithm can be implemented either in a parallel system (using shared memory) or in a distributed system (using message passing).[40] The traditional boundary between parallel and distributed algorithms (choose a suitable network vs. run in any given network) does not lie in the same place as the boundary between parallel and distributed systems (shared memory vs. message passing).\n\nComplexity measures \nIn parallel algorithms, yet another resource in addition to time and space is the number of computers. Indeed, often there is a trade-off between the running time and the number of computers: the problem can be solved faster if there are more computers running in parallel (see speedup). If a decision problem can be solved in polylogarithmic time by using a polynomial number of processors, then the problem is said to be in the class NC.[41] The class NC can be defined equally well by using the PRAM formalism or Boolean circuits\u2014PRAM machines can simulate Boolean circuits efficiently and vice versa.[42]\nIn the analysis of distributed algorithms, more attention is usually paid on communication operations than computational steps. Perhaps the simplest model of distributed computing is a synchronous system where all nodes operate in a lockstep fashion. This model is commonly known as the LOCAL model. During each communication round, all nodes in parallel (1) receive the latest messages from their neighbours, (2) perform arbitrary local computation, and (3) send new messages to their neighbors. In such systems, a central complexity measure is the number of synchronous communication rounds required to complete the task.[43]\nThis complexity measure is closely related to the diameter of the network. Let D be the diameter of the network. On the one hand, any computable problem can be solved trivially in a synchronous distributed system in approximately 2D communication rounds: simply gather all information in one location (D rounds), solve the problem, and inform each node about the solution (D rounds).\nOn the other hand, if the running time of the algorithm is much smaller than D communication rounds, then the nodes in the network must produce their output without having the possibility to obtain information about distant parts of the network. In other words, the nodes must make globally consistent decisions based on information that is available in their local D-neighbourhood. Many distributed algorithms are known with the running time much smaller than D rounds, and understanding which problems can be solved by such algorithms is one of the central research questions of the field.[44] Typically an algorithm which solves a problem in polylogarithmic time in the network size is considered efficient in this model.\nAnother commonly used measure is the total number of bits transmitted in the network (cf. communication complexity).[45] The features of this concept are typically captured with the CONGEST(B) model, which similarly defined as the LOCAL model but where single messages can only contain B bits.\n\nOther problems \nTraditional computational problems take the perspective that we ask a question, a computer (or a distributed system) processes the question for a while, and then produces an answer and stops. However, there are also problems where we do not want the system to ever stop. Examples of such problems include the dining philosophers problem and other similar mutual exclusion problems. In these problems, the distributed system is supposed to continuously coordinate the use of shared resources so that no conflicts or deadlocks occur.\nThere are also fundamental challenges that are unique to distributed computing. The first example is challenges that are related to fault-tolerance. Examples of related problems include consensus problems,[46] Byzantine fault tolerance,[47] and self-stabilisation.[48]\nA lot of research is also focused on understanding the asynchronous nature of distributed systems:\n\nSynchronizers can be used to run synchronous algorithms in asynchronous systems.[49]\nLogical clocks provide a causal happened-before ordering of events.[50]\nClock synchronization algorithms provide globally consistent physical time stamps.[51]\nElection\nCoordinator election (or leader election) is the process of designating a single process as the organizer of some task distributed among several computers (nodes). Before the task is begun, all network nodes are either unaware which node will serve as the \"coordinator\" (or leader) of the task, or unable to communicate with the current coordinator. After a coordinator election algorithm has been run, however, each node throughout the network recognizes a particular, unique node as the task coordinator.[52]\nThe network nodes communicate among themselves in order to decide which of them will get into the \"coordinator\" state. For that, they need some method in order to break the symmetry among them. For example, if each node has unique and comparable identities, then the nodes can compare their identities, and decide that the node with the highest identity is the coordinator.[52]\nThe definition of this problem is often attributed to LeLann, who formalized it as a method to create a new token in a token ring network in which the token has been lost.[53]\nCoordinator election algorithms are designed to be economical in terms of total bytes transmitted, and time. The algorithm suggested by Gallager, Humblet, and Spira [54] for general undirected graphs has had a strong impact on the design of distributed algorithms in general, and won the Dijkstra Prize for an influential paper in distributed computing.\nMany other algorithms were suggested for different kind of network graphs, such as undirected rings, unidirectional rings, complete graphs, grids, directed Euler graphs, and others. A general method that decouples the issue of the graph family from the design of the coordinator election algorithm was suggested by Korach, Kutten, and Moran.[55]\nIn order to perform coordination, distributed systems employ the concept of coordinators. The coordinator election problem is to choose a process from among a group of processes on different processors in a distributed system to act as the central coordinator. Several central coordinator election algorithms exist.[56]\n\nProperties of distributed systems \nSo far the focus has been on designing a distributed system that solves a given problem. A complementary research problem is studying the properties of a given distributed system.[57][58]\nThe halting problem is an analogous example from the field of centralised computation: we are given a computer program and the task is to decide whether it halts or runs forever. The halting problem is undecidable in the general case, and naturally understanding the behaviour of a computer network is at least as hard as understanding the behaviour of one computer.[59]\nHowever, there are many interesting special cases that are decidable. In particular, it is possible to reason about the behaviour of a network of finite-state machines. One example is telling whether a given network of interacting (asynchronous and non-deterministic) finite-state machines can reach a deadlock. This problem is PSPACE-complete,[60] i.e., it is decidable, but it is not likely that there is an efficient (centralised, parallel or distributed) algorithm that solves the problem in the case of large networks.\n\nSee also \n\nAppScale\nBOINC\nCode mobility\nDecentralized computing\nDistributed algorithm\nDistributed algorithmic mechanism design\nDistributed cache\nDistributed operating system\nEdsger W. Dijkstra Prize in Distributed Computing\nFog computing\nFolding@home\nGrid computing\nInferno\nJungle computing\nLayered queueing network\nLibrary Oriented Architecture (LOA)\nList of distributed computing conferences\nList of distributed computing projects\nList of important publications in concurrent, parallel, and distributed computing\nModel checking\nParallel distributed processing\nParallel programming model\nPlan 9 from Bell Labs\nShared nothing architecture\n\nNotes \n\n\n^ a b Tanenbaum, Andrew S.; Steen, Maarten van (2002). Distributed systems: principles and paradigms. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-088893-1. \n\n^ Andrews (2000). Dolev (2000). Ghosh (2007), p. 10. \n\n^ Magnoni, L. (2015). \"Modern Messaging for Distributed Sytems\". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 608 (1): 012038. doi:10.1088\/1742-6596\/608\/1\/012038. ISSN 1742-6596. \n\n^ Godfrey (2002). \n\n^ a b Andrews (2000), p. 291\u2013292. Dolev (2000), p. 5. \n\n^ Lynch (1996), p. 1. \n\n^ a b Ghosh (2007), p. 10. \n\n^ Andrews (2000), pp. 8\u20139, 291. Dolev (2000), p. 5. Ghosh (2007), p. 3. Lynch (1996), p. xix, 1. Peleg (2000), p. xv. \n\n^ Andrews (2000), p. 291. Ghosh (2007), p. 3. Peleg (2000), p. 4. \n\n^ Ghosh (2007), p. 3\u20134. Peleg (2000), p. 1. \n\n^ Ghosh (2007), p. 4. Peleg (2000), p. 2. \n\n^ Ghosh (2007), p. 4, 8. Lynch (1996), p. 2\u20133. Peleg (2000), p. 4. \n\n^ Lynch (1996), p. 2. Peleg (2000), p. 1. \n\n^ Ghosh (2007), p. 7. Lynch (1996), p. xix, 2. Peleg (2000), p. 4. \n\n^ Ghosh (2007), p. 10. Keidar (2008). \n\n^ Lynch (1996), p. xix, 1\u20132. Peleg (2000), p. 1. \n\n^ Peleg (2000), p. 1. \n\n^ Papadimitriou (1994), Chapter 15. Keidar (2008). \n\n^ See references in Introduction. \n\n^ Bentaleb, A.; Yifan, L.; Xin, J.; et al. (2016). \"Parallel and Distributed Algorithms\" (PDF) . National University of Singapore. Retrieved 20 July 2018 . \n\n^ Andrews (2000), p. 348. \n\n^ Andrews (2000), p. 32. \n\n^ Peter (2004), The history of email. \n\n^ Banks, M. (2012). On the Way to the Web: The Secret History of the Internet and its Founders. Apress. pp. 44\u20135. ISBN 9781430250746. \n\n^ Tel, G. (2000). Introduction to Distributed Algorithms. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35\u201336. ISBN 9780521794831. \n\n^ Ohl\u00eddal, M.; Jaro\u0161, J.; Schwarz, J.; et al. (2006). \"Evolutionary Design of OAB and AAB Communication Schedules for Interconnection Networks\". In Rothlauf, F.; Branke, J.; Cagnoni, S. Applications of Evolutionary Computing. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 267\u201378. ISBN 9783540332374. \n\n^ \"Real Time And Distributed Computing Systems\" (PDF) . ISSN 2278-0661. Retrieved 2017-01-09 . \n\n^ Vigna P, Casey MJ. The Age of Cryptocurrency: How Bitcoin and the Blockchain Are Challenging the Global Economic Order St. Martin's Press January 27, 2015 ISBN 9781250065636 \n\n^ Hieu., Vu, Quang (2010). Peer-to-peer computing : principles and applications. Lupu, Mihai., Ooi, Beng Chin, 1961-. Heidelberg: Springer. p. 16. ISBN 9783642035135. OCLC 663093862. \n\n^ Lind P, Alm M (2006), \"A database-centric virtual chemistry system\", J Chem Inf Model, 46 (3): 1034\u20139, doi:10.1021\/ci050360b, PMID 16711722. \n\n^ Elmasri & Navathe (2000), Section 24.1.2. \n\n^ Andrews (2000), p. 10\u201311. Ghosh (2007), p. 4\u20136. Lynch (1996), p. xix, 1. Peleg (2000), p. xv. Elmasri & Navathe (2000), Section 24. \n\n^ Toomarian, N.B.; Barhen, J.; Gulati, S. (1992). \"Neural Networks for Real-Time Robotic Applications\". In Fijany, A.; Bejczy, A. Parallel Computation Systems For Robotics: Algorithms And Architectures. World Scientific. p. 214. ISBN 9789814506175. \n\n^ Savage, J.E. (1998). Models of Computation: Exploring the Power of Computing. Addison Wesley. p. 209. ISBN 9780201895391. \n\n^ Cormen, Leiserson & Rivest (1990), Section 30. \n\n^ Herlihy & Shavit (2008), Chapters 2-6. \n\n^ Lynch (1996) \n\n^ Cormen, Leiserson & Rivest (1990), Sections 28 and 29. \n\n^ Cole & Vishkin (1986). Cormen, Leiserson & Rivest (1990), Section 30.5. \n\n^ Andrews (2000), p. ix. \n\n^ Arora & Barak (2009), Section 6.7. Papadimitriou (1994), Section 15.3. \n\n^ Papadimitriou (1994), Section 15.2. \n\n^ Lynch (1996), p. 17\u201323. \n\n^ Peleg (2000), Sections 2.3 and 7. Linial (1992). Naor & Stockmeyer (1995). \n\n^ Schneider, J.; Wattenhofer, R. (2011). \"Trading Bit, Message, and Time Complexity of Distributed Algorithms\". In Peleg, D. Distributed Computing. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 51\u201365. ISBN 9783642240997. \n\n^ Lynch (1996), Sections 5\u20137. Ghosh (2007), Chapter 13. \n\n^ Lynch (1996), p. 99\u2013102. Ghosh (2007), p. 192\u2013193. \n\n^ Dolev (2000). Ghosh (2007), Chapter 17. \n\n^ Lynch (1996), Section 16. Peleg (2000), Section 6. \n\n^ Lynch (1996), Section 18. Ghosh (2007), Sections 6.2\u20136.3. \n\n^ Ghosh (2007), Section 6.4. \n\n^ a b Haloi, S. (2015). Apache ZooKeeper Essentials. Packt Publishing Ltd. pp. 100\u2013101. ISBN 9781784398323. \n\n^ LeLann, G. (1977). \"Distributed systems - toward a formal approach\". Information Processing. 77: 155\u00b7160 – via Elsevier. \n\n^ R. G. Gallager, P. A. Humblet, and P. M. Spira (January 1983). \"A Distributed Algorithm for Minimum-Weight Spanning Trees\" (PDF) . ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems. 5 (1): 66\u201377. doi:10.1145\/357195.357200. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) \n\n^ Korach, Ephraim; Kutten, Shay; Moran, Shlomo (1990). \"A Modular Technique for the Design of Efficient Distributed Leader Finding Algorithms\" (PDF) . ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems. 12 (1): 84\u2013101. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.139.7342 . doi:10.1145\/77606.77610. \n\n^ Hamilton, Howard. \"Distributed Algorithms\". Retrieved 2013-03-03 . \n\n^ \"Major unsolved problems in distributed systems?\". cstheory.stackexchange.com. Retrieved 16 March 2018 . \n\n^ \"How big data and distributed systems solve traditional scalability problems\". theserverside.com. Retrieved 16 March 2018 . \n\n^ Svozil, K. (2011). \"Indeterminism and Randomness Through Physics\". In Hector, Z. Randomness Through Computation: Some Answers, More Questions. World Scientific. pp. 112\u20133. ISBN 9789814462631. \n\n^ Papadimitriou (1994), Section 19.3. \n\n\nReferences \nBooks\nAndrews, Gregory R. (2000), Foundations of Multithreaded, Parallel, and Distributed Programming, Addison\u2013Wesley, ISBN 978-0-201-35752-3 .\nArora, Sanjeev; Barak, Boaz (2009), Computational Complexity \u2013 A Modern Approach, Cambridge, ISBN 978-0-521-42426-4 .\nCormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L. (1990), Introduction to Algorithms (1st ed.), MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-03141-7 .\nDolev, Shlomi (2000), Self-Stabilization, MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-04178-2 .\nElmasri, Ramez; Navathe, Shamkant B. (2000), Fundamentals of Database Systems (3rd ed.), Addison\u2013Wesley, ISBN 978-0-201-54263-9 .\nGhosh, Sukumar (2007), Distributed Systems \u2013 An Algorithmic Approach, Chapman & Hall\/CRC, ISBN 978-1-58488-564-1 .\nLynch, Nancy A. (1996), Distributed Algorithms, Morgan Kaufmann, ISBN 978-1-55860-348-6 .\nHerlihy, Maurice P.; Shavit, Nir N. (2008), The Art of Multiprocessor Programming, Morgan Kaufmann, ISBN 978-0-12-370591-4 .\nPapadimitriou, Christos H. (1994), Computational Complexity, Addison\u2013Wesley, ISBN 978-0-201-53082-7 .\nPeleg, David (2000), Distributed Computing: A Locality-Sensitive Approach, SIAM, ISBN 978-0-89871-464-7 .\nArticles\nCole, Richard; Vishkin, Uzi (1986), \"Deterministic coin tossing with applications to optimal parallel list ranking\", Information and Control, 70 (1): 32\u201353, doi:10.1016\/S0019-9958(86)80023-7 .\nKeidar, Idit (2008), \"Distributed computing column 32 \u2013 The year in review\", ACM SIGACT News, 39 (4): 53\u201354, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.116.1285 , doi:10.1145\/1466390.1466402 .\nLinial, Nathan (1992), \"Locality in distributed graph algorithms\", SIAM Journal on Computing, 21 (1): 193\u2013201, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.471.6378 , doi:10.1137\/0221015 .\nNaor, Moni; Stockmeyer, Larry (1995), \"What can be computed locally?\" (PDF) , SIAM Journal on Computing, 24 (6): 1259\u20131277, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.29.669 , doi:10.1137\/S0097539793254571 .\nWeb sites\nGodfrey, Bill (2002). \"A primer on distributed computing\". \nPeter, Ian (2004). \"Ian Peter's History of the Internet\". Retrieved 2009-08-04 . \nFurther reading \nBooks\nAttiya, Hagit and Jennifer Welch (2004), Distributed Computing: Fundamentals, Simulations, and Advanced Topics, Wiley-Interscience ISBN 0-471-45324-2.\nChristian Cachin; Rachid Guerraoui; Lu\u00eds Rodrigues (2011), Introduction to Reliable and Secure Distributed Programming (2. ed.), Springer, ISBN 978-3-642-15259-7 \nCoulouris, George; et al. (2011), Distributed Systems: Concepts and Design (5th Edition), Addison-Wesley ISBN 0-132-14301-1.\nFaber, Jim (1998), Java Distributed Computing, O'Reilly : Java Distributed Computing by Jim Faber, 1998\nGarg, Vijay K. (2002), Elements of Distributed Computing, Wiley-IEEE Press ISBN 0-471-03600-5.\nTel, Gerard (1994), Introduction to Distributed Algorithms, Cambridge University Press \nChandy, Mani; et al., Parallel Program Design \nArticles\nKeidar, Idit; Rajsbaum, Sergio, eds. (2000\u20132009), \"Distributed computing column\", ACM SIGACT News .\nBirrell, A. D.; Levin, R.; Schroeder, M. D.; Needham, R. M. (April 1982). \"Grapevine: An exercise in distributed computing\" (PDF) . Communications of the ACM. 25 (4): 260\u2013274. doi:10.1145\/358468.358487. \nConference Papers\nC. Rodr\u00edguez, M. Villagra and B. Bar\u00e1n, Asynchronous team algorithms for Boolean Satisfiability, Bionetics2007, pp. 66\u201369, 2007.\nExternal links \n\n\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Distributed computing.\nDistributed computing at Curlie\nDistributed computing journals at Curlie\nvteParallel computingGeneral\nDistributed computing\nParallel computing\nMassively parallel\nCloud computing\nHigh-performance computing\nMultiprocessing\nManycore processor\nGPGPU\nComputer network\nSystolic array\nLevels\nBit\nInstruction\nThread\nTask\nData\nMemory\nLoop\nPipeline\nMultithreading\nTemporal\nSimultaneous (SMT)\nSpeculative (SpMT)\nPreemptive\nCooperative\nClustered Multi-Thread (CMT)\nHardware scout\nTheory\nPRAM model\nPEM Model\nAnalysis of parallel algorithms\nAmdahl's law\nGustafson's law\nCost efficiency\nKarp\u2013Flatt metric\nSlowdown\nSpeedup\nElements\nProcess\nThread\nFiber\nInstruction window\nArray data structure\nCoordination\nMultiprocessing\nMemory coherency\nCache coherency\nCache invalidation\nBarrier\nSynchronization\nApplication checkpointing\nProgramming\nStream processing\nDataflow programming\nModels\nImplicit parallelism\nExplicit parallelism\nConcurrency\nNon-blocking algorithm\nHardware\nFlynn's taxonomy\nSISD\nSIMD\nSIMT\nMISD\nMIMD\nDataflow architecture\nPipelined processor\nSuperscalar processor\nVector processor\nMultiprocessor\nsymmetric\nasymmetric\nMemory\nshared\ndistributed\ndistributed shared\nUMA\nNUMA\nCOMA\nMassively parallel computer\nComputer cluster\nGrid computer\nHardware acceleration\nAPIs\nAteji PX\nBoost.Thread\nChapel\n Charm++\nCilk\nCoarray Fortran\nCUDA\nDryad\nC++ AMP\nGlobal Arrays\nMPI\nOpenMP\nOpenCL\nOpenHMPP\nOpenACC\nTPL\nPLINQ\nPVM\nPOSIX Threads\nRaftLib\nUPC\nTBB\nZPL\nProblems\nDeadlock\nLivelock\nDeterministic algorithm\nEmbarrassingly parallel\nParallel slowdown\nRace condition\nSoftware lockout\nScalability\nStarvation\n\n Category: parallel computing\n Media related to Parallel computing at Wikimedia Commons\n\nvteEdsger DijkstraNotable works\nA Primer of ALGOL 60 Programming (book)\nStructured Programming (book)\nA Discipline of Programming (book)\nA Method of Programming (book)\nPredicate Calculus and Program Semantics (book)\nSelected Writings on Computing: A Personal Perspective (book)\nSelected papers\nEWD manuscripts\nA Note on Two Problems in Connexion with Graphs\nCooperating Sequential Processes\nSolution of a Problem in Concurrent Programming Control\nThe Structure of the 'THE'-Multiprogramming System\nGo To Statement Considered Harmful\nNotes on Structured Programming\nThe Humble Programmer\nProgramming Considered as a Human Activity\nHow Do We Tell Truths That Might Hurt?\nOn the Role of Scientific Thought\nSelf-stabilizing Systems in Spite of Distributed Control\nOn the Cruelty of Really Teaching Computer Science\nMain research areas\nTheoretical computing science\nSoftware engineering\nSystems science\nAlgorithm design\nConcurrent computing\nDistributed computing\nFormal methods\nProgramming methodology\nProgramming language research\nProgram design and development\nSoftware architecture\nPhilosophy of computer programming and computing science\nScientific contributionsConcepts and methods\nALGOL 60 implementation\nCall stack\nConcurrency\nConcurrent programming\nCooperating sequential processes\nCritical section\nDeadly embrace (deadlock)\nDining philosophers problem\nDutch national flag problem\nFault-tolerant system\nGoto-less programming\nGuarded Command Language\nLayered structure in software architecture\nLevels of abstraction\nMultithreaded programming\nMutual exclusion (mutex)\nProducer\u2013consumer problem (bounded buffer problem)\nProgram families\nPredicate transformer semantics\nProcess synchronization\nSelf-stabilizing distributed system\nSemaphore (programming)\nSeparation of concerns\nSleeping barber problem\nSoftware crisis\nStructured analysis\nStructured programming\nTHE multiprogramming system\nUnbounded nondeterminism\nWeakest precondition calculus\nAlgorithms\nBanker's algorithm\nDijkstra's algorithm\nDJP algorithm (Prim's algorithm)\nDijkstra-Scholten algorithm\nDekker's algorithm (generalization)\nSmoothsort\nShunting-yard algorithm\nTri-color marking algorithm\nConcurrent algorithms\nDistributed algorithms\nDeadlock prevention algorithms\nMutual exclusion algorithms\nSelf-stabilizing algorithms\nRelated people\nShlomi Dolev\nPer Brinch Hansen\nTony Hoare\nOle-Johan Dahl\nLeslie Lamport\nDavid Parnas\nCarel S. Scholten \nAdriaan van Wijngaarden\nNiklaus Wirth\nOther topics\nDijkstra Prize (Edsger W. Dijkstra Prize in Distributed Computing)\nCentrum Wiskunde & Informatica\nE.W. Dijkstra Archive (University of Texas at Austin)\nList of pioneers in computer science\nList of important publications in computer science\nList of important publications in theoretical computer science\nList of important publications in concurrent, parallel, and distributed computing\nInternational Symposium on Stabilization, Safety, and Security of Distributed Systems\n\n Wikiquote\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Distributed_computing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Distributed_computing<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Software and hardware termsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 20 July 2018, at 21:01.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 574 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","27ed4ce42fc1b6b5da4be13b7183158b_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Distributed_computing skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Distributed computing<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"Distributed application\" redirects here. For trustless applications, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decentralized_application\" title=\"Decentralized application\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e8e846453ec9817f01ce8901ea35e7b\">Decentralized application<\/a>.<\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"Distributed Information Processing\" redirects here. For the computer company, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/DIP_Research\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"DIP Research\" data-key=\"e7c322993c01127904d3f71d3d969a36\">DIP Research<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p><b>Distributed computing <\/b>is a field of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_science\" title=\"Computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eadd1655e27d8395813752ae5bd4fd0e\">computer science<\/a> that studies distributed systems. A <i>distributed system<\/i> is a system whose components are located on different <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">networked computers<\/a>, which communicate and coordinate their actions by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_passing\" title=\"Message passing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e6e85b396a483ff6b5d4cb91e8eef9a\">passing messages<\/a> to one another.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tanenbaum_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tanenbaum-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The components interact with one another in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant characteristics of distributed systems are: concurrency of components, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clock_synchronization\" title=\"Clock synchronization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc65661dd8073b602d5c4d61bc2ec0c9\">lack of a global clock<\/a>, and independent failure of components.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tanenbaum_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tanenbaum-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Examples of distributed systems vary from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Service-oriented_architecture\" title=\"Service-oriented architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"baeda155bcadf284dc1b57450100a5e3\">SOA-based systems<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Massively_multiplayer_online_game\" title=\"Massively multiplayer online game\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0983a48bc21a90f5d3a26e90ce1cf5f\">massively multiplayer online games<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer-to-peer\" title=\"Peer-to-peer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4461153add916f80b39b5acdc03c0764\">peer-to-peer applications<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>A <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_program\" title=\"Computer program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50546cf7bdd4e8811acbcc3ce79a1f3e\">computer program<\/a> that runs within a distributed system is called a <b>distributed program<\/b> (and distributed programming is the process of writing such programs).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> There are many different types of implementations for the message passing mechanism, including pure HTTP, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_procedure_call\" title=\"Remote procedure call\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10077982c79b5ee8217a4e149067b183\">RPC-like<\/a> connectors and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message-oriented_middleware\" title=\"Message-oriented middleware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"94a5844cb549ce9a0267739dbcc1527e\">message queues<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><i>Distributed computing<\/i> also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve computational problems. In <i>distributed computing<\/i>, a problem is divided into many tasks, each of which is solved by one or more computers,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> which communicate with each other via message passing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Andrews_2000_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Andrews_2000-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Introduction\">Introduction<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The word <i>parallel<\/i> in terms such as \"parallel system\", \"distributed programming\", and \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_algorithm\" title=\"Distributed algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4bdfddfceba77e1c089d0987495f120\">distributed algorithm<\/a>\" originally referred to computer networks where individual computers were physically distributed within some geographical area.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> The terms are nowadays used in a much wider sense, even referring to autonomous <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_(computing)\" title=\"Process (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5383ce66c2e76880ab455c875f900939\">processes<\/a> that run on the same physical computer and interact with each other by message passing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Andrews_2000_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Andrews_2000-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>While there is no single definition of a distributed system,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-harvtxt|Ghosh|2007_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-harvtxt|Ghosh|2007-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> the following defining properties are commonly used as:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>There are several autonomous computational entities (<i>computers<\/i> or <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Node_(networking)\" title=\"Node (networking)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af830d76119fd05f0c97a8a8e29a79e1\">nodes<\/a><\/i>), each of which has its own local <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Memory_(computers)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Memory (computers)\" data-key=\"6ad2008871ec4954d49f9376e113dd62\">memory<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The entities communicate with each other by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Message_passing\" title=\"Message passing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3e6e85b396a483ff6b5d4cb91e8eef9a\">message passing<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>A distributed system may have a common goal, such as solving a large computational problem;<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> the user then perceives the collection of autonomous processors as a unit. Alternatively, each computer may have its own user with individual needs, and the purpose of the distributed system is to coordinate the use of shared resources or provide communication services to the users.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other typical properties of distributed systems include the following:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>The system has to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fault_tolerance\" title=\"Fault tolerance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"97e432af1c6bc5c66c944cf10b1dcecb\">tolerate failures<\/a> in individual computers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>The structure of the system (network topology, network latency, number of computers) is not known in advance, the system may consist of different kinds of computers and network links, and the system may change during the execution of a distributed program.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Each computer has only a limited, incomplete view of the system. Each computer may know only one part of the input.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Parallel_and_distributed_computing\">Parallel and distributed computing<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Distributed-parallel.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"c00ab0a934ee77f8788cdd8376788394\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c6\/Distributed-parallel.svg\/300px-Distributed-parallel.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Distributed-parallel.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"c00ab0a934ee77f8788cdd8376788394\"><\/a><\/div>(a), (b): a distributed system.<br \/>(c): a parallel system.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Distributed systems are groups of networked computers, which have the same goal for their work.\nThe terms \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Concurrent_computing\" title=\"Concurrent computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6e726d6a9a861fad8d7335a9739e850\">concurrent computing<\/a>\", \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parallel_computing\" title=\"Parallel computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e5fb00a72928332731aa1b83159647c5\">parallel computing<\/a>\", and \"distributed computing\" have a lot of overlap, and no clear distinction exists between them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> The same system may be characterized both as \"parallel\" and \"distributed\"; the processors in a typical distributed system run concurrently in parallel.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup> Parallel computing may be seen as a particular tightly coupled form of distributed computing,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> and distributed computing may be seen as a loosely coupled form of parallel computing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-harvtxt|Ghosh|2007_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-harvtxt|Ghosh|2007-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Nevertheless, it is possible to roughly classify concurrent systems as \"parallel\" or \"distributed\" using the following criteria:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>In parallel computing, all processors may have access to a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shared_memory_architecture\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Shared memory architecture\" data-key=\"29fef05453fa94005e4c6ae8651a7914\">shared memory<\/a> to exchange information between processors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>In distributed computing, each processor has its own private memory (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_memory\" title=\"Distributed memory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"04956a6e3941bac09da7b407fddcee93\">distributed memory<\/a>). Information is exchanged by passing messages between the processors.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>The figure on the right illustrates the difference between distributed and parallel systems. Figure (a) is a schematic view of a typical distributed system; the system is represented as a network topology in which each node is a computer and each line connecting the nodes is a communication link. Figure (b) shows the same distributed system in more detail: each computer has its own local memory, and information can be exchanged only by passing messages from one node to another by using the available communication links. Figure (c) shows a parallel system in which each processor has a direct access to a shared memory.\n<\/p><p>The situation is further complicated by the traditional uses of the terms parallel and distributed <i>algorithm<\/i> that do not quite match the above definitions of parallel and distributed <i>systems<\/i> (see <a href=\"#Theoretical_foundations\">below<\/a> for more detailed discussion). Nevertheless, as a rule of thumb, high-performance parallel computation in a shared-memory multiprocessor uses parallel algorithms while the coordination of a large-scale distributed system uses distributed algorithms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BetalebParallel16_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BetalebParallel16-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The use of concurrent processes that communicate by message-passing has its roots in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operating_system\" title=\"Operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0115155e5fbeaa764ceaa4a8714a8951\">operating system<\/a> architectures studied in the 1960s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> The first widespread distributed systems were <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Local-area_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Local-area networks\" data-key=\"ee8a55ea17ece72eede532d432076e1b\">local-area networks<\/a> such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethernet\" title=\"Ethernet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8604e2ab3dc54bee1192999e4cf7d867\">Ethernet<\/a>, which was invented in the 1970s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ARPANET\" title=\"ARPANET\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8b9dca38ecbd05b9a6dea1b3dd87111a\">ARPANET<\/a>, the predecessor of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a>, was introduced in the late 1960s, and ARPANET <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-mail\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"E-mail\" data-key=\"746cb71011e6b1ef47b4bf87e65d35eb\">e-mail<\/a> was invented in the early 1970s. E-mail became the most successful application of ARPANET,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> and it is probably the earliest example of a large-scale <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_application\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Distributed application\" data-key=\"3a1e3ad16b161d550b47445d9820863b\">distributed application<\/a>. In addition to ARPANET, and its successor, the Internet, other early worldwide computer networks included <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Usenet\" title=\"Usenet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8511923c8e36883cfb310bace5870ace\">Usenet<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FidoNet\" title=\"FidoNet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"60459a30a8a1dbd65109c247fbdfcaa3\">FidoNet<\/a> from the 1980s, both of which were used to support distributed discussion systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BanksOnThe12_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BanksOnThe12-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The study of distributed computing became its own branch of computer science in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The first conference in the field, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Symposium_on_Principles_of_Distributed_Computing\" title=\"Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e9891045aa9f2fe68e12f310fad051e7\">Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing<\/a> (PODC), dates back to 1982, and its counterpart <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Symposium_on_Distributed_Computing\" title=\"International Symposium on Distributed Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e1993f4e0d61c9f05c56e4492d224d9b\">International Symposium on Distributed Computing<\/a> (DISC) was first held in Ottawa in 1985 as the International Workshop on Distributed Algorithms on Graphs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TelIntro00_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TelIntro00-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Architectures\">Architectures<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Various hardware and software architectures are used for distributed computing. At a lower level, it is necessary to interconnect multiple CPUs with some sort of network, regardless of whether that network is printed onto a circuit board or made up of loosely coupled devices and cables. At a higher level, it is necessary to interconnect <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_(computing)\" title=\"Process (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5383ce66c2e76880ab455c875f900939\">processes<\/a> running on those CPUs with some sort of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communication_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Communication system\" data-key=\"3a54d8acd7a7472e8aefd0f042b552b9\">communication system<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Ohl\u00eddalEvo06_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Ohl\u00eddalEvo06-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Distributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Client%E2%80%93server_model\" title=\"Client\u2013server model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0ef3dcf786f637a2392889b183aaf32\">client\u2013server<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Three-tier_(computing)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Three-tier (computing)\" data-key=\"e4adb403463ff9a38b991a9d74f8282c\">three-tier<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multitier_architecture\" title=\"Multitier architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08cd4933c56770f398dd15d9335ce227\"><i>n<\/i>-tier<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer-to-peer\" title=\"Peer-to-peer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4461153add916f80b39b5acdc03c0764\">peer-to-peer<\/a>; or categories: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Loose_coupling\" title=\"Loose coupling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e6d1b4ac5b67abf91346da09f615ae57\">loose coupling<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_cluster\" title=\"Computer cluster\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d594638bfcfa89293bf1a86e43374d4\">tight coupling<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Client%E2%80%93server_model\" title=\"Client\u2013server model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0ef3dcf786f637a2392889b183aaf32\">Client\u2013server<\/a>: architectures where smart clients contact the server for data then format and display it to the users. Input at the client is committed back to the server when it represents a permanent change.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Three-tier_(computing)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Three-tier (computing)\" data-key=\"e4adb403463ff9a38b991a9d74f8282c\">Three-tier<\/a>: architectures that move the client intelligence to a middle tier so that <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stateless_protocol\" title=\"Stateless protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1226a6b44737dceb1a3cd8056236b7bf\">stateless<\/a> clients can be used. This simplifies application deployment. Most web applications are three-tier.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multitier_architecture\" title=\"Multitier architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08cd4933c56770f398dd15d9335ce227\"><i>n<\/i>-tier<\/a>: architectures that refer typically to web applications which further forward their requests to other enterprise services. This type of application is the one most responsible for the success of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_server\" title=\"Application server\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8dcd8b1b4d7be0f2ab53000b24d9ca5e\">application servers<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer-to-peer\" title=\"Peer-to-peer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4461153add916f80b39b5acdc03c0764\">Peer-to-peer<\/a>: architectures where there are no special machines that provide a service or manage the network resources.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Vigna20150127_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Vigna20150127-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><sup class=\"reference\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">:<span>227<\/span><\/sup> Instead all responsibilities are uniformly divided among all machines, known as peers. Peers can serve both as clients and as servers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Another basic aspect of distributed computing architecture is the method of communicating and coordinating work among concurrent processes. Through various message passing protocols, processes may communicate directly with one another, typically in a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Master-slave_(technology)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Master-slave (technology)\" data-key=\"99214bd4e9b8b60042146c8b9e1d8bcb\">master\/slave<\/a> relationship. Alternatively, a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database-centric_architecture\" title=\"Database-centric architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e71fe1b350ab5dfe975a9de483a5c725\">\"database-centric\" architecture<\/a> can enable distributed computing to be done without any form of direct <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inter-process_communication\" title=\"Inter-process communication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8fca15fbcf8fd7efde5bd84521967ea8\">inter-process communication<\/a>, by utilizing a shared <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">database<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-30\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Applications\">Applications<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Reasons for using distributed systems and distributed computing may include:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>The very nature of an application may <i>require<\/i> the use of a communication network that connects several computers: for example, data produced in one physical location and required in another location.<\/li>\n<li>There are many cases in which the use of a single computer would be possible in principle, but the use of a distributed system is <i>beneficial<\/i> for practical reasons. For example, it may be more cost-efficient to obtain the desired level of performance by using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_(computing)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cluster (computing)\" data-key=\"5ccac5a1c93dae12deef0093a428851a\">cluster<\/a> of several low-end computers, in comparison with a single high-end computer. A distributed system can provide more reliability than a non-distributed system, as there is no <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Single_point_of_failure\" title=\"Single point of failure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7d9e6db07b50b40d3d0791fc6e8d4c3\">single point of failure<\/a>. Moreover, a distributed system may be easier to expand and manage than a monolithic uniprocessor system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-31\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Examples\">Examples<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Examples of distributed systems and applications of distributed computing include the following:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-32\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telecommunication\" title=\"Telecommunication\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4e6c5b88185933f9f03eb88df6b15551\">telecommunication<\/a> networks:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Telephone_network\" title=\"Telephone network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7521c955abe307101f970cdf1140bf43\">telephone networks<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cellular_network\" title=\"Cellular network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c247c94343fbffb852fa6cdeb1fc8127\">cellular networks<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">computer networks<\/a> such as the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Internet\" title=\"Internet\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"785db8f45a1d954b8b828e881da99594\">Internet<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wireless_sensor_networks\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wireless sensor networks\" data-key=\"6a39ac9d0f48f6f56d7aec66e3a05ee0\">wireless sensor networks<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Routing_algorithm\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Routing algorithm\" data-key=\"79d74810525f8804d3485651df813a3b\">routing algorithms<\/a>;<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>network applications:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/World_Wide_Web\" title=\"World Wide Web\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8167fa2a43229db150009f4a93e3a779\">World Wide Web<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer-to-peer_network\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Peer-to-peer network\" data-key=\"abddf8befcc849e3168d413b9891516b\">peer-to-peer networks<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Massively_multiplayer_online_game\" title=\"Massively multiplayer online game\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0983a48bc21a90f5d3a26e90ce1cf5f\">massively multiplayer online games<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtual_reality\" title=\"Virtual reality\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"302023a2cf43c36255969764757aabb4\">virtual reality<\/a> communities,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_database\" title=\"Distributed database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65d6b8922605a906e036afb3a1455849\">distributed databases<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_database_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Distributed database management system\" data-key=\"0ed36e98dd6ca0b2137d0a27c084989b\">distributed database management systems<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_file_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Distributed file system\" data-key=\"da55be0f55576bd3a6b36e388726be25\">network file systems<\/a>,<\/li>\n<li>distributed information processing systems such as banking systems and airline reservation systems;<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>real-time process control:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Aircraft\" title=\"Aircraft\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6fc19d38e5285f33624093a237e3a2d5\">aircraft<\/a> control systems,<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industrial_control_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Industrial control systems\" data-key=\"f7c69d77ad63db00f4d6fef3d8abfde0\">industrial control systems<\/a>;<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parallel_computation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Parallel computation\" data-key=\"151deddf3d180a8ff12c0c944f6b7f81\">parallel computation<\/a>:\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scientific_computing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Scientific computing\" data-key=\"2e29f0b607c5b16aac1d5f260961eef5\">scientific computing<\/a>, including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cluster_computing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cluster computing\" data-key=\"64477779c90ec0c3c29479f4959b24f2\">cluster computing<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grid_computing\" title=\"Grid computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"931594bb3dc749a80f3b3415bb585613\">grid computing<\/a> and various <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Volunteer_computing\" title=\"Volunteer computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b9c0ce8065c858543a935aa85a5bc07\">volunteer computing<\/a> projects (see the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_distributed_computing_projects\" title=\"List of distributed computing projects\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac96f8efb88de2e38b6508289be4016e\">list of distributed computing projects<\/a>),<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_rendering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Distributed rendering\" data-key=\"9b5af4a0ebd143a447c071fcc656d42a\">distributed rendering<\/a> in computer graphics<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Theoretical_foundations\">Theoretical foundations<\/span><\/h2>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">Main article: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_algorithm\" title=\"Distributed algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4bdfddfceba77e1c089d0987495f120\">Distributed algorithm<\/a><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Models\">Models<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Many tasks that we would like to automate by using a computer are of question\u2013answer type: we would like to ask a question and the computer should produce an answer. In <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Theoretical_computer_science\" title=\"Theoretical computer science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0b67bbd4f963ef9e86712a9f01271cdc\">theoretical computer science<\/a>, such tasks are called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_problem\" title=\"Computational problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"64b60604afbc4ab1f75458bd73f0e924\">computational problems<\/a>. Formally, a computational problem consists of <i>instances<\/i> together with a <i>solution<\/i> for each instance. Instances are questions that we can ask, and solutions are desired answers to these questions.\n<\/p><p>Theoretical computer science seeks to understand which computational problems can be solved by using a computer (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computability_theory_(computer_science)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Computability theory (computer science)\" data-key=\"03e9a2e0a6a9fc5fac10e8974bb7475a\">computability theory<\/a>) and how efficiently (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computational_complexity_theory\" title=\"Computational complexity theory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ccde243d1e57cc1b4cef865a096a6be\">computational complexity theory<\/a>). Traditionally, it is said that a problem can be solved by using a computer if we can design an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Algorithm\" title=\"Algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b91430604726f884a846b998f41902e\">algorithm<\/a> that produces a correct solution for any given instance. Such an algorithm can be implemented as a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_program\" title=\"Computer program\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50546cf7bdd4e8811acbcc3ce79a1f3e\">computer program<\/a> that runs on a general-purpose computer: the program reads a problem instance from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">input<\/a>, performs some computation, and produces the solution as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Output_(computing)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Output (computing)\" data-key=\"7b803926a8f277fe63bd0c080c07d28f\">output<\/a>. Formalisms such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Random_access_machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Random access machine\" data-key=\"ee0c4d99b23739efce24546371b07f64\">random access machines<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_Turing_machine\" title=\"Universal Turing machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f0dea07848f17ea9a4ae166912df7465\">universal Turing machines<\/a> can be used as abstract models of a sequential general-purpose computer executing such an algorithm.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ToomarianNeural92_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ToomarianNeural92-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SavageModels98_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SavageModels98-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The field of concurrent and distributed computing studies similar questions in the case of either multiple computers, or a computer that executes a network of interacting processes: which computational problems can be solved in such a network and how efficiently? However, it is not at all obvious what is meant by \"solving a problem\" in the case of a concurrent or distributed system: for example, what is the task of the algorithm designer, and what is the concurrent or distributed equivalent of a sequential general-purpose computer?<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2016)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The discussion below focuses on the case of multiple computers, although many of the issues are the same for concurrent processes running on a single computer.\n<\/p><p>Three viewpoints are commonly used:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Parallel algorithms in shared-memory model<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>All processors have access to a shared memory. The algorithm designer chooses the program executed by each processor.<\/li>\n<li>One theoretical model is the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parallel_random_access_machine\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Parallel random access machine\" data-key=\"dd56cd9e1115abb527672b5ff211f148\">parallel random access machines<\/a> (PRAM) that are used.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> However, the classical PRAM model assumes synchronous access to the shared memory.<\/li>\n<li>Shared-memory programs can be extended to distributed systems if the underlying operating system encapsulates the communication between nodes and virtually unifies the memory across all individual systems.<\/li>\n<li>A model that is closer to the behavior of real-world multiprocessor machines and takes into account the use of machine instructions, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Compare-and-swap\" title=\"Compare-and-swap\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"66dde14158b9133280980964d6b96a01\">Compare-and-swap<\/a> (CAS), is that of <i>asynchronous shared memory<\/i>. There is a wide body of work on this model, a summary of which can be found in the literature.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Parallel algorithms in message-passing model<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>The algorithm designer chooses the structure of the network, as well as the program executed by each computer.<\/li>\n<li>Models such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boolean_circuits\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Boolean circuits\" data-key=\"4e392e0ced0570f67162b38343bb75c1\">Boolean circuits<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sorting_network\" title=\"Sorting network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62e987305a27b868165c4c19f440b410\">sorting networks<\/a> are used.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> A Boolean circuit can be seen as a computer network: each gate is a computer that runs an extremely simple computer program. Similarly, a sorting network can be seen as a computer network: each comparator is a computer.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Distributed algorithms in message-passing model<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>The algorithm designer only chooses the computer program. All computers run the same program. The system must work correctly regardless of the structure of the network.<\/li>\n<li>A commonly used model is a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)\" title=\"Graph (discrete mathematics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00808684903c49e3772aa27a25ae60c6\">graph<\/a> with one <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Finite-state_machine\" title=\"Finite-state machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"40f94d27502cc7e9bbddfff6affffa67\">finite-state machine<\/a> per node.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In the case of distributed algorithms, computational problems are typically related to graphs. Often the graph that describes the structure of the computer network <i>is<\/i> the problem instance. This is illustrated in the following example.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2016)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"An_example\">An example<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Consider the computational problem of finding a coloring of a given graph <i>G<\/i>. Different fields might take the following approaches:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Centralized algorithms<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2016)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>The graph <i>G<\/i> is encoded as a string, and the string is given as input to a computer. The computer program finds a coloring of the graph, encodes the coloring as a string, and outputs the result.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Parallel algorithms<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>Again, the graph <i>G<\/i> is encoded as a string. However, multiple computers can access the same string in parallel. Each computer might focus on one part of the graph and produce a coloring for that part.<\/li>\n<li>The main focus is on high-performance computation that exploits the processing power of multiple computers in parallel.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Distributed algorithms<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>The graph <i>G<\/i> is the structure of the computer network. There is one computer for each node of <i>G<\/i> and one communication link for each edge of <i>G<\/i>. Initially, each computer only knows about its immediate neighbors in the graph <i>G<\/i>; the computers must exchange messages with each other to discover more about the structure of <i>G<\/i>. Each computer must produce its own color as output.<\/li>\n<li>The main focus is on coordinating the operation of an arbitrary distributed system.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2016)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>While the field of parallel algorithms has a different focus than the field of distributed algorithms, there is a lot of interaction between the two fields. For example, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cole%E2%80%93Vishkin_algorithm\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cole\u2013Vishkin algorithm\" data-key=\"001e4547536c19944707f9ecc33e4138\">Cole\u2013Vishkin algorithm<\/a> for graph coloring<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup> was originally presented as a parallel algorithm, but the same technique can also be used directly as a distributed algorithm.\n<\/p><p>Moreover, a parallel algorithm can be implemented either in a parallel system (using shared memory) or in a distributed system (using message passing).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup> The traditional boundary between parallel and distributed algorithms (choose a suitable network vs. run in any given network) does not lie in the same place as the boundary between parallel and distributed systems (shared memory vs. message passing).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Complexity_measures\">Complexity measures<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In parallel algorithms, yet another resource in addition to time and space is the number of computers. Indeed, often there is a trade-off between the running time and the number of computers: the problem can be solved faster if there are more computers running in parallel (see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Speedup\" title=\"Speedup\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"35261d8984d386bbc88f2dc4c23744b6\">speedup<\/a>). If a decision problem can be solved in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Polylogarithmic_time\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Polylogarithmic time\" data-key=\"b90112879707a2090dbcc63aa353c173\">polylogarithmic time<\/a> by using a polynomial number of processors, then the problem is said to be in the class <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/NC_(complexity)\" title=\"NC (complexity)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99653cc77f43f281e9701a9258695adb\">NC<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> The class NC can be defined equally well by using the PRAM formalism or Boolean circuits\u2014PRAM machines can simulate Boolean circuits efficiently and vice versa.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the analysis of distributed algorithms, more attention is usually paid on communication operations than computational steps. Perhaps the simplest model of distributed computing is a synchronous system where all nodes operate in a lockstep fashion. This model is commonly known as the LOCAL model. During each <i>communication round<\/i>, all nodes in parallel (1) receive the latest messages from their neighbours, (2) perform arbitrary local computation, and (3) send new messages to their neighbors. In such systems, a central complexity measure is the number of synchronous communication rounds required to complete the task.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>This complexity measure is closely related to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diameter_(graph_theory)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Diameter (graph theory)\" data-key=\"deae647fc095b2687b7ac00c21855e77\">diameter<\/a> of the network. Let <i>D<\/i> be the diameter of the network. On the one hand, any computable problem can be solved trivially in a synchronous distributed system in approximately 2<i>D<\/i> communication rounds: simply gather all information in one location (<i>D<\/i> rounds), solve the problem, and inform each node about the solution (<i>D<\/i> rounds).\n<\/p><p>On the other hand, if the running time of the algorithm is much smaller than <i>D<\/i> communication rounds, then the nodes in the network must produce their output without having the possibility to obtain information about distant parts of the network. In other words, the nodes must make globally consistent decisions based on information that is available in their <i>local D-neighbourhood<\/i>. Many distributed algorithms are known with the running time much smaller than <i>D<\/i> rounds, and understanding which problems can be solved by such algorithms is one of the central research questions of the field.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> Typically an algorithm which solves a problem in polylogarithmic time in the network size is considered efficient in this model.\n<\/p><p>Another commonly used measure is the total number of bits transmitted in the network (cf. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communication_complexity\" title=\"Communication complexity\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa5cba6d9bf2048176c9ab42dc241fb3\">communication complexity<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SchneiderTrading11_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SchneiderTrading11-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> The features of this concept are typically captured with the CONGEST(B) model, which similarly defined as the LOCAL model but where single messages can only contain B bits.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Other_problems\">Other problems<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Traditional computational problems take the perspective that we ask a question, a computer (or a distributed system) processes the question for a while, and then produces an answer and stops. However, there are also problems where we do not want the system to ever stop. Examples of such problems include the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dining_philosophers_problem\" title=\"Dining philosophers problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19697ec34641a72b92e7fc050cae5f39\">dining philosophers problem<\/a> and other similar <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mutual_exclusion\" title=\"Mutual exclusion\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0dedcace50c6a74df60ce7292233d161\">mutual exclusion<\/a> problems. In these problems, the distributed system is supposed to continuously coordinate the use of shared resources so that no conflicts or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deadlock\" title=\"Deadlock\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a85bfe60f87a49fee4173cb82d75d41\">deadlocks<\/a> occur.\n<\/p><p>There are also fundamental challenges that are unique to distributed computing. The first example is challenges that are related to <i>fault-tolerance<\/i>. Examples of related problems include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consensus_(computer_science)\" title=\"Consensus (computer science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ba9ce4f92a30c6edcc64482ebe6728b\">consensus problems<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Byzantine_fault_tolerance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Byzantine fault tolerance\" data-key=\"89acbb0f78bdf6b0676988557c52e410\">Byzantine fault tolerance<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Self-stabilisation\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Self-stabilisation\" data-key=\"046be5e537c19fdbc46b7ffff49179ab\">self-stabilisation<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A lot of research is also focused on understanding the <i>asynchronous<\/i> nature of distributed systems:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Synchronizer_(algorithm)\" title=\"Synchronizer (algorithm)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3fc119d84664b27ae7246c43d0e65199\">Synchronizers<\/a> can be used to run synchronous algorithms in asynchronous systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Logical_clock\" title=\"Logical clock\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1ad7dc86ad0d3588a4037666a6ce68ca\">Logical clocks<\/a> provide a causal <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Happened-before\" title=\"Happened-before\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"692f273e3155968f7ce9214cf939bfb4\">happened-before<\/a> ordering of events.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clock_synchronization\" title=\"Clock synchronization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc65661dd8073b602d5c4d61bc2ec0c9\">Clock synchronization<\/a> algorithms provide globally consistent physical time stamps.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Leader_election\" title=\"Leader election\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f1fcf062c78a5320541efed4539237c\">Election<\/a>\n<\/p><p><i>Coordinator election<\/i> (or <i>leader election<\/i>) is the process of designating a single <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Process_(computing)\" title=\"Process (computing)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5383ce66c2e76880ab455c875f900939\">process<\/a> as the organizer of some task distributed among several computers (nodes). Before the task is begun, all network nodes are either unaware which node will serve as the \"coordinator\" (or leader) of the task, or unable to communicate with the current coordinator. After a coordinator election algorithm has been run, however, each node throughout the network recognizes a particular, unique node as the task coordinator.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HaloiApache15_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HaloiApache15-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The network nodes communicate among themselves in order to decide which of them will get into the \"coordinator\" state. For that, they need some method in order to break the symmetry among them. For example, if each node has unique and comparable identities, then the nodes can compare their identities, and decide that the node with the highest identity is the coordinator.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HaloiApache15_52-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HaloiApache15-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The definition of this problem is often attributed to LeLann, who formalized it as a method to create a new token in a token <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ring_network\" title=\"Ring network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6cf705c8e959793fe3a6e48c026d715\">ring network<\/a> in which the token has been lost.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Coordinator election algorithms are designed to be economical in terms of total <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Byte\" title=\"Byte\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c17f5584ccbfbe8c9fafe01b5c0b091\">bytes<\/a> transmitted, and time. The algorithm suggested by Gallager, Humblet, and Spira <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup> for general undirected graphs has had a strong impact on the design of distributed algorithms in general, and won the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dijkstra_Prize\" title=\"Dijkstra Prize\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f9d725b5d4ea4ab31076306bc3ec0f01\">Dijkstra Prize<\/a> for an influential paper in distributed computing.\n<\/p><p>Many other algorithms were suggested for different kind of network <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)\" title=\"Graph (discrete mathematics)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00808684903c49e3772aa27a25ae60c6\">graphs<\/a>, such as undirected rings, unidirectional rings, complete graphs, grids, directed Euler graphs, and others. A general method that decouples the issue of the graph family from the design of the coordinator election algorithm was suggested by Korach, Kutten, and Moran.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-55\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In order to perform coordination, distributed systems employ the concept of coordinators. The coordinator election problem is to choose a process from among a group of processes on different processors in a distributed system to act as the central coordinator. Several central coordinator election algorithms exist.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-56\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Properties_of_distributed_systems\">Properties of distributed systems<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>So far the focus has been on <i>designing<\/i> a distributed system that solves a given problem. A complementary research problem is <i>studying<\/i> the properties of a given distributed system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-57\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-58\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Halting_problem\" title=\"Halting problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6e278b2d148fb2711f57defecd5df6d3\">halting problem<\/a> is an analogous example from the field of centralised computation: we are given a computer program and the task is to decide whether it halts or runs forever. The halting problem is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Undecidable_problem\" title=\"Undecidable problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8498efaa7d12099f78306ede235407e\">undecidable<\/a> in the general case, and naturally understanding the behaviour of a computer network is at least as hard as understanding the behaviour of one computer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SvozilIndet11_59-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SvozilIndet11-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, there are many interesting special cases that are decidable. In particular, it is possible to reason about the behaviour of a network of finite-state machines. One example is telling whether a given network of interacting (asynchronous and non-deterministic) finite-state machines can reach a deadlock. This problem is <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PSPACE-complete\" title=\"PSPACE-complete\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1db81891e852fe7bd07dad2e008a7a59\">PSPACE-complete<\/a>,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup> i.e., it is decidable, but it is not likely that there is an efficient (centralised, parallel or distributed) algorithm that solves the problem in the case of large networks.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/AppScale\" title=\"AppScale\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f6c59719e2e037925926d7786fbc871\">AppScale<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Berkeley_Open_Infrastructure_for_Network_Computing\" title=\"Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8395678a741a1a57c473d42c83668c15\">BOINC<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Code_mobility\" title=\"Code mobility\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af1ed4c11bda021aa8e2bfcca616254b\">Code mobility<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decentralized_computing\" title=\"Decentralized computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cf007fc5af8169494ba202ab505fffc1\">Decentralized computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_algorithm\" title=\"Distributed algorithm\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4bdfddfceba77e1c089d0987495f120\">Distributed algorithm<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_algorithmic_mechanism_design\" title=\"Distributed algorithmic mechanism design\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"25944c85d53d4be67f07d285c5d75c1b\">Distributed algorithmic mechanism design<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_cache\" title=\"Distributed cache\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7fec040a209f3a1597976b612e751e8d\">Distributed cache<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_operating_system\" title=\"Distributed operating system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07442654bb0036d27170ecd306502f3b\">Distributed operating system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Edsger_W._Dijkstra_Prize_in_Distributed_Computing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Edsger W. Dijkstra Prize in Distributed Computing\" data-key=\"84b5197db860359aa9f2d1a5c630915a\">Edsger W. Dijkstra Prize in Distributed Computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fog_computing\" title=\"Fog computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb77d1158b6f7affcb45b7c8ec4aabfd\">Fog computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Folding@home\" title=\"Folding@home\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57d87cd03156c28a567830d57360f94\">Folding@home<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Grid_computing\" title=\"Grid computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"931594bb3dc749a80f3b3415bb585613\">Grid computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inferno_(operating_system)\" title=\"Inferno (operating system)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c90096be9e2bac94d4a2334756eccfe2\">Inferno<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Jungle_computing\" title=\"Jungle computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff8ba7a53509054f5fdfded2e3e96039\">Jungle computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Layered_queueing_network\" title=\"Layered queueing network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6842688fb642d506beb272d20774d0c4\">Layered queueing network<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_Oriented_Architecture\" title=\"Library Oriented Architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea2a3d6a02f460df1a1f230ff4e6bc91\">Library Oriented Architecture<\/a> (LOA)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_distributed_computing_conferences\" title=\"List of distributed computing conferences\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53c99d6fbc992c93c1713f23ad71a87d\">List of distributed computing conferences<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_distributed_computing_projects\" title=\"List of distributed computing projects\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac96f8efb88de2e38b6508289be4016e\">List of distributed computing projects<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_important_publications_in_concurrent,_parallel,_and_distributed_computing\" title=\"List of important publications in concurrent, parallel, and distributed computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"df95bbe79159fb55bcebf642250ea1d0\">List of important publications in concurrent, parallel, and distributed computing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Model_checking\" title=\"Model checking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d5a2d8c63704cfc78d6f8df17e7d9a4e\">Model checking<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parallel_distributed_processing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Parallel distributed processing\" data-key=\"2f108b30d913663e582c1f96dbb24183\">Parallel distributed processing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Parallel_programming_model\" title=\"Parallel programming model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2536778b4bdc66c429055da6758d9a6d\">Parallel programming model<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs\" title=\"Plan 9 from Bell Labs\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"27e6e87b5b5a73757d547d4ab48a214a\">Plan 9 from Bell Labs<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shared_nothing_architecture\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Shared nothing architecture\" data-key=\"42cff8194dd32423c644f51c7d2a87f4\">Shared nothing architecture<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-tanenbaum-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-tanenbaum_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-tanenbaum_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Tanenbaum, Andrew S.; Steen, Maarten van (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.distributed-systems.net\/index.php\/books\/distributed-systems-3rd-edition-2017\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Distributed systems: principles and paradigms<\/i><\/a>. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-13-088893-1.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Distributed+systems%3A+principles+and+paradigms&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-13-088893-1&rft.au=Tanenbaum%2C+Andrew+S.&rft.au=Steen%2C+Maarten+van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.distributed-systems.net%2Findex.php%2Fbooks%2Fdistributed-systems-3rd-edition-2017&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>. <a href=\"#CITEREFDolev2000\">Dolev (2000)<\/a>. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 10.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Magnoni, L. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/stacks.iop.org\/1742-6596\/608\/i=1\/a=012038\" target=\"_blank\">\"Modern Messaging for Distributed Sytems\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Physics: Conference Series<\/i>. <b>608<\/b> (1): 012038. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F608%2F1%2F012038\" target=\"_blank\">10.1088\/1742-6596\/608\/1\/012038<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/1742-6596\" target=\"_blank\">1742-6596<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Physics%3A+Conference+Series&rft.atitle=Modern+Messaging+for+Distributed+Sytems&rft.volume=608&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=012038&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F608%2F1%2F012038&rft.issn=1742-6596&rft.aulast=Magnoni&rft.aufirst=L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstacks.iop.org%2F1742-6596%2F608%2Fi%3D1%2Fa%3D012038&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGodfrey2002\">Godfrey (2002)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Andrews_2000-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Andrews_2000_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Andrews_2000_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>, p. 291\u2013292. <a href=\"#CITEREFDolev2000\">Dolev (2000)<\/a>, p. 5.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. 1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-harvtxt|Ghosh|2007-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-harvtxt|Ghosh|2007_7-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-harvtxt|Ghosh|2007_7-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 10.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>, pp. 8\u20139, 291. <a href=\"#CITEREFDolev2000\">Dolev (2000)<\/a>, p. 5. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 3. <a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. xix, 1. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. xv.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>, p. 291. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 3. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 4.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-10\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 3\u20134. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-11\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 4. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 2.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-12\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 4, 8. <a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. 2\u20133. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 4.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-13\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. 2. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-14\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 7. <a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. xix, 2. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 4.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-15\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 10. <a href=\"#CITEREFKeidar2008\">Keidar (2008)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-16\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. xix, 1\u20132. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. 1.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-18\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFPapadimitriou1994\">Papadimitriou (1994)<\/a>, Chapter 15. <a href=\"#CITEREFKeidar2008\">Keidar (2008)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-19\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">See references in <a href=\"#Introduction\">Introduction<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BetalebParallel16-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BetalebParallel16_20-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Bentaleb, A.; Yifan, L.; Xin, J.; et al. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.comp.nus.edu.sg\/~rahul\/allfiles\/cs6234-16-pds.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Parallel and Distributed Algorithms\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. National University of Singapore<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">20 July<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Parallel+and+Distributed+Algorithms&rft.pub=National+University+of+Singapore&rft.date=2016&rft.au=Bentaleb%2C+A.&rft.au=Yifan%2C+L.&rft.au=Xin%2C+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.comp.nus.edu.sg%2F~rahul%2Fallfiles%2Fcs6234-16-pds.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-21\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>, p. 348.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>, p. 32.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFPeter2004\">Peter (2004)<\/a>, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nethistory.info\/History%20of%20the%20Internet\/email.html\" target=\"_blank\">The history of email<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BanksOnThe12-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-BanksOnThe12_24-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Banks, M. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=1J78hiHKaPoC&pg=PT67\" target=\"_blank\"><i>On the Way to the Web: The Secret History of the Internet and its Founders<\/i><\/a>. Apress. pp. 44\u20135. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781430250746.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Way+to+the+Web%3A+The+Secret+History+of+the+Internet+and+its+Founders&rft.pages=44-5&rft.pub=Apress&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781430250746&rft.au=Banks%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1J78hiHKaPoC%26pg%3DPT67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TelIntro00-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TelIntro00_25-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Tel, G. (2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=vlpnS25qAJQC&pg=PA35\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Introduction to Distributed Algorithms<\/i><\/a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35\u201336. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780521794831.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Distributed+Algorithms&rft.pages=35-36&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780521794831&rft.au=Tel%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvlpnS25qAJQC%26pg%3DPA35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Ohl\u00eddalEvo06-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Ohl\u00eddalEvo06_26-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Ohl\u00eddal, M.; Jaro\u0161, J.; Schwarz, J.; et al. (2006). \"Evolutionary Design of OAB and AAB Communication Schedules for Interconnection Networks\". In Rothlauf, F.; Branke, J.; Cagnoni, S. <i>Applications of Evolutionary Computing<\/i>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 267\u201378. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783540332374.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+Design+of+OAB+and+AAB+Communication+Schedules+for+Interconnection+Networks&rft.btitle=Applications+of+Evolutionary+Computing&rft.pages=267-78&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9783540332374&rft.au=Ohl%C3%ADdal%2C+M.&rft.au=Jaro%C5%A1%2C+J.&rft.au=Schwarz%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/pdfs.semanticscholar.org\/2950\/37ee46ac281590f67435380cebc385ac9749.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Real Time And Distributed Computing Systems\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Serial_Number\" title=\"International Standard Serial Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b75d7be5e1e3fe2cbeef4bdab3a945d0\">ISSN<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/issn\/2278-0661\" target=\"_blank\">2278-0661<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2017-01-09<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Real+Time+And+Distributed+Computing+Systems&rft.issn=2278-0661&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2F2950%2F37ee46ac281590f67435380cebc385ac9749.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Vigna20150127-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Vigna20150127_28-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Vigna P, Casey MJ. <i>The Age of Cryptocurrency: How Bitcoin and the Blockchain Are Challenging the Global Economic Order<\/i> St. Martin's Press January 27, 2015 <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781250065636<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-29\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Hieu., Vu, Quang (2010). <i>Peer-to-peer computing : principles and applications<\/i>. Lupu, Mihai., Ooi, Beng Chin, 1961-. Heidelberg: Springer. p. 16. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783642035135. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/OCLC\" title=\"OCLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e119fc7e1d352d47ef5b80f32a4b20c3\">OCLC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.worldcat.org\/oclc\/663093862\" target=\"_blank\">663093862<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peer-to-peer+computing+%3A+principles+and+applications&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F663093862&rft.isbn=9783642035135&rft.aulast=Hieu.&rft.aufirst=Vu%2C+Quang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-30\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLindAlm2006\" class=\"citation\">Lind P, Alm M (2006), \"A database-centric virtual chemistry system\", <i>J Chem Inf Model<\/i>, <b>46<\/b> (3): 1034\u20139, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1021%2Fci050360b\" target=\"_blank\">10.1021\/ci050360b<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PubMed Identifier\" data-key=\"16a86bdb7b3fdaff41556960534d2db6\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/16711722\" target=\"_blank\">16711722<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Chem+Inf+Model&rft.atitle=A+database-centric+virtual+chemistry+system&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1034-9&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fci050360b&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16711722&rft.aulast=Lind&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Alm%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-31\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFElmasriNavathe2000\">Elmasri & Navathe (2000)<\/a>, Section 24.1.2.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-32\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>, p. 10\u201311. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 4\u20136. <a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. xix, 1. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, p. xv. <a href=\"#CITEREFElmasriNavathe2000\">Elmasri & Navathe (2000)<\/a>, Section 24.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ToomarianNeural92-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ToomarianNeural92_33-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Toomarian, N.B.; Barhen, J.; Gulati, S. (1992). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=CKTsCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA214\" target=\"_blank\">\"Neural Networks for Real-Time Robotic Applications\"<\/a>. In Fijany, A.; Bejczy, A. <i>Parallel Computation Systems For Robotics: Algorithms And Architectures<\/i>. World Scientific. p. 214. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9789814506175.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Neural+Networks+for+Real-Time+Robotic+Applications&rft.btitle=Parallel+Computation+Systems+For+Robotics%3A+Algorithms+And+Architectures&rft.pages=214&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9789814506175&rft.au=Toomarian%2C+N.B.&rft.au=Barhen%2C+J.&rft.au=Gulati%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCKTsCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SavageModels98-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SavageModels98_34-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Savage, J.E. (1998). <i>Models of Computation: Exploring the Power of Computing<\/i>. Addison Wesley. p. 209. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780201895391.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Models+of+Computation%3A+Exploring+the+Power+of+Computing&rft.pages=209&rft.pub=Addison+Wesley&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780201895391&rft.au=Savage%2C+J.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFCormenLeisersonRivest1990\">Cormen, Leiserson & Rivest (1990)<\/a>, Section 30.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFHerlihyShavit2008\">Herlihy & Shavit (2008)<\/a>, Chapters 2-6.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFCormenLeisersonRivest1990\">Cormen, Leiserson & Rivest (1990)<\/a>, Sections 28 and 29.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-39\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFColeVishkin1986\">Cole & Vishkin (1986)<\/a>. <a href=\"#CITEREFCormenLeisersonRivest1990\">Cormen, Leiserson & Rivest (1990)<\/a>, Section 30.5.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAndrews2000\">Andrews (2000)<\/a>, p. ix.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFAroraBarak2009\">Arora & Barak (2009)<\/a>, Section 6.7. <a href=\"#CITEREFPapadimitriou1994\">Papadimitriou (1994)<\/a>, Section 15.3.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFPapadimitriou1994\">Papadimitriou (1994)<\/a>, Section 15.2.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. 17\u201323.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-44\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, Sections 2.3 and 7. <a href=\"#CITEREFLinial1992\">Linial (1992)<\/a>. <a href=\"#CITEREFNaorStockmeyer1995\">Naor & Stockmeyer (1995)<\/a>.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SchneiderTrading11-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SchneiderTrading11_45-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Schneider, J.; Wattenhofer, R. (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=dT6nwpXvES4C&pg=PA51\" target=\"_blank\">\"Trading Bit, Message, and Time Complexity of Distributed Algorithms\"<\/a>. In Peleg, D. <i>Distributed Computing<\/i>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 51\u201365. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783642240997.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Trading+Bit%2C+Message%2C+and+Time+Complexity+of+Distributed+Algorithms&rft.btitle=Distributed+Computing&rft.pages=51-65&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9783642240997&rft.au=Schneider%2C+J.&rft.au=Wattenhofer%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdT6nwpXvES4C%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, Sections 5\u20137. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, Chapter 13.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, p. 99\u2013102. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, p. 192\u2013193.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFDolev2000\">Dolev (2000)<\/a>. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, Chapter 17.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-49\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, Section 16. <a href=\"#CITEREFPeleg2000\">Peleg (2000)<\/a>, Section 6.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-50\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-50\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFLynch1996\">Lynch (1996)<\/a>, Section 18. <a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, Sections 6.2\u20136.3.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-51\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-51\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFGhosh2007\">Ghosh (2007)<\/a>, Section 6.4.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HaloiApache15-52\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-HaloiApache15_52-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HaloiApache15_52-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Haloi, S. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Ym9uBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA100\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Apache ZooKeeper Essentials<\/i><\/a>. Packt Publishing Ltd. pp. 100\u2013101. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781784398323.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Apache+ZooKeeper+Essentials&rft.pages=100-101&rft.pub=Packt+Publishing+Ltd&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781784398323&rft.au=Haloi%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYm9uBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-53\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-53\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">LeLann, G. (1977). \"Distributed systems - toward a formal approach\". <i>Information Processing<\/i>. <b>77<\/b>: 155\u00b7160 – via Elsevier.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Information+Processing&rft.atitle=Distributed+systems+-+toward+a+formal+approach&rft.volume=77&rft.pages=155%C2%B7160&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=LeLann&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-54\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Robert_G._Gallager\" title=\"Robert G. Gallager\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e67dfd03912de92ff8ce0cb30e2a1fad\">R. G. Gallager<\/a>, P. A. Humblet, and P. M. Spira (January 1983). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.apposite-tech.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/09\/p66-gallager.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Distributed Algorithm for Minimum-Weight Spanning Trees\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems<\/i>. <b>5<\/b> (1): 66\u201377. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F357195.357200\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/357195.357200<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+Transactions+on+Programming+Languages+and+Systems&rft.atitle=A+Distributed+Algorithm+for+Minimum-Weight+Spanning+Trees&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=66-77&rft.date=1983-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F357195.357200&rft.au=R.+G.+Gallager%2C+P.+A.+Humblet%2C+and+P.+M.+Spira&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apposite-tech.com%2Fblog%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F09%2Fp66-gallager.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><span class=\"cs1-maint citation-comment\">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list\" title=\"Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2a0e79c8483cb7b1d8c3c0fbce442edf\">link<\/a>)<\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-55\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Korach, Ephraim; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shay_Kutten\" title=\"Shay Kutten\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08ed0dd74dfa5378e03559f101798ad9\">Kutten, Shay<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shlomo_Moran\" title=\"Shlomo Moran\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f5b83d75e8d7241133903e7dd359c9\">Moran, Shlomo<\/a> (1990). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cs.technion.ac.il\/~moran\/r\/PS\/kkm.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Modular Technique for the Design of Efficient Distributed Leader Finding Algorithms\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i>ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems<\/i>. <b>12<\/b> (1): 84\u2013101. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.139.7342\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.139.7342<\/a><\/span>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F77606.77610\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/77606.77610<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+Transactions+on+Programming+Languages+and+Systems&rft.atitle=A+Modular+Technique+for+the+Design+of+Efficient+Distributed+Leader+Finding+Algorithms&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=84-101&rft.date=1990&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.139.7342&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F77606.77610&rft.aulast=Korach&rft.aufirst=Ephraim&rft.au=Kutten%2C+Shay&rft.au=Moran%2C+Shlomo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.technion.ac.il%2F~moran%2Fr%2FPS%2Fkkm.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-56\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-56\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Hamilton, Howard. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www2.cs.uregina.ca\/~hamilton\/courses\/330\/notes\/distributed\/distributed.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Distributed Algorithms\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-03-03<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Distributed+Algorithms&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.cs.uregina.ca%2F~hamilton%2Fcourses%2F330%2Fnotes%2Fdistributed%2Fdistributed.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-57\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/cstheory.stackexchange.com\/questions\/10045\/major-unsolved-problems-in-distributed-systems\" target=\"_blank\">\"Major unsolved problems in distributed systems?\"<\/a>. <i>cstheory.stackexchange.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cstheory.stackexchange.com&rft.atitle=Major+unsolved+problems+in+distributed+systems%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcstheory.stackexchange.com%2Fquestions%2F10045%2Fmajor-unsolved-problems-in-distributed-systems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-58\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.theserverside.com\/feature\/How-big-data-and-distributed-systems-solve-traditional-scalability-problems\" target=\"_blank\">\"How big data and distributed systems solve traditional scalability problems\"<\/a>. <i>theserverside.com<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">16 March<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=theserverside.com&rft.atitle=How+big+data+and+distributed+systems+solve+traditional+scalability+problems&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theserverside.com%2Ffeature%2FHow-big-data-and-distributed-systems-solve-traditional-scalability-problems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SvozilIndet11-59\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SvozilIndet11_59-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Svozil, K. (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ep_FCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA112\" target=\"_blank\">\"Indeterminism and Randomness Through Physics\"<\/a>. In Hector, Z. <i>Randomness Through Computation: Some Answers, More Questions<\/i>. World Scientific. pp. 112\u20133. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9789814462631.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Indeterminism+and+Randomness+Through+Physics&rft.btitle=Randomness+Through+Computation%3A+Some+Answers%2C+More+Questions&rft.pages=112-3&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9789814462631&rft.au=Svozil%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dep_FCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-60\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-60\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a href=\"#CITEREFPapadimitriou1994\">Papadimitriou (1994)<\/a>, Section 19.3.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<dl><dt>Books<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAndrews2000\" class=\"citation\">Andrews, Gregory R. (2000), <i>Foundations of Multithreaded, Parallel, and Distributed Programming<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Addison%E2%80%93Wesley\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Addison\u2013Wesley\" data-key=\"cb269618f957d1db5639eeface2ed631\">Addison\u2013Wesley<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-201-35752-3<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Multithreaded%2C+Parallel%2C+and+Distributed+Programming&rft.pub=Addison%E2%80%93Wesley&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-201-35752-3&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=Gregory+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAroraBarak2009\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sanjeev_Arora\" title=\"Sanjeev Arora\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"58fc930b1737a8bb5533dcd8b997cba6\">Arora, Sanjeev<\/a>; Barak, Boaz (2009), <i>Computational Complexity \u2013 A Modern Approach<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cambridge_University_Press\" title=\"Cambridge University Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2f08c47b8f3710987767a19a2aab5e5\">Cambridge<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-521-42426-4<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computational+Complexity+%E2%80%93+A+Modern+Approach&rft.pub=Cambridge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-42426-4&rft.aulast=Arora&rft.aufirst=Sanjeev&rft.au=Barak%2C+Boaz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCormenLeisersonRivest1990\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thomas_H._Cormen\" title=\"Thomas H. Cormen\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ca5f2cf0ba17b27fb9ea08d22b4e3c4\">Cormen, Thomas H.<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Charles_E._Leiserson\" title=\"Charles E. Leiserson\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26872ed736e74364e52ca7bf95ea741f\">Leiserson, Charles E.<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ron_Rivest\" title=\"Ron Rivest\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d46a424dae95860a7242529fcfc5fdf4\">Rivest, Ronald L.<\/a> (1990), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Introduction_to_Algorithms\" title=\"Introduction to Algorithms\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c23ddc053378140b7cb514680fd1f73c\"><i>Introduction to Algorithms<\/i><\/a> (1st ed.), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT_Press\" title=\"MIT Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"883c3b1bfd21448f57a290249876731b\">MIT Press<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-262-03141-7<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Algorithms&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-262-03141-7&rft.aulast=Cormen&rft.aufirst=Thomas+H.&rft.au=Leiserson%2C+Charles+E.&rft.au=Rivest%2C+Ronald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFDolev2000\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shlomi_Dolev\" title=\"Shlomi Dolev\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32b0de970b3d944c60ace03d2c95e3f3\">Dolev, Shlomi<\/a> (2000), <i>Self-Stabilization<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT_Press\" title=\"MIT Press\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"883c3b1bfd21448f57a290249876731b\">MIT Press<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-262-04178-2<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Self-Stabilization&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-262-04178-2&rft.aulast=Dolev&rft.aufirst=Shlomi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFElmasriNavathe2000\" class=\"citation\">Elmasri, Ramez; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shamkant_Navathe\" title=\"Shamkant Navathe\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"964554ba1f5fde0b5e818c142e2d19c0\">Navathe, Shamkant B.<\/a> (2000), <i>Fundamentals of Database Systems<\/i> (3rd ed.), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Addison%E2%80%93Wesley\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Addison\u2013Wesley\" data-key=\"cb269618f957d1db5639eeface2ed631\">Addison\u2013Wesley<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-201-54263-9<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Database+Systems&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Addison%E2%80%93Wesley&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-201-54263-9&rft.aulast=Elmasri&rft.aufirst=Ramez&rft.au=Navathe%2C+Shamkant+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGhosh2007\" class=\"citation\">Ghosh, Sukumar (2007), <i>Distributed Systems \u2013 An Algorithmic Approach<\/i>, Chapman & Hall\/CRC, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-58488-564-1<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Distributed+Systems+%E2%80%93+An+Algorithmic+Approach&rft.pub=Chapman+%26+Hall%2FCRC&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-58488-564-1&rft.aulast=Ghosh&rft.aufirst=Sukumar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLynch1996\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nancy_Lynch\" title=\"Nancy Lynch\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3aa7d936026c98250d383122b4596e72\">Lynch, Nancy A.<\/a> (1996), <i>Distributed Algorithms<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morgan_Kaufmann_Publishers\" title=\"Morgan Kaufmann Publishers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f02dcb95f78acd33dffa3de3fec1d88\">Morgan Kaufmann<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-55860-348-6<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Distributed+Algorithms&rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-55860-348-6&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=Nancy+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFHerlihyShavit2008\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maurice_Herlihy\" title=\"Maurice Herlihy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1542e091efe8b08982b5e91ce34cf594\">Herlihy, Maurice P.<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nir_Shavit\" title=\"Nir Shavit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d078957185302548ec8c8dd44ed3f922\">Shavit, Nir N.<\/a> (2008), <i>The Art of Multiprocessor Programming<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Morgan_Kaufmann_Publishers\" title=\"Morgan Kaufmann Publishers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f02dcb95f78acd33dffa3de3fec1d88\">Morgan Kaufmann<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-12-370591-4<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Multiprocessor+Programming&rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-12-370591-4&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=Maurice+P.&rft.au=Shavit%2C+Nir+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPapadimitriou1994\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Christos_Papadimitriou\" title=\"Christos Papadimitriou\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3370310dbc88cd459f7cb3c310b08016\">Papadimitriou, Christos H.<\/a> (1994), <i>Computational Complexity<\/i>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Addison%E2%80%93Wesley\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Addison\u2013Wesley\" data-key=\"cb269618f957d1db5639eeface2ed631\">Addison\u2013Wesley<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-201-53082-7<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computational+Complexity&rft.pub=Addison%E2%80%93Wesley&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-201-53082-7&rft.aulast=Papadimitriou&rft.aufirst=Christos+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPeleg2000\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/David_Peleg_(scientist)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"David Peleg (scientist)\" data-key=\"388ec58ecbd5af1eb6f3ddefad8523fa\">Peleg, David<\/a> (2000), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ec-securehost.com\/SIAM\/DT05.html\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Distributed Computing: A Locality-Sensitive Approach<\/i><\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Society_for_Industrial_and_Applied_Mathematics\" title=\"Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"669f74e15546dedcb65f95662dc680a8\">SIAM<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-89871-464-7<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Distributed+Computing%3A+A+Locality-Sensitive+Approach&rft.pub=SIAM&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-89871-464-7&rft.aulast=Peleg&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ec-securehost.com%2FSIAM%2FDT05.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Articles<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFColeVishkin1986\" class=\"citation\">Cole, Richard; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Uzi_Vishkin\" title=\"Uzi Vishkin\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c02346afb7fc7f885bec12726a60c3ac\">Vishkin, Uzi<\/a> (1986), \"Deterministic coin tossing with applications to optimal parallel list ranking\", <i>Information and Control<\/i>, <b>70<\/b> (1): 32\u201353, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2FS0019-9958%2886%2980023-7\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/S0019-9958(86)80023-7<\/a><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Information+and+Control&rft.atitle=Deterministic+coin+tossing+with+applications+to+optimal+parallel+list+ranking&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32-53&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0019-9958%2886%2980023-7&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Vishkin%2C+Uzi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKeidar2008\" class=\"citation\">Keidar, Idit (2008), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/webee.technion.ac.il\/~idish\/sigactNews\/#column%2032\" target=\"_blank\">\"Distributed computing column 32 \u2013 The year in review\"<\/a>, <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ACM_SIGACT_News\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ACM SIGACT News\" data-key=\"f0dc946b12f3d4ba8820fd01f06ef577\">ACM SIGACT News<\/a><\/i>, <b>39<\/b> (4): 53\u201354, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.116.1285\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.116.1285<\/a><\/span>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F1466390.1466402\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/1466390.1466402<\/a><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+SIGACT+News&rft.atitle=Distributed+computing+column+32+%E2%80%93+The+year+in+review&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=53-54&rft.date=2008&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.116.1285&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F1466390.1466402&rft.aulast=Keidar&rft.aufirst=Idit&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebee.technion.ac.il%2F~idish%2FsigactNews%2F%23column%252032&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFLinial1992\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Nati_Linial\" title=\"Nati Linial\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2790ed84664439ce086028f69c9e5766\">Linial, Nathan<\/a> (1992), \"Locality in distributed graph algorithms\", <i>SIAM Journal on Computing<\/i>, <b>21<\/b> (1): 193\u2013201, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.471.6378\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.471.6378<\/a><\/span>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1137%2F0221015\" target=\"_blank\">10.1137\/0221015<\/a><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SIAM+Journal+on+Computing&rft.atitle=Locality+in+distributed+graph+algorithms&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=193-201&rft.date=1992&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.471.6378&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1137%2F0221015&rft.aulast=Linial&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNaorStockmeyer1995\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Moni_Naor\" title=\"Moni Naor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c4d2ed3bf2bff6f79aa4091b6212feba\">Naor, Moni<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Larry_Stockmeyer\" title=\"Larry Stockmeyer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e38a0ed46133495ad109ea07ec8cd45\">Stockmeyer, Larry<\/a> (1995), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il\/~naor\/PAPERS\/lcl.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"What can be computed locally?\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>, <i>SIAM Journal on Computing<\/i>, <b>24<\/b> (6): 1259\u20131277, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/CiteSeerX\" title=\"CiteSeerX\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d6197b7f6e719ce5f156bf18731143bb\">CiteSeerX<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-lock-free\" title=\"Freely accessible\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/viewdoc\/summary?doi=10.1.1.29.669\" target=\"_blank\">10.1.1.29.669<\/a><\/span>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1137%2FS0097539793254571\" target=\"_blank\">10.1137\/S0097539793254571<\/a><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SIAM+Journal+on+Computing&rft.atitle=What+can+be+computed+locally%3F&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1259-1277&rft.date=1995&rft_id=%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.29.669&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1137%2FS0097539793254571&rft.aulast=Naor&rft.aufirst=Moni&rft.au=Stockmeyer%2C+Larry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il%2F~naor%2FPAPERS%2Flcl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Web sites<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGodfrey2002\" class=\"citation web\">Godfrey, Bill (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bacchae.co.uk\/docs\/dist.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"A primer on distributed computing\"<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+primer+on+distributed+computing&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Godfrey&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bacchae.co.uk%2Fdocs%2Fdist.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFPeter2004\" class=\"citation web\">Peter, Ian (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nethistory.info\/History%20of%20the%20Internet\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Ian Peter's History of the Internet\"<\/a><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2009-08-04<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ian+Peter%27s+History+of+the+Internet&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Peter&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nethistory.info%2FHistory%2520of%2520the%2520Internet%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<dl><dt>Books<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFAttiya,_Hagit_and_Jennifer_Welch2004\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hagit_Attiya\" title=\"Hagit Attiya\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a2d87857465617817b8eb40a56246a8\">Attiya, Hagit<\/a> and Jennifer Welch (2004), <i>Distributed Computing: Fundamentals, Simulations, and Advanced Topics<\/i>, Wiley-Interscience<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Distributed+Computing%3A+Fundamentals%2C+Simulations%2C+and+Advanced+Topics&rft.pub=Wiley-Interscience&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Attiya%2C+Hagit+and+Jennifer+Welch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-471-45324-2.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChristian_CachinRachid_GuerraouiLu\u00eds_Rodrigues2011\" class=\"citation\">Christian Cachin; Rachid Guerraoui; Lu\u00eds Rodrigues (2011), <i>Introduction to Reliable and Secure Distributed Programming<\/i> (2. ed.), Springer, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-3-642-15259-7<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Reliable+and+Secure+Distributed+Programming&rft.edition=2.&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-642-15259-7&rft.au=Christian+Cachin&rft.au=Rachid+Guerraoui&rft.au=Lu%C3%ADs+Rodrigues&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFCoulouris,_George2011\" class=\"citation\">Coulouris, George; et al. (2011), <i>Distributed Systems: Concepts and Design (5th Edition)<\/i>, Addison-Wesley<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Distributed+Systems%3A+Concepts+and+Design+%285th+Edition%29&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Coulouris%2C+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-132-14301-1.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFFaber1998\" class=\"citation\">Faber, Jim (1998), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/docstore.mik.ua\/orelly\/java-ent\/dist\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Java Distributed Computing<\/i><\/a>, O'Reilly<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Java+Distributed+Computing&rft.pub=O%27Reilly&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Faber&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdocstore.mik.ua%2Forelly%2Fjava-ent%2Fdist%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/docstore.mik.ua\/orelly\/java-ent\/dist\/index.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Java Distributed Computing by Jim Faber, 1998<\/a><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFGarg,_Vijay_K.2002\" class=\"citation\">Garg, Vijay K. (2002), <i>Elements of Distributed Computing<\/i>, Wiley-IEEE Press<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elements+of+Distributed+Computing&rft.pub=Wiley-IEEE+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.au=Garg%2C+Vijay+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/> <link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 0-471-03600-5.<\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFTel1994\" class=\"citation\">Tel, Gerard (1994), <i>Introduction to Distributed Algorithms<\/i>, Cambridge University Press<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Distributed+Algorithms&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Tel&rft.aufirst=Gerard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFChandy,_Mani\" class=\"citation\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/K._Mani_Chandy\" title=\"K. Mani Chandy\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"95dcf0b45e5f5715c4e5b1d4a0e054b9\">Chandy, Mani<\/a>; et al., <i>Parallel Program Design<\/i><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Parallel+Program+Design&rft.au=Chandy%2C+Mani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Articles<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFKeidarRajsbaum2000\u20132009\" class=\"citation\">Keidar, Idit; Rajsbaum, Sergio, eds. (2000\u20132009), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/webee.technion.ac.il\/~idish\/sigactNews\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Distributed computing column\"<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ACM_SIGACT_News\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ACM SIGACT News\" data-key=\"f0dc946b12f3d4ba8820fd01f06ef577\"><i>ACM SIGACT News<\/i><\/a><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Distributed+computing+column&rft.btitle=ACM+SIGACT+News&rft.date=2000%2F2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebee.technion.ac.il%2F~idish%2FsigactNews%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/>.<\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation journal\">Birrell, A. D.; Levin, R.; Schroeder, M. D.; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Roger_M._Needham\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Roger M. Needham\" data-key=\"4322aa21f001c4e3070b0c6d4d3e1cc2\">Needham, R. M.<\/a> (April 1982). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.cs.wpi.edu\/~cs4513\/d07\/Papers\/Birrell,%20Levin,%20et.%20al.,%20Grapevine.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Grapevine: An exercise in distributed computing\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Communications_of_the_ACM\" title=\"Communications of the ACM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd914d5636fdc976435825fe9c3999ef\">Communications of the ACM<\/a><\/i>. <b>25<\/b> (4): 260\u2013274. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F358468.358487\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/358468.358487<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&rft.atitle=Grapevine%3A+An+exercise+in+distributed+computing&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=260-274&rft.date=1982-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F358468.358487&rft.aulast=Birrell&rft.aufirst=A.+D.&rft.au=Levin%2C+R.&rft.au=Schroeder%2C+M.+D.&rft.au=Needham%2C+R.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.cs.wpi.edu%2F~cs4513%2Fd07%2FPapers%2FBirrell%2C%2520Levin%2C%2520et.%2520al.%2C%2520Grapevine.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADistributed+computing\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n<dl><dt>Conference Papers<\/dt><\/dl>\n<ul><li>C. Rodr\u00edguez, M. Villagra and B. Bar\u00e1n, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109%2FBIMNICS.2007.4610083\" target=\"_blank\">Asynchronous team algorithms for Boolean Satisfiability<\/a>, Bionetics2007, pp. 66\u201369, 2007.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/curlie.org\/Computers\/Computer_Science\/Distributed_Computing\/\" target=\"_blank\">Distributed computing<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curlie\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Curlie\" data-key=\"f2bf78e9dbc70f166d4b3bd9f21cf9f3\">Curlie<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/curlie.org\/Computers\/Computer_Science\/Distributed_Computing\/Publications\/\" target=\"_blank\">Distributed computing journals<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curlie\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Curlie\" data-key=\"f2bf78e9dbc70f166d4b3bd9f21cf9f3\">Curlie<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1319\nCached time: 20190330205504\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.860 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.025 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 6044\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 161411\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 4659\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 7\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 131324\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 5\/400\nLua time usage: 0.451\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6.67 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 847.476 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>45.40% 384.713 1 Template:Reflist\n15.84% 134.245 10 Template:Cite_book\n13.67% 115.872 23 Template:Citation\n10.80% 91.503 4 Template:Citation_needed\n10.09% 85.518 70 Template:Harvtxt\n 9.59% 81.235 4 Template:Fix\n 7.71% 65.365 6 Template:Cite_journal\n 6.15% 52.108 1 Template:Commonscat\n 5.43% 46.051 4 Template:ISBN\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:8501-1!canonical and timestamp 20190330205503 and revision id 888945974\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Distributed_computing\" data-key=\"ee813a1918606cd02eedc78a4439660f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202956\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.016 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.181 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 171.783 1 - wikipedia:Distributed_computing\n100.00% 171.783 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10694-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403202956 and revision id 33600\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Distributed_computing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Distributed_computing<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","27ed4ce42fc1b6b5da4be13b7183158b_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/c\/c6\/Distributed-parallel.svg\/600px-Distributed-parallel.svg.png"],"27ed4ce42fc1b6b5da4be13b7183158b_timestamp":1554323396,"e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76_type":"article","e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76_title":"Desktop virtualization","e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Desktop_virtualization","e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tDesktop virtualization\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tDesktop virtualization is software technology that separates the desktop environment and associated application software from the physical client device that is used to access it.\nDesktop virtualization can be used in conjunction with application virtualization and user profile management systems (known as \"user virtualization\") to provide a comprehensive desktop environment management system. In this mode, all the components of the desktop are virtualized, which allows for a highly flexible and much more secure desktop delivery model. In addition, this approach supports a more complete desktop disaster recovery strategy as all components are essentially saved in the data center and backed up through traditional redundant maintenance systems. If a user's device or hardware is lost, the restore is much more straightforward and simple; all the components will be present at log-in from another device. Additionally, because no data is saved to the user's device, chances are low any critical data can be retrieved and compromised if the device is lost.\n\nContents\n\n1 System architecture \n\n1.1 Remote desktop virtualization \n\n1.1.1 Remote Desktop Services vs. VDI \n\n\n1.2 Local desktop virtualization \n1.3 Application virtualization \n1.4 User virtualization \n1.5 Layering \n\n1.5.1 Desktop as a service \n\n\n\n\n2 Notes \n3 References \n\n\n\nSystem architecture \nDesktop virtualizations are put into several classes based on what they are capable of doing:\n\n Does the virtual desktop runs remotely or locally?\n Is access required to be constant or is designed to be intermittent? \n Does the virtual desktop persist between sessions?\nRemote desktop virtualization \nTypically, software products that deliver desktop virtualization solutions can combine local and remote implementations into a single product to provide the most appropriate support specific to requirements. The degree of independent functionality of the client device is necessarily interdependent with the server location and access strategy. And virtualization is not strictly required for remote control to exist.\nRemote desktop virtualizations operate on a client-server basis. Application execution takes place on a remote operating system which is linked to the local client device over a network using a remote display protocol. All applications and data accessed in this way remain on the remote system, with only display, keyboard, and mouse information communicated with the local client device. A common implementation of this approach is to host multiple desktop operating system instances on a server hardware platform running a hypervisor. This is generally referred to as \"virtual desktop infrastructure\" or \"VDI,\" which should not be used as a blanket term to refer to any desktop virtualization implementation. VDI is essentially a desktop-centric service that hosts user desktop environments on remote servers and\/or blade PCs, which are accessed over a network using a remote display protocol. A connection brokering service is used to connect users to their assigned desktop sessions.[1][2]\nRemote desktop virtualization is frequently used in the following scenarios[3][4][2]:\n\n In distributed environments with high availability requirements and where desk-side technical support is not readily available, such as branch office and retail environments.\n In environments where high network latency degrades the performance of conventional client-server applications\n In environments where remote access and data security requirements create conflicting requirements that can be addressed by retaining all (application) data within the data center with only display, keyboard, and mouse information communicated with the remote client.\nRemote Desktop Services vs. VDI \nRemote Desktop Services (also called terminal services, server-based computing, and presentation virtualization) is a component of Microsoft Windows that allows a user to access applications and data on a remote computer over a network using a remote display protocol. Another leading example of presentation virtualization is Citrix XenApp.[2] Remote Desktop Services is functionally similar to VDI in that it hosts the users' desktop environments on remote servers; however, it differs from VDI in two important ways[5]:\n\n Where a VDI service provides individual desktop operating system instances (e.g. Windows XP, Windows 7, etc.) for each user, Remote Desktop Services sessions run in a single shared server operating system. The use of a single shared server operating system instead of individual desktop operating system instances consumes significantly fewer resources than the same number VDI sessions.\n Where VDI is designed to deliver full desktop environments, Remote Desktop Services can provide connections to both individual applications or full desktops as needed.\nHowever, VDI implementations allow for delivering a personalized workspace back to a user, which retains all the user's customizations. There are several methods to accomplish this. One is to deliver fully persistent VM desktops, in which a user gets a dedicated desktop that functions essentially as their own PC. Another mode is to deliver non-persistent desktops which do not include user personalization. These are VM desktops delivered from a pool which are then used for a session and returned to the pool. This approach has the advantage of keeping VM desktops \"clean,\" as nothing is saved to the image by the user. Non-persistent desktops can be paired with user virtualization technologies to deliver user profiles and customizations (and all profiles settings, application data settings, configuration and user data), to the user upon login. The user profile is matched with a non-persistent desktop providing an experience that is very little different from a PC. All changes made to the user profile are saved to the profile and are restored to the user upon their next log-in. However, the VM is returned to the pool with no changes saved to it.[2][5]\n\nLocal desktop virtualization \nLocal desktop virtualization implementations run the desktop environment on the client device using hardware virtualization or emulation. Local desktop virtualization is well suited for environments where continuous network connectivity cannot be assumed and where application resource requirements can be better met by using local system resources. When using local hardware virtualization, depending on the implementation, both Type I and Type II hypervisors may be used.[6]\nHowever, local desktop virtualization implementations do not always allow applications developed for one system architecture to run on another. For example, running Windows 7 on an ARM-based tablet is not generally possible as of 2014. \"For [Windows 7] binaries to run on an ARM processor, they have to be compiled for that processor specifically or be run in an emulator.\"[7]\n\nApplication virtualization \nApplication virtualization improves delivery and compatibility of applications by encapsulating them from the underlying operating system on which they are executed. A fully virtualized application is not installed on hardware. Instead, a hypervisor layer intercepts the application which at runtime acts as if it is interfacing with the original operating system and all the resources managed by it, when in reality it is not.[8]\n\nUser virtualization \n Desktop as a service (DaaS) is an example of virtualization in cloud computing architecture.\nUser virtualization separates all of the software aspects that define a user's personality on a device from the operating system and applications to be managed independently and applies them to a desktop as needed, without the need for scripting, group policies, or use of roaming profiles. The term \"user virtualization\" sounds misleading; this technology is not limited to virtual desktops. User virtualization can be used regardless of platform.[9]\n\nLayering \nDesktop layering is a method of desktop virtualization that divides a disk image into logical parts to be managed individually. For example, if all members of a user group use the same OS, then the core OS only needs to be backed up once for all who share this layer. Layering can be applied to local physical disk images, client-based virtual machines, or host-based desktops. Windows operating systems are not designed for layering; therefore, each vendor must engineer their own proprietary solution.[10]\n\nDesktop as a service \nRemote desktop virtualization can also be provided via cloud computing, similar to that provided using a software as a service model. This approach is usually referred to as cloud-hosted virtual desktops. Two variations of this technology are prevalent: VDI-managed and desktop as a service (DaaS). VDI technology functions as an outsourced managed service while DaaS provides a higher level of automation and real multi-tenancy, reducing the cost of the technology. Providers offering DaaS typically take full responsibility for hosting and maintaining the compute, storage, and access infrastructure, as well as applications and application software licenses needed to provide the desktop service, in return receiving a monthly fee, in some cases fixed.[11]\nCloud hosted virtual desktops can be implemented using both VDI and Remote Desktop Services-based systems and can be provided through public cloud, private cloud infrastructure, and hybrid cloud platforms.[11]\n\nNotes \nThis article reuses numerous content elements from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\u2191 Schultz, Keith (16 March 2012). \"Review: VDI without the server connection\". InfoWorld Virtualization Channel. The IDG Network. http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/virtualization\/review-vdi-without-the-server-connection-188808 . Retrieved 28 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Knorr, Eric (28 May 2010). \"What desktop virtualization really means\". InfoWorld Virtualization Channel. The IDG Network. http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/virtualization\/what-desktop-virtualization-really-means-352 . Retrieved 28 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"The Virtues of Desktop Virtualization\" (PDF). Intel Corporation. 2009. http:\/\/www.lenovo.com\/us\/en\/PDFs\/lenovo_desktop_virtualization.pdf . Retrieved 28 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Top 10 Considerations When Evaluating Desktop Virtualization for Distributed Environments\" (PDF). VMware. 2012. http:\/\/www.vmware.com\/files\/pdf\/mirage\/VMware-Desktop-Virtualization-for-distributed-environments-whitepaper.pdf . Retrieved 28 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 Cooke, Alastair (July 2012). \"Desktop virtualization comparison: VDI vs. Remote Desktop Services\". SearchVirtualDesktop. TechTarget. http:\/\/searchvirtualdesktop.techtarget.com\/tip\/Desktop-virtualization-comparison-VDI-vs-Remote-Desktop-Services . Retrieved 28 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Brodkin, Jon (19 February 2009). \"Virtual desktops ripe for deployment, hindered by cost\". Network World. http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2263085\/computers\/virtual-desktops-ripe-for-deployment--hindered-by-cost.html . Retrieved 28 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Diogo (26 August 2011). \"Why can't Windows 7 be installed on a ARM processor based system?\". SuperUser. Stack Exchange, Inc. http:\/\/superuser.com\/questions\/328329\/why-cant-windows-7-be-installed-on-a-arm-processor-based-system . Retrieved 28 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Kennedy, Randall (April 2009). \"Application and desktop virtualization under the hood\". InfoWorld Virtualization Channel. The IDG Network. http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/virtualization\/application-and-desktop-virtualization-under-hood-153 . Retrieved 28 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Rawlinson, Pete (30 July 2010). \"User virtualization \u2013 the key to successful desktop virtualization\". Network World. http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2215219\/tech-primers\/user-virtualization---the-key-to-successful-desktop-virtualization.html . Retrieved 28 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Rouse, Margaret (November 2011). \"What is desktop layering?\". SearchVirtualDesktop. TechTarget. http:\/\/searchvirtualdesktop.techtarget.com\/definition\/Desktop-Layering . Retrieved 28 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 11.0 11.1 Olsen, Gary (February 2012). \"Weighing cloud-hosted virtual desktops vs. VDI\". SearchVirtualDesktop. TechTarget. http:\/\/searchvirtualdesktop.techtarget.com\/tip\/Weighing-cloud-hosted-virtual-desktops-vs-VDI . Retrieved 28 August 2014 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Desktop_virtualization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Desktop_virtualization<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Software and hardware terms\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 1 October 2014, at 20:51.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 3,651 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Desktop_virtualization skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Desktop virtualization<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><p><b>Desktop virtualization<\/b> is software technology that separates the desktop environment and associated application software from the physical client device that is used to access it.\n<\/p><p>Desktop virtualization can be used in conjunction with application virtualization and user profile management systems (known as \"user virtualization\") to provide a comprehensive desktop environment management system. In this mode, all the components of the desktop are virtualized, which allows for a highly flexible and much more secure desktop delivery model. In addition, this approach supports a more complete desktop disaster recovery strategy as all components are essentially saved in the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_center\" title=\"Data center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f5f939040d714745138ee295af8be71\">data center<\/a> and backed up through traditional redundant maintenance systems. If a user's device or hardware is lost, the restore is much more straightforward and simple; all the components will be present at log-in from another device. Additionally, because no data is saved to the user's device, chances are low any critical data can be retrieved and compromised if the device is lost.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"System_architecture\">System architecture<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Desktop virtualizations are put into several classes based on what they are capable of doing:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> Does the virtual desktop runs remotely or locally?<\/li>\n<li> Is access required to be constant or is designed to be intermittent? <\/li>\n<li> Does the virtual desktop persist between sessions?<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Remote_desktop_virtualization\">Remote desktop virtualization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Typically, software products that deliver desktop virtualization solutions can combine local and remote implementations into a single product to provide the most appropriate support specific to requirements. The degree of independent functionality of the client device is necessarily interdependent with the server location and access strategy. And virtualization is not strictly required for remote control to exist.\n<\/p><p>Remote desktop virtualizations operate on a client-server basis. Application execution takes place on a remote operating system which is linked to the local client device over a network using a remote display protocol. All applications and data accessed in this way remain on the remote system, with only display, keyboard, and mouse information communicated with the local client device. A common implementation of this approach is to host multiple desktop operating system instances on a server hardware platform running a . This is generally referred to as \"virtual desktop infrastructure\" or \"VDI,\" which should not be used as a blanket term to refer to any desktop virtualization implementation. VDI is essentially a desktop-centric service that hosts user desktop environments on remote servers and\/or blade PCs, which are accessed over a network using a remote display protocol. A connection brokering service is used to connect users to their assigned desktop sessions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SchultzVDI_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SchultzVDI-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KnorrVirt_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KnorrVirt-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Remote desktop virtualization is frequently used in the following scenarios<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LenovoVirt_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LenovoVirt-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-VMwareDistEnv_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-VMwareDistEnv-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KnorrVirt_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KnorrVirt-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> In distributed environments with high availability requirements and where desk-side technical support is not readily available, such as branch office and retail environments.<\/li>\n<li> In environments where high network latency degrades the performance of conventional client-server applications<\/li>\n<li> In environments where remote access and data security requirements create conflicting requirements that can be addressed by retaining all (application) data within the data center with only display, keyboard, and mouse information communicated with the remote client.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Remote_Desktop_Services_vs._VDI\">Remote Desktop Services vs. VDI<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Remote Desktop Services (also called terminal services, server-based computing, and presentation virtualization) is a component of Microsoft Windows that allows a user to access applications and data on a remote computer over a network using a remote display protocol. Another leading example of presentation virtualization is Citrix XenApp.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KnorrVirt_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KnorrVirt-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Remote Desktop Services is functionally similar to VDI in that it hosts the users' desktop environments on remote servers; however, it differs from VDI in two important ways<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CookeVDI_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CookeVDI-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li> Where a VDI service provides individual desktop operating system instances (e.g. Windows XP, Windows 7, etc.) for each user, Remote Desktop Services sessions run in a single shared server operating system. The use of a single shared server operating system instead of individual desktop operating system instances consumes significantly fewer resources than the same number VDI sessions.<\/li>\n<li> Where VDI is designed to deliver full desktop environments, Remote Desktop Services can provide connections to both individual applications or full desktops as needed.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>However, VDI implementations allow for delivering a personalized workspace back to a user, which retains all the user's customizations. There are several methods to accomplish this. One is to deliver fully persistent VM desktops, in which a user gets a dedicated desktop that functions essentially as their own PC. Another mode is to deliver non-persistent desktops which do not include user personalization. These are VM desktops delivered from a pool which are then used for a session and returned to the pool. This approach has the advantage of keeping VM desktops \"clean,\" as nothing is saved to the image by the user. Non-persistent desktops can be paired with user virtualization technologies to deliver user profiles and customizations (and all profiles settings, application data settings, configuration and user data), to the user upon login. The user profile is matched with a non-persistent desktop providing an experience that is very little different from a PC. All changes made to the user profile are saved to the profile and are restored to the user upon their next log-in. However, the VM is returned to the pool with no changes saved to it.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KnorrVirt_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KnorrVirt-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CookeVDI_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CookeVDI-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Local_desktop_virtualization\">Local desktop virtualization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Local desktop virtualization implementations run the desktop environment on the client device using hardware virtualization or emulation. Local desktop virtualization is well suited for environments where continuous network connectivity cannot be assumed and where application resource requirements can be better met by using local system resources. When using local hardware virtualization, depending on the implementation, both Type I and Type II hypervisors may be used.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BrodkinHyper_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BrodkinHyper-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, local desktop virtualization implementations do not always allow applications developed for one system architecture to run on another. For example, running Windows 7 on an ARM-based tablet is not generally possible as of 2014. \"For [Windows 7] binaries to run on an ARM processor, they have to be compiled for that processor specifically or be run in an emulator.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DiogoARM_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DiogoARM-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Application_virtualization\">Application virtualization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Application virtualization improves delivery and compatibility of applications by encapsulating them from the underlying operating system on which they are executed. A fully virtualized application is not installed on hardware. Instead, a hypervisor layer intercepts the application which at runtime acts as if it is interfacing with the original operating system and all the resources managed by it, when in reality it is not.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KennedyApp_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KennedyApp-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"User_virtualization\">User virtualization<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:362px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Desktop-as-a-Service_in_Cloud_Computing_architectures.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"83c5d84ab9c92f9fa243156638d47172\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/3a\/Desktop-as-a-Service_in_Cloud_Computing_architectures.png\" width=\"360\" height=\"236\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Desktop-as-a-Service_in_Cloud_Computing_architectures.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"83c5d84ab9c92f9fa243156638d47172\"><\/a><\/div>Desktop as a service (DaaS) is an example of virtualization in cloud computing architecture.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>User virtualization separates all of the software aspects that define a user's personality on a device from the operating system and applications to be managed independently and applies them to a desktop as needed, without the need for scripting, group policies, or use of roaming profiles. The term \"user virtualization\" sounds misleading; this technology is not limited to virtual desktops. User virtualization can be used regardless of platform.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RawlinsonUser_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RawlinsonUser-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Layering\">Layering<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Desktop layering is a method of desktop virtualization that divides a disk image into logical parts to be managed individually. For example, if all members of a user group use the same OS, then the core OS only needs to be backed up once for all who share this layer. Layering can be applied to local physical disk images, client-based virtual machines, or host-based desktops. Windows operating systems are not designed for layering; therefore, each vendor must engineer their own proprietary solution.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RouseDL_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RouseDL-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Desktop_as_a_service\">Desktop as a service<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Remote desktop virtualization can also be provided via <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f\">cloud computing<\/a>, similar to that provided using a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> model. This approach is usually referred to as cloud-hosted virtual desktops. Two variations of this technology are prevalent: VDI-managed and desktop as a service (DaaS). VDI technology functions as an outsourced managed service while DaaS provides a higher level of automation and real multi-tenancy, reducing the cost of the technology. Providers offering DaaS typically take full responsibility for hosting and maintaining the compute, storage, and access infrastructure, as well as applications and application software licenses needed to provide the desktop service, in return receiving a monthly fee, in some cases fixed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OlsenDaaS_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OlsenDaaS-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Cloud hosted virtual desktops can be implemented using both VDI and Remote Desktop Services-based systems and can be provided through public cloud, private cloud infrastructure, and hybrid cloud platforms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OlsenDaaS_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OlsenDaaS-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article reuses numerous content elements from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Desktop_virtualization\" data-key=\"dabc30c2f2ec0f79c945c69247202c2d\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-SchultzVDI-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SchultzVDI_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Schultz, Keith (16 March 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/virtualization\/review-vdi-without-the-server-connection-188808\" target=\"_blank\">\"Review: VDI without the server connection\"<\/a>. <i>InfoWorld Virtualization Channel<\/i>. The IDG Network<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/virtualization\/review-vdi-without-the-server-connection-188808\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/virtualization\/review-vdi-without-the-server-connection-188808<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Review%3A+VDI+without+the+server+connection&rft.atitle=InfoWorld+Virtualization+Channel&rft.aulast=Schultz%2C+Keith&rft.au=Schultz%2C+Keith&rft.date=16+March+2012&rft.pub=The+IDG+Network&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoworld.com%2Fd%2Fvirtualization%2Freview-vdi-without-the-server-connection-188808&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Desktop_virtualization\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KnorrVirt-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KnorrVirt_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KnorrVirt_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KnorrVirt_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KnorrVirt_2-3\">2.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Knorr, Eric (28 May 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/virtualization\/what-desktop-virtualization-really-means-352\" target=\"_blank\">\"What desktop virtualization really means\"<\/a>. <i>InfoWorld Virtualization Channel<\/i>. The IDG Network<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/virtualization\/what-desktop-virtualization-really-means-352\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/virtualization\/what-desktop-virtualization-really-means-352<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=What+desktop+virtualization+really+means&rft.atitle=InfoWorld+Virtualization+Channel&rft.aulast=Knorr%2C+Eric&rft.au=Knorr%2C+Eric&rft.date=28+May+2010&rft.pub=The+IDG+Network&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoworld.com%2Fd%2Fvirtualization%2Fwhat-desktop-virtualization-really-means-352&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Desktop_virtualization\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LenovoVirt-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LenovoVirt_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lenovo.com\/us\/en\/PDFs\/lenovo_desktop_virtualization.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Virtues of Desktop Virtualization\"<\/a> (PDF). Intel Corporation. 2009<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lenovo.com\/us\/en\/PDFs\/lenovo_desktop_virtualization.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.lenovo.com\/us\/en\/PDFs\/lenovo_desktop_virtualization.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+Virtues+of+Desktop+Virtualization&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2009&rft.pub=Intel+Corporation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lenovo.com%2Fus%2Fen%2FPDFs%2Flenovo_desktop_virtualization.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Desktop_virtualization\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-VMwareDistEnv-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-VMwareDistEnv_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.vmware.com\/files\/pdf\/mirage\/VMware-Desktop-Virtualization-for-distributed-environments-whitepaper.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Top 10 Considerations When Evaluating Desktop Virtualization for Distributed Environments\"<\/a> (PDF). VMware. 2012<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.vmware.com\/files\/pdf\/mirage\/VMware-Desktop-Virtualization-for-distributed-environments-whitepaper.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.vmware.com\/files\/pdf\/mirage\/VMware-Desktop-Virtualization-for-distributed-environments-whitepaper.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Top+10+Considerations+When+Evaluating+Desktop+Virtualization+for+Distributed+Environments&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2012&rft.pub=VMware&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vmware.com%2Ffiles%2Fpdf%2Fmirage%2FVMware-Desktop-Virtualization-for-distributed-environments-whitepaper.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Desktop_virtualization\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CookeVDI-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CookeVDI_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CookeVDI_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Cooke, Alastair (July 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/searchvirtualdesktop.techtarget.com\/tip\/Desktop-virtualization-comparison-VDI-vs-Remote-Desktop-Services\" target=\"_blank\">\"Desktop virtualization comparison: VDI vs. Remote Desktop Services\"<\/a>. <i>SearchVirtualDesktop<\/i>. TechTarget<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/searchvirtualdesktop.techtarget.com\/tip\/Desktop-virtualization-comparison-VDI-vs-Remote-Desktop-Services\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/searchvirtualdesktop.techtarget.com\/tip\/Desktop-virtualization-comparison-VDI-vs-Remote-Desktop-Services<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Desktop+virtualization+comparison%3A+VDI+vs.+Remote+Desktop+Services&rft.atitle=SearchVirtualDesktop&rft.aulast=Cooke%2C+Alastair&rft.au=Cooke%2C+Alastair&rft.date=July+2012&rft.pub=TechTarget&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearchvirtualdesktop.techtarget.com%2Ftip%2FDesktop-virtualization-comparison-VDI-vs-Remote-Desktop-Services&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Desktop_virtualization\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BrodkinHyper-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BrodkinHyper_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Brodkin, Jon (19 February 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2263085\/computers\/virtual-desktops-ripe-for-deployment--hindered-by-cost.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Virtual desktops ripe for deployment, hindered by cost\"<\/a>. <i>Network World<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2263085\/computers\/virtual-desktops-ripe-for-deployment--hindered-by-cost.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2263085\/computers\/virtual-desktops-ripe-for-deployment--hindered-by-cost.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Virtual+desktops+ripe+for+deployment%2C+hindered+by+cost&rft.atitle=Network+World&rft.aulast=Brodkin%2C+Jon&rft.au=Brodkin%2C+Jon&rft.date=19+February+2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkworld.com%2Farticle%2F2263085%2Fcomputers%2Fvirtual-desktops-ripe-for-deployment--hindered-by-cost.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Desktop_virtualization\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DiogoARM-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DiogoARM_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Diogo (26 August 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/superuser.com\/questions\/328329\/why-cant-windows-7-be-installed-on-a-arm-processor-based-system\" target=\"_blank\">\"Why can't Windows 7 be installed on a ARM processor based system?\"<\/a>. <i>SuperUser<\/i>. Stack Exchange, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/superuser.com\/questions\/328329\/why-cant-windows-7-be-installed-on-a-arm-processor-based-system\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/superuser.com\/questions\/328329\/why-cant-windows-7-be-installed-on-a-arm-processor-based-system<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Why+can%27t+Windows+7+be+installed+on+a+ARM+processor+based+system%3F&rft.atitle=SuperUser&rft.aulast=Diogo&rft.au=Diogo&rft.date=26+August+2011&rft.pub=Stack+Exchange%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsuperuser.com%2Fquestions%2F328329%2Fwhy-cant-windows-7-be-installed-on-a-arm-processor-based-system&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Desktop_virtualization\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KennedyApp-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KennedyApp_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Kennedy, Randall (April 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/virtualization\/application-and-desktop-virtualization-under-hood-153\" target=\"_blank\">\"Application and desktop virtualization under the hood\"<\/a>. <i>InfoWorld Virtualization Channel<\/i>. The IDG Network<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/virtualization\/application-and-desktop-virtualization-under-hood-153\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/virtualization\/application-and-desktop-virtualization-under-hood-153<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Application+and+desktop+virtualization+under+the+hood&rft.atitle=InfoWorld+Virtualization+Channel&rft.aulast=Kennedy%2C+Randall&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+Randall&rft.date=April+2009&rft.pub=The+IDG+Network&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoworld.com%2Fd%2Fvirtualization%2Fapplication-and-desktop-virtualization-under-hood-153&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Desktop_virtualization\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RawlinsonUser-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RawlinsonUser_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Rawlinson, Pete (30 July 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2215219\/tech-primers\/user-virtualization---the-key-to-successful-desktop-virtualization.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"User virtualization \u2013 the key to successful desktop virtualization\"<\/a>. <i>Network World<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2215219\/tech-primers\/user-virtualization---the-key-to-successful-desktop-virtualization.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2215219\/tech-primers\/user-virtualization---the-key-to-successful-desktop-virtualization.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=User+virtualization+%E2%80%93+the+key+to+successful+desktop+virtualization&rft.atitle=Network+World&rft.aulast=Rawlinson%2C+Pete&rft.au=Rawlinson%2C+Pete&rft.date=30+July+2010&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkworld.com%2Farticle%2F2215219%2Ftech-primers%2Fuser-virtualization---the-key-to-successful-desktop-virtualization.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Desktop_virtualization\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RouseDL-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RouseDL_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Rouse, Margaret (November 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/searchvirtualdesktop.techtarget.com\/definition\/Desktop-Layering\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is desktop layering?\"<\/a>. <i>SearchVirtualDesktop<\/i>. TechTarget<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/searchvirtualdesktop.techtarget.com\/definition\/Desktop-Layering\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/searchvirtualdesktop.techtarget.com\/definition\/Desktop-Layering<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=What+is+desktop+layering%3F&rft.atitle=SearchVirtualDesktop&rft.aulast=Rouse%2C+Margaret&rft.au=Rouse%2C+Margaret&rft.date=November+2011&rft.pub=TechTarget&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearchvirtualdesktop.techtarget.com%2Fdefinition%2FDesktop-Layering&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Desktop_virtualization\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OlsenDaaS-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-OlsenDaaS_11-0\">11.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-OlsenDaaS_11-1\">11.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Olsen, Gary (February 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/searchvirtualdesktop.techtarget.com\/tip\/Weighing-cloud-hosted-virtual-desktops-vs-VDI\" target=\"_blank\">\"Weighing cloud-hosted virtual desktops vs. VDI\"<\/a>. <i>SearchVirtualDesktop<\/i>. TechTarget<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/searchvirtualdesktop.techtarget.com\/tip\/Weighing-cloud-hosted-virtual-desktops-vs-VDI\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/searchvirtualdesktop.techtarget.com\/tip\/Weighing-cloud-hosted-virtual-desktops-vs-VDI<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Weighing+cloud-hosted+virtual+desktops+vs.+VDI&rft.atitle=SearchVirtualDesktop&rft.aulast=Olsen%2C+Gary&rft.au=Olsen%2C+Gary&rft.date=February+2012&rft.pub=TechTarget&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearchvirtualdesktop.techtarget.com%2Ftip%2FWeighing-cloud-hosted-virtual-desktops-vs-VDI&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Desktop_virtualization\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202956\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.245 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.098 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 6890\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 13275\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 49648\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 21979\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 11\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 178.421 1 - -total\n 99.43% 177.401 11 - Template:Cite_web\n 93.50% 166.828 11 - Template:Citation\/core\n 7.88% 14.067 20 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:5239-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403202955 and revision id 16055\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Desktop_virtualization\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Desktop_virtualization<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/3a\/Desktop-as-a-Service_in_Cloud_Computing_architectures.png"],"e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76_timestamp":1554323395,"e259286aaad13c602098dcbed9e8a4ff_type":"article","e259286aaad13c602098dcbed9e8a4ff_title":"Cloud computing security","e259286aaad13c602098dcbed9e8a4ff_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing_security","e259286aaad13c602098dcbed9e8a4ff_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tCloud computing security\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFor cloud-hosted security software, see Security as a service.\nCloud computing security or, more simply, cloud security refers to a broad set of policies, technologies, applications, and controls utilized to protect virtualized IP, data, applications, services, and the associated infrastructure of cloud computing. It is a sub-domain of computer security, network security, and, more broadly, information security.\n\nContents \n\n1 Security issues associated with the cloud \n2 Cloud security controls \n3 Dimensions of cloud security \n4 Security and privacy \n\n4.1 Cloud Vulnerability and Penetration Testing \n\n\n5 Data security \n\n5.1 Confidentiality \n5.2 Access controllability \n5.3 Integrity \n\n\n6 Encryption \n\n6.1 Attribute-based encryption (ABE) \n\n6.1.1 Ciphertext-policy ABE (CP-ABE) \n6.1.2 Key-policy ABE (KP-ABE) \n\n\n6.2 Fully homomorphic encryption (FHE) \n6.3 Searchable encryption (SE) \n\n\n7 Compliance \n8 Legal and contractual issues \n\n8.1 Public records \n\n\n9 References \n10 Further reading \n11 External links \n\n\nSecurity issues associated with the cloud \nCloud computing and storage provides users with capabilities to store and process their data in third-party data centers.[1] Organizations use the cloud in a variety of different service models (with acronyms such as SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS) and deployment models (private, public, hybrid, and community).[2] Security concerns associated with cloud computing fall into two broad categories: security issues faced by cloud providers (organizations providing software-, platform-, or infrastructure-as-a-service via the cloud) and security issues faced by their customers (companies or organizations who host applications or store data on the cloud).[3] The responsibility is shared, however. The provider must ensure that their infrastructure is secure and that their clients\u2019 data and applications are protected, while the user must take measures to fortify their application and use strong passwords and authentication measures.\nWhen an organization elects to store data or host applications on the public cloud, it loses its ability to have physical access to the servers hosting its information. As a result, potentially sensitive data is at risk from insider attacks. According to a recent Cloud Security Alliance report, insider attacks are the sixth biggest threat in cloud computing.[4] Therefore, cloud service providers must ensure that thorough background checks are conducted for employees who have physical access to the servers in the data center. Additionally, data centers must be frequently monitored for suspicious activity.\nIn order to conserve resources, cut costs, and maintain efficiency, cloud service providers often store more than one customer's data on the same server. As a result, there is a chance that one user's private data can be viewed by other users (possibly even competitors). To handle such sensitive situations, cloud service providers should ensure proper data isolation and logical storage segregation.[2]\nThe extensive use of virtualization in implementing cloud infrastructure brings unique security concerns for customers or tenants of a public cloud service.[5] Virtualization alters the relationship between the OS and underlying hardware \u2013 be it computing, storage or even networking. This introduces an additional layer \u2013 virtualization \u2013 that itself must be properly configured, managed and secured.[6] Specific concerns include the potential to compromise the virtualization software, or \"hypervisor\". While these concerns are largely theoretical, they do exist.[7] For example, a breach in the administrator workstation with the management software of the virtualization software can cause the whole datacenter to go down or be reconfigured to an attacker's liking.\n\nCloud security controls \nCloud security architecture is effective only if the correct defensive implementations are in place. An efficient cloud security architecture should recognize the issues that will arise with security management.[8] The security management addresses these issues with security controls. These controls are put in place to safeguard any weaknesses in the system and reduce the effect of an attack. While there are many types of controls behind a cloud security architecture, they can usually be found in one of the following categories:[8]\n\nDeterrent controls\nThese controls are intended to reduce attacks on a cloud system. Much like a warning sign on a fence or a property, deterrent controls typically reduce the threat level by informing potential attackers that there will be adverse consequences for them if they proceed. (Some consider them a subset of preventive controls.)\nPreventive controls\nPreventive controls strengthen the system against incidents, generally by reducing if not actually eliminating vulnerabilities. Strong authentication of cloud users, for instance, makes it less likely that unauthorized users can access cloud systems, and more likely that cloud users are positively identified.\nDetective controls\nDetective controls are intended to detect and react appropriately to any incidents that occur. In the event of an attack, a detective control will signal the preventative or corrective controls to address the issue.[8] System and network security monitoring, including intrusion detection and prevention arrangements, are typically employed to detect attacks on cloud systems and the supporting communications infrastructure.\nCorrective controls\nCorrective controls reduce the consequences of an incident, normally by limiting the damage. They come into effect during or after an incident. Restoring system backups in order to rebuild a compromised system is an example of a corrective control.\nDimensions of cloud security \nIt is generally recommended that information security controls be selected and implemented according and in proportion to the risks, typically by assessing the threats, vulnerabilities and impacts. Cloud security concerns can be grouped in various ways; Gartner named seven[9] while the Cloud Security Alliance identified twelve areas of concern.[10] Cloud access security brokers (CASBs) are software that sits between cloud users and cloud applications to provide visibility into cloud application usage, data protection and governance to monitor all activity and enforce security policies.[11]\n\nSecurity and privacy \nIdentity management\nEvery enterprise will have its own identity management system to control access to information and computing resources. Cloud providers either integrate the customer's identity management system into their own infrastructure, using federation or SSO technology, or a biometric-based identification system,[1] or provide an identity management system of their own.[12] CloudID,[1] for instance, provides privacy-preserving cloud-based and cross-enterprise biometric identification. It links the confidential information of the users to their biometrics and stores it in an encrypted fashion. Making use of a searchable encryption technique, biometric identification is performed in encrypted domain to make sure that the cloud provider or potential attackers do not gain access to any sensitive data or even the contents of the individual queries.[1]\nPhysical security\nCloud service providers physically secure the IT hardware (servers, routers, cables etc.) against unauthorized access, interference, theft, fires, floods etc. and ensure that essential supplies (such as electricity) are sufficiently robust to minimize the possibility of disruption. This is normally achieved by serving cloud applications from 'world-class' (i.e. professionally specified, designed, constructed, managed, monitored and maintained) data centers.\nPersonnel security\nVarious information security concerns relating to the IT and other professionals associated with cloud services are typically handled through pre-, para- and post-employment activities such as security screening potential recruits, security awareness and training programs, proactive.\nPrivacy\nProviders ensure that all critical data (credit card numbers, for example) are masked or encrypted and that only authorized users have access to data in its entirety. Moreover, digital identities and credentials must be protected as should any data that the provider collects or produces about customer activity in the cloud.\nCloud Vulnerability and Penetration Testing \nScanning could from outside and inside using free or commercial products is very important because without a hardened environment your service is considered as a soft target. Virtual servers should be hardened like a physical server against data leakage, malware, and exploited vulnerabilities. \"Data loss or leakage represents 24.6% and cloud related malware 3.4% of threats causing cloud outages\u201d[13]\nScanning and penetration testing from inside or outside the cloud require to be authorized by the cloud provider. Since the cloud is a shared environment with other tenants following penetration testing rules of engagement step-by-step is a mandatory requirement. Violation of acceptable use policy which can lead to termination of the service.\n\nData security \nA number of security threats are associated with cloud data services: not only traditional security threats, such as network eavesdropping, illegal invasion, and denial of service attacks, but also specific cloud computing threats, such as side channel attacks, virtualization vulnerabilities, and abuse of cloud services. The following security requirements limit the threats.[14]\n\nConfidentiality \nData confidentiality is the property that data contents are not made available or disclosed to illegal users. Outsourced data is stored in a cloud and out of the owners' direct control. Only authorized users can access the sensitive data while others, including CSPs, should not gain any information of the data. Meanwhile, data owners expect to fully utilize cloud data services, e.g., data search, data computation, and data sharing, without the leakage of the data contents to CSPs or other adversaries.\n\nAccess controllability \nAccess controllability means that a data owner can perform the selective restriction of access to her or his data outsourced to cloud. Legal users can be authorized by the owner to access the data, while others can not access it without permissions. Further, it is desirable to enforce fine-grained access control to the outsourced data, i.e., different users should be granted different access privileges with regard to different data pieces. The access authorization must be controlled only by the owner in untrusted cloud environments.\n\nIntegrity \nData integrity demands maintaining and assuring the accuracy and completeness of data. A data owner always expects that her or his data in a cloud can be stored correctly and trustworthily. It means that the data should not be illegally tampered, improperly modified, deliberately deleted, or maliciously fabricated. If any undesirable operations corrupt or delete the data, the owner should be able to detect the corruption or loss. Further, when a portion of the outsourced data is corrupted or lost, it can still be retrieved by the data users.\n\nEncryption \nSome advanced encryption algorithms which have been applied into cloud computing increase the protection of privacy. In a practice called crypto-shredding, the keys can simply be deleted when there is no more use of the data.\n\n Attribute-based encryption (ABE) \nAttribute-based encryption is a type of public-key encryption in which the secret key of a user and the ciphertext are dependent upon attributes (e.g. the country in which he lives, or the kind of subscription he has). In such a system, the decryption of a ciphertext is possible only if the set of attributes of the user key matches the attributes of the ciphertext.\n\n Ciphertext-policy ABE (CP-ABE) \nIn the CP-ABE, the encryptor controls access strategy. The main research work of CP-ABE is focused on the design of the access structure.[15]\n\n Key-policy ABE (KP-ABE) \nIn the KP-ABE, attribute sets are used to describe the encrypted texts and the private keys are associated to specified policy that users will have.\n[16]\n[17]\n[18]\n\n Fully homomorphic encryption (FHE) \nFully homomorphic encryption allows computations on encrypted data, and also allows computing sum and product for the encrypted data without decryption.[19]\n\n Searchable encryption (SE) \nSearchable encryption is a cryptographic system which offer secure search functions over encrypted data.\n[20]\n[21]\nSE schemes can be classified into two categories: SE based on secret-key (or symmetric-key) cryptography,\nand SE based on public-key cryptography.\nIn order to improve search efficiency, symmetric-key SE generally builds keyword indexes to answer user queries.\n\nCompliance \nNumerous laws and regulations pertain to the storage and use of data. In the US these include privacy or data protection laws, Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS), the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, the Federal Information Security Management Act of 2002 (FISMA), and Children's Online Privacy Protection Act of 1998, among others.\nSimilar laws may apply in different legal jurisdictions and may differ quite markedly from those enforced in the US. Cloud service users may often need to be aware of the legal and regulatory differences between the jurisdictions. For example, data stored by a cloud service provider may be located in, say, Singapore and mirrored in the US.[22]\nMany of these regulations mandate particular controls (such as strong access controls and audit trails) and require regular reporting. Cloud customers must ensure that their cloud providers adequately fulfil such requirements as appropriate, enabling them to comply with their obligations since, to a large extent, they remain accountable.\n\nBusiness continuity and data recovery\nCloud providers have business continuity and data recovery plans in place to ensure that service can be maintained in case of a disaster or an emergency and that any data loss will be recovered.[23] These plans may be shared with and reviewed by their customers, ideally dovetailing with the customers' own continuity arrangements. Joint continuity exercises may be appropriate, simulating a major Internet or electricity supply failure for instance.\nLog and audit trail\nIn addition to producing logs and audit trails, cloud providers work with their customers to ensure that these logs and audit trails are properly secured, maintained for as long as the customer requires, and are accessible for the purposes of forensic investigation (e.g., eDiscovery).\nUnique compliance requirements\nIn addition to the requirements to which customers are subject, the data centers used by cloud providers may also be subject to compliance requirements. Using a cloud service provider (CSP) can lead to additional security concerns around data jurisdiction since customer or tenant data may not remain on the same system, or in the same data center or even within the same provider's cloud.[24]\nThe European Union\u2019s GDPR regulation has introduced new compliance requirements for customer data.[25]\nLegal and contractual issues \nAside from the security and compliance issues enumerated above, cloud providers and their customers will negotiate terms around liability (stipulating how incidents involving data loss or compromise will be resolved, for example), intellectual property, and end-of-service (when data and applications are ultimately returned to the customer). In addition, there are considerations for acquiring data from the cloud that may be involved in litigation.[26] These issues are discussed in service-level agreements (SLA).\n\nPublic records \nLegal issues may also include records-keeping requirements in the public sector, where many agencies are required by law to retain and make available electronic records in a specific fashion. This may be determined by legislation, or law may require agencies to conform to the rules and practices set by a records-keeping agency. Public agencies using cloud computing and storage must take these concerns into account.\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c d Haghighat, M.; Zonouz, S.; Abdel-Mottaleb, M. (2015). \"CloudID: Trustworthy Cloud-based and Cross-Enterprise Biometric Identification\". Expert Systems with Applications. 42 (21): 7905\u20137916. doi:10.1016\/j.eswa.2015.06.025. \n\n^ a b Srinivasan, Madhan (2012). \"State-of-the-art cloud computing security taxonomies\". 'State-of-the-art cloud computing security taxonomies: a classification of security challenges in the present cloud computing environment. ACM ICACCI'. p. 470. doi:10.1145\/2345396.2345474. ISBN 9781450311960. \n\n^ \"Swamp Computing a.k.a. Cloud Computing\". Web Security Journal. 2009-12-28. Retrieved 2010-01-25 . \n\n^ \"Top Threats to Cloud Computing v1.0\" (PDF) . Cloud Security Alliance. Retrieved 2014-10-20 . \n\n^ Winkler, Vic. \"Cloud Computing: Virtual Cloud Security Concerns\". Technet Magazine, Microsoft. Retrieved 12 February 2012 . \n\n^ Hickey, Kathleen. \"Dark Cloud: Study finds security risks in virtualization\". Government Security News. Retrieved 12 February 2012 . \n\n^ Winkler, Vic (2011). Securing the Cloud: Cloud Computer Security Techniques and Tactics. Waltham, MA USA: Elsevier. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-59749-592-9. \n\n^ a b c Krutz, Ronald L., and Russell Dean Vines. \"Cloud Computing Security Architecture.\" Cloud Security: A Comprehensive Guide to Secure Cloud Computing. Indianapolis, IN: Wiley, 2010. 179-80. Print. \n\n^ \"Gartner: Seven cloud-computing security risks\". InfoWorld. 2008-07-02. Retrieved 2010-01-25 . \n\n^ \"Top Threats to Cloud Computing Plus: Industry Insights\". Cloud Security Alliance. 2017-10-20. Retrieved 2018-10-20 . \n\n^ \"What is a CASB (Cloud Access Security Broker)?\". CipherCloud. Retrieved 2018-08-30 . \n\n^ \"Identity Management in the Cloud\". Information Week. 2013-10-25. Retrieved 2013-06-05 . \n\n^ Thangasamy, Veeraiyah (2017). \"Journal of Applied Technology and Innovation\" (PDF) . 1: 97. \n\n^ Jun Tang, Yong Cui (2016). \"Ensuring Security and Privacy Preservation for Cloud Data Services\" (PDF) . ACM Computing Surveys. 49: 1\u201339. doi:10.1145\/2906153. \n\n^ \nBethencourt, John; Sahai, Amit; Waters, Brent. \"Ciphertext-Policy Attribute-Based Encryption\" (PDF) . IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy 2007. pp. 321\u2013334. \n\n^ \nGoyal, Vipul; Pandey, Omkant; Sahai, Amit; Waters, Brent. \"Attribute-Based Encryption for Fine-Grained Access Control of Encrypted Data\". ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security 2006. pp. 89\u201398. \n\n^ \nChase, Melissa; Chow, Sherman S. M. \"Improving Privacy and Security in Multi-Authority Attribute-Based Encryption\". ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security 2009. pp. 121\u2013130. \n\n^ \nAttrapadung, Nuttapong; Herranz, Javier; Laguillaumie, Fabien; Libert, Beno\u00eet; de Panafieu, Elie; R\u00e0fols, Carla (2012-03-09). \"Attribute-based encryption schemes with constant-size ciphertexts\". Theoretical Computer Science. 422: 15\u201338. doi:10.1016\/j.tcs.2011.12.004. \n\n^ Gentry, Craig. \"Fully Homomorphic Encryption using Ideal Lattices\". ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, STOC 2009. pp. 169\u2013178. \n\n^ Wang, Qian; He, Meiqi; Du, Minxin; Chow, Sherman S. M.; Lai, Russell W. F.; Zou, Qin Zou (2018). \"Searchable Encryption over Feature-Rich Data\". IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing. 15 (3): 496\u2013510. doi:10.1109\/TDSC.2016.2593444. \n\n^ Naveed, Muhammad. \"Dynamic Searchable Encryption via Blind Storage\". IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy 2014. \n\n^ \"Managing legal risks arising from cloud computing\". DLA Piper. Retrieved 2014-11-22 . \n\n^ \"It's Time to Explore the Benefits of Cloud-Based Disaster Recovery\". Dell.com. Retrieved 2012-03-26 . \n\n^ Winkler, Vic (2011). Securing the Cloud: Cloud Computer Security Techniques and Tactics. Waltham, MA USA: Elsevier. pp. 65, 68, 72, 81, 218\u2013219, 231, 240. ISBN 978-1-59749-592-9. \n\n^ \"General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR): How does the new European data-protection standard impact a company's cloud strategy? | Safe Swiss Cloud\". safeswisscloud.ch. Retrieved 2018-05-01 . \n\n^ Adams, Richard (2013). \"' The emergence of cloud storage and the need for a new digital forensic process model\" (PDF) . Murdoch University. \n\n\nFurther reading \nMowbray, Miranda (2009). \"The Fog over the Grimpen Mire: Cloud Computing and the Law\". SCRIPTed. 6 (1): 129. doi:10.2966\/scrip.060109.132. \nMather, Tim; Kumaraswamy, Subra; Latif, Shahed (2009). Cloud Security and Privacy: An Enterprise Perspective on Risks and Compliance. O'Reilly Media, Inc. ISBN 9780596802769. \nWinkler, Vic (2011). Securing the Cloud: Cloud Computer Security Techniques and Tactics. Elsevier. ISBN 9781597495929. \nOttenheimer, Davi (2012). Securing the Virtual Environment: How to Defend the Enterprise Against Attack. Wiley. ISBN 9781118155486. \nHaghighat, Mohammad (2015). \"CloudID: Trustworthy Cloud-based and Cross-Enterprise Biometric Identification\". Expert Systems with Applications. 42 (21): 7905\u20137916. doi:10.1016\/j.eswa.2015.06.025. \nBS ISO\/IEC 27017: \"Information technology. Security techniques. Code of practice for information security controls based on ISO\/IEC 27002 for cloud services.\" (2015)\nBS ISO\/IEC 27018: \"Information technology. Security techniques. Code of practice for protection of personally identifiable information (PII) in public clouds acting as PII processors.\" (2014)\nBS ISO\/IEC 27036-4: \"Information technology. Security techniques. Information security for supplier relationships. Guidelines for security of cloud services\" (2016)\nExternal links \nWhat is Cloud Security\nCloud Security Alliance\nWhy cloud security requires multiple layers\nData Security Breaches Infographics\nThe Beginner's Guide to Cloud Security\nDoD Cloud Computing Security Requirements Guide (CC SRG)\nvteCloud computingAs a service\nContent as a service\nSoftware as a service\nPlatform as a service\nFunction as a service\nInfrastructure as a service\nDesktop as a service\nData as a service\nMobile backend as a service\nNetwork as a service\nSecurity as a service\nTechnologies\nCloud database\nCloud storage\nData centers\nDistributed file system for cloud\nHardware virtualization\nInternet\nNetworking\nSecurity\nStructured storage\nVirtual appliance\nWeb APIs\nVirtual private cloud\nApplications\nBox\nGoogle\nG Suite\nDocs, Sheets and Slides\nHP Cloud (closed)\nMicrosoft Online\nOracle Cloud\nRackspace\nSalesforce\nWorkday\nZoho\nPlatforms\nAlpha7\nAmazon Web Services\nAppScale\nBox\nBluemix\nCloudBolt\nCloud Foundry\nCocaine (PaaS)\nEngine Yard\nHelion\nGE Predix\nGoogle App Engine\nGreenQloud\nHeroku\nInktank\nJelastic\nMendix\nMicrosoft Azure\nMindSphere\nNetlify\nOracle Cloud\nOutSystems\nopenQRM\nOpenShift\nPythonAnywhere\nRightScale\nScalr\nForce.com\nSAP Cloud Platform\nVMware vCloud Air\nWaveMaker\nInfrastructure\nAmazon\nAbiquo Enterprise Edition\nCloudStack\nCitrix Cloud\nCtrlS\nDigitalOcean\nEMC Atmos\nEucalyptus\nFujitsu\nGoGrid\nGoogle Cloud Platform\nGreenButton\nGreenQloud\nIBM Cloud\niland\nJoyent\nLunacloud\nMirantis\nNimbula\nNimbus\nOpenIO\nOpenNebula\nOpenStack\nOracle Cloud\nOrionVM\nRackspace Cloud\nSafe Swiss Cloud\nSoftLayer\nZadara Storage\nlibvirt\nlibguestfs\nOVirt\nVirtual Machine Manager\nWakame-vdc\nVirtual Private Cloud OnDemand\n\n Category\n Commons\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing_security<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Cloud computingComputer securityData securityHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom 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\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 21 June 2016, at 21:23.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 2,326 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","e259286aaad13c602098dcbed9e8a4ff_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Cloud_computing_security skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Cloud computing security<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">For cloud-hosted security software, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Security_as_a_service\" title=\"Security as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd3ee787eb76e9b3985ffbc43037495a\">Security as a service<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p><b>Cloud computing security<\/b> or, more simply, <b>cloud security<\/b> refers to a broad set of policies, technologies, applications, and controls utilized to protect virtualized IP, data, applications, services, and the associated infrastructure of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"84b28cb3c1977d5c04401506e9b991f1\">cloud computing<\/a>. It is a sub-domain of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_security\" title=\"Computer security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5c2aa75aadd7f77c4f5ad26205c4c77b\">computer security<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Network_security\" title=\"Network security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd28fe06f1e45ea385d35225e5d4effc\">network security<\/a>, and, more broadly, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_security\" title=\"Information security\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f71a603755a900e335af2b5cfacd0cfc\">information security<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_issues_associated_with_the_cloud\">Security issues associated with the cloud<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Cloud <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computing\" title=\"Computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e2b41b4b3636a02cae6b06d1b0b6378\">computing<\/a> and storage provides users with capabilities to store and process their data in third-party <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_center\" title=\"Data center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f7623fd733432645a66e8903167fc90\">data centers<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cloudid_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cloudid-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Organizations use the cloud in a variety of different service models (with acronyms such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SaaS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SaaS\" data-key=\"fd3401864caa916e3239653e12baf7a1\">SaaS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PaaS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PaaS\" data-key=\"b5d3683d4c401d1e6376735c892986ed\">PaaS<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IaaS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IaaS\" data-key=\"3bb9fc4f95f6f2a6d4fbcb233b7bdf9b\">IaaS<\/a>) and deployment models (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing#Private_cloud\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"32b9b721fe0603e58667d225af03f318\">private<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing#Public_cloud\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af8c641e184c143edac5730416343828\">public<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing#Hybrid\" title=\"Cloud computing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a143919691cae1ad0f6a5daad2aab4ea\">hybrid<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Community_cloud\" title=\"Community cloud\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c16e8d4bb2e1480067571e0ec80df999\">community<\/a>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Srinivasan_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Srinivasan-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Security concerns associated with cloud computing fall into two broad categories: security issues faced by cloud providers (organizations providing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7de27253c306bcbd5943ef8c39d055a1\">software-<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Platform_as_a_service\" title=\"Platform as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"87df446644909fd1f426cb7c254981cd\">platform-<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Infrastructure_as_a_service\" title=\"Infrastructure as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b888aa2b545e7ac6908b76c33e582838\">infrastructure-as-a-service<\/a> via the cloud) and security issues faced by their customers (companies or organizations who host applications or store data on the cloud).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The responsibility is shared, however. The provider must ensure that their infrastructure is secure and that their clients\u2019 data and applications are protected, while the user must take measures to fortify their application and use strong passwords and authentication measures.\n<\/p><p>When an organization elects to store data or host applications on the public cloud, it loses its ability to have physical access to the servers hosting its information. As a result, potentially sensitive data is at risk from insider attacks. According to a recent <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_Security_Alliance\" title=\"Cloud Security Alliance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a97079f28b764ed57adef706f7ba531\">Cloud Security Alliance<\/a> report, insider attacks are the sixth biggest threat in cloud computing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Top_Threats_to_Cloud_Computing_v1.0_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Top_Threats_to_Cloud_Computing_v1.0-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> Therefore, cloud service providers must ensure that thorough background checks are conducted for employees who have physical access to the servers in the data center. Additionally, data centers must be frequently monitored for suspicious activity.\n<\/p><p>In order to conserve resources, cut costs, and maintain efficiency, cloud service providers often store more than one customer's data on the same server. As a result, there is a chance that one user's private data can be viewed by other users (possibly even competitors). To handle such sensitive situations, cloud service providers should ensure proper <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Isolation_(database_systems)\" title=\"Isolation (database systems)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"41dfde465f2e2c42a826d7ba74d1ff85\">data isolation<\/a> and logical storage segregation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Srinivasan_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Srinivasan-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The extensive use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virtualization\" title=\"Virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e157b662d93eb81db1a6d6368be0989\">virtualization<\/a> in implementing cloud infrastructure brings unique security concerns for customers or tenants of a public cloud service.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Cloud_Virtual_Security_Winkler_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Cloud_Virtual_Security_Winkler-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Virtualization alters the relationship between the OS and underlying hardware \u2013 be it computing, storage or even networking. This introduces an additional layer \u2013 virtualization \u2013 that itself must be properly configured, managed and secured.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-virtualization_risks_hickey_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-virtualization_risks_hickey-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> Specific concerns include the potential to compromise the virtualization software, or \"hypervisor\". While these concerns are largely theoretical, they do exist.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Securing_the_Cloud_Winkler_virt_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Securing_the_Cloud_Winkler_virt-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> For example, a breach in the administrator workstation with the management software of the virtualization software can cause the whole datacenter to go down or be reconfigured to an attacker's liking.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cloud_security_controls\">Cloud security controls<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Cloud security architecture is effective only if the correct defensive implementations are in place. An efficient cloud security architecture should recognize the issues that will arise with security management.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Krutz,_Ronald_L._2010_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Krutz,_Ronald_L._2010-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> The security management addresses these issues with security controls. These controls are put in place to safeguard any weaknesses in the system and reduce the effect of an attack. While there are many types of controls behind a cloud security architecture, they can usually be found in one of the following categories:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Krutz,_Ronald_L._2010_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Krutz,_Ronald_L._2010-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Deterrent controls<\/dt>\n<dd>These controls are intended to reduce attacks on a cloud system. Much like a warning sign on a fence or a property, deterrent controls typically reduce the threat level by informing potential attackers that there will be adverse consequences for them if they proceed. (Some consider them a subset of preventive controls.)<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Preventive controls<\/dt>\n<dd>Preventive controls strengthen the system against incidents, generally by reducing if not actually eliminating vulnerabilities. Strong authentication of cloud users, for instance, makes it less likely that unauthorized users can access cloud systems, and more likely that cloud users are positively identified.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Detective controls<\/dt>\n<dd>Detective controls are intended to detect and react appropriately to any incidents that occur. In the event of an attack, a detective control will signal the preventative or corrective controls to address the issue.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Krutz,_Ronald_L._2010_8-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Krutz,_Ronald_L._2010-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> System and network security monitoring, including intrusion detection and prevention arrangements, are typically employed to detect attacks on cloud systems and the supporting communications infrastructure.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Corrective controls<\/dt>\n<dd>Corrective controls reduce the consequences of an incident, normally by limiting the damage. They come into effect during or after an incident. Restoring system backups in order to rebuild a compromised system is an example of a corrective control.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Dimensions_of_cloud_security\">Dimensions of cloud security<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>It is generally recommended that information security controls be selected and implemented according and in proportion to the risks, typically by assessing the threats, vulnerabilities and impacts. Cloud security concerns can be grouped in various ways; Gartner named seven<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> while the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_Security_Alliance\" title=\"Cloud Security Alliance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a97079f28b764ed57adef706f7ba531\">Cloud Security Alliance<\/a> identified twelve areas of concern.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_access_security_broker\" title=\"Cloud access security broker\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3faa0f3437ae80c7e9c9dd55e6a6b883\">Cloud access security brokers<\/a> (CASBs) are software that sits between cloud users and cloud applications to provide visibility into cloud application usage, data protection and governance to monitor all activity and enforce security policies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security_and_privacy\">Security and privacy<\/span><\/h2>\n<dl><dt>Identity management<\/dt>\n<dd>Every enterprise will have its own <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Identity_management_system\" title=\"Identity management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6217ce558854cf31d09bde20cb42937d\">identity management system<\/a> to control access to information and computing resources. Cloud providers either integrate the customer's identity management system into their own infrastructure, using <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federated_identity_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Federated identity management\" data-key=\"a7a986551918781e9bc189a3659a2323\">federation<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Single_sign-on\" title=\"Single sign-on\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ff6ef9321be5735b208f36c02bfe8450\">SSO<\/a> technology, or a biometric-based identification system,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cloudid_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cloudid-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> or provide an identity management system of their own.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> CloudID,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cloudid_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cloudid-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> for instance, provides privacy-preserving cloud-based and cross-enterprise biometric identification. It links the confidential information of the users to their biometrics and stores it in an encrypted fashion. Making use of a searchable encryption technique, biometric identification is performed in encrypted domain to make sure that the cloud provider or potential attackers do not gain access to any sensitive data or even the contents of the individual queries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-cloudid_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-cloudid-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Physical security<\/dt>\n<dd>Cloud service providers physically secure the IT <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_hardware\" title=\"Computer hardware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3af5473d082dc42736a8f0e670ebb91\">hardware<\/a> (servers, routers, cables etc.) against unauthorized access, interference, theft, fires, floods etc. and ensure that essential supplies (such as electricity) are sufficiently robust to minimize the possibility of disruption. This is normally achieved by serving cloud applications from 'world-class' (i.e. professionally specified, designed, constructed, managed, monitored and maintained) data centers.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Personnel security<\/dt>\n<dd>Various information security concerns relating to the IT and other professionals associated with cloud services are typically handled through pre-, para- and post-employment activities such as security screening potential recruits, security awareness and training programs, proactive.<\/dd>\n<dt>Privacy<\/dt>\n<dd>Providers ensure that all critical data (credit card numbers, for example) are <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_masking\" title=\"Data masking\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"72aca482d75618c2e2718f93cfd01cda\">masked<\/a> or encrypted and that only authorized users have access to data in its entirety. Moreover, digital identities and credentials must be protected as should any data that the provider collects or produces about customer activity in the cloud.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Cloud_Vulnerability_and_Penetration_Testing\">Cloud Vulnerability and Penetration Testing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Scanning could from outside and inside using free or commercial products is very important because without a hardened environment your service is considered as a soft target. Virtual servers should be hardened like a physical server against <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_leakage_prevention\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data leakage prevention\" data-key=\"fe7e47e839c39879c160620f0d6a45d1\">data leakage<\/a>, malware, and exploited vulnerabilities. \"Data loss or leakage represents 24.6% and cloud related malware 3.4% of threats causing cloud outages\u201d<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Scanning and penetration testing from inside or outside the cloud require to be authorized by the cloud provider. Since the cloud is a shared environment with other tenants following penetration testing rules of engagement step-by-step is a mandatory requirement. Violation of <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.microsoft.com\/en-us\/msrc\/pentest-rules-of-engagement\" target=\"_blank\">acceptable use policy<\/a> which can lead to termination of the service.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_security\">Data security<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A number of security threats are associated with cloud data services: not only traditional security threats, such as network eavesdropping, illegal invasion, and denial of service attacks, but also specific cloud computing threats, such as side channel attacks, virtualization vulnerabilities, and abuse of cloud services. The following security requirements limit the threats.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Confidentiality\">Confidentiality<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data confidentiality is the property that data contents are not made available or disclosed to illegal users. Outsourced data is stored in a cloud and out of the owners' direct control. Only authorized users can access the sensitive data while others, including CSPs, should not gain any information of the data. Meanwhile, data owners expect to fully utilize cloud data services, e.g., data search, data computation, and data sharing, without the leakage of the data contents to CSPs or other adversaries.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Access_controllability\">Access controllability<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Access controllability means that a data owner can perform the selective restriction of access to her or his data outsourced to cloud. Legal users can be authorized by the owner to access the data, while others can not access it without permissions. Further, it is desirable to enforce fine-grained access control to the outsourced data, i.e., different users should be granted different access privileges with regard to different data pieces. The access authorization must be controlled only by the owner in untrusted cloud environments.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Integrity\">Integrity<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data integrity demands maintaining and assuring the accuracy and completeness of data. A data owner always expects that her or his data in a cloud can be stored correctly and trustworthily. It means that the data should not be illegally tampered, improperly modified, deliberately deleted, or maliciously fabricated. If any undesirable operations corrupt or delete the data, the owner should be able to detect the corruption or loss. Further, when a portion of the outsourced data is corrupted or lost, it can still be retrieved by the data users.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Encryption\">Encryption<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Some advanced <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Encryption\" title=\"Encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f6122a63c8c30cbc563125a7744203e\">encryption<\/a> algorithms which have been applied into cloud computing increase the protection of privacy. In a practice called <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Crypto-shredding\" title=\"Crypto-shredding\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"916bc76b476efb109b418dde86123a3d\">crypto-shredding<\/a>, the keys can simply be deleted when there is no more use of the data.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Attribute-based_encryption_.28ABE.29\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Attribute-based_encryption_(ABE)\">Attribute-based encryption (ABE)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Attribute-based_encryption\" title=\"Attribute-based encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3ca31aaa655279f517a5736010c20ab6\">Attribute-based encryption<\/a> is a type of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public-key_encryption\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Public-key encryption\" data-key=\"3bd918aa58eb76946bc123d65fba12ac\">public-key encryption<\/a> in which the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Secret_key\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Secret key\" data-key=\"82e23c00b58b37e444f00f7edcbb9587\">secret key<\/a> of a user and the ciphertext are dependent upon attributes (e.g. the country in which he lives, or the kind of subscription he has). In such a system, the decryption of a ciphertext is possible only if the set of attributes of the user key matches the attributes of the ciphertext.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Ciphertext-policy_ABE_.28CP-ABE.29\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Ciphertext-policy_ABE_(CP-ABE)\">Ciphertext-policy ABE (CP-ABE)<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In the CP-ABE, the encryptor controls access strategy. The main research work of CP-ABE is focused on the design of the access structure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Key-policy_ABE_.28KP-ABE.29\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Key-policy_ABE_(KP-ABE)\">Key-policy ABE (KP-ABE)<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>In the KP-ABE, attribute sets are used to describe the encrypted texts and the private keys are associated to specified policy that users will have.\n<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Fully_homomorphic_encryption_.28FHE.29\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Fully_homomorphic_encryption_(FHE)\">Fully homomorphic encryption (FHE)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Fully <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Homomorphic_encryption\" title=\"Homomorphic encryption\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"db9210a8b938492eab67beb240a75ad5\">homomorphic encryption<\/a> allows computations on encrypted data, and also allows computing sum and product for the encrypted data without decryption.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span id=\"rdp-ebb-Searchable_encryption_.28SE.29\"><\/span><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Searchable_encryption_(SE)\">Searchable encryption (SE)<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Searchable encryption is a cryptographic system which offer secure search functions over encrypted data.\n<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Wang_et_al._2018_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Wang_et_al._2018-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>\n<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Naveed_2014_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Naveed_2014-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\nSE schemes can be classified into two categories: SE based on secret-key (or symmetric-key) cryptography,\nand SE based on public-key cryptography.\nIn order to improve search efficiency, symmetric-key SE generally builds keyword indexes to answer user queries.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Compliance\">Compliance<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Numerous laws and regulations pertain to the storage and use of data. In the US these include privacy or data protection laws, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Payment_Card_Industry_Data_Security_Standard\" title=\"Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7349f5e00d4d43437e99087117caf84\">Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard<\/a> (PCI DSS), the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"651fe0fa5498890d1a29b4c1e21db2db\">Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act<\/a> (HIPAA), the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sarbanes-Oxley_Act\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sarbanes-Oxley Act\" data-key=\"dcaaaca79a8fa25e13ceefac5e03336a\">Sarbanes-Oxley Act<\/a>, the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Federal_Information_Security_Management_Act_of_2002\" title=\"Federal Information Security Management Act of 2002\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9813c956d313690cd8858cc9c9c4c2eb\">Federal Information Security Management Act of 2002<\/a> (FISMA), and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Children%27s_Online_Privacy_Protection_Act_of_1998\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Children's Online Privacy Protection Act of 1998\" data-key=\"2b338504f94105f72f60edb9a1408308\">Children's Online Privacy Protection Act of 1998<\/a>, among others.\n<\/p><p>Similar laws may apply in different legal jurisdictions and may differ quite markedly from those enforced in the US. Cloud service users may often need to be aware of the legal and regulatory differences between the jurisdictions. For example, data stored by a cloud service provider may be located in, say, Singapore and mirrored in the US.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Many of these regulations mandate particular controls (such as strong access controls and audit trails) and require regular reporting. Cloud customers must ensure that their cloud providers adequately fulfil such requirements as appropriate, enabling them to comply with their obligations since, to a large extent, they remain accountable.\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt>Business continuity and data recovery<\/dt>\n<dd>Cloud providers have <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_continuity_planning\" title=\"Business continuity planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0314e0ebb69a83f82d4925a81373f7f2\">business continuity<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_recovery\" title=\"Data recovery\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e46c5fd8cbb2d3afa17d209387676e2f\">data recovery<\/a> plans in place to ensure that service can be maintained in case of a disaster or an emergency and that any data loss will be recovered.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> These plans may be shared with and reviewed by their customers, ideally dovetailing with the customers' own continuity arrangements. Joint continuity exercises may be appropriate, simulating a major Internet or electricity supply failure for instance.<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Log and audit trail<\/dt>\n<dd>In addition to producing logs and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20dda7b1dead7c17c90c4498b0afe092\">audit trails<\/a>, cloud providers work with their customers to ensure that these logs and audit trails are properly secured, maintained for as long as the customer requires, and are accessible for the purposes of forensic investigation (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/EDiscovery\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"EDiscovery\" data-key=\"a3df350f09ea2ad92f86a6f4d6e754a3\">eDiscovery<\/a>).<\/dd><\/dl>\n<dl><dt>Unique compliance requirements<\/dt>\n<dd>In addition to the requirements to which customers are subject, the data centers used by cloud providers may also be subject to compliance requirements. Using a cloud service provider (CSP) can lead to additional security concerns around data jurisdiction since customer or tenant data may not remain on the same system, or in the same data center or even within the same provider's cloud.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Securing_the_Cloud_Winkler_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Securing_the_Cloud_Winkler-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd>\n<dd>The European Union\u2019s <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Data_Protection_Regulation\" title=\"General Data Protection Regulation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20785e45cbe1c33b7aead05d3a22887e\">GDPR<\/a> regulation has introduced new compliance requirements for customer data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup><\/dd><\/dl>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Legal_and_contractual_issues\">Legal and contractual issues<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Aside from the security and compliance issues enumerated above, cloud providers and their customers will negotiate terms around liability (stipulating how incidents involving data loss or compromise will be resolved, for example), <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intellectual_property\" title=\"Intellectual property\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2604ea8c7b8a70b5079014f7760bc5f9\">intellectual property<\/a>, and end-of-service (when data and applications are ultimately returned to the customer). In addition, there are considerations for acquiring data from the cloud that may be involved in litigation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-adams_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-adams-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> These issues are discussed in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Service-level_agreement\" title=\"Service-level agreement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee17d316f404403080406165b86d0e2d\">service-level agreements<\/a> (SLA).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Public_records\">Public records<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Legal issues may also include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Records_management\" title=\"Records management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"776f0cc59b663e870b7d26c6b5868575\">records-keeping<\/a> requirements in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_sector\" title=\"Public sector\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a16b1fbf020611b1e8622b0002d0c24\">public sector<\/a>, where many agencies are required by law to retain and make available <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Records_management#Managing_electronic_records\" title=\"Records management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af5a34b550c35d6c6e548ab9f6a1704e\">electronic records<\/a> in a specific fashion. This may be determined by legislation, or law may require agencies to conform to the rules and practices set by a records-keeping agency. Public agencies using cloud computing and storage must take these concerns into account.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-cloudid-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-cloudid_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-cloudid_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-cloudid_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-cloudid_1-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Haghighat, M.; Zonouz, S.; Abdel-Mottaleb, M. (2015). \"CloudID: Trustworthy Cloud-based and Cross-Enterprise Biometric Identification\". <i>Expert Systems with Applications<\/i>. <b>42<\/b> (21): 7905\u20137916. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2015.06.025\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.eswa.2015.06.025<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Expert+Systems+with+Applications&rft.atitle=CloudID%3A+Trustworthy+Cloud-based+and+Cross-Enterprise+Biometric+Identification&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=7905-7916&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2015.06.025&rft.aulast=Haghighat&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Zonouz%2C+S.&rft.au=Abdel-Mottaleb%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACloud+computing+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Srinivasan-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Srinivasan_2-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Srinivasan_2-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Srinivasan, Madhan (2012). \"State-of-the-art cloud computing security taxonomies\". <i><span><\/span>'State-of-the-art cloud computing security taxonomies: a classification of security challenges in the present cloud computing environment<\/i>. ACM ICACCI'. p. 470. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145%2F2345396.2345474\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/2345396.2345474<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781450311960.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=State-of-the-art+cloud+computing+security+taxonomies&rft.btitle=%27State-of-the-art+cloud+computing+security+taxonomies%3A+a+classification+of+security+challenges+in+the+present+cloud+computing+environment&rft.pages=470&rft.pub=ACM+ICACCI%27&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F2345396.2345474&rft.isbn=9781450311960&rft.aulast=Srinivasan&rft.aufirst=Madhan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACloud+computing+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/security.sys-con.com\/node\/1231725\" target=\"_blank\">\"Swamp Computing a.k.a. Cloud Computing\"<\/a>. Web Security Journal. 2009-12-28<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2010-01-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Swamp+Computing+a.k.a.+Cloud+Computing&rft.date=2009-12-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsecurity.sys-con.com%2Fnode%2F1231725&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACloud+computing+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Top_Threats_to_Cloud_Computing_v1.0-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Top_Threats_to_Cloud_Computing_v1.0_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cloudsecurityalliance.org\/topthreats\/csathreats.v1.0.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Top Threats to Cloud Computing v1.0\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Cloud Security Alliance<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2014-10-20<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Top+Threats+to+Cloud+Computing+v1.0&rft.pub=Cloud+Security+Alliance&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcloudsecurityalliance.org%2Ftopthreats%2Fcsathreats.v1.0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACloud+computing+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Cloud_Virtual_Security_Winkler-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Cloud_Virtual_Security_Winkler_5-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Winkler, Vic. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/technet.microsoft.com\/en-us\/magazine\/hh641415.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cloud Computing: Virtual Cloud Security Concerns\"<\/a>. Technet Magazine, Microsoft<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 February<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cloud+Computing%3A+Virtual+Cloud+Security+Concerns&rft.pub=Technet+Magazine%2C+Microsoft&rft.aulast=Winkler&rft.aufirst=Vic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechnet.microsoft.com%2Fen-us%2Fmagazine%2Fhh641415.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACloud+computing+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-virtualization_risks_hickey-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-virtualization_risks_hickey_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Hickey, Kathleen. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/gcn.com\/articles\/2010\/03\/18\/dark-cloud-security.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Dark Cloud: Study finds security risks in virtualization\"<\/a>. Government Security News<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">12 February<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dark+Cloud%3A+Study+finds+security+risks+in+virtualization&rft.pub=Government+Security+News&rft.aulast=Hickey&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgcn.com%2Farticles%2F2010%2F03%2F18%2Fdark-cloud-security.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACloud+computing+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Securing_the_Cloud_Winkler_virt-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-Securing_the_Cloud_Winkler_virt_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Winkler, Vic (2011). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#description\"><i>Securing the Cloud: Cloud Computer Security Techniques and Tactics<\/i><\/a>. Waltham, MA USA: Elsevier. p. 59. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-59749-592-9.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Securing+the+Cloud%3A+Cloud+Computer+Security+Techniques+and+Tactics&rft.place=Waltham%2C+MA+USA&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-59749-592-9&rft.aulast=Winkler&rft.aufirst=Vic&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.elsevier.com%2Fwps%2Ffind%2Fbookdescription.cws_home%2F723529%2Fdescription%23description&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACloud+computing+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Krutz,_Ronald_L._2010-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-Krutz,_Ronald_L._2010_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Krutz,_Ronald_L._2010_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-Krutz,_Ronald_L._2010_8-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Krutz, Ronald L., and Russell Dean Vines. \"Cloud Computing Security Architecture.\" Cloud Security: A Comprehensive Guide to Secure Cloud Computing. Indianapolis, IN: Wiley, 2010. 179-80. Print.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-9\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation news\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/security-central\/gartner-seven-cloud-computing-security-risks-853\" target=\"_blank\">\"Gartner: Seven cloud-computing security risks\"<\/a>. InfoWorld. 2008-07-02<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Waltham, MA USA: Elsevier. pp. 65, 68, 72, 81, 218\u2013219, 231, 240. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-59749-592-9.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Securing+the+Cloud%3A+Cloud+Computer+Security+Techniques+and+Tactics&rft.place=Waltham%2C+MA+USA&rft.pages=65%2C+68%2C+72%2C+81%2C+218-219%2C+231%2C+240&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-59749-592-9&rft.aulast=Winkler&rft.aufirst=Vic&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.elsevier.com%2Fwps%2Ffind%2Fbookdescription.cws_home%2F723529%2Fdescription%23description&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACloud+computing+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.safeswisscloud.ch\/en\/blog\/general-data-protection-regulation-gdpr-how-does-new-european-data-protection-standard-impact\" target=\"_blank\">\"General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR): How does the new European data-protection standard impact a company's cloud strategy? | Safe Swiss Cloud\"<\/a>. <i>safeswisscloud.ch<\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2018-05-01<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=safeswisscloud.ch&rft.atitle=General+Data+Protection+Regulation+%28GDPR%29%3A+How+does+the+new+European+data-protection+standard+impact+a+company%27s+cloud+strategy%3F+%7C+Safe+Swiss+Cloud&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.safeswisscloud.ch%2Fen%2Fblog%2Fgeneral-data-protection-regulation-gdpr-how-does-new-european-data-protection-standard-impact&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACloud+computing+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-adams-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-adams_26-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Adams, Richard (2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au\/19431\/1\/emergence_of_cloud_storage.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"<span class=\"cs1-kern-left\">'<\/span>The emergence of cloud storage and the need for a new digital forensic process model\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Murdoch University.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27The+emergence+of+cloud+storage+and+the+need+for+a+new+digital+forensic+process+model&rft.pub=Murdoch+University&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresearchrepository.murdoch.edu.au%2F19431%2F1%2Femergence_of_cloud_storage.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACloud+computing+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMowbray2009\" class=\"citation journal\">Mowbray, Miranda (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.law.ed.ac.uk\/ahrc\/script-ed\/vol6-1\/mowbray.asp\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Fog over the Grimpen Mire: Cloud Computing and the Law\"<\/a>. <i>SCRIPTed<\/i>. <b>6<\/b> (1): 129. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2966%2Fscrip.060109.132\" target=\"_blank\">10.2966\/scrip.060109.132<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SCRIPTed&rft.atitle=The+Fog+over+the+Grimpen+Mire%3A+Cloud+Computing+and+the+Law&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=129&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2966%2Fscrip.060109.132&rft.aulast=Mowbray&rft.aufirst=Miranda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.ed.ac.uk%2Fahrc%2Fscript-ed%2Fvol6-1%2Fmowbray.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACloud+computing+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFMatherKumaraswamyLatif2009\" class=\"citation book\">Mather, Tim; Kumaraswamy, Subra; Latif, Shahed (2009). <i>Cloud Security and Privacy: An Enterprise Perspective on Risks and Compliance<\/i>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780596802769.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cloud+Security+and+Privacy%3A+An+Enterprise+Perspective+on+Risks+and+Compliance&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780596802769&rft.aulast=Mather&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft.au=Kumaraswamy%2C+Subra&rft.au=Latif%2C+Shahed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACloud+computing+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFWinkler2011\" class=\"citation book\">Winkler, Vic (2011). <i>Securing the Cloud: Cloud Computer Security Techniques and Tactics<\/i>. Elsevier. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781597495929.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Securing+the+Cloud%3A+Cloud+Computer+Security+Techniques+and+Tactics&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781597495929&rft.aulast=Winkler&rft.aufirst=Vic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACloud+computing+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFOttenheimer2012\" class=\"citation book\">Ottenheimer, Davi (2012). <i>Securing the Virtual Environment: How to Defend the Enterprise Against Attack<\/i>. Wiley. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781118155486.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Securing+the+Virtual+Environment%3A+How+to+Defend+the+Enterprise+Against+Attack&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781118155486&rft.aulast=Ottenheimer&rft.aufirst=Davi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACloud+computing+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation journal\">Haghighat, Mohammad (2015). \"CloudID: Trustworthy Cloud-based and Cross-Enterprise Biometric Identification\". <i>Expert Systems with Applications<\/i>. <b>42<\/b> (21): 7905\u20137916. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2015.06.025\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.eswa.2015.06.025<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Expert+Systems+with+Applications&rft.atitle=CloudID%3A+Trustworthy+Cloud-based+and+Cross-Enterprise+Biometric+Identification&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=7905-7916&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2015.06.025&rft.aulast=Haghighat&rft.aufirst=Mohammad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACloud+computing+security\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/catalogue_detail?csnumber=43757\" target=\"_blank\">BS ISO\/IEC 27017<\/a>: \"Information technology. Security techniques. Code of practice for information security controls based on ISO\/IEC 27002 for cloud services.\" (2015)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=61498\" target=\"_blank\">BS ISO\/IEC 27018<\/a>: \"Information technology. Security techniques. Code of practice for protection of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Personally_identifiable_information\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Personally identifiable information\" data-key=\"e4c271adb170f3060365fdae55299b88\">personally identifiable information<\/a> (PII) in public clouds acting as PII processors.\" (2014)<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=59689\" target=\"_blank\">BS ISO\/IEC 27036-4<\/a>: \"Information technology. Security techniques. Information security for supplier relationships. Guidelines for security of cloud services\" (2016)<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ciphercloud.com\/what-is-cloud-security\" target=\"_blank\">What is Cloud Security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cloudsecurityalliance.org\" target=\"_blank\">Cloud Security Alliance<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.usatoday.com\/story\/cybertruth\/2013\/11\/25\/why-cloud-security-requires-multiple-layers\/3683171\" target=\"_blank\">Why cloud security requires multiple layers<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/visual.ly\/data-security-breaches-2014\" target=\"_blank\">Data Security Breaches Infographics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/aws.amazon.com\/security\/introduction-to-cloud-security\" target=\"_blank\">The Beginner's Guide to Cloud Security<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/iase.disa.mil\/cloud_security\/Pages\/index.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">DoD Cloud Computing Security Requirements Guide (CC SRG)<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1332\nCached time: 20190403095007\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.396 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.465 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1420\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 64061\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 88\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 7\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 86664\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\nLua time usage: 0.229\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 3.7 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 383.966 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>71.27% 273.671 1 Template:Reflist\n37.06% 142.287 7 Template:Cite_journal\n12.23% 46.973 10 Template:Cite_web\n 9.76% 37.470 1 Template:For\n 8.01% 30.773 6 Template:Cite_book\n 6.83% 26.219 1 Template:Cloud_computing\n 6.61% 25.368 5 Template:Cite_conference\n 6.00% 23.046 1 Template:Navbox\n 2.84% 10.917 2 Template:Cite_news\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:25619904-1!canonical and timestamp 20190403095006 and revision id 882841649\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing_security\" data-key=\"76abf4f9c445efd4445b612b97f4184a\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202955\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.017 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.124 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 114.010 1 - wikipedia:Cloud_computing_security\n100.00% 114.010 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:8859-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403202954 and revision id 25938\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing_security\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing_security<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","e259286aaad13c602098dcbed9e8a4ff_images":[],"e259286aaad13c602098dcbed9e8a4ff_timestamp":1554323394,"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f_type":"article","fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f_title":"Cloud computing","fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing","fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tCloud computing\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t Cloud computing logical diagram\nCloud computing is the delivery of computing as a service rather than a product, whereby shared resources, software, and information are provided to computers and other devices as a utility (like the electricity grid) over a network, typically the Internet.\nCloud computing describes a new supplement, consumption, and delivery model for IT services based on Internet protocols, and it typically involves provisioning of dynamically scalable and often virtualized resources[1][2] Details are abstracted from end-users, who no longer have need for expertise in, or control over, the technology infrastructure \"in the cloud\" that supports them.[3]\nCloud computing typically takes the form of web-based tools or applications that users can access and use through a web browser as if they were programs installed locally on their own computers. Those applications and resulting data are stored on servers at a remote location. In some cases, legacy applications (line of business applications that until now have been prevalent in thin client Windows computing) are delivered via a screen-sharing technology, while the computing resources are consolidated at a remote data center location; in other cases, entire business applications have been coded using web-based technologies such as Ajax.\n\nContents\n\n1 Overview \n\n1.1 Term \n1.2 Characteristics \n1.3 Service models \n1.4 Deployment models \n\n\n2 History \n3 Issues and concerns \n\n3.1 Privacy \n3.2 Compliance \n3.3 Performance \n3.4 Legal \n3.5 Open standards \n3.6 Security \n3.7 Contracts \n\n\n4 Further reading \n5 Notes \n6 References \n\n\n\nOverview \nTerm \nThe term \"cloud\" is used as a metaphor for the Internet, based on the cloud drawing used in the past to represent the telephone network,[4] and later to depict the Internet in computer network diagrams as an abstraction of the underlying infrastructure it represents.[5]\n\nCharacteristics \nThe National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) offers an authoritative definition of cloud computing. That definition encompasses the essential characteristics, service models, and deployment models of the service. Of the essential characteristics, cloud computing must[6]:\n\n provide computing capabilities and services on an as-needed basis, without human intervention;\n be broadly accessible from a wide variety of standard desktop and mobile platforms;\n make storage, processing, memory, and network bandwidth available as pooled, multi-tenant resources;\n make those resources scalable with demand, often automatically, at any time; and\n meter those resources and make the resulting information transparently available to both provider and consumer.\nAdditional, more granular characteristics of cloud computing include the following.\n\n An application programming interface (API) enables machines to interact with cloud software in the same way the user interface facilitates interaction between humans and computers. Cloud computing systems typically use REST-based APIs.\n Cost is potentially reduced in a public cloud delivery model, with capital expenditure being converted to operational expenditure, including research, development, and sales.[7] This is purported to lower barriers to entry, as infrastructure is typically provided by a third-party and does not need to be purchased for one-time or infrequent intensive computing tasks. Pricing on a utility computing basis is fine-grained with usage-based options and fewer in-house IT skills are required for implementation.[8]\n Device and location independence enable users to access systems using a web browser regardless of their location or what device they are using (e.g., PC, mobile phone).[9] As infrastructure is off-site (typically provided by a third-party) and accessed via the Internet, users can connect from anywhere.[8]\n Multi-tenancy enables sharing of resources and costs across a large pool of users, allowing for centralization of infrastructure in locations with lower costs, peak-load capacity increases, and utilization and efficiency improvements.\n Reliability is improved if multiple redundant sites are used, which makes well-designed cloud computing suitable for business continuity and disaster recovery.[10]\n Services are scalable and elastic via dynamic, \"on-demand\" provisioning of resources on a fine-grained, self-service basis in real-time, without users having to engineer for peak loads.[11]\n Performance is monitored, and consistent and loosely coupled architectures are constructed using web services as the system interface.[8]\n Security could improve due to centralization of data, increased security-focused resources, etc., but concerns may persist about loss of control over certain sensitive data and the lack of security for stored kernels.\n Maintenance of cloud computing applications is easier, because they do not need to be installed on each user's computer. They are easier to support and to improve, as the changes reach the clients instantly.\nService models \nThe NIST definition also details the service models, which include software as a service (SaaS; provider's application runs on their infrastructure), platform as a service (PaaS; consumer-created or -acquired application runs on provider's infrastructure), and infrastructure as a service (IaaS; customer deploys operating systems and applications over fundamental computing resources provisioned by the provider).[6]\n\nDeployment models \n Cloud computing deployment types\nThe NIST definition identifies four deployment models for cloud computing.[6]\nPrivate cloud: an infrastructure operated solely for a single organization, whether managed internally or by a third-party and hosted internally or externally\nCommunity cloud: an infrastructure shared between several organisations from a specific community with common concerns (security, compliance, jurisdiction, etc.), managed internally or by a third-party and hosted internally or externally\nPublic cloud: an infrastructure where resources are dynamically provisioned to the general public on a fine-grained, self-service basis over the Internet, via web applications\/web services, from an off-site third-party provider who bills on a metered basis\nHybrid cloud: a composition of two or more clouds (private, community, or public) that remain unique entities but are bound together, offering the benefits of multiple deployment models\nA fifth deployment option (potentially classifiable as \"hybrid\") that has become more notable is carrier cloud, cloud computing services integrated into a communications service provider's network infrastructure.[12][13]\n\nHistory \nThe underlying concept of cloud computing dates back to the 1960s, when John McCarthy opined that \"computation may someday be organized as a public utility.\"[14] Almost all the modern-day characteristics of cloud computing (elastic provision, provided as a utility, online, illusion of infinite supply), as well as the comparison to the electricity industry and the use of public, private, government, and community forms, were thoroughly explored in Douglas Parkhill's 1966 book, The Challenge of the Computer Utility.[15]\nThe actual term \"cloud\" borrows from telephony in that telecommunications companies, that until the 1990s offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits, began offering virtual private network (VPN) services with comparable quality of service but at a much lower cost. By switching traffic to balance utilization as they saw fit, they were able to utilize their overall network bandwidth more effectively. The cloud symbol was used to denote the demarcation point between that which was the responsibility of the provider and that which was the responsibility of the user. Cloud computing extends this boundary to cover servers as well as the network infrastructure.[16]\nBy the beginning of the twenty-first century, the advent of virtualization technology and cost effective computing hardware, as well as ubiquitous Internet connectivity, enabled a first wave of cloud services, including Salesforce.com in 1999 and Amazon Web Services in 2002.[17] After the dot-com bubble, Amazon continued to play key role in the development of cloud computing by modernizing their data centers, which, like most computer networks, were using as little as 10 percent of their capacity at any one time, just to leave room for occasional spikes. Having found the new cloud architecture resulted in significant internal efficiency improvements whereby small, fast-moving \"two-pizza teams\" could add new features faster and more easily, Amazon initiated a new commercial cloud-based project, launching its Elastic Compute cloud (EC2) in 2006.[17]\nIn May 2008, Eucalyptus became the first open-source, Amazon Web Service API-compatible platform for deploying private clouds.[18] In early 2008, OpenNebula, enhanced in the RESERVOIR European Commission-funded project, became the first open-source software for deploying private and hybrid clouds and for the federation of clouds.[19] By mid-2008, technology research firm Gartner saw an opportunity for cloud computing \"to shape the relationship among consumers of IT services, those who use IT services and those who sell them\"[20] and observed that \"organisations are switching from company-owned hardware and software assets to per-use service-based models\" so that the \"projected shift to cloud computing ... will result in dramatic growth in IT products in some areas and significant reductions in other areas.\"[21] \nBy 2013, Gartner was reporting the public cloud services market was forecast to grow 18.5 percent in 2013, totalling $131 billion worldwide, up from $111 billion in 2012. Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) made up the fastest-growing segment of the market, growing 42.4 percent in 2012 to $6.1 billion, with expectations of it growing 47.3 percent in 2013 to $9 billion.[22]\n\nIssues and concerns \nGeneral criticisms of cloud computing state the term is too unspecific or even misleading. CEO Larry Ellison of Oracle Corporation asserts that cloud computing is \"everything that we already do\"[23] and that the company could simply \"change the wording on some of our ads\"\n[24] to deploy cloud-based services.\nIn 2008, Forrester Research VP Frank Gillett questioned the very nature of and motivation behind the push for cloud computing, describing what he calls \"cloud washing\"\u2014companies simply relabeling their products as \"cloud computing\", resulting in mere marketing innovation instead of \"real\" innovation. [25] That same year, GNU's Richard Stallman insisted the industry will only use the model to deliver services at ever increasing rates over proprietary systems, otherwise likening it to a \"marketing hype campaign.\"[26]\n\nPrivacy \nThe cloud model has been criticized by privacy advocates for the greater ease in which the companies hosting the cloud services control and monitor at will, lawfully or unlawfully, the communication and data stored between the user and the host company, leading to questions about whether or not privacy concerns can be addressed.[27][28]\n\nCompliance \nIn order to obtain compliance with regulations including FISMA, HIPAA, and SOX in the United States, the Data Protection Directive in the European Union, and the credit card industry's PCI DSS, users may have to adopt community or hybrid deployment modes that are typically more expensive and may offer restricted benefits. This is how Google is able to \"manage and meet additional government policy requirements beyond FISMA\"[29][30] and Rackspace Cloud are able to claim PCI compliance.[31]\nMany providers also obtain SAS 70 Type II certification, but this has been criticized on the grounds that the hand-picked set of goals and standards determined by the auditor and the auditee are often not disclosed and can vary widely.[32] Providers typically make this information available on request, under non-disclosure agreement.[33]\nCustomers in the European Union contracting with cloud providers established outside the area have to adhere to the European Union's regulations on export of personal data.[34]\n\nPerformance \nPublic cloud instances typically function well at the server and client hardware; however, speed across the connecting public Internet pipeline can vary significantly. Internet speeds can be asymmetrical and non-guaranteed, bandwidth may need to be shared, and Internet traffic rarely follow the same path, constraining performance and making a cloud option less appealing than a localized option.[35] Poor upload speeds, especially from non-business home accounts, are also quoted as a factor limiting cloud computing's appeal.[36]\n\nLegal \nSince 2007, the number of trademark filings covering cloud computing brands, goods, and services has increased rapidly. For example, in March 2007, Dell applied to trademark the term \"cloud computing\" (U.S. Trademark 77,139,082 ) in the United States. The \"Notice of Allowance\" the company received in July 2008 was canceled in August, resulting in a formal rejection of the trademark application less than a week later. As Dell and other companies sought to better position themselves for cloud computing branding and marketing efforts, cloud computing trademark filings increased by 483 percent between 2008 and 2009. In 2009, 116 cloud computing trademarks were filed, and trademark analysts predicted that over 500 such marks could be filed during 2010.[37]\nOther legal cases may shape the use of cloud computing by the public sector. On October 29, 2010, Google filed a lawsuit against the U.S. Department of Interior, which opened up a bid for software that required bidders use Microsoft's Business Productivity Online Suite. Google sued, calling the requirement \"unduly restrictive of competition.\"[38] Scholars have pointed out that, beginning in 2005, the prevalence of open standards and open-source software options may have an impact on the way public entities choose to select vendors and their software.[39]\nConcerns about the legal and financial repercussions of a cloud provider shutting down, which has happened in a number of cases, also exist.[40]\n\nOpen standards \nMost cloud providers expose APIs that are typically well-documented (often under a Creative Commons license[41]) but also unique to their implementation and thus not interoperable. Some vendors have adopted others' APIs, and there are a number of open standards under development, with a view to delivering interoperability and portability.[42]\n\nSecurity \nAs cloud computing increases in popularity, concerns are being raised about the security issues introduced through the adoption of this new model. The effectiveness and efficiency of traditional protection mechanisms are being reconsidered as the characteristics of this innovative deployment model differ widely from those of traditional architectures.[43]\nIssues barring the adoption of cloud computing are due in large part to the private and public sectors' unease surrounding the external management of security based services. It is the very nature of cloud computing based services, private or public, that promote external management of provided services. This delivers great incentive among cloud computing service providers in producing a priority in building and maintaining strong management of secure services.[44] Security issues have been categorized into sensitive data access, data segregation, privacy, bug exploitation, recovery, accountability, malicious insiders, management console security, account control, and multi-tenancy issues. Solutions to various cloud security issues vary from cryptography (particularly public key infrastructure), use of multiple cloud providers, standardization of APIs, improving virtual machine support, and legal support.[43][45][45]\nThe complexity of security is further increased when data is distributed over a wider area or greater number of devices and in multi-tenant systems that are being shared by unrelated users. In addition, user access to security audit logs may be difficult or impossible. The move to private cloud installations are in part motivated by users' desire to retain control over the infrastructure and avoid losing control of information security.\n\nContracts \nMost transitions to a cloud computing solution entail a change from a technically managed solution to a contractually managed solution. This change necessitates increased IT contract negotiation skills to establish the terms of the relationship and vendor management skills to maintain the relationship. All rights and responsibilities associated with the relationship between a client and a provider must be codified in the contract and effectively managed until the relationship has been terminated. Key risks and issues that are either unique to cloud computing or essential to its effective adoption typically involve service level agreements; data processing and access; provider infrastructure and security; and contract and vendor management.[46]\n\nFurther reading \n Halpert, Ben (2011). Auditing Cloud Computing: A Security and Privacy Guide. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 206. ISBN 9780470874745. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GjsH0HJ2PmYC&pg=PT10&lpg=PT10 .   \n Kavis, Michael J (2014). Architecting the Cloud: Design Decisions for Cloud Computing Service Models (SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 224. ISBN 9781118617618. http:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Architecting-Cloud-Decisions-Computing-Service\/dp\/1118617614 .   \nNotes \nThis article reuses numerous content elements from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"Gartner Says Cloud Computing Will Be As Influential As E-business\". Gartner, Inc. 26 June 2008. http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/707508 . Retrieved 20 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Knorr, Eric; Gruman, Galen (07 April 2008). \"What cloud computing really means\". InfoWorld. IDG Network. http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/cloud-computing\/what-cloud-computing-really-means-031 . Retrieved 20 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Danielson, Krissi (26 March 2008). \"Distinguishing Cloud Computing from Utility Computing\". ebizQ. TechTarget. http:\/\/www.ebizq.net\/blogs\/saasweek\/2008\/03\/distinguishing_cloud_computing\/ . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Sells, Chris (01 July 1998). \"Windows Telephony Programming: A Developer's Guide to TAPI\". Sellsbrothers.com. Archived from the original on 02 May 2005. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20050502192319\/http:\/\/www.sellsbrothers.com\/writing\/intro2tapi\/default.aspx?content=pstn.htm . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Scanlon,Jessie Holliday; Wieners, Brad (09 July 1999). \"The Internet Cloud\". The Industry Standard. IDG Network. Archived from the original on 11 February 2010. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100211133442\/http:\/\/www.thestandard.com\/article\/0,1902,5466,00.html . Retrieved 2010-08-22 .   \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 6.2 Mell, Peter; Grance, Timothy (September 2011). \"The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing\" (PDF). National Institute of Standards and Technology. http:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/publications\/nistpubs\/800-145\/SP800-145.pdf . Retrieved 20 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Columbus, Louis (10 April 2013). \"Making Cloud Computing Pay\". Forbes. http:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/louiscolumbus\/2013\/04\/10\/making-cloud-computing-pay-2\/ . Retrieved 20 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 8.2 Gens, Frank (23 September 2008). \"Defining \"Cloud Services\" and \"Cloud Computing\"\". IDC. http:\/\/blogs.idc.com\/ie\/?p=190 . Retrieved 20 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Farber, Dan (25 June 2008). \"The new geek chic: Data centers\". CNET. CBS Interactive. http:\/\/www.cnet.com\/news\/the-new-geek-chic-data-centers\/ . Retrieved 20 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 King, Rachael (04 August 2008). \"Cloud Computing: Small Companies Take Flight\". Businessweek. http:\/\/www.businessweek.com\/technology\/content\/aug2008\/tc2008083_619516.htm . Retrieved 20 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Kuperberg, Michael; Herbst, Nikolas; Kistowski, Joakim von; Reussner, Ralf (2011). \"Defining and Measuring Cloud Elasticity\". Karlsruher Institut f\u00fcr Technologie. http:\/\/digbib.ubka.uni-karlsruhe.de\/volltexte\/1000023476 . Retrieved 20 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Cloud Evolution: The Carrier Cloud\" (PDF). Kontron. 2013. http:\/\/www.kontron.com\/resources\/collateral\/white_papers\/kontroncarriercloudwp.pdf .   \n\n\u2191 Narcisi, Gina (November 2013). \"Carrier cloud services: Do customers care if you own the network?\". SearchTelecom. TechTarget. http:\/\/searchtelecom.techtarget.com\/feature\/Carrier-cloud-services-Do-customers-care-if-you-own-the-network . Retrieved 20 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Halpert, Ben (2011). \"Chapter 1: Introduction to Cloud Computing\". Auditing Cloud Computing: A Security and Privacy Guide. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1\u201313. ISBN 9781118116043. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GjsH0HJ2PmYC&pg=PT10&lpg=PT10 . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Parhill, Douglas (2006). The Challenge of the Computer Utility. Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=8kJZAAAAMAAJ . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Laubach, Mark (July 1993). \"Minutes of the IP Over Asynchronous Transfer Mode Working Group (ATM)\". Hewlett-Packard. http:\/\/ftp.univie.ac.at\/netinfo\/ietf\/atm\/atm-minutes-93jul.txt . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 17.0 17.1 Mohamed, Arif (March 2009). \"A history of cloud computing\". ComputerWorld.com. TechTarget. http:\/\/www.computerweekly.com\/feature\/A-history-of-cloud-computing . Retrieved 20 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"The Eucalyptus Story\". Eucalyptus Systems, Inc. https:\/\/www.eucalyptus.com\/about\/story . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Rochwerger, B.; Caceres, J.; Montero, R.S.; Breitgand, D.; Elmroth, E.; Galis, A.; Levy, E.; Llorente, I.M.; Nagin, K.; Wolfsthal, Y.; Caceres, J.; Ben-Yehuda, M.; Emmerich, W.; Galan, F (2009). \"The RESERVOIR Model and Architecture for Open Federated Cloud Computing\". IBM Journal of Research and Development 53 (4). http:\/\/researchweb.watson.ibm.com\/journal\/abstracts\/rd\/534\/rochwerger.html . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Schurr, Amy (08 July 2008). \"Keep an eye on cloud computing\". Network World. http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/newsletters\/itlead\/2008\/070708itlead1.html . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Gartner Says Worldwide IT Spending On Pace to Surpass Trillion in 2008\". Gartner, Inc. 18 August 2008. http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/it\/page.jsp?id=742913 . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Gartner Says Worldwide Public Cloud Services Market to Total $131 Billion\". Gartner, Inc. 28 February 2013. http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/2352816 . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Farber, Dan (26 September 2008). \"Oracle's Ellison nails cloud computing\". CNET. CBS Interactive. http:\/\/www.cnet.com\/news\/oracles-ellison-nails-cloud-computing\/ . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Kanaracus, Chris (09 February 2010). \"Oracle launches worldwide cloud-computing tour\". Network World. http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2244231\/data-center\/oracle-launches-worldwide-cloud-computing-tour.html . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Plesser, Andy (29 September 2008). \"Cloud Computing is Hyped and Overblown\". YouTube. http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=f7wv1i8ubng . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Johnson, Bobbie (29 September 2008). \"Cloud computing is a trap, warns GNU founder Richard Stallman\". The Guardian. http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2008\/sep\/29\/cloud.computing.richard.stallman . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Maier, Fran (19 October 2011). \"Can There Ever Really Be Privacy in the Cloud?\". Mashable. http:\/\/mashable.com\/2011\/10\/19\/cloud-privacy\/ . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Schwartz, Paul M. (01 May 2013). \"Information Privacy in the Cloud\". University of Pennsylvania Law Review 161 (1623). http:\/\/scholarship.law.berkeley.edu\/facpubs\/1906\/ . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Howard, Alexander B (18 December 2009). \"FISMA compliance for federal cloud computing on the horizon in 2010\". SearchCompliance. TechTarget. http:\/\/searchcompliance.techtarget.com\/news\/1377298\/FISMA-compliance-for-federal-cloud-computing-on-the-horizon-in-2010 . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Glotzbach, Matthew (15 September 2009). \"Google Apps and Government\". Google Official Enterprise Blog. Google. http:\/\/googleenterprise.blogspot.com\/2009\/09\/google-apps-and-government.html . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Bartels, Angela (05 March 2009). \"Cloud Hosting is Secure for Take-off: Mosso Enables The Spreadsheet Store, an Online Merchant, to become PCI Compliant\". Rackspace. Archived from the original on 23 February 2011. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110223172816\/http:\/\/www.rackspace.com\/cloud\/blog\/2009\/03\/05\/cloud-hosting-is-secure-for-take-off-mosso-enables-the-spreadsheet-store-an-online-merchant-to-become-pci-compliant\/ . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Brooks, Carl (17 November 2009). \"Amazon gets SAS 70 Type II audit stamp, but analysts not satisfied\". SearchCloudComputing. TechTarget. http:\/\/searchcloudcomputing.techtarget.com\/news\/article\/0,289142,sid201_gci1374629,00.html . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Norton, Jerry (31 December 2009). \"Assessing Cloud Computing Agreements and Controls\". WTN News. WTN Media. http:\/\/wtnnews.com\/articles\/6954\/ . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Helbing, Thomas (29 August 2012). \"How the New EU Rules on Data Export Affect Companies in and Outside the EU\". Dr. Thomas Helbing. https:\/\/www.thomashelbing.com\/en\/how-new-eu-rules-data-export-affect-companies-and-outside-eu . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Richards, Brianna (17 June 2013). \"Cloud Computing \u2013 Storm or Silver Lining? Pt 2\". Trinus Technologies Inc. http:\/\/www.trinustech.com\/cloud-computing-storm-or-silver-lining-pt-2\/ . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Jenks, Stephen (08 November 2011). \"Cloud Computing for Home Has Huge Problems\". Stephen Jenks' Blog. http:\/\/www.stephenjenks.com\/2011\/11\/cloud-computing-for-home-has-huge-problems\/ . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Cloud Computing Trademark Trends\". Inside Trademarks. 24 March 2010. Archived from the original on 28 March 2010. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100328121742\/http:\/\/insidetrademarks.com\/2010\/03\/24\/cloud-computing-trademark-trends\/ . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Google v US Complaint\". Scribd. 31 October 2010. http:\/\/www.scribd.com\/doc\/40513712\/Google-v-US-Complaint . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Casson, Tony; Ryan, Patrick S. (01 May 2006). \"Open Standards, Open Source Adoption in the Public Sector, and Their Relationship to Microsoft\u2019s Market Dominance\". Social Science Electronic Publishing. http:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656616 . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Scheier, Robert L (20 April 2009). \"What to do if your cloud provider disappears\". InfoWorld. IDG Network. http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/cloud-computing\/what-do-if-your-cloud-provider-disappears-508 . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"GoGrid Moves API Specification to Creative Commons\". ServePath. 20 January 2009. Archived from the original on 01 February 2009. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090201061221\/http:\/\/gogrid.com\/company\/press-releases\/gogrid-moves-api-specification-to-creativecommons.php . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Brockmeier, Joe (19 February 2010). \"Eucalyptus Completes Amazon Web Services Specs with Latest Release\". OStatic. http:\/\/ostatic.com\/blog\/eucalyptus-completes-amazon-web-services-specs-with-latest-release . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 43.0 43.1 Zissis, Dimitrios; Lekkas, Dimitrios (March 2012). \"Addressing cloud computing security issues\". Future Generation Computer Systems 28 (3). doi:10.1016\/j.future.2010.12.006. http:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?id=2064287 . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Messmer, Ellen (22 February 2010). \"Security of virtualization, cloud computing divides IT and security pros\". Network World. http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2244954\/virtualization\/security-of-virtualization--cloud-computing-divides-it-and-security-pros.html . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 45.0 45.1 Armbrust, Michael; Fox, Armando; Griffith, Rean; Joseph, Anthony D.; Katz, Randy; Konwinski, Andy; Lee, Gunho; Patterson, David; Rabkin, Ariel; Stoica, Ion; Zaharia, Matei (April 2010). \"A view of cloud computing\". Communications of the ACM 53 (4): 50\u201358. doi:10.1145\/1721654.1721672. http:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?doid=1721654.1721672 . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Trappier, Thomas (24 June 2010). \"If It's in the Cloud, Get It on Paper: Cloud Computing Contract Issues\". EDUCAUSE. http:\/\/www.educause.edu\/ero\/article\/if-its-cloud-get-it-paper-cloud-computing-contract-issues . Retrieved 21 August 2014 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Software and hardware terms\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom 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id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Cloud computing<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:402px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Cloud_computing.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"68b2398137bd2f9af0e50289acecc0e7\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/thumb\/b\/b5\/Cloud_computing.svg\/400px-Cloud_computing.svg.png\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Cloud_computing.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"68b2398137bd2f9af0e50289acecc0e7\"><\/a><\/div>Cloud computing logical diagram<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Cloud computing<\/b> is the delivery of computing as a service rather than a product, whereby shared resources, software, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> are provided to computers and other devices as a utility (like the electricity grid) over a network, typically the Internet.\n<\/p><p>Cloud computing describes a new supplement, consumption, and delivery model for IT services based on Internet protocols, and it typically involves provisioning of dynamically scalable and often virtualized resources<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GartnerCC_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GartnerCC-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GrumanReally_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GrumanReally-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Details are abstracted from end-users, who no longer have need for expertise in, or control over, the technology infrastructure \"in the cloud\" that supports them.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Danielson_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Danielson-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Cloud computing typically takes the form of web-based tools or applications that users can access and use through a web browser as if they were programs installed locally on their own computers. Those applications and resulting data are stored on servers at a remote location. In some cases, legacy applications (line of business applications that until now have been prevalent in thin client Windows computing) are delivered via a screen-sharing technology, while the computing resources are consolidated at a remote data center location; in other cases, entire business applications have been coded using web-based technologies such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Ajax\" title=\"Ajax\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"d1788e5514945246a28ea24b23ae5b67\">Ajax<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Overview\">Overview<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Term\">Term<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The term \"cloud\" is used as a metaphor for the Internet, based on the cloud drawing used in the past to represent the telephone network,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TAPI_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TAPI-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> and later to depict the Internet in computer network diagrams as an abstraction of the underlying infrastructure it represents.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ScanlonCloud_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ScanlonCloud-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Characteristics\">Characteristics<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) offers an authoritative definition of cloud computing. That definition encompasses the essential characteristics, service models, and deployment models of the service. Of the essential characteristics, cloud computing must<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NISTCloudDef-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> provide computing capabilities and services on an as-needed basis, without human intervention;<\/li>\n<li> be broadly accessible from a wide variety of standard desktop and mobile platforms;<\/li>\n<li> make storage, processing, memory, and network bandwidth available as pooled, multi-tenant resources;<\/li>\n<li> make those resources scalable with demand, often automatically, at any time; and<\/li>\n<li> meter those resources and make the resulting information transparently available to both provider and consumer.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Additional, more granular characteristics of cloud computing include the following.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> An application programming interface (API) enables machines to interact with cloud software in the same way the user interface facilitates interaction between humans and computers. Cloud computing systems typically use REST-based APIs.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> Cost is potentially reduced in a public cloud delivery model, with capital expenditure being converted to operational expenditure, including research, development, and sales.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ColumbusMaking_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ColumbusMaking-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> This is purported to lower barriers to entry, as infrastructure is typically provided by a third-party and does not need to be purchased for one-time or infrequent intensive computing tasks. Pricing on a utility computing basis is fine-grained with usage-based options and fewer in-house IT skills are required for implementation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GensCloud_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GensCloud-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> Device and location independence enable users to access systems using a web browser regardless of their location or what device they are using (e.g., PC, mobile phone).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FarberData_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FarberData-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> As infrastructure is off-site (typically provided by a third-party) and accessed via the Internet, users can connect from anywhere.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GensCloud_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GensCloud-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> Multi-tenancy enables sharing of resources and costs across a large pool of users, allowing for centralization of infrastructure in locations with lower costs, peak-load capacity increases, and utilization and efficiency improvements.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> Reliability is improved if multiple redundant sites are used, which makes well-designed cloud computing suitable for business continuity and disaster recovery.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KingCloud_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KingCloud-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> Services are scalable and elastic via dynamic, \"on-demand\" provisioning of resources on a fine-grained, self-service basis in real-time, without users having to engineer for peak loads.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Kuperberg_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Kuperberg-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> Performance is monitored, and consistent and loosely coupled architectures are constructed using web services as the system interface.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GensCloud_8-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GensCloud-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> Security could improve due to centralization of data, increased security-focused resources, etc., but concerns may persist about loss of control over certain sensitive data and the lack of security for stored kernels.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> Maintenance of cloud computing applications is easier, because they do not need to be installed on each user's computer. They are easier to support and to improve, as the changes reach the clients instantly.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Service_models\">Service models<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The NIST definition also details the service models, which include <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> (SaaS; provider's application runs on their infrastructure), platform as a service (PaaS; consumer-created or -acquired application runs on provider's infrastructure), and infrastructure as a service (IaaS; customer deploys operating systems and applications over fundamental computing resources provisioned by the provider).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NISTCloudDef-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Deployment_models\">Deployment models<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:327px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Cloud_computing_types.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"82ef454ecf2be216251195c0181f71fe\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/thumb\/8\/87\/Cloud_computing_types.svg\/325px-Cloud_computing_types.svg.png\" width=\"325\" height=\"192\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Cloud_computing_types.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"82ef454ecf2be216251195c0181f71fe\"><\/a><\/div>Cloud computing deployment types<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The NIST definition identifies four deployment models for cloud computing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NISTCloudDef-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><i>Private cloud<\/i>: an infrastructure operated solely for a single organization, whether managed internally or by a third-party and hosted internally or externally\n<\/p><p><i>Community cloud<\/i>: an infrastructure shared between several organisations from a specific community with common concerns (security, compliance, jurisdiction, etc.), managed internally or by a third-party and hosted internally or externally\n<\/p><p><i>Public cloud<\/i>: an infrastructure where resources are dynamically provisioned to the general public on a fine-grained, self-service basis over the Internet, via web applications\/web services, from an off-site third-party provider who bills on a metered basis\n<\/p><p><i>Hybrid cloud<\/i>: a composition of two or more clouds (private, community, or public) that remain unique entities but are bound together, offering the benefits of multiple deployment models\n<\/p><p>A fifth deployment option (potentially classifiable as \"hybrid\") that has become more notable is <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Carrier_cloud\" title=\"Carrier cloud\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a58a167c3e14d1d8ab5bbd29835e2ea4\">carrier cloud<\/a>, cloud computing services integrated into a communications service provider's network infrastructure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KontronWP_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KontronWP-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NarcisiCC_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NarcisiCC-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The underlying concept of cloud computing dates back to the 1960s, when John McCarthy opined that \"computation may someday be organized as a public utility.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HalpertAuditing_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HalpertAuditing-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Almost all the modern-day characteristics of cloud computing (elastic provision, provided as a utility, online, illusion of infinite supply), as well as the comparison to the electricity industry and the use of public, private, government, and community forms, were thoroughly explored in Douglas Parkhill's 1966 book, <i>The Challenge of the Computer Utility<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ParkhillChall_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ParkhillChall-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The actual term \"cloud\" borrows from telephony in that telecommunications companies, that until the 1990s offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits, began offering virtual private network (VPN) services with comparable quality of service but at a much lower cost. By switching traffic to balance utilization as they saw fit, they were able to utilize their overall network bandwidth more effectively. The cloud symbol was used to denote the demarcation point between that which was the responsibility of the provider and that which was the responsibility of the user. Cloud computing extends this boundary to cover servers as well as the network infrastructure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ATMMins_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ATMMins-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By the beginning of the twenty-first century, the advent of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Desktop_virtualization\" title=\"Desktop virtualization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e16509b6df28c450aedb19af7d39fa76\">virtualization<\/a> technology and cost effective computing hardware, as well as ubiquitous Internet connectivity, enabled a first wave of cloud services, including Salesforce.com in 1999 and Amazon Web Services in 2002.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CWHistOfCC_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CWHistOfCC-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> After the dot-com bubble, Amazon continued to play key role in the development of cloud computing by modernizing their <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_center\" title=\"Data center\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f5f939040d714745138ee295af8be71\">data centers<\/a>, which, like most computer networks, were using as little as 10 percent of their capacity at any one time, just to leave room for occasional spikes. Having found the new cloud architecture resulted in significant internal efficiency improvements whereby small, fast-moving \"two-pizza teams\" could add new features faster and more easily, Amazon initiated a new commercial cloud-based project, launching its Elastic Compute cloud (EC2) in 2006.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CWHistOfCC_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CWHistOfCC-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In May 2008, Eucalyptus became the first open-source, Amazon Web Service API-compatible platform for deploying private clouds.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EucHist_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EucHist-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> In early 2008, OpenNebula, enhanced in the RESERVOIR European Commission-funded project, became the first open-source software for deploying private and hybrid clouds and for the federation of clouds.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RochwergerIBM_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RochwergerIBM-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> By mid-2008, technology research firm Gartner saw an opportunity for cloud computing \"to shape the relationship among consumers of IT services, those who use IT services and those who sell them\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SchurrKeep_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SchurrKeep-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> and observed that \"organisations are switching from company-owned hardware and software assets to per-use service-based models\" so that the \"projected shift to cloud computing ... will result in dramatic growth in IT products in some areas and significant reductions in other areas.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GartnerITSpend_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GartnerITSpend-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>By 2013, Gartner was reporting the public cloud services market was forecast to grow 18.5 percent in 2013, totalling $131 billion worldwide, up from $111 billion in 2012. Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) made up the fastest-growing segment of the market, growing 42.4 percent in 2012 to $6.1 billion, with expectations of it growing 47.3 percent in 2013 to $9 billion.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GartnerCloudSpend_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GartnerCloudSpend-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Issues_and_concerns\">Issues and concerns<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>General criticisms of cloud computing state the term is too unspecific or even misleading. CEO Larry Ellison of Oracle Corporation asserts that cloud computing is \"everything that we already do\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FarberOracle_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FarberOracle-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> and that the company could simply \"change the wording on some of our ads\"\n<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KanaracusOracle_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KanaracusOracle-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> to deploy cloud-based services.\n<\/p><p>In 2008, Forrester Research VP Frank Gillett questioned the very nature of and motivation behind the push for cloud computing, describing what he calls \"cloud washing\"\u2014companies simply relabeling their products as \"cloud computing\", resulting in mere marketing innovation instead of \"real\" innovation. <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PlesserYT_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PlesserYT-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> That same year, GNU's Richard Stallman insisted the industry will only use the model to deliver services at ever increasing rates over proprietary systems, otherwise likening it to a \"marketing hype campaign.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Stallman_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Stallman-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Privacy\">Privacy<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The cloud model has been criticized by privacy advocates for the greater ease in which the companies hosting the cloud services control and monitor at will, lawfully or unlawfully, the communication and data stored between the user and the host company, leading to questions about whether or not privacy concerns can be addressed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MaierCloud_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MaierCloud-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SchwartzCloud_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SchwartzCloud-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Compliance\">Compliance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In order to obtain compliance with regulations including FISMA, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/HIPAA\" title=\"HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"70050974d1eda9ff8cf9ecf7e4fcd015\">HIPAA<\/a>, and SOX in the United States, the Data Protection Directive in the European Union, and the credit card industry's PCI DSS, users may have to adopt community or hybrid deployment modes that are typically more expensive and may offer restricted benefits. This is how Google is able to \"manage and meet additional government policy requirements beyond FISMA\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HowardFed_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HowardFed-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GlotzbachGov_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GlotzbachGov-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup> and Rackspace Cloud are able to claim PCI compliance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BartelsSecure_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BartelsSecure-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Many providers also obtain SAS 70 Type II certification, but this has been criticized on the grounds that the hand-picked set of goals and standards determined by the auditor and the auditee are often not disclosed and can vary widely.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BrooksAmazon_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BrooksAmazon-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> Providers typically make this information available on request, under non-disclosure agreement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-33\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Customers in the European Union contracting with cloud providers established outside the area have to adhere to the European Union's regulations on export of personal data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-34\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Performance\">Performance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Public cloud instances typically function well at the server and client hardware; however, speed across the connecting public Internet pipeline can vary significantly. Internet speeds can be asymmetrical and non-guaranteed, bandwidth may need to be shared, and Internet traffic rarely follow the same path, constraining performance and making a cloud option less appealing than a localized option.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RichardsSpeed_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RichardsSpeed-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> Poor upload speeds, especially from non-business home accounts, are also quoted as a factor limiting cloud computing's appeal.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JenksCloud_36-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JenksCloud-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Legal\">Legal<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Since 2007, the number of trademark filings covering cloud computing brands, goods, and services has increased rapidly. For example, in March 2007, Dell applied to trademark the term \"cloud computing\" (<span class=\"plainlinks\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/tarr.uspto.gov\/servlet\/tarr?regser=serial&entry=77139082\" target=\"_blank\">U.S. Trademark 77,139,082<\/a><\/span>) in the United States. The \"Notice of Allowance\" the company received in July 2008 was canceled in August, resulting in a formal rejection of the trademark application less than a week later. As Dell and other companies sought to better position themselves for cloud computing branding and marketing efforts, cloud computing trademark filings increased by 483 percent between 2008 and 2009. In 2009, 116 cloud computing trademarks were filed, and trademark analysts predicted that over 500 such marks could be filed during 2010.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Trademarks_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Trademarks-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Other legal cases may shape the use of cloud computing by the public sector. On October 29, 2010, Google filed a lawsuit against the U.S. Department of Interior, which opened up a bid for software that required bidders use Microsoft's Business Productivity Online Suite. Google sued, calling the requirement \"unduly restrictive of competition.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GoogleUS_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GoogleUS-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> Scholars have pointed out that, beginning in 2005, the prevalence of open standards and open-source software options may have an impact on the way public entities choose to select vendors and their software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Concerns about the legal and financial repercussions of a cloud provider shutting down, which has happened in a number of cases, also exist.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ScheiferCloud_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ScheiferCloud-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Open_standards\">Open standards<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Most cloud providers expose APIs that are typically well-documented (often under a Creative Commons license<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GoGrid_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GoGrid-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup>) but also unique to their implementation and thus not interoperable. Some vendors have adopted others' APIs, and there are a number of open standards under development, with a view to delivering interoperability and portability.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EucAma_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EucAma-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Security\">Security<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As cloud computing increases in popularity, concerns are being raised about the security issues introduced through the adoption of this new model. The effectiveness and efficiency of traditional protection mechanisms are being reconsidered as the characteristics of this innovative deployment model differ widely from those of traditional architectures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Zissis10_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Zissis10-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Issues barring the adoption of cloud computing are due in large part to the private and public sectors' unease surrounding the external management of security based services. It is the very nature of cloud computing based services, private or public, that promote external management of provided services. This delivers great incentive among cloud computing service providers in producing a priority in building and maintaining strong management of secure services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note--44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> Security issues have been categorized into sensitive data access, data segregation, privacy, bug exploitation, recovery, accountability, malicious insiders, management console security, account control, and multi-tenancy issues. Solutions to various cloud security issues vary from cryptography (particularly public key infrastructure), use of multiple cloud providers, standardization of APIs, improving virtual machine support, and legal support.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Zissis10_43-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Zissis10-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Armbrust10_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Armbrust10-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Armbrust10_45-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Armbrust10-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The complexity of security is further increased when data is distributed over a wider area or greater number of devices and in multi-tenant systems that are being shared by unrelated users. In addition, user access to security audit logs may be difficult or impossible. The move to private cloud installations are in part motivated by users' desire to retain control over the infrastructure and avoid losing control of information security.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Contracts\">Contracts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Most transitions to a cloud computing solution entail a change from a technically managed solution to a contractually managed solution. This change necessitates increased IT contract negotiation skills to establish the terms of the relationship and vendor management skills to maintain the relationship. All rights and responsibilities associated with the relationship between a client and a provider must be codified in the contract and effectively managed until the relationship has been terminated. Key risks and issues that are either unique to cloud computing or essential to its effective adoption typically involve service level agreements; data processing and access; provider infrastructure and security; and contract and vendor management.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TrappierCloud_46-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TrappierCloud-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation book\">Halpert, Ben (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GjsH0HJ2PmYC&pg=PT10&lpg=PT10\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Auditing Cloud Computing: A Security and Privacy Guide<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 206. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 9780470874745<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GjsH0HJ2PmYC&pg=PT10&lpg=PT10\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GjsH0HJ2PmYC&pg=PT10&lpg=PT10<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Auditing+Cloud+Computing%3A+A+Security+and+Privacy+Guide&rft.aulast=Halpert%2C+Ben&rft.au=Halpert%2C+Ben&rft.date=2011&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B206&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.isbn=9780470874745&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGjsH0HJ2PmYC%26pg%3DPT10%26lpg%3DPT10&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li>\n<li> <span class=\"citation book\">Kavis, Michael J (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Architecting-Cloud-Decisions-Computing-Service\/dp\/1118617614\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Architecting the Cloud: Design Decisions for Cloud Computing Service Models (SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS)<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 224. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 9781118617618<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Architecting-Cloud-Decisions-Computing-Service\/dp\/1118617614\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Architecting-Cloud-Decisions-Computing-Service\/dp\/1118617614<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architecting+the+Cloud%3A+Design+Decisions+for+Cloud+Computing+Service+Models+%28SaaS%2C+PaaS%2C+and+IaaS%29&rft.aulast=Kavis%2C+Michael+J&rft.au=Kavis%2C+Michael+J&rft.date=2014&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B224&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.isbn=9781118617618&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2FArchitecting-Cloud-Decisions-Computing-Service%2Fdp%2F1118617614&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article reuses numerous content elements from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cloud_computing\" data-key=\"145c69b52847d21bf0f0bb20dce6a80c\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-GartnerCC-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GartnerCC_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/707508\" target=\"_blank\">\"Gartner Says Cloud Computing Will Be As Influential As E-business\"<\/a>. Gartner, Inc. 26 June 2008<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/707508\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/707508<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 20 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Gartner+Says+Cloud+Computing+Will+Be+As+Influential+As+E-business&rft.atitle=&rft.date=26+June+2008&rft.pub=Gartner%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gartner.com%2Fnewsroom%2Fid%2F707508&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GrumanReally-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GrumanReally_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Knorr, Eric; Gruman, Galen (07 April 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/cloud-computing\/what-cloud-computing-really-means-031\" target=\"_blank\">\"What cloud computing really means\"<\/a>. <i>InfoWorld<\/i>. IDG Network<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/cloud-computing\/what-cloud-computing-really-means-031\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/cloud-computing\/what-cloud-computing-really-means-031<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 20 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=What+cloud+computing+really+means&rft.atitle=InfoWorld&rft.aulast=Knorr%2C+Eric%3B+Gruman%2C+Galen&rft.au=Knorr%2C+Eric%3B+Gruman%2C+Galen&rft.date=07+April+2008&rft.pub=IDG+Network&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoworld.com%2Fd%2Fcloud-computing%2Fwhat-cloud-computing-really-means-031&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Danielson-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Danielson_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Danielson, Krissi (26 March 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ebizq.net\/blogs\/saasweek\/2008\/03\/distinguishing_cloud_computing\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Distinguishing Cloud Computing from Utility Computing\"<\/a>. <i>ebizQ<\/i>. TechTarget<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ebizq.net\/blogs\/saasweek\/2008\/03\/distinguishing_cloud_computing\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ebizq.net\/blogs\/saasweek\/2008\/03\/distinguishing_cloud_computing\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Distinguishing+Cloud+Computing+from+Utility+Computing&rft.atitle=ebizQ&rft.aulast=Danielson%2C+Krissi&rft.au=Danielson%2C+Krissi&rft.date=26+March+2008&rft.pub=TechTarget&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ebizq.net%2Fblogs%2Fsaasweek%2F2008%2F03%2Fdistinguishing_cloud_computing%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TAPI-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TAPI_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Sells, Chris (01 July 1998). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20050502192319\/http:\/\/www.sellsbrothers.com\/writing\/intro2tapi\/default.aspx?content=pstn.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Windows Telephony Programming: A Developer's Guide to TAPI\"<\/a>. <i>Sellsbrothers.com<\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sellsbrothers.com\/writing\/intro2tapi\/default.aspx?content=pstn.htm\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 02 May 2005<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20050502192319\/http:\/\/www.sellsbrothers.com\/writing\/intro2tapi\/default.aspx?content=pstn.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20050502192319\/http:\/\/www.sellsbrothers.com\/writing\/intro2tapi\/default.aspx?content=pstn.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Windows+Telephony+Programming%3A+A+Developer%27s+Guide+to+TAPI&rft.atitle=Sellsbrothers.com&rft.aulast=Sells%2C+Chris&rft.au=Sells%2C+Chris&rft.date=01+July+1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20050502192319%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.sellsbrothers.com%2Fwriting%2Fintro2tapi%2Fdefault.aspx%3Fcontent%3Dpstn.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ScanlonCloud-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ScanlonCloud_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Scanlon,Jessie Holliday; Wieners, Brad (09 July 1999). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100211133442\/http:\/\/www.thestandard.com\/article\/0,1902,5466,00.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Internet Cloud\"<\/a>. <i>The Industry Standard<\/i>. IDG Network. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.thestandard.com\/article\/0,1902,5466,00.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 11 February 2010<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100211133442\/http:\/\/www.thestandard.com\/article\/0,1902,5466,00.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20100211133442\/http:\/\/www.thestandard.com\/article\/0,1902,5466,00.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 2010-08-22<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+Internet+Cloud&rft.atitle=The+Industry+Standard&rft.aulast=Scanlon%2CJessie+Holliday%3B+Wieners%2C+Brad&rft.au=Scanlon%2CJessie+Holliday%3B+Wieners%2C+Brad&rft.date=09+July+1999&rft.pub=IDG+Network&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20100211133442%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.thestandard.com%2Farticle%2F0%2C1902%2C5466%2C00.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NISTCloudDef-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-NISTCloudDef_6-2\">6.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Mell, Peter; Grance, Timothy (September 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/publications\/nistpubs\/800-145\/SP800-145.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing\"<\/a> (PDF). National Institute of Standards and Technology<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/publications\/nistpubs\/800-145\/SP800-145.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/publications\/nistpubs\/800-145\/SP800-145.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 20 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+NIST+Definition+of+Cloud+Computing&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Mell%2C+Peter%3B+Grance%2C+Timothy&rft.au=Mell%2C+Peter%3B+Grance%2C+Timothy&rft.date=September+2011&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcsrc.nist.gov%2Fpublications%2Fnistpubs%2F800-145%2FSP800-145.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ColumbusMaking-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ColumbusMaking_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Columbus, Louis (10 April 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/louiscolumbus\/2013\/04\/10\/making-cloud-computing-pay-2\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Making Cloud Computing Pay\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved 20 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Making+Cloud+Computing+Pay&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Columbus%2C+Louis&rft.au=Columbus%2C+Louis&rft.date=10+April+2013&rft.pub=Forbes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Flouiscolumbus%2F2013%2F04%2F10%2Fmaking-cloud-computing-pay-2%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GensCloud-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GensCloud_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GensCloud_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GensCloud_8-2\">8.2<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Gens, Frank (23 September 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blogs.idc.com\/ie\/?p=190\" target=\"_blank\">\"Defining \"Cloud Services\" and \"Cloud Computing\"\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved 20 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Defining+%22Cloud+Services%22+and+%22Cloud+Computing%22&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Gens%2C+Frank&rft.au=Gens%2C+Frank&rft.date=23+September+2008&rft.pub=IDC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.idc.com%2Fie%2F%3Fp%3D190&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FarberData-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FarberData_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Farber, Dan (25 June 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cnet.com\/news\/the-new-geek-chic-data-centers\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"The new geek chic: Data centers\"<\/a>. <i>CNET<\/i>. 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Retrieved 20 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+new+geek+chic%3A+Data+centers&rft.atitle=CNET&rft.aulast=Farber%2C+Dan&rft.au=Farber%2C+Dan&rft.date=25+June+2008&rft.pub=CBS+Interactive&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnet.com%2Fnews%2Fthe-new-geek-chic-data-centers%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KingCloud-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KingCloud_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">King, Rachael (04 August 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.businessweek.com\/technology\/content\/aug2008\/tc2008083_619516.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cloud Computing: Small Companies Take Flight\"<\/a>. 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Karlsruher Institut f\u00fcr Technologie<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/digbib.ubka.uni-karlsruhe.de\/volltexte\/1000023476\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/digbib.ubka.uni-karlsruhe.de\/volltexte\/1000023476<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Kontron. 2013<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kontron.com\/resources\/collateral\/white_papers\/kontroncarriercloudwp.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.kontron.com\/resources\/collateral\/white_papers\/kontroncarriercloudwp.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Cloud+Evolution%3A+The+Carrier+Cloud&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2013&rft.pub=Kontron&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kontron.com%2Fresources%2Fcollateral%2Fwhite_papers%2Fkontroncarriercloudwp.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NarcisiCC-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NarcisiCC_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Narcisi, Gina (November 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/searchtelecom.techtarget.com\/feature\/Carrier-cloud-services-Do-customers-care-if-you-own-the-network\" target=\"_blank\">\"Carrier cloud services: Do customers care if you own the network?\"<\/a>. <i>SearchTelecom<\/i>. 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Retrieved 20 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Carrier+cloud+services%3A+Do+customers+care+if+you+own+the+network%3F&rft.atitle=SearchTelecom&rft.aulast=Narcisi%2C+Gina&rft.au=Narcisi%2C+Gina&rft.date=November+2013&rft.pub=TechTarget&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearchtelecom.techtarget.com%2Ffeature%2FCarrier-cloud-services-Do-customers-care-if-you-own-the-network&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HalpertAuditing-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HalpertAuditing_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Halpert, Ben (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GjsH0HJ2PmYC&pg=PT10&lpg=PT10\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Introduction to Cloud Computing\"<\/a>. <i>Auditing Cloud Computing: A Security and Privacy Guide<\/i>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1\u201313. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 9781118116043<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GjsH0HJ2PmYC&pg=PT10&lpg=PT10\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GjsH0HJ2PmYC&pg=PT10&lpg=PT10<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Addison-Wesley Pub. Co<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=8kJZAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=8kJZAAAAMAAJ<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+Eucalyptus+Story&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Eucalyptus+Systems%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eucalyptus.com%2Fabout%2Fstory&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RochwergerIBM-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RochwergerIBM_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Rochwerger, B.; Caceres, J.; Montero, R.S.; Breitgand, D.; Elmroth, E.; Galis, A.; Levy, E.; Llorente, I.M.; Nagin, K.; Wolfsthal, Y.; Caceres, J.; Ben-Yehuda, M.; Emmerich, W.; Galan, F (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/researchweb.watson.ibm.com\/journal\/abstracts\/rd\/534\/rochwerger.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The RESERVOIR Model and Architecture for Open Federated Cloud Computing\"<\/a>. <i>IBM Journal of Research and Development<\/i> <b>53<\/b> (4)<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/researchweb.watson.ibm.com\/journal\/abstracts\/rd\/534\/rochwerger.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/researchweb.watson.ibm.com\/journal\/abstracts\/rd\/534\/rochwerger.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+RESERVOIR+Model+and+Architecture+for+Open+Federated+Cloud+Computing&rft.jtitle=IBM+Journal+of+Research+and+Development&rft.aulast=Rochwerger%2C+B.%3B+Caceres%2C+J.%3B+Montero%2C+R.S.%3B+Breitgand%2C+D.%3B+Elmroth%2C+E.%3B+Galis%2C+A.%3B+Levy%2C+E.%3B+Llorente%2C+I.M.%3B+Nagin%2C+K.%3B+Wolfsthal%2C+Y.%3B+Caceres%2C+J.%3B+Ben-Yehuda%2C+M.%3B+Emmerich%2C+W.%3B+Galan%2C+F&rft.au=Rochwerger%2C+B.%3B+Caceres%2C+J.%3B+Montero%2C+R.S.%3B+Breitgand%2C+D.%3B+Elmroth%2C+E.%3B+Galis%2C+A.%3B+Levy%2C+E.%3B+Llorente%2C+I.M.%3B+Nagin%2C+K.%3B+Wolfsthal%2C+Y.%3B+Caceres%2C+J.%3B+Ben-Yehuda%2C+M.%3B+Emmerich%2C+W.%3B+Galan%2C+F&rft.date=2009&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresearchweb.watson.ibm.com%2Fjournal%2Fabstracts%2Frd%2F534%2Frochwerger.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SchurrKeep-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SchurrKeep_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Schurr, Amy (08 July 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/newsletters\/itlead\/2008\/070708itlead1.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Keep an eye on cloud computing\"<\/a>. Network World<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/newsletters\/itlead\/2008\/070708itlead1.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/newsletters\/itlead\/2008\/070708itlead1.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Gartner+Says+Worldwide+IT+Spending+On+Pace+to+Surpass+Trillion+in+2008&rft.atitle=&rft.date=18+August+2008&rft.pub=Gartner%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gartner.com%2Fit%2Fpage.jsp%3Fid%3D742913&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GartnerCloudSpend-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GartnerCloudSpend_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gartner.com\/newsroom\/id\/2352816\" target=\"_blank\">\"Gartner Says Worldwide Public Cloud Services Market to Total $131 Billion\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Gartner+Says+Worldwide+Public+Cloud+Services+Market+to+Total+%24131+Billion&rft.atitle=&rft.date=28+February+2013&rft.pub=Gartner%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gartner.com%2Fnewsroom%2Fid%2F2352816&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FarberOracle-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FarberOracle_23-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Farber, Dan (26 September 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cnet.com\/news\/oracles-ellison-nails-cloud-computing\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Oracle's Ellison nails cloud computing\"<\/a>. <i>CNET<\/i>. 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Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Oracle+launches+worldwide+cloud-computing+tour&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Kanaracus%2C+Chris&rft.au=Kanaracus%2C+Chris&rft.date=09+February+2010&rft.pub=Network+World&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkworld.com%2Farticle%2F2244231%2Fdata-center%2Foracle-launches-worldwide-cloud-computing-tour.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PlesserYT-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PlesserYT_25-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Plesser, Andy (29 September 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=f7wv1i8ubng\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cloud Computing is Hyped and Overblown\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Cloud+Computing+is+Hyped+and+Overblown&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Plesser%2C+Andy&rft.au=Plesser%2C+Andy&rft.date=29+September+2008&rft.pub=YouTube&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Df7wv1i8ubng&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Stallman-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Stallman_26-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Johnson, Bobbie (29 September 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2008\/sep\/29\/cloud.computing.richard.stallman\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cloud computing is a trap, warns GNU founder Richard Stallman\"<\/a>. <i>The Guardian<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2008\/sep\/29\/cloud.computing.richard.stallman\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.theguardian.com\/technology\/2008\/sep\/29\/cloud.computing.richard.stallman<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Cloud+computing+is+a+trap%2C+warns+GNU+founder+Richard+Stallman&rft.atitle=The+Guardian&rft.aulast=Johnson%2C+Bobbie&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Bobbie&rft.date=29+September+2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2008%2Fsep%2F29%2Fcloud.computing.richard.stallman&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MaierCloud-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MaierCloud_27-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Maier, Fran (19 October 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/mashable.com\/2011\/10\/19\/cloud-privacy\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Can There Ever Really Be Privacy in the Cloud?\"<\/a>. Mashable<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/mashable.com\/2011\/10\/19\/cloud-privacy\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/mashable.com\/2011\/10\/19\/cloud-privacy\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Can+There+Ever+Really+Be+Privacy+in+the+Cloud%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Maier%2C+Fran&rft.au=Maier%2C+Fran&rft.date=19+October+2011&rft.pub=Mashable&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmashable.com%2F2011%2F10%2F19%2Fcloud-privacy%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SchwartzCloud-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SchwartzCloud_28-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Schwartz, Paul M. (01 May 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/scholarship.law.berkeley.edu\/facpubs\/1906\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Information Privacy in the Cloud\"<\/a>. <i>University of Pennsylvania Law Review<\/i> <b>161<\/b> (1623)<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/scholarship.law.berkeley.edu\/facpubs\/1906\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/scholarship.law.berkeley.edu\/facpubs\/1906\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Information+Privacy+in+the+Cloud&rft.jtitle=University+of+Pennsylvania+Law+Review&rft.aulast=Schwartz%2C+Paul+M.&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+Paul+M.&rft.date=01+May+2013&rft.volume=161&rft.issue=1623&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.berkeley.edu%2Ffacpubs%2F1906%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HowardFed-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HowardFed_29-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Howard, Alexander B (18 December 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/searchcompliance.techtarget.com\/news\/1377298\/FISMA-compliance-for-federal-cloud-computing-on-the-horizon-in-2010\" target=\"_blank\">\"FISMA compliance for federal cloud computing on the horizon in 2010\"<\/a>. <i>SearchCompliance<\/i>. 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Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Google+Apps+and+Government&rft.atitle=Google+Official+Enterprise+Blog&rft.aulast=Glotzbach%2C+Matthew&rft.au=Glotzbach%2C+Matthew&rft.date=15+September+2009&rft.pub=Google&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgoogleenterprise.blogspot.com%2F2009%2F09%2Fgoogle-apps-and-government.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BartelsSecure-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BartelsSecure_31-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Bartels, Angela (05 March 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110223172816\/http:\/\/www.rackspace.com\/cloud\/blog\/2009\/03\/05\/cloud-hosting-is-secure-for-take-off-mosso-enables-the-spreadsheet-store-an-online-merchant-to-become-pci-compliant\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Cloud Hosting is Secure for Take-off: Mosso Enables The Spreadsheet Store, an Online Merchant, to become PCI Compliant\"<\/a>. Rackspace. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rackspace.com\/cloud\/blog\/2009\/03\/05\/cloud-hosting-is-secure-for-take-off-mosso-enables-the-spreadsheet-store-an-online-merchant-to-become-pci-compliant\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 23 February 2011<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110223172816\/http:\/\/www.rackspace.com\/cloud\/blog\/2009\/03\/05\/cloud-hosting-is-secure-for-take-off-mosso-enables-the-spreadsheet-store-an-online-merchant-to-become-pci-compliant\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110223172816\/http:\/\/www.rackspace.com\/cloud\/blog\/2009\/03\/05\/cloud-hosting-is-secure-for-take-off-mosso-enables-the-spreadsheet-store-an-online-merchant-to-become-pci-compliant\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Dr. Thomas Helbing<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.thomashelbing.com\/en\/how-new-eu-rules-data-export-affect-companies-and-outside-eu\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.thomashelbing.com\/en\/how-new-eu-rules-data-export-affect-companies-and-outside-eu<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Cloud+Computing+Trademark+Trends&rft.atitle=&rft.date=24+March+2010&rft.pub=Inside+Trademarks&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20100328121742%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Finsidetrademarks.com%2F2010%2F03%2F24%2Fcloud-computing-trademark-trends%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GoogleUS-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GoogleUS_38-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scribd.com\/doc\/40513712\/Google-v-US-Complaint\" target=\"_blank\">\"Google v US Complaint\"<\/a>. 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(01 May 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656616\" target=\"_blank\">\"Open Standards, Open Source Adoption in the Public Sector, and Their Relationship to Microsoft\u2019s Market Dominance\"<\/a>. Social Science Electronic Publishing<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656616\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/papers.ssrn.com\/sol3\/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1656616<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Open+Standards%2C+Open+Source+Adoption+in+the+Public+Sector%2C+and+Their+Relationship+to+Microsoft%E2%80%99s+Market+Dominance&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Casson%2C+Tony%3B+Ryan%2C+Patrick+S.&rft.au=Casson%2C+Tony%3B+Ryan%2C+Patrick+S.&rft.date=01+May+2006&rft.pub=Social+Science+Electronic+Publishing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1656616&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ScheiferCloud-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ScheiferCloud_40-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Scheier, Robert L (20 April 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.infoworld.com\/d\/cloud-computing\/what-do-if-your-cloud-provider-disappears-508\" target=\"_blank\">\"What to do if your cloud provider disappears\"<\/a>. <i>InfoWorld<\/i>. 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Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=What+to+do+if+your+cloud+provider+disappears&rft.atitle=InfoWorld&rft.aulast=Scheier%2C+Robert+L&rft.au=Scheier%2C+Robert+L&rft.date=20+April+2009&rft.pub=IDG+Network&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoworld.com%2Fd%2Fcloud-computing%2Fwhat-do-if-your-cloud-provider-disappears-508&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GoGrid-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-GoGrid_41-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090201061221\/http:\/\/gogrid.com\/company\/press-releases\/gogrid-moves-api-specification-to-creativecommons.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"GoGrid Moves API Specification to Creative Commons\"<\/a>. ServePath. 20 January 2009. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.gogrid.com\/company\/press-releases\/gogrid-moves-api-specification-to-creativecommons.php\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 01 February 2009<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090201061221\/http:\/\/gogrid.com\/company\/press-releases\/gogrid-moves-api-specification-to-creativecommons.php\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090201061221\/http:\/\/gogrid.com\/company\/press-releases\/gogrid-moves-api-specification-to-creativecommons.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=GoGrid+Moves+API+Specification+to+Creative+Commons&rft.atitle=&rft.date=20+January+2009&rft.pub=ServePath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20090201061221%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fgogrid.com%2Fcompany%2Fpress-releases%2Fgogrid-moves-api-specification-to-creativecommons.php&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EucAma-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EucAma_42-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Brockmeier, Joe (19 February 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ostatic.com\/blog\/eucalyptus-completes-amazon-web-services-specs-with-latest-release\" target=\"_blank\">\"Eucalyptus Completes Amazon Web Services Specs with Latest Release\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Eucalyptus+Completes+Amazon+Web+Services+Specs+with+Latest+Release&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Brockmeier%2C+Joe&rft.au=Brockmeier%2C+Joe&rft.date=19+February+2010&rft.pub=OStatic&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fostatic.com%2Fblog%2Feucalyptus-completes-amazon-web-services-specs-with-latest-release&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Zissis10-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Zissis10_43-0\">43.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Zissis10_43-1\">43.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Zissis, Dimitrios; Lekkas, Dimitrios (March 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?id=2064287\" target=\"_blank\">\"Addressing cloud computing security issues\"<\/a>. <i>Future Generation Computer Systems<\/i> <b>28<\/b> (3). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.future.2010.12.006\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.future.2010.12.006<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?id=2064287\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?id=2064287<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Addressing+cloud+computing+security+issues&rft.jtitle=Future+Generation+Computer+Systems&rft.aulast=Zissis%2C+Dimitrios%3B+Lekkas%2C+Dimitrios&rft.au=Zissis%2C+Dimitrios%3B+Lekkas%2C+Dimitrios&rft.date=March+2012&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.future.2010.12.006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdl.acm.org%2Fcitation.cfm%3Fid%3D2064287&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note--44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-_44-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Messmer, Ellen (22 February 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.networkworld.com\/article\/2244954\/virtualization\/security-of-virtualization--cloud-computing-divides-it-and-security-pros.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Security of virtualization, cloud computing divides IT and security pros\"<\/a>. 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Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Security+of+virtualization%2C+cloud+computing+divides+IT+and+security+pros&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Messmer%2C+Ellen&rft.au=Messmer%2C+Ellen&rft.date=22+February+2010&rft.pub=Network+World&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.networkworld.com%2Farticle%2F2244954%2Fvirtualization%2Fsecurity-of-virtualization--cloud-computing-divides-it-and-security-pros.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Armbrust10-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Armbrust10_45-0\">45.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-Armbrust10_45-1\">45.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Armbrust, Michael; Fox, Armando; Griffith, Rean; Joseph, Anthony D.; Katz, Randy; Konwinski, Andy; Lee, Gunho; Patterson, David; Rabkin, Ariel; Stoica, Ion; Zaharia, Matei (April 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?doid=1721654.1721672\" target=\"_blank\">\"A view of cloud computing\"<\/a>. <i>Communications of the ACM<\/i> <b>53<\/b> (4): 50\u201358. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1145%2F1721654.1721672\" target=\"_blank\">10.1145\/1721654.1721672<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?doid=1721654.1721672\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/dl.acm.org\/citation.cfm?doid=1721654.1721672<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=A+view+of+cloud+computing&rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&rft.aulast=Armbrust%2C+Michael%3B+Fox%2C+Armando%3B+Griffith%2C+Rean%3B+Joseph%2C+Anthony+D.%3B+Katz%2C+Randy%3B+Konwinski%2C+Andy%3B+Lee%2C+Gunho%3B+Patterson%2C+David%3B+Rabkin%2C+Ariel%3B+Stoica%2C+Ion%3B+Zaharia%2C+Matei&rft.au=Armbrust%2C+Michael%3B+Fox%2C+Armando%3B+Griffith%2C+Rean%3B+Joseph%2C+Anthony+D.%3B+Katz%2C+Randy%3B+Konwinski%2C+Andy%3B+Lee%2C+Gunho%3B+Patterson%2C+David%3B+Rabkin%2C+Ariel%3B+Stoica%2C+Ion%3B+Zaharia%2C+Matei&rft.date=April+2010&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=50%E2%80%9358&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1145%2F1721654.1721672&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdl.acm.org%2Fcitation.cfm%3Fdoid%3D1721654.1721672&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TrappierCloud-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-TrappierCloud_46-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Trappier, Thomas (24 June 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.educause.edu\/ero\/article\/if-its-cloud-get-it-paper-cloud-computing-contract-issues\" target=\"_blank\">\"If It's in the Cloud, Get It on Paper: Cloud Computing Contract Issues\"<\/a>. EDUCAUSE<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.educause.edu\/ero\/article\/if-its-cloud-get-it-paper-cloud-computing-contract-issues\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.educause.edu\/ero\/article\/if-its-cloud-get-it-paper-cloud-computing-contract-issues<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 21 August 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=If+It%27s+in+the+Cloud%2C+Get+It+on+Paper%3A+Cloud+Computing+Contract+Issues&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Trappier%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Trappier%2C+Thomas&rft.date=24+June+2010&rft.pub=EDUCAUSE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.educause.edu%2Fero%2Farticle%2Fif-its-cloud-get-it-paper-cloud-computing-contract-issues&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Cloud_computing\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202954\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.966 seconds\nReal time usage: 2.607 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 30020\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 27153\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 209066\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 90151\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 849.847 1 - -total\n 90.85% 772.116 1 - Template:Reflist\n 86.22% 732.723 48 - Template:Citation\/core\n 72.14% 613.092 40 - Template:Cite_web\n 11.22% 95.384 4 - Template:Cite_book\n 8.09% 68.717 4 - Template:Cite_journal\n 5.50% 46.746 69 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 1.50% 12.758 5 - Template:Citation\/identifier\n 0.43% 3.622 1 - Template:US_trademark\n 0.41% 3.470 10 - Template:Hide_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:2111-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403202952 and revision id 15619\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Cloud_computing<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f_images":["https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/thumb\/b\/b5\/Cloud_computing.svg\/800px-Cloud_computing.svg.png","https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/thumb\/8\/87\/Cloud_computing_types.svg\/650px-Cloud_computing_types.svg.png"],"fcfe5882eaa018d920cedb88398b604f_timestamp":1554323392,"36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934_type":"article","36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934_title":"Application programming interface","36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Application_programming_interface","36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tApplication programming interface\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t This diagram shows a comparison of the Linux kernel API with the POSIX API.\nAn application programming interface (API) is a particular set of rules and specifications that software programs can follow to communicate with each other. It serves as an interface between different software programs and facilitates their interaction, similar to the way the user interface facilitates interaction between humans and computers. An API can be created for applications, libraries, operating systems, etc. as a way of defining their \"vocabularies\" and resource request conventions (e.g. function-calling conventions). It may include specifications for routines, data structures, object classes, and protocols used to communicate between the consumer program and the implementer program of the API.[1][2]\n\nContents\n\n1 Concept \n2 Advanced explanation \n\n2.1 API in modern languages \n2.2 API in object-oriented languages \n2.3 API and protocols \n\n\n3 Web APIs \n4 Use of APIs to share content \n5 Implementations \n6 Release policies \n7 ABIs \n8 API examples \n9 Language bindings and interface generators \n10 External links \n11 Notes \n12 References \n\n\n\nConcept \nAn API can be: \n\n general: the full set of an API that is bundled in the libraries of a programming language, e.g. Standard Template Library in C++ or Java API.\n specific: meant to address a specific problem, e.g. Google Maps API or Java API for XML Web Services.\n language-dependent: meaning it is only available by using the syntax and elements of a particular language, which makes the API more convenient to use.\n language-independent: written so that it can be called from several programming languages. This is a desirable feature for a service-oriented API that is not bound to a specific process or system and may be provided as remote procedure calls or web services. For example, a website that allows users to review local restaurants is able to layer their reviews over maps taken from Google Maps, because Google Maps has an API that facilitates this functionality. Google Maps' API controls what information a third-party site can use and how they can use it. \nAPI may be used to refer to a complete interface, a single function, or even a set of APIs provided by an organization. Thus, the scope of meaning is usually determined by the context of usage.\n\nAdvanced explanation \nAn API may describe the ways in which a particular task is performed.\nIn procedural languages like C, for example, the action is usually mediated by a function call.\nFor instance: the math.h include file for the C language contains the definition of the function prototypes of the mathematical functions available in the C language library for mathematical processing (usually called libm<code>).\nThis file describes how to <i>use<\/i> the functions included in the given library: the function prototype is a signature that describes the number and types of the parameters to be passed to the functions and the type of the return value. \n<\/p><p>The <i>behavior<\/i> of the functions is usually described in more details in a human readable format in printed books or in electronic formats like the man pages: e.g. on <a href=\"\/index.php?title=Unix&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"Unix (page does not exist)\">Unix<\/a> systems the command \n<\/p><p><code>man 3 sqrt \nwill present the signature of the function sqrt in the form:\n\nSYNOPSIS\n #include <math.h>\n double sqrt(double X);\n float sqrtf(float X);\nDESCRIPTION\n DESCRIPTION\n sqrt computes the positive square root of the argument. ...\nRETURNS\n On success, the square root is returned. If X is real and positive...\nThat means that the function returns the square root of a positive floating point number (single or double precision) as another floating point number. Hence the API in this case can be interpreted as the collection of the included files used by the C language and its human readable description provided by the man pages.\n\nAPI in modern languages \nMost of the modern programming languages provide the documentation associated with an API in some digital format that makes it easy to consult on a computer. E.g. perl comes with the tool perldoc:\n\n$ perldoc -f sqrt\n sqrt EXPR\n sqrt #Return the square root of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, returns\n #square root of $_. Only works on non-negative operands, unless\n #you've loaded the standard Math::Complex module.\npython comes with the tool pydoc:\n\n$ pydoc math.sqrt\nHelp on built-in function sqrt in math:\nmath.sqrt = sqrt(...)\n sqrt(x)\n Return the square root of x.\nruby comes with the tool ri:\n\n$ ri Math::sqrt\n------------------------------------------------------------- Math::sqrt\n Math.sqrt(numeric) => float\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n Returns the non-negative square root of _numeric_.\nJava comes with the documentation organized in html pages (JavaDoc format), while Microsoft distributes the API documentation for its languages (Visual C++, C#, Visual Basic, F#, etc...) embedded in Visual Studio's help system.\n\nAPI in object-oriented languages \nIn object oriented languages, an API usually includes a description of a set of class definitions, with a set of behaviors associated with those classes. A behavior is the set of rules for how an object, derived from that class, will act in a given circumstance. This abstract concept is associated with the real functionalities exposed, or made available, by the classes that are implemented in terms of class methods.\nThe API in this case can be conceived as the totality of all the methods publicly exposed by the classes (usually called the class interface). This means that the API prescribes the methods by which one interacts with\/handles the objects derived from the class definitions.\nMore generally, one can see the API as the collection of all the kinds of objects one can derive from the class definitions, and their associated possible behaviors. Again: the use is mediated by the public methods, but in this interpretation, the methods are seen as a technical detail of how the behavior is implemented.\nFor instance: a class representing a Stack can simply expose publicly two methods push() (to add a new item to the stack), and pop() (to extract the last item, ideally placed on top of the stack).\nIn this case the API can be interpreted as the two methods pop() and push(), or, more generally, as the idea that one can use an item of type Stack that implements the behavior of a stack: a pile exposing its top to add\/remove elements.\nThis concept can be carried to the point where a class interface in an API has no methods at all, but only behaviors associated with it. For instance, the Java language and Lisp API include the interface Serializable, which requires that each class that implements it should behave in a serialized fashion. This does not require to have any public method, but rather requires that any class that implements it to have a representation that can be saved (serialized) at any time (this is typically true for any class containing simple data and no link to external resources, like an open connection to a file, a remote system, or an external device).\nIn this sense, in object oriented languages, the API defines a set of object behaviors, possibly mediated by a set of class methods. \nIn such languages, the API is still distributed as a library. For example, the Java language libraries include a set of APIs that are provided in the form of the JDK used by the developers to build new Java programs. The JDK includes the documentation of the API in JavaDoc notation. \nThe quality of the documentation associated with an API is often a factor determining its success in terms of ease of use.\n\nAPI and protocols \nAn API can also be an implementation of a protocol.\nIn general the difference between an API and a protocol is that the protocol defines a standard way to exchange requests and responses based on a common transport, while an API provides a library to be used directly: hence there can be no transport (no information physically transferred from some remote machine), but rather only simple information exchange via function calls (local to the machine where the elaboration takes place).\nWhen an API implements a protocol it can be based on proxy methods for remote invocations that underneath rely on the communication protocol.\nThe role of the API can be exactly to hide the detail of the transport protocol.\nProtocols are usually shared between different technologies (system based on given computer programming languages in a given operating system) and usually allow the different technologies to exchange information, acting as an abstraction\/mediation level between the two worlds. While APIs are specific to a given technology: hence the APIs of a given language cannot be used in other languages, unless the function calls are wrapped with specific adaptation libraries.\n\nWeb APIs \nWhen used in the context of web development, an API is typically a defined set of Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) request messages, along with a definition of the structure of response messages, which is usually in an Extensible Markup Language (XML) or JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) format. While \"Web API\" is virtually a synonym for web service, the recent trend (so-called Web 2.0) has been moving away from Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) based services towards more direct Representational State Transfer (REST) style communications.[3] Web APIs allow the combination of multiple services into new applications known as Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)|mashups.[4]\n\nUse of APIs to share content \nThe practice of publishing APIs has allowed web communities to create an open architecture for sharing content and data between communities and applications. In this way, content that is created in one place can be dynamically posted and updated in multiple locations on the web.\n\nPhotos can be shared from sites like Flickr and Photobucket to social network sites like Facebook and MySpace.\nContent can be embedded, e.g. embedding a presentation from SlideShare on a LinkedIn profile.\nContent can be dynamically posted. Sharing live comments made on Twitter with a Facebook account, for example, is enabled by their APIs.\nVideo content can be embedded on sites which are served by another host.\nUser information can be shared from web communities to outside applications, delivering new functionality to the web community that shares its user data via an open API. One of the best examples of this is the Facebook Application platform. Another is the Open Social platform.[5]\nImplementations \nThe POSIX standard defines an API that allows a wide range of common computing functions to be written in a way such that they may operate on many different systems (Mac OS X, and various Berkeley Software Distributions (BSDs) implement this interface); however, making use of this requires re-compiling for each platform. A compatible API, on the other hand, allows compiled object code to function without any changes to the system implementing that API. This is beneficial to both software providers (where they may distribute existing software on new systems without producing and distributing upgrades) and users (where they may install older software on their new systems without purchasing upgrades), although this generally requires that various software libraries implement the necessary APIs as well.\nMicrosoft has shown a strong commitment to a backward compatible API, particularly within their Windows API (Win32) library, such that older applications may run on newer versions of Windows using an executable-specific setting called \"Compatibility Mode\".[6]\nApple Inc. has shown less concern, breaking compatibility or implementing an API in a slower \"emulation mode\"; this allows greater freedom in development, at the cost of making older software obsolete.[citation needed]\nAmong Unix-like operating systems, there are many related but incompatible operating systems running on a common hardware platform (particularly Intel 80386-compatible systems). There have been several attempts to standardize the API such that software vendors may distribute one binary application for all these systems; however, to date, none of these have met with much success. The Linux Standard Base is attempting to do this for the Linux platform, while many of the BSD Unixes, such as FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD, implement various levels of API compatibility for both backward compatibility (allowing programs written for older versions to run on newer distributions of the system) and cross-platform compatibility (allowing execution of foreign code without recompiling).\n\nRelease policies \nThe two options for releasing API are:\n\nProtecting information on APIs from the general public. For example, Sony used to make its official PlayStation 2 API available only to licensed PlayStation developers. This enabled Sony to control who wrote PlayStation 2 games. This gives companies quality control privileges and can provide them with potential licensing revenue streams.\nMaking APIs freely available. For example, Microsoft makes the Microsoft Windows API public, and Apple releases its APIs Carbon and Cocoa, so that software can be written for their platforms.\nA mix of the two behaviors can be used as well.\n\nABIs \nThe related term Application Binary Interface (ABI) is a lower level definition concerning details at the assembly language level. For example, the Linux Standard Base is an ABI, while POSIX is an API.[7]\n\nAPI examples \n ASPI for SCSI device interfacing\n DirectX for Microsoft Windows\n EHLLAPI\n Java APIs\n OpenGL cross-platform graphics API\n OpenAL cross-platform sound API\n OpenCL cross-platform API for general-purpose computing for CPUs & GPUs\n OpenMP API that supports multi-platform shared memory multiprocessing programming in C, C++ and Fortran on many architectures, including Unix and Microsoft Windows platforms.\n Simple DirectMedia Layer (SDL)\n Talend integrates its data management with Business process management (BPM) from Bonita Open Solution\n Windows API\nLanguage bindings and interface generators \nAPIs that are intended to be used by more than one high-level programming language often provide, or are augmented with, facilities to automatically map the API to features (syntactic or semantic) that are more natural in those languages. This is known as language binding, and is itself an API. The aim is to encapsulate most of the required functionality of the API, leaving a \"thin\" layer appropriate to each language.\nBelow are listed some interface generator tools which bind languages to APIs at compile time.\n\n SWIG opensource interfaces bindings generator from many languages to many languages (Typically Compiled->Scripted)\n F2PY:[8] Fortran to Python interface generator.\nExternal links \n How to design a good API and why it matters-PDF\n How to Write an API. Practical example with detailed code and motivation.\n Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA): The Road to Enterprise Application Integration (EAI)\n ISO\/IEC JTC 1 Directives, 5th Edition Version 3.0, Annex J: Guidelines for API standardization\nNotes \nThe bulk of this article is reused from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"Definition of: API\". PC Magazine. http:\/\/www.pcmag.com\/encyclopedia\/term\/37856\/api . Retrieved 28 June 2009 .   \n\n\u2191 Orenstein, David (10 January 2000). \"QuickStudy: Application Programming Interface (API)\". Computerworld. http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/action\/article.do?command=viewArticleBasic&articleId=43487 . Retrieved 04 June 2009 .   \n\n\u2191 \nBenslimane, Djamal; Schahram Dustdar, and Amit Sheth (September 2008). \"Services Mashups: The New Generation of Web Applications\". IEEE Internet Computing, vol. 12, no. 5. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. pp. 13\u201315. http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/xpl\/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4620089&url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D4620089 .   \n\n\u2191 \nNiccolai, James (23 April 2008), \"So What Is an Enterprise Mashup, Anyway?\", PC World, http:\/\/www.pcworld.com\/businesscenter\/article\/145039\/so_what_is_an_enterprise_mashup_anyway.html   \n\n\u2191 \n\"Dynamic Community content via APIs\". 26 October 2009.   \nyes \n\n\u2191 \nMicrosoft (15 October 2001). \"Run Older Programs On Windows XP\" (in EN). Microsoft. pp. 4. Archived from the original on 20 March 2011. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110320094425\/http:\/\/www.microsoft.com\/windowsxp\/using\/helpandsupport\/learnmore\/appcompat.mspx . Retrieved 26 October 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Stoughton, Nick (April 2005\naccessdate=04 June 2009). \"Update on Standards\" (PDF). 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It serves as an interface between different software programs and facilitates their interaction, similar to the way the user interface facilitates interaction between humans and computers. An API can be created for applications, libraries, operating systems, etc. as a way of defining their \"vocabularies\" and resource request conventions (e.g. function-calling conventions). It may include specifications for routines, data structures, object classes, and protocols used to communicate between the consumer program and the implementer program of the API.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Concept\">Concept<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>An API can be: \n<\/p>\n<ul><li> general: the full set of an API that is bundled in the libraries of a programming language, e.g. Standard Template Library in C++ or Java API.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> specific: meant to address a specific problem, e.g. Google Maps API or Java API for XML Web Services.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> language-dependent: meaning it is only available by using the syntax and elements of a particular language, which makes the API more convenient to use.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> language-independent: written so that it can be called from several programming languages. This is a desirable feature for a service-oriented API that is not bound to a specific process or system and may be provided as remote procedure calls or web services. For example, a website that allows users to review local restaurants is able to layer their reviews over maps taken from Google Maps, because Google Maps has an API that facilitates this functionality. Google Maps' API controls what information a third-party site can use and how they can use it. <\/li><\/ul>\n<p>API may be used to refer to a complete interface, a single function, or even a set of APIs provided by an organization. Thus, the scope of meaning is usually determined by the context of usage.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Advanced_explanation\">Advanced explanation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>An API may describe the ways in which a particular task is performed.\n<\/p><p>In procedural languages like C, for example, the <i>action<\/i> is usually <i>mediated<\/i> by a function call.\n<\/p><p>For instance: the <code>math.h<\/code> include file for the C language contains the definition of the function prototypes of the mathematical functions available in the C language library for mathematical processing (usually called <code>libm<code>).\nThis file describes how to <i>use<\/i> the functions included in the given library: the function prototype is a signature that describes the number and types of the parameters to be passed to the functions and the type of the return value. \n<\/p><p>The <i>behavior<\/i> of the functions is usually described in more details in a human readable format in printed books or in electronic formats like the man pages: e.g. on <a href=\"\/index.php?title=Unix&action=edit&redlink=1\" class=\"new\" title=\"Unix (page does not exist)\">Unix<\/a> systems the command \n<\/p><p><code>man 3 sqrt<\/code> \n<\/p><p>will present the signature of the function <code>sqrt<\/code> in the form:\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-highlight mw-content-ltr\" dir=\"ltr\"><pre>SYNOPSIS\n #include <math.h>\n double sqrt(double X);\n float sqrtf(float X);\nDESCRIPTION\n DESCRIPTION\n sqrt computes the positive square root of the argument. ...\nRETURNS\n On success, the square root is returned. If X is real and positive...<\/pre><\/div>\n<p>That means that the function returns the square root of a positive floating point number (<code>single<\/code> or <code>double<\/code> precision) as another floating point number. Hence the API in this case can be interpreted as the collection of the included files used by the C language and its human readable description provided by the man pages.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"API_in_modern_languages\">API in modern languages<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Most of the modern programming languages provide the documentation associated with an API in some digital format that makes it easy to consult on a computer. E.g. perl comes with the tool perldoc:\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-highlight mw-content-ltr\" dir=\"ltr\"><pre>$ perldoc -f sqrt\n sqrt EXPR\n sqrt #Return the square root of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, returns\n #square root of $_. Only works on non-negative operands, unless\n #you've loaded the standard Math::Complex module.<\/pre><\/div>\n<p>python comes with the tool pydoc:\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-highlight mw-content-ltr\" dir=\"ltr\"><pre>$ pydoc math.sqrt\nHelp on built-in function sqrt in math:\nmath.sqrt = sqrt(...)\n sqrt(x)\n Return the square root of x.<\/pre><\/div>\n<p>ruby comes with the tool <code>ri<\/code>:\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-highlight mw-content-ltr\" dir=\"ltr\"><pre>$ ri Math::sqrt\n------------------------------------------------------------- Math::sqrt\n Math.sqrt(numeric) => float\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n Returns the non-negative square root of _numeric_.<\/pre><\/div>\n<p>Java comes with the documentation organized in html pages (JavaDoc format), while Microsoft distributes the API documentation for its languages (Visual C++, C#, Visual Basic, F#, etc...) embedded in 's help system.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"API_in_object-oriented_languages\">API in object-oriented languages<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In languages, an API usually includes a description of a set of class definitions, with a set of behaviors associated with those classes. A <i>behavior<\/i> is the set of rules for how an object, derived from that class, will act in a given circumstance. This abstract concept is associated with the real functionalities exposed, or made available, by the classes that are implemented in terms of class methods.\n<\/p><p>The API in this case can be conceived as the totality of all the methods publicly exposed by the classes (usually called the class <i>interface<\/i>). This means that the API prescribes the methods by which one interacts with\/handles the objects derived from the class definitions.\n<\/p><p>More generally, one can see the API as the collection of all the <i>kinds<\/i> of objects one can derive from the class definitions, and their associated possible behaviors. Again: the use is mediated by the public methods, but in this interpretation, the methods are seen as a <i>technical detail<\/i> of how the behavior is implemented.\n<\/p><p>For instance: a class representing a <code>Stack<\/code> can simply expose publicly two methods <code>push()<\/code> (to add a new item to the stack), and <code>pop()<\/code> (to extract the last item, ideally placed on top of the stack).\n<\/p><p>In this case the API can be interpreted as the two methods <code>pop()<\/code> and <code>push()<\/code>, or, more generally, as the <i>idea<\/i> that one can use an item of type <code>Stack<\/code> that implements the behavior of a stack: a pile <i>exposing<\/i> its top to add\/remove elements.\n<\/p><p>This concept can be carried to the point where a class interface in an API has no methods at all, but only behaviors associated with it. For instance, the Java language and Lisp API include the interface <code>Serializable<\/code>, which requires that each class that implements it should behave in a serialized fashion. This does not require to have any public method, but rather requires that any class that implements it to have a representation that can be <i>saved<\/i> (serialized) at any time (this is typically true for any class containing simple data and no link to external resources, like an open connection to a file, a remote system, or an external device).\n<\/p><p>In this sense, in object oriented languages, the API defines a set of object behaviors, possibly mediated by a set of class methods. \n<\/p><p>In such languages, the API is still distributed as a library. For example, the Java language libraries include a set of APIs that are provided in the form of the JDK used by the developers to build new Java programs. The JDK includes the documentation of the API in JavaDoc notation. \n<\/p><p>The quality of the documentation associated with an API is often a factor determining its success in terms of ease of use.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"API_and_protocols\">API and protocols<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An API can also be an implementation of a protocol.\n<\/p><p>In general the difference between an API and a protocol is that the protocol defines a standard way to exchange requests and responses based on a common transport, while an API provides a library to be used directly: hence there can be no <i>transport<\/i> (no information physically transferred from some remote machine), but rather only simple information exchange via <i>function calls<\/i> (local to the machine where the elaboration takes place).\n<\/p><p>When an API implements a protocol it can be based on proxy methods for remote invocations that underneath rely on the communication protocol.\nThe role of the API can be exactly to hide the detail of the transport protocol.\n<\/p><p>Protocols are usually shared between different technologies (system based on given computer programming languages in a given operating system) and usually allow the different technologies to exchange information, acting as an abstraction\/mediation level between the two <i>worlds<\/i>. While APIs are specific to a given technology: hence the APIs of a given language cannot be used in other languages, unless the function calls are wrapped with specific adaptation libraries.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Web_APIs\">Web APIs<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>When used in the context of web development, an API is typically a defined set of Hypertext Transfer Protocol () request messages, along with a definition of the structure of response messages, which is usually in an Extensible Markup Language (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"fda82e3b4db7e4b2856b016933a1d2d1\">XML<\/a>) or JavaScript Object Notation () format. While \"Web API\" is virtually a synonym for , the recent trend (so-called Web 2.0) has been moving away from Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) based services towards more direct Representational State Transfer (REST) style communications.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Web APIs allow the combination of multiple services into new applications known as Mashup_(web_application_hybrid)|mashups.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Use_of_APIs_to_share_content\">Use of APIs to share content<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The practice of publishing APIs has allowed web communities to create an open architecture for sharing content and data between communities and applications. In this way, content that is created in one place can be dynamically posted and updated in multiple locations on the web.\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Photos can be shared from sites like Flickr and Photobucket to social network sites like Facebook and MySpace.<\/li>\n<li>Content can be embedded, e.g. embedding a presentation from SlideShare on a LinkedIn profile.<\/li>\n<li>Content can be dynamically posted. Sharing live comments made on Twitter with a Facebook account, for example, is enabled by their APIs.<\/li>\n<li>Video content can be embedded on sites which are served by another host.<\/li>\n<li>User information can be shared from web communities to outside applications, delivering new functionality to the web community that shares its user data via an open API. One of the best examples of this is the Facebook Application platform. Another is the Open Social platform.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ol>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Implementations\">Implementations<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The standard defines an API that allows a wide range of common computing functions to be written in a way such that they may operate on many different systems (, and various Berkeley Software Distributions (BSDs) implement this interface); however, making use of this requires re-compiling for each platform. A compatible API, on the other hand, allows compiled object code to function without any changes to the system implementing that API. This is beneficial to both software providers (where they may distribute existing software on new systems without producing and distributing upgrades) and users (where they may install older software on their new systems without purchasing upgrades), although this generally requires that various software libraries implement the necessary APIs as well.\n<\/p><p>Microsoft has shown a strong commitment to a backward compatible API, particularly within their Windows API (Win32) library, such that older applications may run on newer versions of Windows using an executable-specific setting called \"Compatibility Mode\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Apple Inc. has shown less concern, breaking compatibility or implementing an API in a slower \"emulation mode\"; this allows greater freedom in development, at the cost of making older software obsolete.<sup class=\"Template-Fact\" title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources from January 2010\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSWiki:Citation_needed\" title=\"LIMSWiki:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a05514560e13447268ca6f577949869e\">citation needed<\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Among operating systems, there are many related but incompatible operating systems running on a common hardware platform (particularly Intel 80386-compatible systems). There have been several attempts to standardize the API such that software vendors may distribute one binary application for all these systems; however, to date, none of these have met with much success. The Linux Standard Base is attempting to do this for the platform, while many of the BSD Unixes, such as FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD, implement various levels of API compatibility for both backward compatibility (allowing programs written for older versions to run on newer distributions of the system) and cross-platform compatibility (allowing execution of foreign code without recompiling).\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Release_policies\">Release policies<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The two options for releasing API are:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>Protecting information on APIs from the general public. For example, Sony used to make its official PlayStation 2 API available only to licensed PlayStation developers. This enabled Sony to control who wrote PlayStation 2 games. This gives companies quality control privileges and can provide them with potential licensing revenue streams.<\/li>\n<li>Making APIs freely available. For example, Microsoft makes the Microsoft Windows API public, and Apple releases its APIs Carbon and Cocoa, so that software can be written for their platforms.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>A mix of the two behaviors can be used as well.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ABIs\">ABIs<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The related term Application Binary Interface (ABI) is a lower level definition concerning details at the assembly language level. For example, the Linux Standard Base is an ABI, while is an API.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"API_examples\">API examples<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> for device interfacing<\/li>\n<li> DirectX for Microsoft Windows<\/li>\n<li> <\/li>\n<li> Java APIs<\/li>\n<li> cross-platform graphics API<\/li>\n<li> cross-platform sound API<\/li>\n<li> cross-platform API for general-purpose computing for CPUs & GPUs<\/li>\n<li> API that supports multi-platform shared memory multiprocessing programming in C, C++ and Fortran on many architectures, including Unix and Microsoft Windows platforms.<\/li>\n<li> Simple DirectMedia Layer (SDL)<\/li>\n<li> Talend integrates its with Business process management (BPM) from Bonita Open Solution<\/li>\n<li> Windows API<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Language_bindings_and_interface_generators\">Language bindings and interface generators<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>APIs that are intended to be used by more than one high-level programming language often provide, or are augmented with, facilities to automatically map the API to features (syntactic or semantic) that are more natural in those languages. This is known as language binding, and is itself an API. The aim is to encapsulate most of the required functionality of the API, leaving a \"thin\" layer appropriate to each language.\n<\/p><p>Below are listed some interface generator tools which bind languages to APIs at compile time.\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> opensource interfaces bindings generator from many languages to many languages (Typically Compiled->Scripted)<\/li>\n<li> F2PY:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> Fortran to Python interface generator.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/lcsd05.cs.tamu.edu\/slides\/keynote.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">How to design a good API and why it matters-PDF<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.lior.ca\/publications\/api_design.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">How to Write an API<\/a>. Practical example with detailed code and motivation.<\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/java.sun.com\/developer\/technicalArticles\/WebServices\/soa\/\" target=\"_blank\">Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA): The Road to Enterprise Application Integration (EAI)<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/isotc.iso.org\/livelink\/livelink.exe\/fetch\/2000\/2489\/186491\/186605\/Jtc1_Directives.pdf?nodeid=3959538&vernum=0\" target=\"_blank\">ISO\/IEC JTC 1 Directives, 5th Edition Version 3.0, Annex J: Guidelines for API standardization<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The bulk of this article is reused from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_programming_interface\" data-key=\"f1c1b85d9ed17e844b597555a0182c4f\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 50em; -webkit-column-width: 50em; column-width: 50em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pcmag.com\/encyclopedia\/term\/37856\/api\" target=\"_blank\">\"Definition of: API\"<\/a>. PC Magazine<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pcmag.com\/encyclopedia\/term\/37856\/api\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pcmag.com\/encyclopedia\/term\/37856\/api<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 28 June 2009<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Definition+of%3A+API&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=PC+Magazine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcmag.com%2Fencyclopedia%2Fterm%2F37856%2Fapi&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Application_programming_interface\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Orenstein, David (10 January 2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/action\/article.do?command=viewArticleBasic&articleId=43487\" target=\"_blank\">\"QuickStudy: Application Programming Interface (API)\"<\/a>. Computerworld<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/action\/article.do?command=viewArticleBasic&articleId=43487\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.computerworld.com\/action\/article.do?command=viewArticleBasic&articleId=43487<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 04 June 2009<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=QuickStudy%3A+Application+Programming+Interface+%28API%29&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Orenstein&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Orenstein%2C%26%2332%3BDavid&rft.date=10+January+2000&rft.pub=Computerworld&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerworld.com%2Faction%2Farticle.do%3Fcommand%3DviewArticleBasic%26articleId%3D43487&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Application_programming_interface\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<span class=\"citation web\">Benslimane, Djamal; Schahram Dustdar, and Amit Sheth (September 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/xpl\/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4620089&url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D4620089\" target=\"_blank\">\"Services Mashups: The New Generation of Web Applications\"<\/a>. <i>IEEE Internet Computing, vol. 12, no. 5<\/i>. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. pp. 13\u201315<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/xpl\/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4620089&url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D4620089\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/ieeexplore.ieee.org\/xpl\/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4620089&url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D4620089<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Services+Mashups%3A+The+New+Generation+of+Web+Applications&rft.atitle=IEEE+Internet+Computing%2C+vol.+12%2C+no.+5&rft.aulast=Benslimane&rft.aufirst=Djamal&rft.au=Benslimane%2C%26%2332%3BDjamal&rft.date=September+2008&rft.pages=pp.+13%E2%80%9315&rft.pub=Institute+of+Electrical+and+Electronics+Engineers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpl%2Flogin.jsp%3Ftp%3D%26arnumber%3D4620089%26url%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fieeexplore.ieee.org%252Fxpls%252Fabs_all.jsp%253Farnumber%253D4620089&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Application_programming_interface\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<span class=\"citation\" id=\"rdp-ebb-CITEREFNiccolai2008\">Niccolai, James (23 April 2008), <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pcworld.com\/businesscenter\/article\/145039\/so_what_is_an_enterprise_mashup_anyway.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"So What Is an Enterprise Mashup, Anyway?\"<\/a>, <i><\/i><span class=\"printonly\">, <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pcworld.com\/businesscenter\/article\/145039\/so_what_is_an_enterprise_mashup_anyway.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pcworld.com\/businesscenter\/article\/145039\/so_what_is_an_enterprise_mashup_anyway.html<\/a><\/span><\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=So+What+Is+an+Enterprise+Mashup%2C+Anyway%3F&rft.jtitle=%5B%5BPC+World+%28magazine%29%7CPC+World%5D%5D&rft.aulast=Niccolai&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Niccolai%2C%26%2332%3BJames&rft.date=23+April+2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcworld.com%2Fbusinesscenter%2Farticle%2F145039%2Fso_what_is_an_enterprise_mashup_anyway.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Application_programming_interface\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-5\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<span class=\"citation web\">\"Dynamic Community content via APIs\". 26 October 2009.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Dynamic+Community+content+via+APIs&rft.atitle=&rft.date=26+October+2009&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Application_programming_interface\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span>\nyes<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-6\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<span class=\"citation web\">Microsoft (15 October 2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110320094425\/http:\/\/www.microsoft.com\/windowsxp\/using\/helpandsupport\/learnmore\/appcompat.mspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Run Older Programs On Windows XP\"<\/a> (in EN). Microsoft. pp. 4. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.microsoft.com\/windowsxp\/using\/helpandsupport\/learnmore\/appcompat.mspx\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 20 March 2011<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110320094425\/http:\/\/www.microsoft.com\/windowsxp\/using\/helpandsupport\/learnmore\/appcompat.mspx\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110320094425\/http:\/\/www.microsoft.com\/windowsxp\/using\/helpandsupport\/learnmore\/appcompat.mspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 26 October 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Run+Older+Programs+On+Windows+XP&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Microsoft&rft.au=Microsoft&rft.date=15+October+2001&rft.pages=pp.+4&rft.pub=Microsoft&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20110320094425%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.microsoft.com%2Fwindowsxp%2Fusing%2Fhelpandsupport%2Flearnmore%2Fappcompat.mspx&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Application_programming_interface\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-7\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Stoughton, Nick (April 2005\naccessdate=04 June 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/db.usenix.org\/publications\/login\/2005-04\/openpdfs\/standards2004.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Update on Standards\"<\/a> (PDF). USENIX<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/db.usenix.org\/publications\/login\/2005-04\/openpdfs\/standards2004.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/db.usenix.org\/publications\/login\/2005-04\/openpdfs\/standards2004.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Update+on+Standards&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Stoughton&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft.au=Stoughton%2C%26%2332%3BNick&rft.date=April+2005%0Aaccessdate%3D04+June+2009&rft.pub=USENIX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdb.usenix.org%2Fpublications%2Flogin%2F2005-04%2Fopenpdfs%2Fstandards2004.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Application_programming_interface\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-8\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.f2py.org\/\" target=\"_blank\">F2PY.org<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202951\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.240 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.305 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 4514\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 17458\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 31582\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 12714\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/100\nLua time usage: 0.030\/7.000 seconds\nLua virtual size: 8.45 MB\/50 MB\nLua estimated memory usage: 0 bytes\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 230.049 1 - -total\n 59.64% 137.212 1 - Template:Reflist\n 47.32% 108.870 7 - Template:Citation\/core\n 43.46% 99.982 6 - Template:Cite_web\n 39.57% 91.038 1 - Template:Citation_needed\n 38.63% 88.865 1 - Template:Ifsubst\n 37.64% 86.599 1 - Template:Fix\n 33.08% 76.108 1 - Template:Category_handler\n 10.17% 23.398 1 - Template:Citation\n 3.19% 7.334 1 - Template:Cat_handler\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:2133-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403202950 and revision id 21640\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Application_programming_interface\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Application_programming_interface<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934_images":["https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/thumb\/4\/43\/Linux_kernel_API.svg\/1300px-Linux_kernel_API.svg.png"],"36fc319869eba4613cb0854b421b0934_timestamp":1554323390,"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253_type":"article","9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253_title":"Scientific data management system","9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system","9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tScientific data management system\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t NIST tests standard interfaces for its lab equipment. SDMSs allow labs to integrate equipment data with other types of data.A scientific data management system (SDMS) is software that acts as a document management system (DMS), capturing, cataloging, and archiving data generated by laboratory instruments (HPLC, mass spectrometry) and applications (LIMS, analytical applications, electronic laboratory notebooks) in a compliant, often pre-defined manner best suitable for its intended use, whether it be structured, unstructured, or semi-structured data.[1] The SDMS also acts as a gatekeeper, serving platform-independent data to informatics applications and\/or other consumers.\nAs with many other laboratory informatics tools, the lines between a LIMS, ELN, and an SDMS are at times blurred. However, there are some essential qualities that an SDMS owns that distinguishes it from other informatics systems:\n1. While a LIMS has traditionally been built to handle structured, mostly homogeneous data, a SDMS (and systems like it) is built to handle unstructured, mostly heterogeneous data.[2]\n2. A SDMS typically acts as a seamless \"wrapper\" for other data systems like LIMS and ELN in the laboratory, though sometimes the SDMS software is readily apparent.\n3. A SDMS is designed primarily for data consolidation, knowledge management, and knowledge asset realization.[3]\nAn SDMS can be seen as one potential solution for handling unstructured data, which can make up nearly 75 percent of a research and development unit's data.[4] This includes PDF files, images, instrument data, spreadsheets, and other forms of data rendered in many environments in the laboratory. Traditional SDMSs have focused on acting as a nearly invisible blanket or wrapper that integrate information from corporate offices (standard operating procedures, safety documents, etc.) with data from lab devices and other data management tools, all to be indexed and searchable from a central database. An SDMS also must be focused on increasing research productivity without sacrificing data sharing and collaboration efforts.[4]\nSome of the things a standard SDMS may be asked to do include, but are not limited to[5][6]:\n\n retrieve worklists from LIMS and convert them to sequence files\n interact real-time with simple and complex laboratory instruments\n analyze and create reports on laboratory instrument functions\n perform complex calculations and comparisons of two different sample groups\n monitor environmental conditions and react when base operating parameters are out of range \n act as an operational database that allows selective importation\/exportation of ELN data\n manage workflows based on data imported into the SDMS\n validate other computer systems and software in the laboratory\nSDMS vendors \nSee the SDMS vendor page for a list of SDMS vendors past and present.\n\nReferences \n\n\u2191 Hayward, S. (15 May 2017). \"Experts Explain: The Rise of Laboratory Data Lakes\". Laboratory Equipment. Advantage Business Media. https:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/article\/2017\/05\/experts-explain-rise-laboratory-data-lakes . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Elliott, M.H. (31 October 2003). \"Considerations for Management of Laboratory Data\". Scientific Computing. Advantage Business Media. https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2003\/10\/considerations-management-laboratory-data . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Wood, S. (September 2007). \"Comprehensive Laboratory Informatics: A Multilayer Approach\" (PDF). American Laboratory. p. 1. Archived from the original on 25 August 2017. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf .   \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 Deutsch, S. (31 December 2006). \"Tomorrow\u2019s Successful Research Organizations Face a Critical Challenge\". Scientific Computing. Advantage Business Media. https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2006\/12\/tomorrow%E2%80%99s-successful-research-organizations-face-critical-challenge . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Valle, Mario. \"Scientific Data Management\". Swiss National Supercomputing Center. Archived from the original on 06 March 2012. http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120306015034\/http:\/\/personal.cscs.ch\/~mvalle\/sdm\/scientific-data-management.html . Retrieved 05 March 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Heyward, J.E. II (05 November 2009). \"Selection of a Scientific Data Management System (SDMS) Based on User Requirements\". Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis. pp. 5. https:\/\/scholarworks.iupui.edu\/handle\/1805\/2000 . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Laboratory informaticsSoftware systems\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 29 September 2017, at 17:33.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 19,359 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Scientific_data_management_system skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Scientific data management system<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:NIST_Testing_standard_interfaces.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a30b4a30bd2bdbfd6879e337810c6d2\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/d6\/NIST_Testing_standard_interfaces.jpg\" width=\"300\" height=\"260\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:NIST_Testing_standard_interfaces.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"1a30b4a30bd2bdbfd6879e337810c6d2\"><\/a><\/div>NIST tests standard interfaces for its lab equipment. SDMSs allow labs to integrate equipment data with other types of data.<\/div><\/div><\/div>A <b>scientific data management system<\/b> (SDMS) is software that acts as a document management system (DMS), capturing, cataloging, and archiving data generated by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> instruments (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/HPLC\" title=\"HPLC\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"fedf518b9d4c3c22826ea591344af6d8\">HPLC<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Mass_spectrometry\" title=\"Mass spectrometry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fb548eafe2596c35d7ea741849aa83d4\">mass spectrometry<\/a>) and applications (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS\" title=\"LIMS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"21b7bfebbba300be00cdbb84cddb338d\">LIMS<\/a>, analytical applications, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebooks<\/a>) in a compliant, often pre-defined manner best suitable for its intended use, whether it be structured, unstructured, or semi-structured data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HaywardExperts17_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HaywardExperts17-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The SDMS also acts as a gatekeeper, serving platform-independent data to informatics applications and\/or other consumers.\n<p>As with many other <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> tools, the lines between a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS\" title=\"LIMS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"21b7bfebbba300be00cdbb84cddb338d\">LIMS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN\" title=\"ELN\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c78ec40806154303ac8a5497d4edd52\">ELN<\/a>, and an SDMS are at times blurred. However, there are some essential qualities that an SDMS owns that distinguishes it from other informatics systems:\n<\/p><p>1. While a LIMS has traditionally been built to handle structured, mostly homogeneous data, a SDMS (and systems like it) is built to handle unstructured, mostly heterogeneous data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ElliottConsider03_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ElliottConsider03-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>2. A SDMS typically acts as a seamless \"wrapper\" for other data systems like LIMS and ELN in the laboratory, though sometimes the SDMS software is readily apparent.\n<\/p><p>3. A SDMS is designed primarily for data consolidation, knowledge management, and knowledge asset realization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WoodComp07_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WoodComp07-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>An SDMS can be seen as one potential solution for handling unstructured data, which can make up nearly 75 percent of a research and development unit's data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp1_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp1-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> This includes PDF files, images, instrument data, spreadsheets, and other forms of data rendered in many environments in the laboratory. Traditional SDMSs have focused on acting as a nearly invisible blanket or wrapper that integrate <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> from corporate offices (standard operating procedures, safety documents, etc.) with data from lab devices and other data management tools, all to be indexed and searchable from a central database. An SDMS also must be focused on increasing research productivity without sacrificing data sharing and collaboration efforts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp1_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp1-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Some of the things a standard SDMS may be asked to do include, but are not limited to<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SDMArch_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SDMArch-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HetwardSelect09_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HetwardSelect09-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> retrieve worklists from LIMS and convert them to sequence files<\/li>\n<li> interact real-time with simple and complex laboratory instruments<\/li>\n<li> analyze and create reports on laboratory instrument functions<\/li>\n<li> perform complex calculations and comparisons of two different sample groups<\/li>\n<li> monitor environmental conditions and react when base operating parameters are out of range <\/li>\n<li> act as an operational database that allows selective importation\/exportation of ELN data<\/li>\n<li> manage workflows based on data imported into the SDMS<\/li>\n<li> validate other computer systems and software in the laboratory<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"SDMS_vendors\">SDMS vendors<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>See the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/SDMS_vendor\" title=\"SDMS vendor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a0186dbdc2977792011de050543b054\">SDMS vendor<\/a> page for a list of SDMS vendors past and present.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HaywardExperts17-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HaywardExperts17_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Hayward, S. (15 May 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/article\/2017\/05\/experts-explain-rise-laboratory-data-lakes\" target=\"_blank\">\"Experts Explain: The Rise of Laboratory Data Lakes\"<\/a>. <i>Laboratory Equipment<\/i>. Advantage Business Media<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/article\/2017\/05\/experts-explain-rise-laboratory-data-lakes\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.laboratoryequipment.com\/article\/2017\/05\/experts-explain-rise-laboratory-data-lakes<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Experts+Explain%3A+The+Rise+of+Laboratory+Data+Lakes&rft.atitle=Laboratory+Equipment&rft.aulast=Hayward%2C+S.&rft.au=Hayward%2C+S.&rft.date=15+May+2017&rft.pub=Advantage+Business+Media&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.laboratoryequipment.com%2Farticle%2F2017%2F05%2Fexperts-explain-rise-laboratory-data-lakes&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Scientific_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ElliottConsider03-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ElliottConsider03_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Elliott, M.H. (31 October 2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2003\/10\/considerations-management-laboratory-data\" target=\"_blank\">\"Considerations for Management of Laboratory Data\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific Computing<\/i>. Advantage Business Media<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2003\/10\/considerations-management-laboratory-data\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2003\/10\/considerations-management-laboratory-data<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Considerations+for+Management+of+Laboratory+Data&rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing&rft.aulast=Elliott%2C+M.H.&rft.au=Elliott%2C+M.H.&rft.date=31+October+2003&rft.pub=Advantage+Business+Media&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Farticle%2F2003%2F10%2Fconsiderations-management-laboratory-data&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Scientific_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WoodComp07-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WoodComp07_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Wood, S. (September 2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Comprehensive Laboratory Informatics: A Multilayer Approach\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>American Laboratory<\/i>. p. 1. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 25 August 2017<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Comprehensive+Laboratory+Informatics%3A+A+Multilayer+Approach&rft.atitle=American+Laboratory&rft.aulast=Wood%2C+S.&rft.au=Wood%2C+S.&rft.date=September+2007&rft.pages=p.+1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170825181932%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.it.uu.se%2Fedu%2Fcourse%2Fhomepage%2Flims%2Fvt12%2FComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Scientific_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciComp1-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciComp1_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciComp1_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Deutsch, S. (31 December 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2006\/12\/tomorrow%E2%80%99s-successful-research-organizations-face-critical-challenge\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tomorrow\u2019s Successful Research Organizations Face a Critical Challenge\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific Computing<\/i>. Advantage Business Media<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2006\/12\/tomorrow%E2%80%99s-successful-research-organizations-face-critical-challenge\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2006\/12\/tomorrow%E2%80%99s-successful-research-organizations-face-critical-challenge<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Tomorrow%E2%80%99s+Successful+Research+Organizations+Face+a+Critical+Challenge&rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing&rft.aulast=Deutsch%2C+S.&rft.au=Deutsch%2C+S.&rft.date=31+December+2006&rft.pub=Advantage+Business+Media&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Farticle%2F2006%2F12%2Ftomorrow%25E2%2580%2599s-successful-research-organizations-face-critical-challenge&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Scientific_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SDMArch-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SDMArch_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Valle, Mario. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120306015034\/http:\/\/personal.cscs.ch\/~mvalle\/sdm\/scientific-data-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Scientific Data Management\"<\/a>. Swiss National Supercomputing Center. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/personal.cscs.ch\/~mvalle\/sdm\/scientific-data-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 06 March 2012<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120306015034\/http:\/\/personal.cscs.ch\/~mvalle\/sdm\/scientific-data-management.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120306015034\/http:\/\/personal.cscs.ch\/~mvalle\/sdm\/scientific-data-management.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 05 March 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Scientific+Data+Management&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Valle%2C+Mario&rft.au=Valle%2C+Mario&rft.pub=Swiss+National+Supercomputing+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20120306015034%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fpersonal.cscs.ch%2F%7Emvalle%2Fsdm%2Fscientific-data-management.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Scientific_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HetwardSelect09-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HetwardSelect09_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Heyward, J.E. II (05 November 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/scholarworks.iupui.edu\/handle\/1805\/2000\" target=\"_blank\">\"Selection of a Scientific Data Management System (SDMS) Based on User Requirements\"<\/a>. Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis. pp. 5<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/scholarworks.iupui.edu\/handle\/1805\/2000\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/scholarworks.iupui.edu\/handle\/1805\/2000<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Selection+of+a+Scientific+Data+Management+System+%28SDMS%29+Based+on+User+Requirements&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Heyward%2C+J.E.+II&rft.au=Heyward%2C+J.E.+II&rft.date=05+November+2009&rft.pages=pp.+5&rft.pub=Indiana+University-Purdue+University+Indianapolis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.iupui.edu%2Fhandle%2F1805%2F2000&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Scientific_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202950\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.197 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.051 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 3828\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 12211\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 30542\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 15467\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 11\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 161.823 1 - -total\n 99.57% 161.124 6 - Template:Cite_web\n 93.24% 150.890 6 - Template:Citation\/core\n 12.28% 19.877 12 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:98-0!*!0!!*!5!* and timestamp 20190403202949 and revision id 31777\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Scientific_data_management_system<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/d6\/NIST_Testing_standard_interfaces.jpg"],"9f38d322b743f578fef487b6f3d7c253_timestamp":1554323389,"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a_type":"article","774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a_title":"Laboratory execution system","774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system","774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tLaboratory execution system\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tA laboratory execution system or LES is a \"computer system employed in the laboratory at the analyst work level to aid in step enforcement for laboratory test method execution,\" according to the 2007 Annual Book of ASTM Standards.[1] The general purpose of the LES is to direct the user to follow specific steps to ensure the rigidity of the test method and and the process' end results, though alternate workflow routes may be applied in specific circumstances. The LES may encompass this functionality and more, including tasks like enforcing standard operating procedures (SOPs), validating calculations and instrument interfaces, and acquiring or importing procedural data from other systems into one common system.[2]\nFor some, an LES may be considered a sub-branch of an electronic laboratory notebook (ELN) specifically made for laboratories engaging in quality control and quality assurance applications[2][3][4], while others may consider it simply a separate set of functionality which may be found in an ELN or a LIMS.[3][5] Some in the industry suggest the term \"laboratory execution system\" is a vendor-led morphing of the \"method execution system,\" which was originally designed \"to address the problem of standard operating procedure (SOP) compliance.\"[6]\nIn France, the English word \"Middleware\" is used to define a LES.\n\nReferences \n\n\u2191 American Society for Testing and Materials (2007). Annual Book of ASTM Standards 2007. ASTM. p. 296. ISBN 0803142765. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=znlGAAAAYAAJ&q=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&dq=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=YKUiUbHrE4O9ywHH_YC4BA&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA .   \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 Metrick, Gloria (January 2011). \"QA\/QC: ELNs Have Come a Long Way\". Scientific Computing 28 (1): 19. http:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/QA%2FQC%3A+ELNs+have+come+a+long+way%3A+realizing+the+full+potential+of...-a0272245303 . Retrieved 18 February 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 Boogaard, Peter; Pijanowski, Patrick (Nov-Dec 2011). \"Electronic Laboratory Notebooks: ELN Means Many Things to Many People\". G.I.T. Laboratory Journal 2011 (11-12): 14\u201316. http:\/\/www.industriallabautomation.com\/attachments\/File\/201111ELN-Mans-Many-Things-To-Many-People-GIT-Verlag-GLJ11-1211P.pdf . Retrieved 18 February 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"QC and R&D Electronic Lab Notebook Systems\". LabAnswer.com. http:\/\/www.labanswer.com\/electronic-lab-notebook-QC-R&D.asp . Retrieved 18 February 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Jones, John (January 2013). \"Is a Lab Execution System just another name for a LIMS?\". LinkedIn. http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Is-Lab-Execution-System-just-2069898.S.200530950 . Retrieved 18 February 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Hice, Randy C. (May 2009). \"Roadmap to a Clear Definition of ELN\". Scientific Computing 26 (3): E11. http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article-in-Roadmap-to-a-Clear-Definition-of-ELN-051509.aspx . Retrieved 18 February 2013 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Laboratory informaticsSoftware systems\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 6 August 2014, at 18:55.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 9,916 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Laboratory_execution_system skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Laboratory execution system<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><p>A <b>laboratory execution system<\/b> or <b>LES<\/b> is a \"computer system employed in the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> at the analyst work level to aid in step enforcement for laboratory test method execution,\" according to the 2007 Annual Book of ASTM Standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LES_ASTM_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LES_ASTM-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The general purpose of the LES is to direct the user to follow specific steps to ensure the rigidity of the test method and and the process' end results, though alternate workflow routes may be applied in specific circumstances. The LES may encompass this functionality and more, including tasks like enforcing <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2909f2cc80162cb272d378860b58d2d\">standard operating procedures<\/a> (SOPs), <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb1d25abb25a208598dab9c4a54ac20d\">validating<\/a> calculations and instrument interfaces, and acquiring or importing procedural data from other systems into one common system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompQAQC_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompQAQC-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>For some, an LES may be considered a sub-branch of an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebook<\/a> (ELN) specifically made for laboratories engaging in quality control and quality assurance applications<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompQAQC_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompQAQC-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GITELNArt_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GITELNArt-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabAnswLES_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabAnswLES-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>, while others may consider it simply a separate set of functionality which may be found in an ELN or a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">LIMS<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GITELNArt_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GITELNArt-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LES_LIPost_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LES_LIPost-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> Some in the industry suggest the term \"laboratory execution system\" is a vendor-led morphing of the \"method execution system,\" which was originally designed \"to address the problem of standard operating procedure (SOP) compliance.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RoadmapClearELN_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RoadmapClearELN-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In France, the English word \"Middleware\" is used to define a LES.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-LES_ASTM-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LES_ASTM_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">American Society for Testing and Materials (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=znlGAAAAYAAJ&q=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&dq=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=YKUiUbHrE4O9ywHH_YC4BA&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Annual Book of ASTM Standards 2007<\/i><\/a>. ASTM. p. 296. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 0803142765<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=znlGAAAAYAAJ&q=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&dq=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=YKUiUbHrE4O9ywHH_YC4BA&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=znlGAAAAYAAJ&q=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&dq=%22laboratory+execution+system%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=YKUiUbHrE4O9ywHH_YC4BA&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annual+Book+of+ASTM+Standards+2007&rft.aulast=American+Society+for+Testing+and+Materials&rft.au=American+Society+for+Testing+and+Materials&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B296&rft.pub=ASTM&rft.isbn=0803142765&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DznlGAAAAYAAJ%26q%3D%2522laboratory%2Bexecution%2Bsystem%2522%26dq%3D%2522laboratory%2Bexecution%2Bsystem%2522%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3DYKUiUbHrE4O9ywHH_YC4BA%26ved%3D0CDYQ6AEwAA&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_execution_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciCompQAQC-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompQAQC_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompQAQC_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Metrick, Gloria (January 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/QA%2FQC%3A+ELNs+have+come+a+long+way%3A+realizing+the+full+potential+of...-a0272245303\" target=\"_blank\">\"QA\/QC: ELNs Have Come a Long Way\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific Computing<\/i> <b>28<\/b> (1): 19<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/QA%2FQC%3A+ELNs+have+come+a+long+way%3A+realizing+the+full+potential+of...-a0272245303\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.thefreelibrary.com\/QA%2FQC%3A+ELNs+have+come+a+long+way%3A+realizing+the+full+potential+of...-a0272245303<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 February 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=QA%2FQC%3A+ELNs+Have+Come+a+Long+Way&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Computing&rft.aulast=Metrick%2C+Gloria&rft.au=Metrick%2C+Gloria&rft.date=January+2011&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreelibrary.com%2FQA%252FQC%253A%2BELNs%2Bhave%2Bcome%2Ba%2Blong%2Bway%253A%2Brealizing%2Bthe%2Bfull%2Bpotential%2Bof...-a0272245303&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_execution_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-GITELNArt-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GITELNArt_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-GITELNArt_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Boogaard, Peter; Pijanowski, Patrick (Nov-Dec 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.industriallabautomation.com\/attachments\/File\/201111ELN-Mans-Many-Things-To-Many-People-GIT-Verlag-GLJ11-1211P.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Laboratory Notebooks: ELN Means Many Things to Many People\"<\/a>. <i>G.I.T. Laboratory Journal<\/i> <b>2011<\/b> (11-12): 14\u201316<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.industriallabautomation.com\/attachments\/File\/201111ELN-Mans-Many-Things-To-Many-People-GIT-Verlag-GLJ11-1211P.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.industriallabautomation.com\/attachments\/File\/201111ELN-Mans-Many-Things-To-Many-People-GIT-Verlag-GLJ11-1211P.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 February 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Electronic+Laboratory+Notebooks%3A+ELN+Means+Many+Things+to+Many+People&rft.jtitle=G.I.T.+Laboratory+Journal&rft.aulast=Boogaard%2C+Peter%3B+Pijanowski%2C+Patrick&rft.au=Boogaard%2C+Peter%3B+Pijanowski%2C+Patrick&rft.date=Nov-Dec+2011&rft.volume=2011&rft.issue=11-12&rft.pages=14%E2%80%9316&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.industriallabautomation.com%2Fattachments%2FFile%2F201111ELN-Mans-Many-Things-To-Many-People-GIT-Verlag-GLJ11-1211P.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_execution_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LabAnswLES-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LabAnswLES_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labanswer.com\/electronic-lab-notebook-QC-R&D.asp\" target=\"_blank\">\"QC and R&D Electronic Lab Notebook Systems\"<\/a>. LabAnswer.com<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labanswer.com\/electronic-lab-notebook-QC-R&D.asp\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.labanswer.com\/electronic-lab-notebook-QC-R&D.asp<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 February 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=QC+and+R%26D+Electronic+Lab+Notebook+Systems&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=LabAnswer.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.labanswer.com%2Felectronic-lab-notebook-QC-R%26D.asp&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_execution_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LES_LIPost-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LES_LIPost_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jones, John (January 2013). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Is-Lab-Execution-System-just-2069898.S.200530950\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is a Lab Execution System just another name for a LIMS?\"<\/a>. LinkedIn<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Is-Lab-Execution-System-just-2069898.S.200530950\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Is-Lab-Execution-System-just-2069898.S.200530950<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 February 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Is+a+Lab+Execution+System+just+another+name+for+a+LIMS%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Jones%2C+John&rft.au=Jones%2C+John&rft.date=January+2013&rft.pub=LinkedIn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.linkedin.com%2Fgroups%2FIs-Lab-Execution-System-just-2069898.S.200530950&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_execution_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RoadmapClearELN-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RoadmapClearELN_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Hice, Randy C. (May 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article-in-Roadmap-to-a-Clear-Definition-of-ELN-051509.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Roadmap to a Clear Definition of ELN\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific Computing<\/i> <b>26<\/b> (3): E11<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article-in-Roadmap-to-a-Clear-Definition-of-ELN-051509.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article-in-Roadmap-to-a-Clear-Definition-of-ELN-051509.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 18 February 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Roadmap+to+a+Clear+Definition+of+ELN&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Computing&rft.aulast=Hice%2C+Randy+C.&rft.au=Hice%2C+Randy+C.&rft.date=May+2009&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=E11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Farticle-in-Roadmap-to-a-Clear-Definition-of-ELN-051509.aspx&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_execution_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202949\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.156 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.174 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 3923\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 19489\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 29743\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 11079\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 142.314 1 - -total\n 85.40% 121.542 6 - Template:Citation\/core\n 42.04% 59.824 1 - Template:Cite_book\n 35.31% 50.253 3 - Template:Cite_journal\n 22.29% 31.716 2 - Template:Cite_web\n 5.81% 8.272 1 - Template:Citation\/identifier\n 4.61% 6.556 6 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 1.45% 2.067 2 - Template:Hide_in_print\n 1.28% 1.822 1 - Template:Only_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:4157-0!*!0!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403202948 and revision id 15252\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_execution_system<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a_images":[],"774bdcab852f4d09565f0486bfafc26a_timestamp":1554323388,"07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b_type":"article","07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b_title":"Enterprise resource planning system","07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Enterprise_resource_planning","07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tEnterprise resource planning\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\nBusiness administration\nManagement of a business\nAccounting\nManagement accounting\nFinancial accounting\nFinancial audit\n\nBusiness entities\nCooperative\nCorporation\nLimited liability company\nPartnership\nSole proprietorship\nState-owned enterprise\n\nCorporate governance\nAnnual general meeting\nBoard of directors\nSupervisory board\nAdvisory board\nAudit committee\n\nCorporate law\nCommercial law\nConstitutional documents\nContract\nCorporate crime\nCorporate liability\nInsolvency law\nInternational trade law\nMergers and acquisitions\n\nEconomics\nCommodity\nPublic economics\nLabour economics\nDevelopment economics\nInternational economics\nMixed economy\nPlanned economy\nEconometrics\nEnvironmental economics\nOpen economy\nMarket economy\nKnowledge economy\nMicroeconomics\nMacroeconomics\nEconomic development\nEconomic statistics\n\nFinance\nFinancial statement\nInsurance\nFactoring\nCash conversion cycle\nInsider dealing\nCapital budgeting\nCommercial bank\nDerivative\nFinancial statement analysis\nFinancial risk\nPublic finance\nCorporate finance\nManagerial finance\nInternational finance\nLiquidation\nStock market\nFinancial market\nTax\nFinancial institution\nWorking capital\nVenture capital\n\nMarketing\nMarketing\nMarketing research\nPublic relations\nSales\n\nTypes of management\nAsset\nBrand\nBusiness intelligence\nBusiness development\nCapacity\nChange\ninnovation\nCommercial\nmarketing\nCommunications\nConfiguration\nConflict\nContent\nCustomer relationship\nDistributed\nEarned value\nElectronic business\nEnterprise resource planning \nmanagement information system\nFinancial\nHuman resource \ndevelopment\nIncident\nIntegrated\nKnowledge\nMaterials\nNetwork\nadministrator\nOffice\nOperations \nservices\nPerformance\nPower\nProblem\nProcess\nProduct life-cycle\nProduct\nProject\nQuality\nRecords\nResource\nRisk \ncrisis\nSales\nSecurity\nService\nStrategic\nSupply chain\nSystems\nadministrator\nTalent\nTechnology\n\nOrganization\nArchitecture\nBehavior\nCommunication\nCulture\nConflict\nDevelopment\nEngineering\nHierarchy\nPatterns\nSpace\nStructure\n\nTrade\nBusiness analysis\nBusiness ethics\nBusiness plan\nBusiness judgment rule\nConsumer behaviour\nBusiness operations\nInternational business\nBusiness model\nInternational trade\nBusiness process\nBusiness statistics\n\n Business and economics portalvte\n Diagram showing some typical ERP modules\nEnterprise resource planning (ERP) is the integrated management of core business processes, often in real-time and mediated by software and technology.\nERP is usually referred to as a category of business management software \u2014 typically a suite of integrated applications\u2014that an organization can use to collect, store, manage, and interpret data from these many business activities.\nERP provides an integrated and continuously updated view of core business processes using common databases maintained by a database management system. ERP systems track business resources\u2014cash, raw materials, production capacity\u2014and the status of business commitments: orders, purchase orders, and payroll. The applications that make up the system share data across various departments (manufacturing, purchasing, sales, accounting, etc.) that provide the data.[1] ERP facilitates information flow between all business functions and manages connections to outside stakeholders.[2]\nEnterprise system software is a multibillion-dollar industry that produces components supporting a variety of business functions. IT investments have become the largest category of capital expenditure in United States-based businesses over the past[which? ] decade. Though early ERP systems focused on large enterprises, smaller enterprises increasingly use ERP systems.[3]\nThe ERP system integrates varied organizational systems and facilitates error-free transactions and production, thereby enhancing the organization's efficiency. However, developing an ERP system differs from traditional system development.[4]\nERP systems run on a variety of computer hardware and network configurations, typically using a database as an information repository.[5]\n\n<\/p>\nContents \n\n1 Origin \n2 Expansion \n3 Characteristics \n4 Functional areas \n\n4.1 GRP \n\n\n5 Components \n6 Best practices \n7 Connectivity to plant floor information \n8 Implementation \n\n8.1 Process preparation \n8.2 Configuration \n8.3 Two tier enterprise resource planning \n8.4 Customization \n8.5 Extensions \n8.6 Data migration \n8.7 Advantages \n8.8 Benefits \n8.9 Disadvantages \n\n\n9 Postmodern ERP \n10 See also \n11 References \n12 Bibliography \n13 External links \n\n\nOrigin \nThe Gartner Group first used the abbreviation ERP in the 1990s[6][7] to extend upon the capabilities of material requirements planning (MRP), and the later manufacturing resource planning (MRP II),[8][9] as well as computer-integrated manufacturing. Without replacing these terms, ERP came to represent a larger whole that reflected the evolution of application integration beyond manufacturing.[10]\nNot all ERP packages developed from a manufacturing core; ERP vendors variously began assembling their packages with finance-and-accounting, maintenance, and human-resource components. By the mid-1990s ERP systems addressed all core enterprise functions. Governments and non\u2013profit organizations also began to use ERP systems.[11]\n\nExpansion \nERP systems experienced rapid growth in the 1990s. Because of the year 2000 problem and the introduction of the euro that disrupted legacy systems, many companies took the opportunity to replace their old systems with ERP.[12]\nERP systems initially focused on automating back office functions that did not directly affect customers and the public. Front office functions, such as customer relationship management (CRM), dealt directly with customers, or e-business systems such as e-commerce, e-government, e-telecom, and e-finance\u2014or supplier relationship management (SRM) became integrated later, when the internet simplified communicating with external parties.[13]\n\"ERP II\" was coined in 2000 in an article by Gartner Publications entitled ERP Is Dead\u2014Long Live ERP II.[14][15] It describes web\u2013based software that provides real\u2013time access to ERP systems to employees and partners (such as suppliers and customers). The ERP II role expands traditional ERP resource optimization and transaction processing. Rather than just manage buying, selling, etc.\u2014ERP II leverages information in the resources under its management to help the enterprise collaborate with other enterprises.[16]\nERP II is more flexible than the first generation ERP. Rather than confine ERP system capabilities within the organization, it goes beyond the corporate walls to interact with other systems. Enterprise application suite is an alternate name for such systems. ERP II systems are typically used to enable collaborative initiatives such as supply chain management (SCM), customer relationship management (CRM), and business intelligence (BI) among business partner organizations through the use of various e-business technologies.[17][18]\n\n<\/p>Developers now make more effort to integrate mobile devices with the ERP system. ERP vendors are extending ERP to these devices, along with other business applications. Technical stakes of modern ERP concern integration\u2014hardware, applications, networking, supply chains. ERP now covers more functions and roles\u2014including decision making, stakeholders' relationships, standardization, transparency, globalization, etc.[19]\n\nCharacteristics \nERP systems typically include the following characteristics:\n\nAn integrated system\nOperates in (or near) real time\nA common database that supports all the applications\nA consistent look and feel across modules\nInstallation of the system with elaborate application\/data integration by the Information Technology (IT) department, provided the implementation is not done in small steps[20]\nDeployment options include: on-premises, cloud hosted, or SaaS\nFunctional areas \nAn ERP system covers the following common functional areas. In many ERP systems, these are called and grouped together as ERP modules:\n\nFinance & Accounting: General Ledger, Fixed Assets, payables including vouchering, matching and payment, receivables Cash Management and collections, cash management, Financial Consolidation\nManagement Accounting: Budgeting, Costing, cost management, activity based costing\nHuman resources: Recruiting, training, rostering, payroll, benefits, retirement and pension plans, diversity management, retirement, separation\nManufacturing: Engineering, bill of materials, work orders, scheduling, capacity, workflow management, quality control, manufacturing process, manufacturing projects, manufacturing flow, product life cycle management\nOrder Processing: Order to cash, order entry, credit checking, pricing, available to promise, inventory, shipping, sales analysis and reporting, sales commissioning.\nSupply chain management: Supply chain planning, supplier scheduling, product configurator, order to cash, purchasing, inventory, claim processing, warehousing (receiving, putaway, picking and packing).\nProject management: Project planning, resource planning, project costing, work breakdown structure, billing, time and expense, performance units, activity management\nCustomer relationship management: Sales and marketing, commissions, service, customer contact, call center support \u2014 CRM systems are not always considered part of ERP systems but rather Business Support systems (BSS).\nData services : Various \"self\u2013service\" interfaces for customers, suppliers and\/or employees\nGRP \nGovernment resource planning (GRP) is the equivalent of an ERP for the public sector and an integrated office automation system for government bodies.[21] The software structure, modularization, core algorithms and main interfaces do not differ from other ERPs, and ERP software suppliers manage to adapt their systems to government agencies.[22][23][24]\nBoth system implementations, in private and public organizations, are adopted to improve productivity and overall business performance in organizations, but comparisons (private vs. public) of implementations shows that the main factors influencing ERP implementation success in the public sector are cultural.[25][26][27]\n\nComponents \nTransactional database\nManagement portal\/dashboard\nPeople\nSoftware\nBest practices \nMost ERP systems incorporate best practices. This means the software reflects the vendor's interpretation of the most effective way to perform each business process. Systems vary in how conveniently the customer can modify these practices.[28] In addition, best practices reduced risk by 71% compared to other software implementations.[29]\nUse of best practices eases compliance with requirements such as IFRS, Sarbanes-Oxley, or Basel II. They can also help comply with de facto industry standards, such as electronic funds transfer. This is because the procedure can be readily codified within the ERP software and replicated with confidence across multiple businesses who share that business requirement.[30][31]\n\nConnectivity to plant floor information \nERP systems connect to real\u2013time data and transaction data in a variety of ways. These systems are typically configured by systems integrators, who bring unique knowledge on process, equipment, and vendor solutions.\nDirect integration\u2014ERP systems have connectivity (communications to plant floor equipment) as part of their product offering. This requires that the vendors offer specific support for the plant floor equipment their customers operate. ERP vendors must be experts in their own products and connectivity to other vendor products, including those of their competitors.\nDatabase integration\u2014ERP systems connect to plant floor data sources through staging tables in a database. Plant floor systems deposit the necessary information into the database. The ERP system reads the information in the table. The benefit of staging is that ERP vendors do not need to master the complexities of equipment integration. Connectivity becomes the responsibility of the systems integrator.\nEnterprise appliance transaction modules (EATM)\u2014These devices communicate directly with plant floor equipment and with the ERP system via methods supported by the ERP system. EATM can employ a staging table, web services, or system\u2013specific program interfaces (APIs). An EATM offers the benefit of being an off\u2013the\u2013shelf solution.\nCustom\u2013integration solutions\u2014Many system integrators offer custom solutions. These systems tend to have the highest level of initial integration cost, and can have a higher long term maintenance and reliability costs. Long term costs can be minimized through careful system testing and thorough documentation. Custom\u2013integrated solutions typically run on workstation or server-class computers.\n\nImplementation \nERP's scope usually implies significant changes to staff work processes and practices.[32] Generally, three types of services are available to help implement such changes\u2014consulting, customization, and support.[32] Implementation time depends on business size, number of modules, customization, the scope of process changes, and the readiness of the customer to take ownership for the project. Modular ERP systems can be implemented in stages. The typical project for a large enterprise takes about 14 months and requires around 150 consultants.[33] Small projects can require months; multinational and other large implementations can take years.[34][35] Customization can substantially increase implementation times.[33]\nBesides that, information processing influences various business functions e.g. some large corporations like Wal-Mart use a just in time inventory system. This reduces inventory storage and increases delivery efficiency, and requires up-to-date data. Before 2014, Walmart used a system called Inforem developed by IBM to manage replenishment.[36]\n\nProcess preparation \nImplementing ERP typically requires changes in existing business processes.[37] Poor understanding of needed process changes prior to starting implementation is a main reason for project failure.[38] The difficulties could be related to the system, business process, infrastructure, training, or lack of motivation.\nIt is therefore crucial that organizations thoroughly analyze business processes before they implement ERP software. Analysis can identify opportunities for process modernization. It also enables an assessment of the alignment of current processes with those provided by the ERP system. Research indicates that risk of business process mismatch is decreased by:\n\nLinking current processes to the organization's strategy\nAnalyzing the effectiveness of each process\nUnderstanding existing automated solutions[39][40]\nERP implementation is considerably more difficult (and politically charged) in decentralized organizations, because they often have different processes, business rules, data semantics, authorization hierarchies, and decision centers.[41] This may require migrating some business units before others, delaying implementation to work through the necessary changes for each unit, possibly reducing integration (e.g., linking via Master data management) or customizing the system to meet specific needs.[42]\nA potential disadvantage is that adopting \"standard\" processes can lead to a loss of competitive advantage. While this has happened, losses in one area are often offset by gains in other areas, increasing overall competitive advantage.[43][44]\n\nConfiguration \nConfiguring an ERP system is largely a matter of balancing the way the organization wants the system to work with the way it was designed to work. ERP systems typically include many settings that modify system operations. For example, an organization can select the type of inventory accounting\u2014FIFO or LIFO\u2014to use; whether to recognize revenue by geographical unit, product line, or distribution channel; and whether to pay for shipping costs on customer returns.[42]\n\nTwo tier enterprise resource planning \nTwo-tier ERP software and hardware lets companies run the equivalent of two ERP systems at once: one at the corporate level and one at the division or subsidiary level. For example, a manufacturing company could use an ERP system to manage across the organization using independent global or regional distribution, production or sales centers, and service providers to support the main company\u2019s customers. Each independent center or subsidiary may have its own business models, workflows, and business processes.\nGiven the realities of globalization, enterprises continuously evaluate how to optimize their regional, divisional, and product or manufacturing strategies to support strategic goals and reduce time-to-market while increasing profitability and delivering value.[45] With two-tier ERP, the regional distribution, production, or sales centers and service providers continue operating under their own business model\u2014separate from the main company, using their own ERP systems. Since these smaller companies' processes and workflows are not tied to main company's processes and workflows, they can respond to local business requirements in multiple locations.[46]\nFactors that affect enterprises' adoption of two-tier ERP systems include:\n\nManufacturing globalization, the economics of sourcing in emerging economies\nPotential for quicker, less costly ERP implementations at subsidiaries, based on selecting software more suited to smaller companies\nExtra effort, (often involving the use of Enterprise application integration[47]) is required where data must pass between two ERP systems[48] Two-tier ERP strategies give enterprises agility in responding to market demands and in aligning IT systems at a corporate level while inevitably resulting in more systems as compared to one ERP system used throughout the organization.[49]\nCustomization \nERP systems are theoretically based on industry best practices, and their makers intend that organizations deploy them \"as is\".[50][51] ERP vendors do offer customers configuration options that let organizations incorporate their own business rules, but gaps in features often remain even after configuration is complete.\nERP customers have several options to reconcile feature gaps, each with their own pros\/cons. Technical solutions include rewriting part of the delivered software, writing a homegrown module to work within the ERP system, or interfacing to an external system. These three options constitute varying degrees of system customization\u2014with the first being the most invasive and costly to maintain.[52] Alternatively, there are non-technical options such as changing business practices or organizational policies to better match the delivered ERP feature set. Key differences between customization and configuration include:\n\nCustomization is always optional, whereas the software must always be configured before use (e.g., setting up cost\/profit center structures, organizational trees, purchase approval rules, etc.).\nThe software is designed to handle various configurations, and behaves predictably in any allowed configuration.\nThe effect of configuration changes on system behavior and performance is predictable and is the responsibility of the ERP vendor. The effect of customization is less predictable. It is the customer's responsibility, and increases testing activities.\nConfiguration changes survive upgrades to new software versions. Some customizations (e.g., code that uses pre\u2013defined \"hooks\" that are called before\/after displaying data screens) survive upgrades, though they require retesting. Other customizations (e.g., those involving changes to fundamental data structures) are overwritten during upgrades and must be re-implemented.[53]\nCustomization advantages include that it:\n\nImproves user acceptance[54]\nOffers the potential to obtain competitive advantage vis-\u00e0-vis companies using only standard features\nCustomization disadvantages include that it may:\n\nIncrease time and resources required to implement and maintain[52][55]\nHinder seamless interfacing\/integration between suppliers and customers due to the differences between systems[55]\nLimit the company's ability to upgrade the ERP software in the future[55]\nCreate over reliance on customization, undermining the principles of ERP as a standardizing software platform\nExtensions \nERP systems can be extended with third\u2013party software, often via vendor-supplied interfaces.[56][57] Extensions offer features such as:[57]\n\nproduct data management\nproduct life cycle management\ncustomer relations management\ndata mining\ne-procurement\nData migration \nData migration is the process of moving, copying, and restructuring data from an existing system to the ERP system. Migration is critical to implementation success and requires significant planning. Unfortunately, since migration is one of the final activities before the production phase, it often receives insufficient attention. The following steps can structure migration planning:[58]\n\nIdentify the data to be migrated.\nDetermine the migration timing.\nGenerate data migration templates for key data components\nFreeze the toolset.\nDecide on the migration-related setup of key business accounts.\nDefine data archiving policies and procedures.\nOften, data migration is incomplete because some of the data in the existing system is either incompatible or not needed in the new system. As such, the existing system may need to be kept as an archived database to refer back to once the new ERP system is in place.[58]\n\nAdvantages \nThe most fundamental advantage of ERP is that the integration of a myriad of business processes saves time and expense. Management can make decisions faster and with fewer errors. Data becomes visible across the organization. Tasks that benefit from this integration include:[59]\n\nSales forecasting, which allows inventory optimization.\nChronological history of every transaction through relevant data compilation in every area of operation.\nOrder tracking, from acceptance through fulfillment\nRevenue tracking, from invoice through cash receipt\nMatching purchase orders (what was ordered), inventory receipts (what arrived), and costing (what the vendor invoiced)\nERP systems centralize business data, which:\n\nEliminates the need to synchronize changes between multiple systems\u2014consolidation of finance, marketing, sales, human resource, and manufacturing applications\nBrings legitimacy and transparency to each bit of statistical data\nFacilitates standard product naming\/coding\nProvides a comprehensive enterprise view (no \"islands of information\"), making real\u2013time information available to management anywhere, anytime to make proper decisions\nProtects sensitive data by consolidating multiple security systems into a single structure[60]\nBenefits \nERP can improve quality and efficiency of the business. By keeping a company's internal business processes running smoothly, ERP can lead to better outputs that may benefit the company, such as in customer service and manufacturing.\nERP supports upper level management by providing information for decision making.\nERP creates a more agile company that adapts better to change. It also makes a company more flexible and less rigidly structured so organization components operate more cohesively, enhancing the business\u2014internally and externally.[61]\nERP can improve data security in a closed environment. A common control system, such as the kind offered by ERP systems, allows organizations the ability to more easily ensure key company data is not compromised. This changes, however, with a more open environment, requiring further scrutiny of ERP security features and internal company policies regarding security.[62]\nERP provides increased opportunities for collaboration. Data takes many forms in the modern enterprise, including documents, files, forms, audio and video, and emails. Often, each data medium has its own mechanism for allowing collaboration. ERP provides a collaborative platform that lets employees spend more time collaborating on content rather than mastering the learning curve of communicating in various formats across distributed systems.[57]\nDisadvantages \nCustomization can be problematic. Compared to the best-of-breed approach, ERP can be seen as meeting an organization\u2019s lowest common denominator needs, forcing the organization to find workarounds to meet unique demands.[63]\nRe-engineering business processes to fit the ERP system may damage competitiveness or divert focus from other critical activities.\nERP can cost more than less integrated or less comprehensive solutions.\nHigh ERP switching costs can increase the ERP vendor's negotiating power, which can increase support, maintenance, and upgrade expenses.\nOvercoming resistance to sharing sensitive information between departments can divert management attention.\nIntegration of truly independent businesses can create unnecessary dependencies.\nExtensive training requirements take resources from daily operations.\nHarmonization of ERP systems can be a mammoth task (especially for big companies) and requires a lot of time, planning, and money.[64]\nPostmodern ERP \nThe term \"postmodern ERP\" was coined by Gartner in 2013, when it first appeared in the paper series \"Predicts 2014\".[65] According to Gartner's definition of the postmodern ERP strategy, legacy, monolithic and highly customized ERP suites, in which all parts are heavily reliant on each other, should sooner or later be replaced by a mixture of both cloud-based and on-premises applications, which are more loosely coupled and can be easily exchanged if needed.\nThe basic idea is that there should still be a core ERP solution that would cover most important business functions, while other functions will be covered by specialist software solutions that merely extend the core ERP. This concept is similar to the so-called best-of-breed approach[66] to software implementation, but it shouldn't be confused with it. While in both cases, applications that make up the whole are relatively loosely connected and quite easily interchangeable, in the case of the latter there is no ERP solution whatsoever. Instead, every business function is covered by a separate software solution.\nThere is, however, no golden rule as to what business functions should be part of the core ERP, and what should be covered by supplementary solutions. According to Gartner, every company must define their own postmodern ERP strategy, based on company's internal and external needs, operations and processes. For example, a company may define that the core ERP solution should cover those business processes that must stay behind the firewall, and therefore, choose to leave their core ERP on-premises. At the same time, another company may decide to host the core ERP solution in the cloud and move only a few ERP modules as supplementary solutions to on-premises.\nThe main benefits that companies will gain from implementing postmodern ERP strategy are speed and flexibility when reacting to unexpected changes in business processes or on the organizational level.[67] With the majority of applications having a relatively loose connection, it is fairly easy to replace or upgrade them whenever necessary. In addition to that, following the examples above, companies can select and combine cloud-based and on-premises solutions that are most suited for their ERP needs. The downside of postmodern ERP is that it will most likely lead to an increased number of software vendors that companies will have to manage, as well as pose additional integration challenges for the central IT.\n\nSee also \n\nList of ERP software packages\nAccounting software\nBill of resources\nBusiness process management\nBusiness intelligence\nCost accounting\nCybernetics\nDocument automation\nData migration\nEconomic planning\nEnterprise feedback management (EFM)\nEnterprise planning systems\nEnterprise system\nERP modeling\nERP system selection methodology\nInformation technology management\nList of project management software\nManagement information system\nManufacturing operations management\nMaterial balance planning\nOperations research\nService management\nSoftware as a service\nVisitor management systems\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ Almajali, Dmaithan (2016). \"Antecedents of ERP systems implementation success: a study on Jordanian healthcare sector\". Journal of Enterprise Information Management. 29 (4): 549\u2013565. doi:10.1108\/JEIM-03-2015-0024. \n\n^ Radovilsky, Zinovy (2004). Bidgoli, Hossein, ed. The Internet Encyclopedia, Volume 1. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 707. ISBN 9780471222026. \n\n^ Rubina Adam, Paula Kotze, Alta van der Merwe. 2011. Acceptance of enterprise resource planning systems by small manufacturing Enterprises. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems, edited by Runtong Zhang, Jos\u00e9 Cordeiro, Xuewei Li, Zhenji Zhang and Juliang Zhang, SciTePress, p. 229 - 238 \n\n^ Shaul, L.; Tauber, D. (2012). \"CSFs along ERP life-cycle in SMEs: a field study\". Industrial Management & Data Systems. 112 (3): 360\u2013384. doi:10.1108\/02635571211210031. \n\n^ \nKhosrow\u2013Puor, Mehdi. (2006). Emerging Trends and Challenges in Information Technology Management. Idea Group, Inc. p. 865. \n\n^ InfoWorld, Heather Harreld. \"Extended ERP technology reborn in B2B\". 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Abthorpe, \"Enterprise Information Systems Project Implementation: A Case Study of ERP in Rolls-Royce,\" International Journal of Production Economics, 87(3), February 2004. \n\n^ Daneva, Maya; Roel Wieringa. \"Requirements Engineering for Cross-organizational ERP Implementation: Undocumented Assumptions and Potential Mismatches\" (PDF) . University of Twente. Retrieved July 12, 2008 . \n\n^ a b Thomas H. Davenport, \"Putting the Enterprise into the Enterprise System\", Harvard Business Review, July\u2013August 1998. \n\n^ Turban et al. (2008). Information Technology for Management, Transforming Organizations in the Digital Economy. Massachusetts: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p. 320. ISBN 978-0-471-78712-9 \n\n^ Dehning, B. and T.Stratopoulos, 'Determinants of a Sustainable Competitive Advantage Due to an IT-enabled Strategy,' Journal of Strategic Information Systems, Vol. 12, 2003 \n\n^ Ferdows, K (1997). \"Making the most of foreign factories\". 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Management Information Systems(MIS). New York: McGraw-Hill, Irwin. p. 324. \n\n^ She, W.; Thuraisingham, B. (2007). \"Security for Enterprise Resource Planning Systems\". Information Systems Security. 16 (3): 152\u2013163. doi:10.1080\/10658980701401959. \n\n^ Young, Joanna. \"AUDIO | Best-of-Breed vs. ERP: What's Best for Higher Ed Today?\". The EvoLLLution. Retrieved July 14, 2015 . \n\n^ \"The Minefied of Harmonising ERP\". Cfo-insight.com. July 23, 2012. Archived from the original on July 27, 2012. \n\n^ \"Predicts 2014: The Rise of the Postmodern ERP and Enterprise Applications World\". Gartner Group. Retrieved October 31, 2016 . \n\n^ \"Postmodern ERP Strategy Is Not a Best-of-Breed Approach\". Gartner Group. Retrieved October 31, 2016 . \n\n^ \"5 Factors Facilitating the Transition to the Postmodern ERP Era\". CIOReview. Retrieved October 31, 2016 . \n\n\nBibliography \nClemons, Eric. K. (1986). \"IS for Sustainable Competitive Advantage\". Information & Management. 11 (3): 131\u2013136. doi:10.1016\/0378-7206(86)90010-8. \nGrant, David; Richard Hall; Nick Wailes; Christopher Wright (March 2006). \"The false promise of technological determinism: the case of enterprise resource planning systems\". New Technology, Work & Employment. 21 (1): 2\u201315. doi:10.1111\/j.1468-005X.2006.00159.x. \nHead, Simon (2005). The New Ruthless Economy. Work and Power in the Digital Age. Oxford UP. ISBN 978-0-19-517983-5. \nHenderson, Ian ERP from the Frontline MBE ISBN 978-1-898822-05-9 Making ERP Work\nLequeux, Jean-Louis (2008). Manager avec les ERP, Architecture Orient\u00e9e Services (SOA) (in French). Paris: Ed. d'Organisation. ISBN 978-2-212-54094-9. \nLoh, Tee Chiat; Lenny Koh Siau Ching (September 2004). \"Critical elements for a successful ERP implementation in SMEs\". 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id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Enterprise resource planning<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:502px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:ERP_Modules.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"47c802197750308e127e0a46c10b4870\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/12\/ERP_Modules.png\/500px-ERP_Modules.png\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:ERP_Modules.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"47c802197750308e127e0a46c10b4870\"><\/a><\/div>Diagram showing some typical ERP modules<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Enterprise resource planning<\/b> (<b>ERP<\/b>) is the integrated management of core business processes, often in real-time and mediated by software and technology.\n<\/p><p>ERP is usually referred to as a category of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_management_tools\" title=\"Business management tools\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49c82ec696b78d8629954ae8e3944091\">business management software<\/a> \u2014 typically a suite of integrated <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_software\" title=\"Application software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58f3ea86f366b8ea97d65cd53ad8a36\">applications<\/a>\u2014that an organization can use to collect, store, manage, and interpret data from these many <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_sector\" title=\"Business sector\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bc24b8613ec0155db3146e84b205ddc1\">business<\/a> activities.\n<\/p><p>ERP provides an integrated and continuously updated view of core business processes using common <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">databases<\/a> maintained by a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_management_system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Database management system\" data-key=\"824748614afaae7c7e98b483b4aee777\">database management system<\/a>. ERP systems track business resources\u2014cash, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Raw_material\" title=\"Raw material\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7df7f9d167e01c082523960a53c5056\">raw materials<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Production_capacity\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Production capacity\" data-key=\"753c99292415e60aabdea1099009bfdd\">production capacity<\/a>\u2014and the status of business commitments: orders, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Purchase_order\" title=\"Purchase order\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"add40dc3803eb587fb2834fe09491f37\">purchase orders<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Payroll\" title=\"Payroll\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c41511b6f1effb399420e52c183f0be\">payroll<\/a>. The applications that make up the system share data across various departments (manufacturing, purchasing, sales, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accounting\" title=\"Accounting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"278b494ba2d43813c4805b41a6a5af36\">accounting<\/a>, etc.) that provide the data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> ERP facilitates information flow between all business functions and manages connections to outside <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Stakeholder_(corporate)\" title=\"Stakeholder (corporate)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ca00d64d7f7af3b41dfe409fa5af06e\">stakeholders<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Enterprise system software is a multibillion-dollar industry that produces components supporting a variety of business functions. IT investments have become the largest category of capital expenditure in United States-based businesses over the past<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words\" data-key=\"3c3e3e3bd5e8c5c41bbedf61159040c1\"><span title=\"The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (November 2015)\">which?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> decade. Though early ERP systems focused on large enterprises, smaller enterprises increasingly use ERP systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The ERP system integrates varied organizational systems and facilitates error-free transactions and production, thereby enhancing the organization's efficiency. However, developing an ERP system differs from traditional system development.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>ERP systems run on a variety of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_hardware\" title=\"Computer hardware\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e3af5473d082dc42736a8f0e670ebb91\">computer hardware<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer_network\" title=\"Computer network\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8fe6ac3761171dfcc44a0a2f6426c7b\">network<\/a> configurations, typically using a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database\" title=\"Database\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"51682e5cd6f62ec7303ae4446e463052\">database<\/a> as an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_repository\" title=\"Information repository\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"983d22d660b1bb04da4b544a8ff35040\">information repository<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-5\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Origin\">Origin<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The Gartner Group first used the abbreviation ERP in the 1990s<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-6\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-7\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> to extend upon the capabilities of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Material_requirements_planning\" title=\"Material requirements planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5809e8b0575cd6054ecc05d98f6f437e\">material requirements planning<\/a> (MRP), and the later <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manufacturing_resource_planning\" title=\"Manufacturing resource planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ce86347c9f29c4092e893de2e3b42ae2\">manufacturing resource planning<\/a> (MRP II),<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-8\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-9\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> as well as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer-integrated_manufacturing\" title=\"Computer-integrated manufacturing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"24aed5e9175dd2527e2588f8f2e8976c\">computer-integrated manufacturing<\/a>. Without replacing these terms, ERP came to represent a larger whole that reflected the evolution of application integration beyond manufacturing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Not all ERP packages developed from a manufacturing core; ERP vendors variously began assembling their packages with finance-and-accounting, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maintenance,_repair_and_operations\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Maintenance, repair and operations\" data-key=\"e62ada85821cc56bbe23797b3939cb12\">maintenance<\/a>, and human-resource components. By the mid-1990s ERP systems addressed all core enterprise functions. Governments and non\u2013profit organizations also began to use ERP systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Expansion\">Expansion<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ERP systems experienced rapid growth in the 1990s. Because of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Year_2000_problem\" title=\"Year 2000 problem\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92ec32c9a4bddb100c2cb5c8f0e89edb\">year 2000 problem<\/a> and the introduction of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Euro\" title=\"Euro\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fa5cfe5bc6e4e091a60c2e88ee9a9727\">euro<\/a> that disrupted legacy systems, many companies took the opportunity to replace their old systems with ERP.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>ERP systems initially focused on automating <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Back_office\" title=\"Back office\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a49765133be292451e0e22cc36821f7c\">back office<\/a> functions that did not directly affect <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer\" title=\"Customer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a5fbccdabe10a95d7440b655c079d32\">customers<\/a> and the public. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Front_office\" title=\"Front office\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"adfc44ced2c1c6272a0e49721de97a48\">Front office<\/a> functions, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_relationship_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Customer relationship management\" data-key=\"8203726ea504ac5ce9b5ce91be3a96b7\">customer relationship management<\/a> (CRM), dealt directly with customers, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_business\" title=\"Electronic business\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"434db26912da8a9300608c10d3c8b44c\">e-business<\/a> systems such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-commerce\" title=\"E-commerce\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c03db4987b899365c11ec8496d2c7c99\">e-commerce<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-government\" title=\"E-government\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1794712110e20f03e8c4d0dde93447cd\">e-government<\/a>, e-telecom, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/E-finance\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"E-finance\" data-key=\"40644a517086bfcdd9152ec88a7fca5d\">e-finance<\/a>\u2014or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Supply chain management\" data-key=\"a9ab29cff9b4cb170ab64c685242c8b0\">supplier relationship management<\/a> (SRM) became integrated later, when the internet simplified communicating with external parties.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HaymanERP00_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HaymanERP00-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>\"ERP II\" was coined in 2000 in an article by Gartner Publications entitled <i>ERP Is Dead\u2014Long Live ERP II<\/i>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> It describes web\u2013based software that provides real\u2013time access to ERP systems to employees and partners (such as suppliers and customers). The ERP II role expands traditional ERP resource optimization and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transaction_processing\" title=\"Transaction processing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc4654ebea47d9f14e7ebe49367c965c\">transaction processing<\/a>. Rather than just manage buying, selling, etc.\u2014ERP II leverages information in the resources under its management to help the enterprise collaborate with other enterprises.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>ERP II is more flexible than the first generation ERP. Rather than confine ERP system capabilities within the organization, it goes beyond the corporate walls to interact with other systems. Enterprise application suite is an alternate name for such systems. ERP II systems are typically used to enable collaborative initiatives such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Supply chain management\" data-key=\"a9ab29cff9b4cb170ab64c685242c8b0\">supply chain management (SCM)<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_relationship_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Customer relationship management\" data-key=\"8203726ea504ac5ce9b5ce91be3a96b7\">customer relationship management (CRM)<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" title=\"Business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">business intelligence (BI)<\/a> among business partner organizations through the use of various <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_business\" title=\"Electronic business\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"434db26912da8a9300608c10d3c8b44c\">e-business technologies<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/p><p>Developers now make more effort to integrate mobile devices with the ERP system. ERP vendors are extending ERP to these devices, along with other business applications. Technical stakes of modern ERP concern integration\u2014hardware, applications, networking, supply chains. ERP now covers more functions and roles\u2014including <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Decision_making\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Decision making\" data-key=\"f7ca18573163d657813ebb8dfb5bff55\">decision making<\/a>, stakeholders' relationships, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Standardization\" title=\"Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f72bb2449f07a1d189664ba328c819fc\">standardization<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Transparency_(behavior)\" title=\"Transparency (behavior)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e19b9c07d39419acd6c1a1533d539df4\">transparency<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Globalization\" title=\"Globalization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d67e483cf72bd59cd7610fc7b4beda69\">globalization<\/a>, etc.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-19\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Characteristics\">Characteristics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ERP systems typically include the following characteristics:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>An integrated system<\/li>\n<li>Operates in (or near) real time<\/li>\n<li>A common database that supports all the applications<\/li>\n<li>A consistent look and feel across modules<\/li>\n<li>Installation of the system with elaborate application\/data integration by the Information Technology (IT) department, provided the implementation is not done in small steps<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-20\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Deployment options include: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/On-premises\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"On-premises\" data-key=\"7265baafa624fbe90dd871bace43d023\">on-premises<\/a>, cloud hosted, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SaaS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SaaS\" data-key=\"fd3401864caa916e3239653e12baf7a1\">SaaS<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Functional_areas\">Functional areas<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>An ERP system covers the following common functional areas. In many ERP systems, these are called and grouped together as ERP modules:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Financial_accounting\" title=\"Financial accounting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0eb9baa4c9ab3b208e6815db0c99b25c\">Finance & Accounting<\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/General_Ledger\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"General Ledger\" data-key=\"e0bf2524a9503e648b3254634b9846cb\">General Ledger<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Fixed_assets\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Fixed assets\" data-key=\"706861af279f85ae388feecce0e1f963\">Fixed Assets<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accounts_Payable\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Accounts Payable\" data-key=\"c0d1b607c1d552f00d1b7f2447d54afe\">payables<\/a> including vouchering, matching and payment, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accounts_Receivable\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Accounts Receivable\" data-key=\"c07f178d283653bc073a33982b5fde3d\">receivables<\/a> Cash Management and collections, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cash_management\" title=\"Cash management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e339b6d8dd28628b98b815c3bd3fde1\">cash management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Consolidation_(business)\" title=\"Consolidation (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ffb4cde5bc012b24ddb981608696db50\">Financial Consolidation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Management_Accounting\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Management Accounting\" data-key=\"82a78cf85ea74c8c40870669359015ed\">Management Accounting<\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Budgeting\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Budgeting\" data-key=\"d5add60a96ada7afed9c80fd689615f0\">Budgeting<\/a>, Costing, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cost_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Cost management\" data-key=\"06b91d2198273faa6898df2096b59d0d\">cost management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Activity_based_costing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Activity based costing\" data-key=\"67bc1ac64b3a86e8fa63ea150f2b0d56\">activity based costing<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Human_resources\" title=\"Human resources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efc1600cf27dd94c0c671f2b4c618ab5\">Human resources<\/a>: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Recruitment\" title=\"Recruitment\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebd41b624fe7236d3061987e3a08ea96\">Recruiting<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Training\" title=\"Training\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"291469476e445e7810f763b43e8aa978\">training<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Schedule_(workplace)\" title=\"Schedule (workplace)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1099a3e3526f8b14f95405fc868028a4\">rostering<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Payroll\" title=\"Payroll\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c41511b6f1effb399420e52c183f0be\">payroll<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Employee_benefit\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Employee benefit\" data-key=\"9bec6e2144d773ff773aa24c8f6f13db\">benefits<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pensions\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Pensions\" data-key=\"52be238af4f2a93f5edc2ed5c3e83bd2\">retirement and pension plans<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Diversity_(business)\" title=\"Diversity (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"afea080775f7def85e7934ccd4b7ae5d\">diversity management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Retirement\" title=\"Retirement\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"45bae00f5de24a0dd5c542ce212b2811\">retirement<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Employee_exit_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Employee exit management\" data-key=\"d9c88a954d3d8a1d0f79d285588bad4a\">separation<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Manufacturing: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engineering\" title=\"Engineering\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f6f08235e1dd8528fc259dfcf543c3f\">Engineering<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bill_of_materials\" title=\"Bill of materials\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d51471feb775b6adc5df1ca3b5167c1\">bill of materials<\/a>, work orders, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Scheduling\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Scheduling\" data-key=\"a988d194988b82dda69bfee669bf6f0a\">scheduling<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Capacity_utilization\" title=\"Capacity utilization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2393c46535848bcc24804af62b590b8\">capacity<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_management_system\" title=\"Workflow management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6431e43c8af23358c867106d508ce082\">workflow management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Quality_control\" title=\"Quality control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53081160bfedb3363868fc07b231ab5c\">quality control<\/a>, manufacturing process, manufacturing projects, manufacturing flow, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_life_cycle_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Product life cycle management\" data-key=\"344730d7f9f162c9af42d442c2ca2814\">product life cycle management<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Order Processing: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Order_to_cash\" title=\"Order to cash\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d94f0b5be0f8b99568001013888870c\">Order to cash<\/a>, order entry, credit checking, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pricing\" title=\"Pricing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f9772fa0af8925d1385bda5c0c84f5a\">pricing<\/a>, available to promise, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory\" title=\"Inventory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4cc44a3604b355115efdc69f53b0586\">inventory<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Shipping\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Shipping\" data-key=\"c999b8e94faef4a3afd490bc992758a5\">shipping<\/a>, sales analysis and reporting, sales commissioning.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Supply_chain_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Supply chain management\" data-key=\"a9ab29cff9b4cb170ab64c685242c8b0\">Supply chain management<\/a>: Supply chain planning, supplier scheduling, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_configurator\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Product configurator\" data-key=\"218f8c54ba546a9d53d76d8f832923bd\">product configurator<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Order_to_cash\" title=\"Order to cash\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d94f0b5be0f8b99568001013888870c\">order to cash<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Purchasing\" title=\"Purchasing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8a8b277088da12c5fa37f4ce2c2bf926\">purchasing<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory\" title=\"Inventory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4cc44a3604b355115efdc69f53b0586\">inventory<\/a>, claim processing, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Warehousing\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Warehousing\" data-key=\"6cb1863a02667e03f0f32382109c8165\">warehousing<\/a> (receiving, putaway, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Order_picking\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Order picking\" data-key=\"06612bed6bcd4d36efad9273b1c8d617\">picking<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Packaging_and_labeling\" title=\"Packaging and labeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9fc2686be8631525e466883978ff1e9a\">packing<\/a>).<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Project_management\" title=\"Project management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6eafec51967ae43f1d3054bbbbcb85a\">Project management<\/a>: Project planning, resource planning, project costing, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Work_breakdown_structure\" title=\"Work breakdown structure\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d7c55c9c136597ba3428436e987a9bb1\">work breakdown structure<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Invoice\" title=\"Invoice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6242821a662352ab9e8214ddfd4d70c7\">billing<\/a>, time and expense, performance units, activity management<\/li>\n<li>Customer relationship management: Sales and marketing, commissions, service, customer contact, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Call_center\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Call center\" data-key=\"1e691edf2b62c9a092347eb8d117539d\">call center<\/a> support \u2014 CRM systems are not always considered part of ERP systems but rather Business Support systems (BSS).<\/li>\n<li>Data services : Various \"self\u2013service\" interfaces for customers, suppliers and\/or employees<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"GRP\">GRP<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Government resource planning (GRP) is the equivalent of an ERP for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_sector\" title=\"Public sector\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6a16b1fbf020611b1e8622b0002d0c24\">public sector<\/a> and an integrated office automation system for government bodies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> The software structure, modularization, core algorithms and main interfaces do not differ from other ERPs, and ERP software suppliers manage to adapt their systems to government agencies.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Both system implementations, in private and public organizations, are adopted to improve productivity and overall business performance in organizations, but comparisons (private vs. public) of implementations shows that the main factors influencing ERP implementation success in the public sector are cultural.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Components\">Components<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Database_transaction\" title=\"Database transaction\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"91753e6ff342353eeab59f5277c76518\">Transactional database<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Management portal\/<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dashboard_(business)\" title=\"Dashboard (business)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"efeb942e7967dcf7a9477c6ed1062d94\">dashboard<\/a><\/li>\n<li>People<\/li>\n<li>Software<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Best_practices\">Best practices<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Most ERP systems incorporate <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Best_practice\" title=\"Best practice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26cd3a9efcd49472bf5e067ca98372fe\">best practices<\/a>. This means the software reflects the vendor's interpretation of the most effective way to perform each business process. Systems vary in how conveniently the customer can modify these practices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-28\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> In addition, best practices reduced risk by 71% compared to other software implementations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-29\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Use of best practices eases compliance with requirements such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IFRS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"IFRS\" data-key=\"e0efb562c40c6147cbd0a61dad35e29e\">IFRS<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sarbanes-Oxley\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Sarbanes-Oxley\" data-key=\"5f6269b5f5f775ed5b40e745b0d8922f\">Sarbanes-Oxley<\/a>, or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Basel_II\" title=\"Basel II\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2c21d14f9aebf0274f2466d3a983d95b\">Basel II<\/a>. They can also help comply with de facto industry standards, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_funds_transfer\" title=\"Electronic funds transfer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"89845709b66adde7c1e43b3945a56e40\">electronic funds transfer<\/a>. This is because the procedure can be readily codified within the ERP software and replicated with confidence across multiple businesses who share that business requirement.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IngolfoEstab11_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IngolfoEstab11-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MSITSys_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MSITSys-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Connectivity_to_plant_floor_information\">Connectivity to plant floor information<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ERP systems connect to real\u2013time data and transaction data in a variety of ways. These systems are typically configured by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Systems_integrator\" title=\"Systems integrator\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac2f10209319df3b4dfb975d5c79b8b2\">systems integrators<\/a>, who bring unique knowledge on process, equipment, and vendor solutions.\n<\/p><p><b>Direct integration<\/b>\u2014ERP systems have connectivity (communications to plant floor equipment) as part of their product offering. This requires that the vendors offer specific support for the plant floor equipment their customers operate. ERP vendors must be experts in their own products and connectivity to other vendor products, including those of their competitors.\n<\/p><p><b>Database integration<\/b>\u2014ERP systems connect to plant floor data sources through staging tables in a database. Plant floor systems deposit the necessary information into the database. The ERP system reads the information in the table. The benefit of staging is that ERP vendors do not need to master the complexities of equipment integration. Connectivity becomes the responsibility of the systems integrator.\n<\/p><p><b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_appliance_transaction_module\" title=\"Enterprise appliance transaction module\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10181cf63b9d01c0d52e7e48258fb495\">Enterprise appliance transaction modules<\/a> (EATM)<\/b>\u2014These devices communicate directly with plant floor equipment and with the ERP system via methods supported by the ERP system. EATM can employ a staging table, web services, or system\u2013specific program interfaces (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Api\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Api\" data-key=\"3ece3750f799c4236b67daf45431666a\">APIs<\/a>). An EATM offers the benefit of being an off\u2013the\u2013shelf solution.\n<\/p><p><b>Custom\u2013integration solutions<\/b>\u2014Many system integrators offer custom solutions. These systems tend to have the highest level of initial integration cost, and can have a higher long term maintenance and reliability costs. Long term costs can be minimized through careful system testing and thorough documentation. Custom\u2013integrated solutions typically run on <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workstation\" title=\"Workstation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"aa3b53fc002d1317d062fd8b1f7b0150\">workstation<\/a> or server-class computers.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Implementation\">Implementation<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ERP's scope usually implies significant changes to staff work processes and practices.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tech-faq.com_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tech-faq.com-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> Generally, three types of services are available to help implement such changes\u2014consulting, customization, and support.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tech-faq.com_32-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tech-faq.com-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> Implementation time depends on business size, number of modules, customization, the scope of process changes, and the readiness of the customer to take ownership for the project. Modular ERP systems can be implemented in stages. The typical project for a large enterprise takes about 14 months and requires around 150 consultants.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-carl.sandiego.edu_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-carl.sandiego.edu-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup> Small projects can require months; multinational and other large implementations can take years.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SankarImplement06_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SankarImplement06-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PelphreyDirecting15_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PelphreyDirecting15-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mass_customization\" title=\"Mass customization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bfc3265830efcba6e12739bec0bde1f3\">Customization<\/a> can substantially increase implementation times.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-carl.sandiego.edu_33-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-carl.sandiego.edu-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Besides that, information processing influences various business functions e.g. some large corporations like <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wal-Mart\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Wal-Mart\" data-key=\"d23365917b9335030abb5b061fb93299\">Wal-Mart<\/a> use a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Just_in_time_(business)\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Just in time (business)\" data-key=\"e7f5ddc4d1e8caa80fd1c0cc3e10a768\">just in time<\/a> inventory system. This reduces inventory storage and increases delivery efficiency, and requires up-to-date data. Before 2014, Walmart used a system called Inforem developed by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/IBM\" title=\"IBM\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"517a128ab6331cda10bbf2ea31e64d86\">IBM<\/a> to manage replenishment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Process_preparation\">Process preparation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Implementing ERP typically requires changes in existing business processes.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> Poor understanding of needed process changes prior to starting implementation is a main reason for project failure.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup> The difficulties could be related to the system, business process, infrastructure, training, or lack of motivation.\n<\/p><p>It is therefore crucial that organizations thoroughly analyze business processes before they implement ERP software. Analysis can identify opportunities for process modernization. It also enables an assessment of the alignment of current processes with those provided by the ERP system. Research indicates that risk of business process mismatch is decreased by:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Linking current processes to the organization's strategy<\/li>\n<li>Analyzing the effectiveness of each process<\/li>\n<li>Understanding existing automated solutions<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>ERP implementation is considerably more difficult (and politically charged) in decentralized organizations, because they often have different processes, business rules, data semantics, authorization hierarchies, and decision centers.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> This may require migrating some business units before others, delaying implementation to work through the necessary changes for each unit, possibly reducing integration (e.g., linking via <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Master_data_management\" title=\"Master data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cbc1f348e81fafbc88842099f72d742c\">Master data management<\/a>) or customizing the system to meet specific needs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Thomas_H._Davenport_1998_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Thomas_H._Davenport_1998-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A potential disadvantage is that adopting \"standard\" processes can lead to a loss of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Competitive_advantage\" title=\"Competitive advantage\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99d28b128df96003b047fdd04394ebbc\">competitive advantage<\/a>. While this has happened, losses in one area are often offset by gains in other areas, increasing overall competitive advantage.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-44\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Configuration\">Configuration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Configuring an ERP system is largely a matter of balancing the way the organization wants the system to work with the way it was designed to work. ERP systems typically include many settings that modify system operations. For example, an organization can select the type of inventory accounting\u2014<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/FIFO_and_LIFO_accounting\" title=\"FIFO and LIFO accounting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d2e5b520e324aacfd3128c1db5fd8cc2\">FIFO or LIFO<\/a>\u2014to use; whether to recognize revenue by geographical unit, product line, or distribution channel; and whether to pay for shipping costs on customer returns.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Thomas_H._Davenport_1998_42-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Thomas_H._Davenport_1998-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Two_tier_enterprise_resource_planning\">Two tier enterprise resource planning<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Two-tier ERP software and hardware lets companies run the equivalent of two ERP systems at once: one at the corporate level and one at the division or subsidiary level. For example, a manufacturing company could use an ERP system to manage across the organization using independent global or regional distribution, production or sales centers, and service providers to support the main company\u2019s customers. Each independent center or subsidiary may have its own <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_model\" title=\"Business model\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2688ecba2105e5229b85377e94392f3e\">business models<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a7b055462a00234621920f7bd77834c\">workflows<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process\" title=\"Business process\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f99ca86818fe1b384318772d45583cd0\">business processes<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Given the realities of globalization, enterprises continuously evaluate how to optimize their regional, divisional, and product or manufacturing strategies to support strategic goals and reduce time-to-market while increasing profitability and delivering value.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ferdows_45-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ferdows-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> With two-tier ERP, the regional distribution, production, or sales centers and service providers continue operating under their own business model\u2014separate from the main company, using their own ERP systems. Since these smaller companies' processes and workflows are not tied to main company's processes and workflows, they can respond to local business requirements in multiple locations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-gill_46-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-gill-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Factors that affect enterprises' adoption of two-tier ERP systems include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Manufacturing globalization, the economics of sourcing in emerging economies<\/li>\n<li>Potential for quicker, less costly ERP implementations at subsidiaries, based on selecting software more suited to smaller companies<\/li>\n<li>Extra effort, (often involving the use of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_application_integration\" title=\"Enterprise application integration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d697403942408f923065543d60e5bda1\">Enterprise application integration<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup>) is required where data must pass between two ERP systems<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup> Two-tier ERP strategies give enterprises agility in responding to market demands and in aligning IT systems at a corporate level while inevitably resulting in more systems as compared to one ERP system used throughout the organization.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Customization\">Customization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>ERP systems are theoretically based on industry best practices, and their makers intend that organizations deploy them \"as is\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-50\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-50\">[50]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-51\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-51\">[51]<\/a><\/sup> ERP vendors do offer customers configuration options that let organizations incorporate their own business rules, but gaps in features often remain even after configuration is complete.\n<\/p><p>ERP customers have several options to reconcile feature gaps, each with their own pros\/cons. Technical solutions include rewriting part of the delivered software, writing a homegrown module to work within the ERP system, or interfacing to an external system. These three options constitute varying degrees of system customization\u2014with the first being the most invasive and costly to maintain.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fryling_2010_391\u2013421_52-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fryling_2010_391\u2013421-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup> Alternatively, there are non-technical options such as changing business practices or organizational policies to better match the delivered ERP feature set. Key differences between customization and configuration include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Customization is always optional, whereas the software must always be configured before use (e.g., setting up cost\/profit center structures, organizational trees, purchase approval rules, etc.).<\/li>\n<li>The software is designed to handle various configurations, and behaves predictably in any allowed configuration.<\/li>\n<li>The effect of configuration changes on system behavior and performance is predictable and is the responsibility of the ERP vendor. The effect of customization is less predictable. It is the customer's responsibility, and increases testing activities.<\/li>\n<li>Configuration changes survive upgrades to new software versions. Some customizations (e.g., code that uses pre\u2013defined \"hooks\" that are called before\/after displaying data screens) survive upgrades, though they require retesting. Other customizations (e.g., those involving changes to fundamental data structures) are overwritten during upgrades and must be re-implemented.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-53\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-53\">[53]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Customization advantages include that it:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Improves user acceptance<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-54\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-54\">[54]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Offers the potential to obtain competitive advantage vis-\u00e0-vis companies using only standard features<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Customization disadvantages include that it may:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Increase time and resources required to implement and maintain<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Fryling_2010_391\u2013421_52-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Fryling_2010_391\u2013421-52\">[52]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BradfordModern15_55-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BradfordModern15-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Hinder seamless interfacing\/integration between suppliers and customers due to the differences between systems<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BradfordModern15_55-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BradfordModern15-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Limit the company's ability to upgrade the ERP software in the future<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BradfordModern15_55-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BradfordModern15-55\">[55]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>Create over reliance on customization, undermining the principles of ERP as a standardizing software platform<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Extensions\">Extensions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>ERP systems can be extended with third\u2013party software, often via vendor-supplied interfaces.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BendolyStrat05_56-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BendolyStrat05-56\">[56]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeonERP08_57-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeonERP08-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup> Extensions offer features such as:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeonERP08_57-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeonERP08-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>product data management<\/li>\n<li>product life cycle management<\/li>\n<li>customer relations management<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_mining\" title=\"Data mining\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c0476196065f64ef9067933bc43b6634\">data mining<\/a><\/li>\n<li>e-procurement<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_migration\">Data migration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_migration\" title=\"Data migration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a21ff53cc2ece9b80869cfdffa779af0\">Data migration<\/a> is the process of moving, copying, and restructuring data from an existing system to the ERP system. Migration is critical to implementation success and requires significant planning. Unfortunately, since migration is one of the final activities before the production phase, it often receives insufficient attention. The following steps can structure migration planning:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RamaswamyData07_58-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RamaswamyData07-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Identify the data to be migrated.<\/li>\n<li>Determine the migration timing.<\/li>\n<li>Generate data migration templates for key data components<\/li>\n<li>Freeze the toolset.<\/li>\n<li>Decide on the migration-related setup of key business accounts.<\/li>\n<li>Define <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_archiving\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Data archiving\" data-key=\"b72f32202371fe4af0662a3cf4fab4ad\">data archiving<\/a> policies and procedures.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Often, data migration is incomplete because some of the data in the existing system is either incompatible or not needed in the new system. As such, the existing system may need to be kept as an archived database to refer back to once the new ERP system is in place.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RamaswamyData07_58-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RamaswamyData07-58\">[58]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Advantages\">Advantages<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The most fundamental advantage of ERP is that the integration of a myriad of business processes saves time and expense. Management can make decisions faster and with fewer errors. Data becomes visible across the organization. Tasks that benefit from this integration include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MeerBest05_59-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MeerBest05-59\">[59]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Sales forecasting, which allows <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Inventory_optimization\" title=\"Inventory optimization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"46ef225e7e40d52d6016f0272514731f\">inventory optimization<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Chronological history of every transaction through relevant data compilation in every area of operation.<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Order_tracking\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Order tracking\" data-key=\"e5bfa3ecfadef7a6f87fd411462dfc79\">Order tracking<\/a>, from acceptance through fulfillment<\/li>\n<li>Revenue tracking, from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Invoice\" title=\"Invoice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6242821a662352ab9e8214ddfd4d70c7\">invoice<\/a> through cash receipt<\/li>\n<li>Matching <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Purchase_order\" title=\"Purchase order\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"add40dc3803eb587fb2834fe09491f37\">purchase orders<\/a> (what was ordered), inventory receipts (what arrived), and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cost\" title=\"Cost\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c6685d475b7f004b6c91e1484a9734c3\">costing<\/a> (what the vendor invoiced)<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>ERP systems centralize business data, which:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>Eliminates the need to synchronize changes between multiple systems\u2014consolidation of finance, marketing, sales, human resource, and manufacturing applications<\/li>\n<li>Brings legitimacy and transparency to each bit of statistical data<\/li>\n<li>Facilitates standard <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_naming_convention\" title=\"Product naming convention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b1eecd7b46fd471519f2e771e3c9d7b\">product naming\/coding<\/a><\/li>\n<li>Provides a comprehensive enterprise view (no \"islands of information\"), making real\u2013time information available to management anywhere, anytime to make proper decisions<\/li>\n<li>Protects sensitive data by consolidating multiple security systems into a single structure<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-60\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-60\">[60]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Benefits\">Benefits<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>ERP can improve quality and efficiency of the business. By keeping a company's internal business processes running smoothly, ERP can lead to better outputs that may benefit the company, such as in customer service and manufacturing.<\/li>\n<li>ERP supports upper level management by providing information for decision making.<\/li>\n<li>ERP creates a more agile company that adapts better to change. It also makes a company more flexible and less rigidly structured so organization components operate more cohesively, enhancing the business\u2014internally and externally.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-61\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-61\">[61]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ERP can improve data security in a closed environment. A common control system, such as the kind offered by ERP systems, allows organizations the ability to more easily ensure key company data is not compromised. This changes, however, with a more open environment, requiring further scrutiny of ERP security features and internal company policies regarding security.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SheSecurity07_62-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SheSecurity07-62\">[62]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li>ERP provides increased opportunities for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Collaboration\" title=\"Collaboration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c2a65b2b5b813ba8318884dbfffdb09a\">collaboration<\/a>. Data takes many forms in the modern enterprise, including documents, files, forms, audio and video, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Email\" title=\"Email\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2d5abd02ca0ff73bc0596c3ae672ec7e\">emails<\/a>. Often, each data medium has its own mechanism for allowing collaboration. ERP provides a collaborative platform that lets employees spend more time collaborating on content rather than mastering the learning curve of communicating in various formats across distributed systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeonERP08_57-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeonERP08-57\">[57]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Disadvantages\">Disadvantages<\/span><\/h3>\n<ul><li>Customization can be problematic. Compared to the best-of-breed approach, ERP can be seen as meeting an organization\u2019s lowest common denominator needs, forcing the organization to find workarounds to meet unique demands.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-63\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-63\">[63]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_re-engineering\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Business process re-engineering\" data-key=\"3477a9bef35b8abeeac0c56d503205a4\">Re-engineering business processes<\/a> to fit the ERP system may damage competitiveness or divert focus from other critical activities.<\/li>\n<li>ERP can cost more than less integrated or less comprehensive solutions.<\/li>\n<li>High ERP <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Switching_cost\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Switching cost\" data-key=\"3073714e6658c072cb962eba65486f9e\">switching costs<\/a> can increase the ERP vendor's negotiating power, which can increase support, maintenance, and upgrade expenses.<\/li>\n<li>Overcoming resistance to sharing sensitive information between departments can divert management attention.<\/li>\n<li>Integration of truly independent businesses can create unnecessary dependencies.<\/li>\n<li>Extensive training requirements take resources from daily operations.<\/li>\n<li>Harmonization of ERP systems can be a mammoth task (especially for big companies) and requires a lot of time, planning, and money.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-64\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-64\">[64]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Postmodern_ERP\">Postmodern ERP<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The term \"postmodern ERP\" was coined by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Gartner\" title=\"Gartner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9f7668963d7e19c93d13754e7e1b8a52\">Gartner<\/a> in 2013, when it first appeared in the paper series \"Predicts 2014\".<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-65\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-65\">[65]<\/a><\/sup> According to Gartner's definition of the postmodern ERP strategy, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Legacy_system\" title=\"Legacy system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5d09613e62ea8660d0e11b7dc4401ddc\">legacy<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Monolithic_system\" title=\"Monolithic system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7362a371b845a15d517f49b5979b335f\">monolithic<\/a> and highly customized ERP suites, in which all parts are heavily reliant on each other, should sooner or later be replaced by a mixture of both cloud-based and on-premises applications, which are more loosely coupled and can be easily exchanged if needed.\n<\/p><p>The basic idea is that there should still be a core ERP solution that would cover most important business functions, while other functions will be covered by specialist software solutions that merely extend the core ERP. This concept is similar to the so-called best-of-breed approach<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-66\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-66\">[66]<\/a><\/sup> to software implementation, but it shouldn't be confused with it. While in both cases, applications that make up the whole are relatively loosely connected and quite easily interchangeable, in the case of the latter there is no ERP solution whatsoever. Instead, every business function is covered by a separate software solution.\n<\/p><p>There is, however, no golden rule as to what business functions should be part of the core ERP, and what should be covered by supplementary solutions. According to Gartner, every company must define their own postmodern ERP strategy, based on company's internal and external needs, operations and processes. For example, a company may define that the core ERP solution should cover those business processes that must stay behind the firewall, and therefore, choose to leave their core ERP <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/On-premises_software\" title=\"On-premises software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"49f5efc92184c2f1046d715c26264550\">on-premises<\/a>. At the same time, another company may decide to host the core ERP solution in the cloud and move only a few ERP modules as supplementary solutions to on-premises.\n<\/p><p>The main benefits that companies will gain from implementing postmodern ERP strategy are speed and flexibility when reacting to unexpected changes in business processes or on the organizational level.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-67\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-67\">[67]<\/a><\/sup> With the majority of applications having a relatively loose connection, it is fairly easy to replace or upgrade them whenever necessary. In addition to that, following the examples above, companies can select and combine cloud-based and on-premises solutions that are most suited for their ERP needs. The downside of postmodern ERP is that it will most likely lead to an increased number of software vendors that companies will have to manage, as well as pose additional <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_Integration_Architecture\" title=\"Application Integration Architecture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59aae003064b526fc3db78786678ba5e\">integration<\/a> challenges for the central IT.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 22em; -webkit-column-width: 22em; column-width: 22em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_ERP_software_packages\" title=\"List of ERP software packages\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23dbff719bc97324fc8fee3df6c6bd13\">List of ERP software packages<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Accounting_software\" title=\"Accounting software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"372e8e2871f35a18c66d1ad8fc572cd6\">Accounting software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bill_of_resources\" title=\"Bill of resources\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c851877dd9324771bcb696b53657041\">Bill of resources<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_process_management\" title=\"Business process management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ce8956a01af347b785be586638ef83c\">Business process management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Business_intelligence\" title=\"Business intelligence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"52cc5abde0540c0aa692595400d27aed\">Business intelligence<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cost_accounting\" title=\"Cost accounting\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a1b0742f30c88d1acd2baddfdd53824\">Cost accounting<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cybernetics\" title=\"Cybernetics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2fd690a7488aff64dd69ac9128dd7a50\">Cybernetics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_automation\" title=\"Document automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20ee72738e1b69bef62898c10122f938\">Document automation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_migration\" title=\"Data migration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a21ff53cc2ece9b80869cfdffa779af0\">Data migration<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Economic_planning\" title=\"Economic planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"855875f8bd6c1e0e7ff5776d8a1d013d\">Economic planning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_feedback_management\" title=\"Enterprise feedback management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1deaf705e57dd76abba513ee32f448f4\">Enterprise feedback management<\/a> (EFM)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_planning_systems\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Enterprise planning systems\" data-key=\"1ec62fd77f69c442f6adb7b0fa087e08\">Enterprise planning systems<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_system\" title=\"Enterprise system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ae252af1fd2bee2889ac50b54cc8235\">Enterprise system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ERP_modeling\" title=\"ERP modeling\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bf26bc97f59cf15611cbca65fb728432\">ERP modeling<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ERP_system_selection_methodology\" title=\"ERP system selection methodology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1778ccfa707ba83c8ea3bbb7ae11d4cd\">ERP system selection methodology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_technology_management\" title=\"Information technology management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f42623fda194bd43bb87d920e016e74\">Information technology management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/List_of_project_management_software\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"List of project management software\" data-key=\"0d6a2c18fb226be66a10894a8583bd4f\">List of project management software<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Management_information_system\" title=\"Management information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a92a2c5b402f28a32fedefc28131a3c\">Management information system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Manufacturing_operations_management\" title=\"Manufacturing operations management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"102592ab70203f670362dcefa2518b2f\">Manufacturing operations management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Material_balance_planning\" title=\"Material balance planning\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c3179d80806e7c6e0dc82fa05677992\">Material balance planning<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Operations_research\" title=\"Operations research\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea13bd10effe5b252bd593334c52b8a8\">Operations research<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Service_management\" title=\"Service management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07e6494f1398e796e7ce4cbc2adf4072\">Service management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7de27253c306bcbd5943ef8c39d055a1\">Software as a service<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Visitor_management\" title=\"Visitor management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62aa575c9ad149f9ff4b6b4f49a55c3c\">Visitor management systems<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Almajali, Dmaithan (2016). \"Antecedents of ERP systems implementation success: a study on Jordanian healthcare sector\". <i>Journal of Enterprise Information Management<\/i>. <b>29<\/b> (4): 549\u2013565. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108%2FJEIM-03-2015-0024\" target=\"_blank\">10.1108\/JEIM-03-2015-0024<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Enterprise+Information+Management&rft.atitle=Antecedents+of+ERP+systems+implementation+success%3A+a+study+on+Jordanian+healthcare+sector&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=549-565&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2FJEIM-03-2015-0024&rft.aulast=Almajali&rft.aufirst=Dmaithan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Radovilsky, Zinovy (2004). Bidgoli, Hossein, ed. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ACfBmYiNaTcC&pg=PA707\" target=\"_blank\"><i>The Internet Encyclopedia, Volume 1<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 707. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780471222026.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Internet+Encyclopedia%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=707&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780471222026&rft.aulast=Radovilsky&rft.aufirst=Zinovy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DACfBmYiNaTcC%26pg%3DPA707&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Rubina Adam, Paula Kotze, Alta van der Merwe. 2011. Acceptance of enterprise resource planning systems by small manufacturing Enterprises. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Enterprise Information Systems, edited by Runtong Zhang, Jos\u00e9 Cordeiro, Xuewei Li, Zhenji Zhang and Juliang Zhang, SciTePress, p. 229 - 238<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Shaul, L.; Tauber, D. 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Retrieved September 20, 2012.<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-49\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Kovacs, G. L.; Paganelli, P. 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(2002). \"An ERP implementation and business process reengineering at a Small University\". <i>Educause Quarterly<\/i>. <b>2<\/b>: 52\u201357.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Educause+Quarterly&rft.atitle=An+ERP+implementation+and+business+process+reengineering+at+a+Small+University&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=52-57&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Yakovlev&rft.aufirst=I.V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-54\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-54\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Fryling, Meg (2010). <i>Total Cost of Ownership, System Acceptance and Perceived Success of Enterprise Resource Planning Software: Simulating a Dynamic Feedback Perspective of ERP in the Higher Education Environment<\/i>. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. p. 403. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-1-109-74428-6.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Total+Cost+of+Ownership%2C+System+Acceptance+and+Perceived+Success+of+Enterprise+Resource+Planning+Software%3A+Simulating+a+Dynamic+Feedback+Perspective+of+ERP+in+the+Higher+Education+Environment&rft.pages=403&rft.pub=ProQuest+Dissertations+and+Theses+database&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-109-74428-6&rft.aulast=Fryling&rft.aufirst=Meg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BradfordModern15-55\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-BradfordModern15_55-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BradfordModern15_55-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-BradfordModern15_55-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Bradford, M. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=KZRqCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Modern ERP: Select, Implement, & Use Today's Advanced Business Systems<\/i><\/a>. pp. 107\u2013108. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781312665989<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=GAOHQvgpeNYC&pg=PA95\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Strategic ERP Extension and Use<\/i><\/a>. Stanford University Press. p. 95. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780804750981<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Strategic+ERP+Extension+and+Use&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780804750981&rft.aulast=Bendoly&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Jacobs%2C+F.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGAOHQvgpeNYC%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LeonERP08-57\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-LeonERP08_57-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-LeonERP08_57-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-LeonERP08_57-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Leon, A. 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Tata McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 170\u2013171. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780070656642.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ERP+Demystified&rft.pages=170-171&rft.pub=Tata+McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780070656642&rft.au=Leon%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D95QiBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RamaswamyData07-58\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-RamaswamyData07_58-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-RamaswamyData07_58-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Ramaswamy, V.K. (27 September 2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20071030160728\/http:\/\/research.ittoolbox.com\/white-papers\/backoffice\/erp\/data-migration-strategies-in-erp-4620\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Data Migration Strategy in ERP\"<\/a>. Information Technology Toolbox, Inc. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/research.ittoolbox.com\/white-papers\/backoffice\/erp\/data-migration-strategies-in-erp-4620\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 30 October 2007<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Paris: Ed. d'Organisation. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-2-212-54094-9.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manager+avec+les+ERP%2C+Architecture+Orient%C3%A9e+Services+%28SOA%29&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Ed.+d%27Organisation&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-2-212-54094-9&rft.aulast=Lequeux&rft.aufirst=Jean-Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation journal\">Loh, Tee Chiat; Lenny Koh Siau Ching (September 2004). \"Critical elements for a successful ERP implementation in SMEs\". <i>International Journal of Production Research<\/i>. <b>42<\/b> (17): 3433\u20133455. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080%2F00207540410001671679\" target=\"_blank\">10.1080\/00207540410001671679<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Production+Research&rft.atitle=Critical+elements+for+a+successful+ERP+implementation+in+SMEs&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=3433-3455&rft.date=2004-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00207540410001671679&rft.aulast=Loh&rft.aufirst=Tee+Chiat&rft.au=Lenny+Koh+Siau+Ching&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation journal\">Shaul, Levi; Tauber Doron (September 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/aisel.aisnet.org\/mcis2010\/79\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Hierarchical examination of success factors across ERP life cycle\"<\/a>. <i>MCIS 2010 Proceedings.<\/i>: 79.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MCIS+2010+Proceedings.&rft.atitle=Hierarchical+examination+of+success+factors+across+ERP+life+cycle&rft.pages=79&rft.date=2010-09&rft.aulast=Shaul&rft.aufirst=Levi&rft.au=Tauber+Doron&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faisel.aisnet.org%2Fmcis2010%2F79%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Waldner, Jean-Baptiste (1990). <i>Les nouvelles perspectives de la production<\/i> (in French). Paris: Dunod. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-2-04-019820-6.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+nouvelles+perspectives+de+la+production&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Dunod&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-2-04-019820-6&rft.aulast=Waldner&rft.aufirst=Jean-Baptiste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li>\n<li><cite class=\"citation book\">Waldner, Jean-Baptiste (1992). <i>Principles of Computer Integrated Manufacturing<\/i>. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 978-0-471-93450-9.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Computer+Integrated+Manufacturing&rft.place=Chichester&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons+Ltd&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-471-93450-9&rft.aulast=Waldner&rft.aufirst=Jean-Baptiste&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnterprise+resource+planning\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Commons-logo.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"56c1eee72d1be207b2a9d9bcedb4ef6f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"12\" height=\"16\" class=\"noviewer\" \/><\/a> Media related to <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Enterprise_resource_planning\" class=\"extiw\" title=\"commons:Category:Enterprise resource planning\" rel=\"external_link\" target=\"_blank\">Enterprise resource planning<\/a> at Wikimedia Commons<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1253\nCached time: 20190331220705\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.760 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.904 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 3949\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 131547\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 3663\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 8\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 178956\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 5\/400\nLua time usage: 0.416\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 6.11 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 744.682 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>64.49% 480.213 1 Template:Reflist\n29.17% 217.231 19 Template:Cite_journal\n12.71% 94.686 17 Template:Cite_book\n10.89% 81.125 18 Template:Cite_web\n 6.89% 51.295 2 Template:Fix\n 6.41% 47.752 4 Template:ISBN\n 6.25% 46.569 1 Template:Which\n 5.60% 41.684 1 Template:Commons_category_inline\n 5.15% 38.330 1 Template:Business_administration\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:9310-1!canonical and timestamp 20190331220705 and revision id 889986921\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_resource_planning\" data-key=\"850b202e706427b4bdd62fd8c05e7c80\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202948\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.019 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.131 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 121.739 1 - wikipedia:Enterprise_resource_planning\n100.00% 121.739 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10564-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403202948 and revision id 33197\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Enterprise_resource_planning\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Enterprise_resource_planning<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/f\/f3\/Emblem-money.svg\/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/thumb\/1\/12\/ERP_Modules.png\/1000px-ERP_Modules.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/en\/thumb\/4\/4a\/Commons-logo.svg\/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png"],"07be791b94a208f794e38224f0c0950b_timestamp":1554323388,"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f_type":"article","a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f_title":"Electronic laboratory notebook","a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook","a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tElectronic laboratory notebook\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tThis article is about the general software replacement for laboratory notebooks.  For other uses of the term \"electronic laboratory notebook,\" \"electronic lab notebook,\" or \"ELN\", see ELN.\r\n\n Alexander Graham Bell's unpublished lab notebook, well before the invention of the ELNAn electronic laboratory notebook (also known as electronic lab notebook or ELN) is a software program or package designed to replace more traditional paper laboratory notebooks. Laboratory notebooks in general are used by scientists and technicians to document, store, retrieve, and share fully electronic laboratory records in ways that meet all legal, regulatory, technical and scientific requirements.[1] A laboratory notebook is often maintained to be a legal document and may be used in a court of law as evidence. Similar to an inventor's notebook, the lab notebook is also often referred to in patent prosecution and intellectual property litigation. Modern electronic lab notebooks have the advantage of being easier to search upon, support collaboration among many users, and can be made more secure than their paper counterparts.\nContents\n\n1 History of the ELN \n2 Regulations and legal aspects \n3 Modern features of an ELN \n4 ELN vendors \n5 Further reading \n6 References \n\n\n\nHistory of the ELN \nWhile some credit Dr. Keith Caserta with the concept of an electronic version of the laboratory notebook[2], it's likely that others had similar early ideas on how to integrate computing into the process of laboratory note taking.[3] Significant discussion concerning the transition from a pen-and-paper laboratory notebook to an electronic format was already in full swing in the early 1990s. During the 206th National Meeting of the American Chemical Society in August, 1993, an entire day of the conference was dedicated to talking about \"electronic notebooks\" and ELNs.[4] \"A tetherless electronic equivalent of the paper notebook would be welcomed by the working scientist,\" noted Virginia Polytechnic Institute's Dr. Raymond E. Dessy for the conference.[2] Dessy had in the mid-1980s begun postulating on the idea of an electronic notebook, and by 1994 he provided one of the first working examples of an ELN.[5]\nBy 1997, a special interest group called the Collaborative Electronic Notebook Systems Association (CENSA) formed. Supported by 11 major pharmaceutical and chemical companies, the consortium worked with scientific software and hardware vendors to facilitate the creation of an ELN that met the technical and regulatory needs of its members.[6] The consortium at that time envisioned a collaborative ELN that \"teams of scientists worldwide can use to reliably capture, manage, securely share, and permanently archive and retrieve all common data and records generated by research and development and testing labs.\"[7] That same year development of an enterprise-wide ELN at Kodak's research facilities in England was in full swing. The Kodak ELN was \"implemented as a collection of Lotus Notes databases and applications,\" making it arguably one of the first enterprise ELN solutions in use at the time.[8]\nIn 1998 one of the first web-based versions of an ELN was introduced in the form of the University of Oregon's Virtual Notebook Environment (ViNE), \"a platform-independent, web-based interface designed to support a range of scientific activities across distributed, heterogeneous computing platforms.\"[9] This innovation would go on to inspire vendors in the 2000s to develop web-based thin-client ELNs for laboratories everywhere. Yet it likely wasn't until the Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act (ESIGN) in June 2000 that the true legal implications of a fully electronic laboratory notebook would have on the industry. If an ELN were to be responsible for providing validation during the patent processes and be valid for other types of audits, a mechanism for authenticating the origin of the ideas would be necessary. The ESIGN act meant that electronic records could be authenticated and digital signatures made legally binding, lending further relevancy to ELNs. Instead of searching through notebooks and piles of documents, printing material, and submitting thousands of pages for an FDA audit, ELN users could suddenly collate and submit electronic records, saving time and headaches.[1]\nEnthusiasm for ELNs began to pick up again in the early 2000s, with a strong case for further data integration into ELNs being made at the CENSA-supported International Quality & Productivity Center (IQPC) conference in London during September 2004. During that conference the push for stronger data integration was made, with the base premise that \"ELNs would improve corporate strategy by allowing information to be used more intelligently with the help of decision-support software.\"[10] By early 2007, industry-specific ELNs were pushing growth in the market: Scientific Computing World estimated 83 percent of related organizations declaring interest in ELNs, with 43 percent of those organizations seriously considering an evaluation or purchase.[11]\nDespite the beginnings of an economic downturn in the late 2000s, Atrium Research later estimated that the ELN's market potential was around $1.7 billion.[12][13] During this time scientists and academics \u2014 traditionally slow to adopt technological change \u2014 were gradually warming up to the benefits of an electronic laboratory notebook. Academics in particular realized the problems the high turnover postdoc rate created in research laboratories. Postdocs would depart from the university, leaving PIs and directors scratching their heads on where the data ended up. ELNs changed that, allowing much more persistent data that can be found and referenced even after a postdoc departs.[14] \nThe movement towards ELN integration into other laboratory functions during the 2000s eventually led to the blurring of what an ELN actually is. In early 2007 Scientific Computing World reported that the definition of an ELN varied among scientists, with 35 percent of them stating they were \"clear about the difference between a LIMS and an ELN.\"[11] Today it's possible to see in some vendors' offerings the formerly distinct entity that was ELN to now be completely integrated into a LIMS.\n\nRegulations and legal aspects \nThe laboratory accreditation criteria found in the ISO 17025 standard needs to be considered for the protection and computer backup of electronic records[citation needed]. These criteria can be found specifically in clause 4.13.1.4 of the standard. \nElectronic lab notebooks used for development or research in regulated industries, such as medical devices or pharmaceuticals, are expected to comply with U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations related to software validation.[15] The purpose of the regulations is to ensure the integrity of the entries in terms of time, authorship, and content. Unlike ELNs for patent protection, the FDA is not concerned with patent interference proceedings, but rather with avoidance of falsification. \nTypical provisions related to software validation are included in the medical device regulations at 21 CFR 820 (et seq.) and 21 CFR 11. Essentially, the requirements are that the software has been designed and implemented to be suitable for its intended purposes. Evidence to show that this is the case is often provided by a software requirements specification (SRS) that lays out the intended uses and needs that the ELN will meet. The SRS typically includes one or more testing protocols that, when followed, demonstrate that the ELN meets the requirements of the specification and that the requirements are satisfied under worst-case conditions. Security, audit trails, prevention of unauthorized changes without substantial collusion of otherwise independent personnel (i.e. those having no interest in the content of the ELN such as independent quality unit personnel) are all fundamental to the ELN. Finally, one or more reports demonstrating the results of the testing in accordance with the predefined protocols are required prior to release of the ELN software for use. If the reports show that the software failed to satisfy any of the SRS requirements, then corrective and preventive action (CAPA) must be undertaken and documented. Such CAPA may extend to minor software revisions, or changes in architecture or major revisions. CAPA activities need to be documented as well.[16]\n\nModern features of an ELN \nELNs are generally divided into two categories[11]:\n\n A \"specific\" ELN contains features designed to work within specific applications, scientific instrumentation, or data types.\n A cross-disciplinary or \"generic\" ELN is designed to support access to all data and information that needs to be recorded in a lab notebook.\nAmong these two general categories are ELNs that capture two particular markets: individual researchers and group research teams. ELNs can be tailored to one or both types of markets, with both groups and individuals benefiting from the ELN's inherent ability to add structure to research records. Groups utilizing an ELN typically require two additional abilities: to share research data and communicate about their research.[17]\nModern features include, but are not limited to[18][19][20][21]:\n\n importation of data which has already been captured elsewhere\n direct recording of data in various forms like text, images, and tables\n ability to search for and reuse documented information\n lending of structure to data and information through the use of preformatted or customizable templates which include a range of field types\n creation of links between records, including reference managers and other notebooks\n storage of fully searchable records in a secure database format, with automatic backup\n inclusion of a messaging system for better collaboration\n inclusion of safety data, including flags for dangerous chemicals\n protection of the integrity of both data and process in a secure yet flexible environment, all while allowing for process changes\n generation of secure forms that accept laboratory data input via a computing device and\/or laboratory equipment\n accommodation for networked or wireless communications\n accommodation of a scheduling option for routine procedures such as equipment qualification and study-related timelines\n configuration of qualification requirements\nELN vendors \nSee the ELN vendor page for a list of ELN vendors past and present.\n\nFurther reading \n Kanza, S.; Willoughby, C.; Gibbins, N. et al. (2017). \"Electronic lab notebooks: Can they replace paper?\". Journal of Cheminformatics 9: 31. doi:10.1186\/s13321-017-0221-3. PMC PMC5443717. http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC5443717 .   \nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 Zall, M. (2001). \"The nascent paperless laboratory\". Chemical Innovation 31 (2): 14\u201321. http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/ci\/31\/i02\/html\/02zall.html .   \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 Matthews, M., ed. (1993). \"Meeting Program Division of Chemical Education\". Chemical Information Bulletin 45 (3): 64. https:\/\/digital.library.unt.edu\/ark:\/67531\/metadc5647\/m1\/48\/ . Retrieved 03 May 2011 .   \n\n\u2191 Rumpf, W.. \"My ELN Life\". Wolfgang Rumpf, Ph.D. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110515133816\/http:\/\/web.me.com\/evildrbob\/Site\/My_ELN_Life\/My_ELN_Life.html . Retrieved 05 March 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Matthews, M., ed. (1993). \"Meeting Program Division of Chemical Education\". Chemical Information Bulletin 45 (3): 46. https:\/\/digital.library.unt.edu\/ark:\/67531\/metadc5647\/m1\/48\/ . Retrieved 03 May 2011 .   \n\n\u2191 Borman, S. (1994). \"Electronic Laboratory Notebooks May Revolutionize Research Record Keeping\". Chemical Engineering News 72 (21): 10\u201320. doi:10.1021\/cen-v072n021.p010.   \n\n\u2191 Lysakowski, R. (1997). \"The Collaborative Electronic Notebook Systems Consortium\". Proceedings of the 19th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society 6: 2659\u20132661. doi:10.1109\/IEMBS.1997.756879.   \n\n\u2191 Chandler, R.L. (1997). Documenting the Biotechnology Industry in the San Francisco Bay Area. University of California - San Diego Libraries. p. 40. http:\/\/escholarship.org\/uc\/item\/1m24k447?query=electronic%20lab%20notebook;hitNum=1#page-40 . Retrieved 03 May 2011 .   \n\n\u2191 McLaughlin, D.R. (1999). \"Chapter 11: The Wired Laboratory\". Impact of Advances in Computing and Communications Technologies on Chemical Science and Technology: Report of a Workshop. National Academy Press. pp. 164. ISBN 0309065771. http:\/\/www.nap.edu\/openbook.php?record_id=9591&page=164 .   \n\n\u2191 Skidmore, J.L.; Sottile, M.J.; Cuny, J.E.; Malony, A.D. (1998). \"A Prototype Notebook-Based Environment for Computational Tools Computational Tools\". Proceedings of the 1998 ACM\/IEEE conference on Supercomputing: 22. doi:10.1109\/SC.1998.10031.   \n\n\u2191 Rees, P. (01 November 2004). \"How to capture data to share\". Scientific Computing World. Europa Science. https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/how-capture-data-share . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 11.0 11.1 11.2 Elliot, M.H. (01 December 2006). \"The state of the ELN Market\". Scientific Computing World. Europa Science. https:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/feature\/state-eln-market . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Atrium Research Announces Fourth Edition of Landmark Report on Electronic Laboratory Notebooks\". Atrium Research. 02 June 2009. http:\/\/www.atriumresearch.com\/html\/PR\/pr060109.htm . Retrieved 04 May 2011 .   [dead link]] \n\n\u2191 \"Atrium Research Announces the Third Edition of Landmark Report on Electronic Laboratory Notebooks\". LIMSfinder.org. 07 May 2007. http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=32062_0_3_0_C . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Dance, A. (2010). \"Digital Upgrade: How to choose your lab's next electronic lab notebook\". The Scientist 24 (5): 71. http:\/\/www.the-scientist.com\/?articles.view\/articleNo\/28961\/title\/Digital-Upgrade\/ .   \n\n\u2191 \"The Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 Part 11\". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 01 April 2010. https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfCFR\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=11&showFR=1 . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Corrective and Preventive Actions (CAPA)\". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 28 June 2010. https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/ICECI\/Inspections\/InspectionGuides\/ucm170612.htm . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Macneil, R. (11 November 2010). \"Are electronic lab notebooks for individuals or groups?\". The electronic lab notebook blog. ResearchSpace\/Axiope. http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/electronic-lab-notebook\/blog\/lab\/?tag=record . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Macneil, R. (06 October 2010). \"What are electronic lab notebooks for?\". ResearchSpace\/Axiope. http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/elnblog\/?paged=4 . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Dutton, G. (01 December 2006). \"Lab Notebooks Offer Efficiency Gains\". Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News. Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. http:\/\/www.genengnews.com\/gen-articles\/lab-notebooks-offer-efficiency-gains\/1951 . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Bruce, S. (09 October 2008). \"A Look at the State of Electronic Lab Notebook Technology\". Scientific Computing. Advantage Business Media. https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2002\/12\/look-state-electronic-lab-notebook-technology . Retrieved 27 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Kanza, S.; Willoughby, C.; Gibbins, N. et al. (2017). \"Electronic lab notebooks: Can they replace paper?\". Journal of Cheminformatics 9: 31. doi:10.1186\/s13321-017-0221-3. PMC PMC5443717. http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC5443717 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: All articles with dead external linksArticles with dead external links from September 2017Articles with invalid date parameter in templateArticles with unsourced statementsLaboratory informaticsSoftware systemsHidden category: All articles with unsourced statements\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 29 September 2017, at 19:55.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 43,990 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Electronic_laboratory_notebook skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Electronic laboratory notebook<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"dablink\">This article is about the general software replacement for laboratory notebooks.  For other uses of the term \"electronic laboratory notebook,\" \"electronic lab notebook,\" or \"ELN\", see <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN\" title=\"ELN\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c78ec40806154303ac8a5497d4edd52\">ELN<\/a>.<\/div><br \/>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:282px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:AGBell_Notebook.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba0c4bed9e7d80a0155a84a8d79159bf\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0c\/AGBell_Notebook.jpg\" width=\"280\" height=\"170\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:AGBell_Notebook.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"ba0c4bed9e7d80a0155a84a8d79159bf\"><\/a><\/div>Alexander Graham Bell's unpublished lab notebook, well before the invention of the ELN<\/div><\/div><\/div>An <b>electronic laboratory notebook<\/b> (also known as <b>electronic lab notebook<\/b> or <b>ELN<\/b>) is a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software\" title=\"Software\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ba09b75f2880f9ce6ad44eefc33ef6b\">software<\/a> program or package designed to replace more traditional paper <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be60c7be96aba8e9a84537fd8835fa54\">laboratory notebooks<\/a>. Laboratory notebooks in general are used by scientists and technicians to document, store, retrieve, and share fully electronic <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> records in ways that meet all legal, regulatory, technical and scientific requirements.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ZallTheNasc01_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ZallTheNasc01-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> A laboratory notebook is often maintained to be a legal document and may be used in a court of law as evidence. Similar to an inventor's notebook, the lab notebook is also often referred to in patent prosecution and intellectual property litigation. Modern electronic lab notebooks have the advantage of being easier to search upon, support collaboration among many users, and can be made more secure than their paper counterparts.\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_the_ELN\">History of the ELN<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>While some credit Dr. Keith Caserta with the concept of an electronic version of the laboratory notebook<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EarlyELN_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EarlyELN-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>, it's likely that others had similar early ideas on how to integrate computing into the process of laboratory note taking.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ELNLifeArch_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ELNLifeArch-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Significant discussion concerning the transition from a pen-and-paper laboratory notebook to an electronic format was already in full swing in the early 1990s. During the 206th National Meeting of the American Chemical Society in August, 1993, an entire day of the conference was dedicated to talking about \"electronic notebooks\" and ELNs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MMattChemEd_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MMattChemEd-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> \"A tetherless electronic equivalent of the paper notebook would be welcomed by the working scientist,\" noted Virginia Polytechnic Institute's Dr. Raymond E. Dessy for the conference.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EarlyELN_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EarlyELN-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Dessy had in the mid-1980s begun postulating on the idea of an electronic notebook, and by 1994 he provided one of the first working examples of an ELN.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BormanELNRev_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BormanELNRev-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By 1997, a special interest group called the Collaborative Electronic Notebook Systems Association (CENSA) formed. Supported by 11 major pharmaceutical and chemical companies, the consortium worked with scientific software and hardware vendors to facilitate the creation of an ELN that met the technical and regulatory needs of its members.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LysakowskiTgeCikkav97_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LysakowskiTgeCikkav97-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> The consortium at that time envisioned a collaborative ELN that \"teams of scientists worldwide can use to reliably capture, manage, securely share, and permanently archive and retrieve all common data and records generated by research and development and testing labs.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ChandlerDocument97_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ChandlerDocument97-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> That same year development of an enterprise-wide ELN at Kodak's research facilities in England was in full swing. The Kodak ELN was \"implemented as a collection of Lotus Notes databases and applications,\" making it arguably one of the first enterprise ELN solutions in use at the time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McLaughlinImpact99_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McLaughlinImpact99-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In 1998 one of the first web-based versions of an ELN was introduced in the form of the University of Oregon's Virtual Notebook Environment (ViNE), \"a platform-independent, web-based interface designed to support a range of scientific activities across distributed, heterogeneous computing platforms.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SkidmoreAProto98_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SkidmoreAProto98-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> This innovation would go on to inspire vendors in the 2000s to develop web-based thin-client ELNs for laboratories everywhere. Yet it likely wasn't until the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_Signatures_in_Global_and_National_Commerce_Act\" title=\"Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b6fadfb0efb222679319e60aa58a6668\">Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act<\/a> (ESIGN) in June 2000 that the true legal implications of a fully electronic laboratory notebook would have on the industry. If an ELN were to be responsible for providing validation during the patent processes and be valid for other types of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit\" title=\"Audit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8aa53ebae0994bc35dec1b579c6d201\">audits<\/a>, a mechanism for authenticating the origin of the ideas would be necessary. The ESIGN act meant that electronic records could be authenticated and digital signatures made legally binding, lending further relevancy to ELNs. Instead of searching through notebooks and piles of documents, printing material, and submitting thousands of pages for an FDA audit, ELN users could suddenly collate and submit electronic records, saving time and headaches.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ZallTheNasc01_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ZallTheNasc01-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Enthusiasm for ELNs began to pick up again in the early 2000s, with a strong case for further data integration into ELNs being made at the CENSA-supported International Quality & Productivity Center (IQPC) conference in London during September 2004. During that conference the push for stronger data integration was made, with the base premise that \"ELNs would improve corporate strategy by allowing information to be used more intelligently with the help of decision-support software.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReesHowTo04_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReesHowTo04-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> By early 2007, industry-specific ELNs were pushing growth in the market: Scientific Computing World estimated 83 percent of related organizations declaring interest in ELNs, with 43 percent of those organizations seriously considering an evaluation or purchase.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWorld1_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWorld1-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Despite the beginnings of an economic downturn in the late 2000s, Atrium Research later estimated that the ELN's market potential was around $1.7 billion.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LFinderAtrium07_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LFinderAtrium07-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> During this time scientists and academics \u2014 traditionally slow to adopt technological change \u2014 were gradually warming up to the benefits of an electronic laboratory notebook. Academics in particular realized the problems the high turnover postdoc rate created in research laboratories. Postdocs would depart from the university, leaving <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/PI\" title=\"PI\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"b78906fd98e98667f120fe918d2219fd\">PIs<\/a> and directors scratching their heads on where the data ended up. ELNs changed that, allowing much more persistent data that can be found and referenced even after a postdoc departs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DanceDigital10_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DanceDigital10-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>The movement towards ELN integration into other laboratory functions during the 2000s eventually led to the blurring of what an ELN actually is. In early 2007 Scientific Computing World reported that the definition of an ELN varied among scientists, with 35 percent of them stating they were \"clear about the difference between a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS\" title=\"LIMS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"21b7bfebbba300be00cdbb84cddb338d\">LIMS<\/a> and an ELN.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWorld1_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWorld1-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> Today it's possible to see in some vendors' offerings the formerly distinct entity that was ELN to now be completely integrated into a LIMS.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regulations_and_legal_aspects\">Regulations and legal aspects<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The laboratory accreditation criteria found in the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_17025\" title=\"ISO 17025\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8525a8d5d35bc9c3c1015749eb8de05\">ISO 17025<\/a> standard needs to be considered for the protection and computer backup of electronic records<sup class=\"Template-Fact\" title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMSWiki:Citation_needed\" title=\"LIMSWiki:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a05514560e13447268ca6f577949869e\">citation needed<\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>. These criteria can be found specifically in clause 4.13.1.4 of the standard. \n<\/p><p>Electronic lab notebooks used for development or research in regulated industries, such as medical devices or pharmaceuticals, are expected to comply with U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2be8927071ac419c0929f7aa1ede7fe\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> (FDA) regulations related to software validation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21CFR11_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21CFR11-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> The purpose of the regulations is to ensure the integrity of the entries in terms of time, authorship, and content. Unlike ELNs for patent protection, the FDA is not concerned with patent interference proceedings, but rather with avoidance of falsification. \n<\/p><p>Typical provisions related to software validation are included in the medical device regulations at 21 CFR 820 (et seq.) and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR 11<\/a>. Essentially, the requirements are that the software has been designed and implemented to be suitable for its intended purposes. Evidence to show that this is the case is often provided by a software requirements specification (SRS) that lays out the intended uses and needs that the ELN will meet. The SRS typically includes one or more testing protocols that, when followed, demonstrate that the ELN meets the requirements of the specification and that the requirements are satisfied under worst-case conditions. Security, audit trails, prevention of unauthorized changes without substantial collusion of otherwise independent personnel (i.e. those having no interest in the content of the ELN such as independent quality unit personnel) are all fundamental to the ELN. Finally, one or more reports demonstrating the results of the testing in accordance with the predefined protocols are required prior to release of the ELN software for use. If the reports show that the software failed to satisfy any of the SRS requirements, then <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Corrective_and_preventive_action\" title=\"Corrective and preventive action\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3024b6238f561499d3be833a49de0406\">corrective and preventive action<\/a> (CAPA) must be undertaken and documented. Such CAPA may extend to minor software revisions, or changes in architecture or major revisions. CAPA activities need to be documented as well.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FDA_CAPA_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FDA_CAPA-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modern_features_of_an_ELN\">Modern features of an ELN<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>ELNs are generally divided into two categories<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWorld1_11-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWorld1-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> A \"specific\" ELN contains features designed to work within specific applications, scientific instrumentation, or data types.<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> A cross-disciplinary or \"generic\" ELN is designed to support access to all data and information that needs to be recorded in a lab notebook.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Among these two general categories are ELNs that capture two particular markets: individual researchers and group research teams. ELNs can be tailored to one or both types of markets, with both groups and individuals benefiting from the ELN's inherent ability to add structure to research records. Groups utilizing an ELN typically require two additional abilities: to share research data and communicate about their research.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Modern features include, but are not limited to<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MacneilWhatAre10_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MacneilWhatAre10-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DuttonLabNote06_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DuttonLabNote06-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BruceALook08_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BruceALook08-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KanzaElectronic17_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KanzaElectronic17-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> importation of data which has already been captured elsewhere<\/li>\n<li> direct recording of data in various forms like text, images, and tables<\/li>\n<li> ability to search for and reuse documented information<\/li>\n<li> lending of structure to data and information through the use of preformatted or customizable templates which include a range of field types<\/li>\n<li> creation of links between records, including reference managers and other notebooks<\/li>\n<li> storage of fully searchable records in a secure database format, with automatic backup<\/li>\n<li> inclusion of a messaging system for better collaboration<\/li>\n<li> inclusion of safety data, including flags for dangerous chemicals<\/li>\n<li> protection of the integrity of both data and process in a secure yet flexible environment, all while allowing for process changes<\/li>\n<li> generation of secure forms that accept laboratory data input via a computing device and\/or laboratory equipment<\/li>\n<li> accommodation for networked or wireless communications<\/li>\n<li> accommodation of a scheduling option for routine procedures such as equipment qualification and study-related timelines<\/li>\n<li> configuration of qualification requirements<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ELN_vendors\">ELN vendors<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>See the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_vendor\" title=\"ELN vendor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e4f89aadcc5f01a12669c4b9ce5b5c5\">ELN vendor<\/a> page for a list of ELN vendors past and present.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation Journal\">Kanza, S.; Willoughby, C.; Gibbins, N. et al. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC5443717\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic lab notebooks: Can they replace paper?\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Cheminformatics<\/i> <b>9<\/b>: 31. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1186%2Fs13321-017-0221-3\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/s13321-017-0221-3<\/a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5443717\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC5443717<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC5443717\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC5443717<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Electronic+lab+notebooks%3A+Can+they+replace+paper%3F&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cheminformatics&rft.aulast=Kanza%2C+S.%3B+Willoughby%2C+C.%3B+Gibbins%2C+N.+et+al.&rft.au=Kanza%2C+S.%3B+Willoughby%2C+C.%3B+Gibbins%2C+N.+et+al.&rft.date=2017&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=31&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1186%2Fs13321-017-0221-3&rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC5443717&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3DPMC5443717&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-ZallTheNasc01-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ZallTheNasc01_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ZallTheNasc01_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Zall, M. (2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/ci\/31\/i02\/html\/02zall.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"The nascent paperless laboratory\"<\/a>. <i>Chemical Innovation<\/i> <b>31<\/b> (2): 14\u201321<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/ci\/31\/i02\/html\/02zall.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/ci\/31\/i02\/html\/02zall.html<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+nascent+paperless+laboratory&rft.jtitle=Chemical+Innovation&rft.aulast=Zall%2C+M.&rft.au=Zall%2C+M.&rft.date=2001&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=14%E2%80%9321&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fsubscribe%2Farchive%2Fci%2F31%2Fi02%2Fhtml%2F02zall.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EarlyELN-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-EarlyELN_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-EarlyELN_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Matthews, M., ed. (1993). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/digital.library.unt.edu\/ark:\/67531\/metadc5647\/m1\/48\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Meeting Program Division of Chemical Education\"<\/a>. <i>Chemical Information Bulletin<\/i> <b>45<\/b> (3): 64<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/digital.library.unt.edu\/ark:\/67531\/metadc5647\/m1\/48\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/digital.library.unt.edu\/ark:\/67531\/metadc5647\/m1\/48\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 03 May 2011<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Meeting+Program+Division+of+Chemical+Education&rft.jtitle=Chemical+Information+Bulletin&rft.date=1993&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=64&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.unt.edu%2Fark%3A%2F67531%2Fmetadc5647%2Fm1%2F48%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ELNLifeArch-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ELNLifeArch_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Rumpf, W.. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110515133816\/http:\/\/web.me.com\/evildrbob\/Site\/My_ELN_Life\/My_ELN_Life.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"My ELN Life\"<\/a>. 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(1997). \"The Collaborative Electronic Notebook Systems Consortium\". <i>Proceedings of the 19th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society<\/i> <b>6<\/b>: 2659\u20132661. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1109%2FIEMBS.1997.756879\" target=\"_blank\">10.1109\/IEMBS.1997.756879<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Collaborative+Electronic+Notebook+Systems+Consortium&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+19th+Annual+International+Conference+of+the+IEEE+Engineering+in+Medicine+and+Biology+Society&rft.aulast=Lysakowski%2C+R.&rft.au=Lysakowski%2C+R.&rft.date=1997&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=2659%E2%80%932661&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1109%2FIEMBS.1997.756879&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ChandlerDocument97-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ChandlerDocument97_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Chandler, R.L. 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Retrieved 04 May 2011<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Atrium+Research+Announces+Fourth+Edition+of+Landmark+Report+on+Electronic+Laboratory+Notebooks&rft.atitle=&rft.date=02+June+2009&rft.pub=Atrium+Research&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atriumresearch.com%2Fhtml%2FPR%2Fpr060109.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\"><span title=\"\u00a0since September 2017\" style=\"white-space: nowrap;\">[<i><a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Link_rot\" data-key=\"7a2d9e87fd2845d41c68554d3d20a259\">dead link<\/a>]<\/i>]<\/span><\/sup><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LFinderAtrium07-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LFinderAtrium07_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=32062_0_3_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">\"Atrium Research Announces the Third Edition of Landmark Report on Electronic Laboratory Notebooks\"<\/a>. <i>LIMSfinder.org<\/i>. 07 May 2007<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=32062_0_3_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=32062_0_3_0_C<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Atrium+Research+Announces+the+Third+Edition+of+Landmark+Report+on+Electronic+Laboratory+Notebooks&rft.atitle=LIMSfinder.org&rft.date=07+May+2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.limsfinder.com%2FBlogDetail.aspx%3Fid%3D32062_0_3_0_C&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DanceDigital10-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DanceDigital10_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Dance, A. (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.the-scientist.com\/?articles.view\/articleNo\/28961\/title\/Digital-Upgrade\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Digital Upgrade: How to choose your lab's next electronic lab notebook\"<\/a>. <i>The Scientist<\/i> <b>24<\/b> (5): 71<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.the-scientist.com\/?articles.view\/articleNo\/28961\/title\/Digital-Upgrade\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.the-scientist.com\/?articles.view\/articleNo\/28961\/title\/Digital-Upgrade\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Digital+Upgrade%3A+How+to+choose+your+lab%27s+next+electronic+lab+notebook&rft.jtitle=The+Scientist&rft.aulast=Dance%2C+A.&rft.au=Dance%2C+A.&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=71&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-scientist.com%2F%3Farticles.view%2FarticleNo%2F28961%2Ftitle%2FDigital-Upgrade%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-21CFR11-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-21CFR11_15-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfCFR\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=11&showFR=1\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 Part 11\"<\/a>. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 01 April 2010<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfCFR\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=11&showFR=1\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfCFR\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=11&showFR=1<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+Title+21+Part+11&rft.atitle=&rft.date=01+April+2010&rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcdrh%2Fcfdocs%2FcfCFR%2FCFRSearch.cfm%3FCFRPart%3D11%26showFR%3D1&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FDA_CAPA-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FDA_CAPA_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/ICECI\/Inspections\/InspectionGuides\/ucm170612.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Corrective and Preventive Actions (CAPA)\"<\/a>. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 28 June 2010<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/ICECI\/Inspections\/InspectionGuides\/ucm170612.htm\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/ICECI\/Inspections\/InspectionGuides\/ucm170612.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Corrective+and+Preventive+Actions+%28CAPA%29&rft.atitle=&rft.date=28+June+2010&rft.pub=U.S.+Food+and+Drug+Administration&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2FICECI%2FInspections%2FInspectionGuides%2Fucm170612.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-17\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Macneil, R. (11 November 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/electronic-lab-notebook\/blog\/lab\/?tag=record\" target=\"_blank\">\"Are electronic lab notebooks for individuals or groups?\"<\/a>. <i>The electronic lab notebook blog<\/i>. ResearchSpace\/Axiope<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/electronic-lab-notebook\/blog\/lab\/?tag=record\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/electronic-lab-notebook\/blog\/lab\/?tag=record<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Are+electronic+lab+notebooks+for+individuals+or+groups%3F&rft.atitle=The+electronic+lab+notebook+blog&rft.aulast=Macneil%2C+R.&rft.au=Macneil%2C+R.&rft.date=11+November+2010&rft.pub=ResearchSpace%2FAxiope&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchspace.com%2Felectronic-lab-notebook%2Fblog%2Flab%2F%3Ftag%3Drecord&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MacneilWhatAre10-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MacneilWhatAre10_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Macneil, R. (06 October 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/elnblog\/?paged=4\" target=\"_blank\">\"What are electronic lab notebooks for?\"<\/a>. ResearchSpace\/Axiope<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/elnblog\/?paged=4\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.researchspace.com\/elnblog\/?paged=4<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=What+are+electronic+lab+notebooks+for%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Macneil%2C+R.&rft.au=Macneil%2C+R.&rft.date=06+October+2010&rft.pub=ResearchSpace%2FAxiope&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchspace.com%2Felnblog%2F%3Fpaged%3D4&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DuttonLabNote06-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DuttonLabNote06_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Dutton, G. (01 December 2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.genengnews.com\/gen-articles\/lab-notebooks-offer-efficiency-gains\/1951\" target=\"_blank\">\"Lab Notebooks Offer Efficiency Gains\"<\/a>. <i>Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News<\/i>. Mary Ann Liebert, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.genengnews.com\/gen-articles\/lab-notebooks-offer-efficiency-gains\/1951\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.genengnews.com\/gen-articles\/lab-notebooks-offer-efficiency-gains\/1951<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Lab+Notebooks+Offer+Efficiency+Gains&rft.atitle=Genetic+Engineering+%26+Biotechnology+News&rft.aulast=Dutton%2C+G.&rft.au=Dutton%2C+G.&rft.date=01+December+2006&rft.pub=Mary+Ann+Liebert%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.genengnews.com%2Fgen-articles%2Flab-notebooks-offer-efficiency-gains%2F1951&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BruceALook08-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BruceALook08_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Bruce, S. (09 October 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2002\/12\/look-state-electronic-lab-notebook-technology\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Look at the State of Electronic Lab Notebook Technology\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific Computing<\/i>. Advantage Business Media<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2002\/12\/look-state-electronic-lab-notebook-technology\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2002\/12\/look-state-electronic-lab-notebook-technology<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 27 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=A+Look+at+the+State+of+Electronic+Lab+Notebook+Technology&rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing&rft.aulast=Bruce%2C+S.&rft.au=Bruce%2C+S.&rft.date=09+October+2008&rft.pub=Advantage+Business+Media&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Farticle%2F2002%2F12%2Flook-state-electronic-lab-notebook-technology&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KanzaElectronic17-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KanzaElectronic17_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Kanza, S.; Willoughby, C.; Gibbins, N. et al. (2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC5443717\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic lab notebooks: Can they replace paper?\"<\/a>. <i>Journal of Cheminformatics<\/i> <b>9<\/b>: 31. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1186%2Fs13321-017-0221-3\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/s13321-017-0221-3<\/a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Central\" data-key=\"c85bdffd69dd30e02024b9cc3d7679e2\">PMC<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5443717\/\" target=\"_blank\">PMC5443717<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC5443717\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov\/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=PMC5443717<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Electronic+lab+notebooks%3A+Can+they+replace+paper%3F&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cheminformatics&rft.aulast=Kanza%2C+S.%3B+Willoughby%2C+C.%3B+Gibbins%2C+N.+et+al.&rft.au=Kanza%2C+S.%3B+Willoughby%2C+C.%3B+Gibbins%2C+N.+et+al.&rft.date=2017&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=31&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1186%2Fs13321-017-0221-3&rft_id=info:pmc\/PMC5443717&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26artid%3DPMC5443717&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Electronic_laboratory_notebook\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202948\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.538 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.350 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 14657\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 24283\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 103902\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 40184\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 18\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/100\nLua time usage: 0.050\/7.000 seconds\nLua virtual size: 8.84 MB\/50 MB\nLua estimated memory usage: 0 bytes\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 575.530 1 - -total\n 67.37% 387.752 1 - Template:Reflist\n 62.38% 359.036 22 - Template:Citation\/core\n 31.23% 179.764 9 - Template:Cite_journal\n 29.71% 171.009 11 - Template:Cite_web\n 19.20% 110.519 2 - Template:Fix\n 17.49% 100.689 1 - Template:Citation_needed\n 17.15% 98.723 1 - Template:Ifsubst\n 16.18% 93.101 2 - Template:Category_handler\n 6.31% 36.302 2 - Template:Cite_book\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:95-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403202946 and revision id 31779\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0c\/AGBell_Notebook.jpg"],"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f_timestamp":1554323386,"121ee10293d97335609c50b94f7b5394_type":"article","121ee10293d97335609c50b94f7b5394_title":"Electronic data capture system","121ee10293d97335609c50b94f7b5394_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_data_capture","121ee10293d97335609c50b94f7b5394_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tElectronic data capture\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tAn electronic data capture (EDC) system is a computerized system designed for the collection of clinical data in electronic format for use mainly in human clinical trials.[1] EDC replaces the traditional paper-based data collection methodology to streamline data collection and expedite the time to market for drugs and medical devices. EDC solutions are widely adopted by pharmaceutical companies and contract research organizations (CRO).\nTypically, EDC systems provide:\n\na graphical user interface component for data entry\na validation component to check user data\na reporting tool for analysis of the collected data\nEDC systems are used by life sciences organizations, broadly defined as the pharmaceutical, medical device and biotechnology industries in all aspects of clinical research,[2] but are particularly beneficial for late-phase (phase III-IV) studies and pharmacovigilance and post-market safety surveillance.\nEDC can increase the data accuracy and decrease the time to collect data for studies of drugs and medical devices.[3] The trade-off that many drug developers encounter with deploying an EDC system to support their drug development is that there is a relatively high start-up process, followed by significant benefits over the duration of the trial. As a result, for an EDC to be economical the saving over the life of the trial must be greater than the set-up costs. This is often aggravated by two conditions:\n\nthat initial design of the study in EDC does not facilitate the decrease in costs over the life of the study due to poor planning or inexperience with EDC deployment; and\ninitial set-up costs are higher than anticipated due to initial design of the study in EDC due to poor planning or experience with EDC deployment.\nThe net effect is to increase both the cost and risk to the study with insignificant benefits. However, with the maturation of today's EDC solutions, much of the earlier burdens for study design and set-up have been alleviated through technologies that allow for point-and-click, and drag-and-drop design modules. With little to no programming required, and reusability from global libraries and standardized forms such as CDISC's CDASH, deploying EDC can now rival the paper processes in terms of study start-up time.[4] As a result, even the earlier phase studies have begun to adopt EDC technology.\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Current landscape \n3 Future \n4 See also \n5 References \n\n\nHistory \nEDC is often cited as having its origins in remote data entry (RDE) software, which surfaced in the life sciences market in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[5] However, its origins might be tracked to a contract research organization known then as Institute for Biological Research and Development (IBRD). Dr. Nichol, Pickering, and Bollert offered \"a controlled system for post-marketing surveillance (PMS) of newly approved (NDA) pharmaceutical products,\" with surveillance data being \"entered into an electronic data base on site\" at least as early as 1980.[6]\nClinical research data\u2014patient data collected during the investigation of a new drug or medical device is collected by physicians, nurses, and research study coordinators in medical settings (offices, hospitals, universities) throughout the world. Historically, this information was collected on paper forms which were then sent to the research sponsor (e.g., a pharmaceutical company) for data entry into a database and subsequent statistical analysis environment.[7][8][1] However, this process had a number of shortcomings[5][8]:\n\ndata are copied multiple times, which produces errors\nerrors that are generated are not caught until weeks later\nvisibility into the medical status of patients by sponsors is delayed\nTo address these and other concerns, RDE systems were invented so that physicians, nurses, and study coordinators could enter the data directly at the medical setting. By moving data entry out of the sponsor site and into the clinic or other facility, a number of benefits could be derived[5]:\n\ndata checks could be implemented during data entry (real-time), preventing some errors altogether and immediately prompting for resolution of other errors\ndata could be transmitted nightly to sponsors, thereby improving the sponsor's ability to monitor the progress and status of the research study and its patients\nThese early RDE systems used \"thick client\" software\u2014software installed locally on a laptop computer's hardware\u2014to collect the patient data. The system could then use a modem connection over an analog phone line to periodically transmit the data back to the sponsor, and to collect questions from the sponsor that the medical staff would need to answer.[5]\nThough effective, RDE brought with it several shortcomings as well. The most significant shortcoming was that hardware (e.g., a laptop computer) needed to be deployed, installed, and supported at every investigational (medical) site.[8] This became expensive for sponsors and complicated for medical staff. Usability and space constraints led to a lot of dissatisfaction among medical practitioners. With the rise of the internet in the mid-1990s, the obvious solution to some of these issues was the adoption of web-based software that could be accessed using existing computers at the investigational sites. EDC represents this new class of software.\n\nCurrent landscape \nThe EDC landscape has continued to evolve from its evolution from RDE in the late 1990s. Today, the market consists of a variety of new and established software providers. Many of these providers offer specialized solutions targeting certain customer profiles or study phases. Modern features of EDC now include features like cloud data storage, role-based permissions, and case report form designers[1], as well as clinical trials analytics, interactive dashboards, and electronic medical record integration.[9]\n\nFuture \nIn 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) introduced its eSource guidance, which suggests methods of capturing clinical trial data electronically from the very beginning and moving it to the cloud, as opposed to EDC's more traditional method of capturing data initially on paper and transcribing it into the EDC system.[10][11] Adoption of eSource was initially slow, with the FDA producing a webinar in July 2015 to further promote the guidance.[10] Efforts like the TransCelerate eSource Initiative (in 2016) have been founded \"to facilitate the understanding of the eSource landscape and the optimal use of electronic data sources in the industry to improve global clinical science and global clinical trial execution for stakeholders.\"[11] A 2017 study by the Tufts Center for the Study of Drug Development suggested that with the following three years a \"majority of [surveyed clinical information] companies\" (growing from 38 percent to 84 percent) planned to incorporate eSource data.[12] With 87 percent of research sites (2017) stating that eSource would be \"helpful\" or \"very helpful\" if integrated with today's EDC[13], a shift away from EDC (or EDC taking a more complementary role) may be possible.\n\nSee also \nClinical data acquisition\nClinical data management system (CDMS)\nCase report form (CRF)\nRemote data entry (RDE)\nRemote data capture (RDC)\nPatient-reported outcome (PRO)\nTitle 21 CFR Part 11\nReferences \n\n\n^ a b c Hamad, F. (2017). \"Chapter 13: Health information systems: Clinical data capture and document architecture\". In Urquhart, C.; Hamad, F.; Tbaishat, D.; Yeoman, A. Information Systems: Process and Practice. Facet Publishing. pp. 233\u201353. ISBN 9781783302413. Retrieved 24 May 2018 . \n\n^ David Handelsman. \"Electronic Data Capture: When Will It Replace Paper?\". SAS Institute Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-12-17. Retrieved 2010-09-03 . \n\n^ Thomas Bart. \"Comparison of Electronic Data Capture with Paper Data Collection \u2013 Is There Really an Advantage?\" (PDF) . Business Briefing, Pharmatech. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-03. Retrieved 2013-02-25 . \n\n^ Brigitte Walther; Safayet Hossin; John Townend; Neil Abernethy; David Parker; David Jeffries. \"Comparison of Electronic Data Capture (EDC) with the Standard Data Capture Method for Clinical Trial Data\". PLOS ONE. Retrieved 2013-02-27 . \n\n^ a b c d Hyde, A.W. (1998). \"The Changing Face of Electronic Data Capture: From Remote Data Entry to Direct Data Capture\". Therapeutic Innovation & Regulatory Science. 32 (4): 1089\u20131092. doi:10.1177\/009286159803200429. \n\n^ Nichol, F.R.; Pickering, B.I.; Bollert, J.A. (1980). \"Post-marketing surveillance of approved pharmaceuticals in the United States\". Contemporary Clinical Trials. 1 (2): 178. doi:10.1016\/0197-2456(80)90061-6. \n\n^ Walther, B.; Hossin, S.; Townend, J.; et al. (2011). \"Comparison of Electronic Data Capture (EDC) with the Standard Data Capture Method for Clinical Trial Data\". PLOS One. 6 (9): e25348. doi:10.1371\/journal.pone.0025348. \n\n^ a b c Waterfield, E. (2000). \"Chapter 4: Data Capture\". In Rondel, R.K.; Varley, S.A.; Webb, C.F. Clinical Data Management. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 75\u201388. ISBN 9780471983293. Retrieved 24 May 2018 . \n\n^ Gicqueau, A. (19 February 2015). \"Evolution in the electronic data capture industry\". ClinCapture. Retrieved 24 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b Neuer, A. (November 2015). \"At the Source\" (PDF) . International Clinical Trials. pp. 40\u201344. Retrieved 24 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b Kellar, E.; Bornstein, S.M.; Caban, A.; et al. (2016). \"Optimizing the Use of Electronic Data Sources in Clinical Trials: The Landscape, Part 1\". Therapeutic Innovation & Regulatory Science. 50 (6): 682\u2013696. doi:10.1177\/2168479016670689. \n\n^ \"Industry Research Shows 97% of Companies to Increase Use of Real-world Patient Data for More Accurate Decision-making\". Business Wire. 7 November 2017. Retrieved 24 May 2018 . \n\n^ Nomlzu, R. (29 September 2017). \"Getting Your Site Ready for eSource\". InSite. CRIO. Retrieved 24 May 2018 . \n\n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_data_capture\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_data_capture<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Clinical researchHealth informaticsSoftware systemsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 2 March 2019, at 22:23.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 765 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","121ee10293d97335609c50b94f7b5394_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Electronic_data_capture skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Electronic data capture<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><p>An <b>electronic data capture<\/b> (<b>EDC<\/b>) system is a computerized system designed for the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_data_acquisition\" title=\"Clinical data acquisition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b687fc4e6df3e79f0234bd2ecf8ceb\">collection of clinical data<\/a> in electronic format for use mainly in human <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_trials\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Clinical trials\" data-key=\"a3a7dab66e00882eeb59385989f32a5f\">clinical trials<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HamadHealth17_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HamadHealth17-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> EDC replaces the traditional paper-based data collection methodology to streamline data collection and expedite the time to market for drugs and medical devices. EDC solutions are widely adopted by pharmaceutical companies and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Contract_research_organization\" title=\"Contract research organization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"88dce79c0cad2e4d52aa1c598ac96b7c\">contract research organizations<\/a> (CRO).\n<\/p><p>Typically, EDC systems provide:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Graphical_user_interface\" title=\"Graphical user interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8d175c82419cd6c13f710e9a4be77e8c\">graphical user interface<\/a> component for data entry<\/li>\n<li>a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_validation\" title=\"Data validation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b70acbc05ba8da588936d71fece0b0b6\">validation<\/a> component to check user data<\/li>\n<li>a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Report\" title=\"Report\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6472e781bda332e558eb97c324f0e562\">reporting<\/a> tool for analysis of the collected data<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>EDC systems are used by life sciences organizations, broadly defined as the pharmaceutical, medical device and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Biotechnology\" title=\"Biotechnology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e062dcda9efb687c306f3bdff7afa4ae\">biotechnology<\/a> industries in all aspects of clinical research,<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> but are particularly beneficial for late-phase (phase III-IV) studies and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pharmacovigilance\" title=\"Pharmacovigilance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"09b812260185818e8e7dc0cca8509a69\">pharmacovigilance<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Postmarketing_surveillance\" title=\"Postmarketing surveillance\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"11ab332ae4668530b10dab576594a22e\">post-market safety surveillance<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>EDC can increase the data accuracy and decrease the time to collect data for studies of drugs and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Medical_device\" title=\"Medical device\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7e69f7ffce562c468cf167b4e8baa38\">medical devices<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> The trade-off that many drug developers encounter with deploying an EDC system to support their drug development is that there is a relatively high start-up process, followed by significant benefits over the duration of the trial. As a result, for an EDC to be economical the saving over the life of the trial must be greater than the set-up costs. This is often aggravated by two conditions:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li>that initial design of the study in EDC does not facilitate the decrease in costs over the life of the study due to poor planning or inexperience with EDC deployment; and<\/li>\n<li>initial set-up costs are higher than anticipated due to initial design of the study in EDC due to poor planning or experience with EDC deployment.<\/li><\/ol>\n<p>The net effect is to increase both the cost and risk to the study with insignificant benefits. However, with the maturation of today's EDC solutions, much of the earlier burdens for study design and set-up have been alleviated through technologies that allow for <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Point-and-click\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Point-and-click\" data-key=\"a19b3f82588273bb18b9520d1777a855\">point-and-click<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Drag-and-drop\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Drag-and-drop\" data-key=\"f34be1ed5a6b60c77038ff63e48c3e88\">drag-and-drop<\/a> design modules. With little to no programming required, and reusability from global libraries and standardized forms such as CDISC's CDASH, deploying EDC can now rival the paper processes in terms of study start-up time.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-4\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> As a result, even the earlier phase studies have begun to adopt EDC technology.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>EDC is often cited as having its origins in <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_data_entry\" title=\"Remote data entry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d26351e768a39c9f014ad21dd580131\">remote data entry<\/a> (RDE) software, which surfaced in the life sciences market in the late 1980s and early 1990s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HydeTheChanging98-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> However, its origins might be tracked to a contract research organization known then as Institute for Biological Research and Development (IBRD). Dr. Nichol, Pickering, and Bollert offered \"a controlled system for post-marketing surveillance (PMS) of newly approved (NDA) pharmaceutical products,\" with surveillance data being \"entered into an electronic data base on site\" at least as early as 1980.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NicholPost80_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NicholPost80-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Clinical research data\u2014patient data collected during the investigation of a new drug or medical device is collected by physicians, nurses, and research study coordinators in medical settings (offices, hospitals, universities) throughout the world. Historically, this information was collected on paper forms which were then sent to the research sponsor (e.g., a pharmaceutical company) for data entry into a database and subsequent statistical analysis environment.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WaltherComp11_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WaltherComp11-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WaterfieldData00_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WaterfieldData00-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HamadHealth17_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HamadHealth17-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> However, this process had a number of shortcomings<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HydeTheChanging98-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WaterfieldData00_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WaterfieldData00-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>data are copied multiple times, which produces errors<\/li>\n<li>errors that are generated are not caught until weeks later<\/li>\n<li>visibility into the medical status of patients by sponsors is delayed<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>To address these and other concerns, RDE systems were invented so that physicians, nurses, and study coordinators could enter the data directly at the medical setting. By moving data entry out of the sponsor site and into the clinic or other facility, a number of benefits could be derived<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HydeTheChanging98-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li>data checks could be implemented during data entry (real-time), preventing some errors altogether and immediately prompting for resolution of other errors<\/li>\n<li>data could be transmitted nightly to sponsors, thereby improving the sponsor's ability to monitor the progress and status of the research study and its patients<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>These early RDE systems used \"<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thick_client\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Thick client\" data-key=\"bf8a878f59dba7fadc78dfefc1995698\">thick client<\/a>\" software\u2014software installed locally on a laptop computer's hardware\u2014to collect the patient data. The system could then use a modem connection over an analog phone line to periodically transmit the data back to the sponsor, and to collect questions from the sponsor that the medical staff would need to answer.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HydeTheChanging98-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Though effective, RDE brought with it several shortcomings as well. The most significant shortcoming was that hardware (e.g., a laptop computer) needed to be deployed, installed, and supported at every investigational (medical) site.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WaterfieldData00_8-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WaterfieldData00-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> This became expensive for sponsors and complicated for medical staff. Usability and space constraints led to a lot of dissatisfaction among medical practitioners. With the rise of the internet in the mid-1990s, the obvious solution to some of these issues was the adoption of web-based software that could be accessed using existing computers at the investigational sites. EDC represents this new class of software.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Current_landscape\">Current landscape<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The EDC landscape has continued to evolve from its evolution from RDE in the late 1990s. Today, the market consists of a variety of new and established software providers. Many of these providers offer specialized solutions targeting certain customer profiles or study phases. Modern features of EDC now include features like cloud data storage, role-based permissions, and case report form designers<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HamadHealth17_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HamadHealth17-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>, as well as clinical trials analytics, interactive dashboards, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_medical_record\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Electronic medical record\" data-key=\"e0408c1680b49ca03cefe55be7f7bcb3\">electronic medical record<\/a> integration.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-GicqueauEvo15_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-GicqueauEvo15-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Future\">Future<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In 2013, the U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> (FDA) introduced its eSource guidance, which suggests methods of capturing clinical trial data electronically from the very beginning and moving it to the cloud, as opposed to EDC's more traditional method of capturing data initially on paper and transcribing it into the EDC system.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NeuerAtThe15_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NeuerAtThe15-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KellarOptim16_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KellarOptim16-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> Adoption of eSource was initially slow, with the FDA producing a webinar in July 2015 to further promote the guidance.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NeuerAtThe15_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NeuerAtThe15-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> Efforts like the TransCelerate eSource Initiative (in 2016) have been founded \"to facilitate the understanding of the eSource landscape and the optimal use of electronic data sources in the industry to improve global clinical science and global clinical trial execution for stakeholders.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KellarOptim16_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KellarOptim16-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> A 2017 study by the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tufts_Center_for_the_Study_of_Drug_Development\" title=\"Tufts Center for the Study of Drug Development\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ccba77f7b8c236138a4fe52bdb471eea\">Tufts Center for the Study of Drug Development<\/a> suggested that with the following three years a \"majority of [surveyed clinical information] companies\" (growing from 38 percent to 84 percent) planned to incorporate eSource data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BWIndustry17_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BWIndustry17-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> With 87 percent of research sites (2017) stating that eSource would be \"helpful\" or \"very helpful\" if integrated with today's EDC<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NomlzuGetting17_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NomlzuGetting17-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>, a shift away from EDC (or EDC taking a more complementary role) may be possible.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_data_acquisition\" title=\"Clinical data acquisition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00b687fc4e6df3e79f0234bd2ecf8ceb\">Clinical data acquisition<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Clinical_data_management_system\" title=\"Clinical data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8e73f78edc00f3172c5dcce733e38b3d\">Clinical data management system<\/a> (CDMS)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Case_report_form\" title=\"Case report form\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3325562057f688f4f6ba0089fa97ee2\">Case report form<\/a> (CRF)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_data_entry\" title=\"Remote data entry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d26351e768a39c9f014ad21dd580131\">Remote data entry<\/a> (RDE)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Remote_data_capture\" title=\"Remote data capture\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3367c2de338bc8d5f4d229c2e3672e3a\">Remote data capture<\/a> (RDC)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Patient-reported_outcome\" title=\"Patient-reported outcome\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d68ad2b4c5ec8c5237ea121d42bb0ca\">Patient-reported outcome<\/a> (PRO)<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Title_21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"Title 21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"75e0b3ae8dd5e50f99945c77e860706e\">Title 21 CFR Part 11<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist\" style=\"list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<div class=\"mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns\"><ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-HamadHealth17-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-HamadHealth17_1-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HamadHealth17_1-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HamadHealth17_1-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Hamad, F. (2017). \"Chapter 13: Health information systems: Clinical data capture and document architecture\". In Urquhart, C.; Hamad, F.; Tbaishat, D.; Yeoman, A. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=bSBFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA233\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Information Systems: Process and Practice<\/i><\/a>. Facet Publishing. pp. 233\u201353. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781783302413<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+13%3A+Health+information+systems%3A+Clinical+data+capture+and+document+architecture&rft.btitle=Information+Systems%3A+Process+and+Practice&rft.pages=233-53&rft.pub=Facet+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781783302413&rft.au=Hamad%2C+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbSBFDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA233&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">David Handelsman. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20091217165516\/http:\/\/www.sas.com\/news\/feature\/hls\/sep05edc.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Data Capture: When Will It Replace Paper?\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SAS_Institute_Inc.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"SAS Institute Inc.\" data-key=\"e364edf71bef5356d92233c1fd21fe37\">SAS Institute Inc.<\/a><\/i> Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.sas.com\/news\/feature\/hls\/sep05edc.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 2009-12-17<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2010-09-03<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Electronic+Data+Capture%3A+When+Will+It+Replace+Paper%3F&rft.pub=%27%27SAS+Institute+Inc.%27%27&rft.au=David+Handelsman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sas.com%2Fnews%2Ffeature%2Fhls%2Fsep05edc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-3\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Thomas Bart. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130903072213\/http:\/\/www.dreamslab.it\/dlab\/media\/docs\/eclinica.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Comparison of Electronic Data Capture with Paper Data Collection \u2013 Is There Really an Advantage?\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. <i><\/i>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dreamslab.it\/dlab\/media\/docs\/eclinica.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 2013-09-03<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-02-25<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Comparison+of+Electronic+Data+Capture+with+Paper+Data+Collection+%E2%80%93+Is+There+Really+an+Advantage%3F&rft.pub=%27%27Business+Briefing%2C+Pharmatech%27%27&rft.au=Thomas+Bart&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dreamslab.it%2Fdlab%2Fmedia%2Fdocs%2Feclinica.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-4\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Brigitte Walther; Safayet Hossin; John Townend; Neil Abernethy; David Parker; David Jeffries. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.plosone.org\/article\/info:doi\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0025348\" target=\"_blank\">\"Comparison of Electronic Data Capture (EDC) with the Standard Data Capture Method for Clinical Trial Data\"<\/a>. <i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PLOS_ONE\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"PLOS ONE\" data-key=\"4789417fbab75c699897242182b2f080\">PLOS ONE<\/a><\/i><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">2013-02-27<\/span><\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Comparison+of+Electronic+Data+Capture+%28EDC%29+with+the+Standard+Data+Capture+Method+for+Clinical+Trial+Data&rft.pub=%27%27PLOS+ONE%27%27&rft.au=Brigitte+Walther&rft.au=Safayet+Hossin&rft.au=John+Townend&rft.au=Neil+Abernethy&rft.au=David+Parker&rft.au=David+Jeffries&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0025348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HydeTheChanging98-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-HydeTheChanging98_5-3\"><sup><i><b>d<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Hyde, A.W. (1998). \"The Changing Face of Electronic Data Capture: From Remote Data Entry to Direct Data Capture\". <i>Therapeutic Innovation & Regulatory Science<\/i>. <b>32<\/b> (4): 1089\u20131092. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177%2F009286159803200429\" target=\"_blank\">10.1177\/009286159803200429<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Therapeutic+Innovation+%26+Regulatory+Science&rft.atitle=The+Changing+Face+of+Electronic+Data+Capture%3A+From+Remote+Data+Entry+to+Direct+Data+Capture&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1089-1092&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F009286159803200429&rft.au=Hyde%2C+A.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NicholPost80-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NicholPost80_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Nichol, F.R.; Pickering, B.I.; Bollert, J.A. (1980). \"Post-marketing surveillance of approved pharmaceuticals in the United States\". <i>Contemporary Clinical Trials<\/i>. <b>1<\/b> (2): 178. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016%2F0197-2456%2880%2990061-6\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/0197-2456(80)90061-6<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contemporary+Clinical+Trials&rft.atitle=Post-marketing+surveillance+of+approved+pharmaceuticals+in+the+United+States&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=178&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0197-2456%2880%2990061-6&rft.au=Nichol%2C+F.R.&rft.au=Pickering%2C+B.I.&rft.au=Bollert%2C+J.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WaltherComp11-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WaltherComp11_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation journal\">Walther, B.; Hossin, S.; Townend, J.; et al. (2011). \"Comparison of Electronic Data Capture (EDC) with the Standard Data Capture Method for Clinical Trial Data\". <i>PLOS One<\/i>. <b>6<\/b> (9): e25348. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" title=\"Digital object identifier\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb97b0d9396b7fbd3fb508a2424946f0\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0025348\" target=\"_blank\">10.1371\/journal.pone.0025348<\/a>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+One&rft.atitle=Comparison+of+Electronic+Data+Capture+%28EDC%29+with+the+Standard+Data+Capture+Method+for+Clinical+Trial+Data&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=e25348&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0025348&rft.au=Walther%2C+B.&rft.au=Hossin%2C+S.&rft.au=Townend%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WaterfieldData00-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-WaterfieldData00_8-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-WaterfieldData00_8-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-WaterfieldData00_8-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Waterfield, E. (2000). \"Chapter 4: Data Capture\". In Rondel, R.K.; Varley, S.A.; Webb, C.F. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=4AmqdhL6ElEC&pg=PA75\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Clinical Data Management<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 75\u201388. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780471983293<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Business+Wire&rft.atitle=Industry+Research+Shows+97%25+of+Companies+to+Increase+Use+of+Real-world+Patient+Data+for+More+Accurate+Decision-making&rft.date=2017-11-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businesswire.com%2Fnews%2Fhome%2F20171107005745%2Fen%2FIndustry-Research-Shows-97-Companies-Increase-Real-world&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NomlzuGetting17-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-NomlzuGetting17_13-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">Nomlzu, R. (29 September 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.clinicalresearch.io\/news\/getting-your-site-ready-for-esource\" target=\"_blank\">\"Getting Your Site Ready for eSource\"<\/a>. <i>InSite<\/i>. CRIO<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">24 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=InSite&rft.atitle=Getting+Your+Site+Ready+for+eSource&rft.date=2017-09-29&rft.au=Nomlzu%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.clinicalresearch.io%2Fnews%2Fgetting-your-site-ready-for-esource&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronic+data+capture\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div><\/div>\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1273\nCached time: 20190403111153\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.200 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.236 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 685\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 23551\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 87\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 7\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 42628\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\nLua time usage: 0.123\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 3.34 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 196.725 1 Template:Reflist\n100.00% 196.725 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>43.51% 85.595 2 Template:Cite_book\n26.30% 51.743 4 Template:Cite_journal\n16.21% 31.884 7 Template:Cite_web\n 1.50% 2.942 1 Template:Main_other\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:3960131-1!canonical and timestamp 20190403111153 and revision id 867745398\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_data_capture\" data-key=\"d9c2afaf32f67ba7a7afe22d36d07251\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202946\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.010 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.166 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 160.686 1 - wikipedia:Electronic_data_capture\n100.00% 160.686 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:9094-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403202946 and revision id 35091\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_data_capture\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_data_capture<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","121ee10293d97335609c50b94f7b5394_images":[],"121ee10293d97335609c50b94f7b5394_timestamp":1554323386,"e0b59eaaca214b3b757b613af60743ad_type":"article","e0b59eaaca214b3b757b613af60743ad_title":"Chromatography data management system","e0b59eaaca214b3b757b613af60743ad_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_management_system","e0b59eaaca214b3b757b613af60743ad_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tChromatography data management system\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t A liquid chromatography linear ion trap instrument as an example of a device that may be interfaced with a CDMSSometimes referred to as a chromatography data system (CDS), a chromatography data management system (CDMS) is a set of dedicated data-collection tools that interface and\/or integrate with a laboratory's chromatography equipment. A base CDMS will set up a desired methodology to be used by the chromatography equipment, acquire data from it, process the acquired data, store the information in a database, and interface with other laboratory informatics systems to import and export files and data.[1]\nContents\n\n1 History of the CDMS \n2 Features of a CDMS \n3 CDMS vendors \n4 References \n\n\n\nHistory of the CDMS \nThe first attempts to automate the analysis of chromatography data through electronics took place in the early 1970s. These analysis tools utilized microprocessor-based integrators, \"dedicated devices for measuring chromatographic peaks and performing user-specified calculations\" which also featured a printer plotter to output the results.[1] Limited memory plagued those early systems, preventing more than one chromatograph from being stored at any one time. This became less of problem for large labs with bigger budgets in the mid-1970s, as expensive centralized data systems were installed, allowing greater data storage and sharing capabilities.[1] \nAs computers shrank in size, the personal computer became a viable reality. In 1980, entrepreneur and Hewlett-Packard prodigy Dave Nelson saw the potential the personal computer could have on the field of analytical chemistry, joining with partner Harmon Brown to create Nelson Analytical Inc. That year they developed the first CDMS personal computer software, soon followed by Turbochrom, the first CDMS system for MS Windows.[2][3] This innovation quickly spread from analytical chemistry labs to the fields of environmental, forensic, and pharmaceutical sciences. At the same time chromatography minicomputers like Hewlett-Packard's 3350 LAS Lab Automation System and Perkin-Elmer's LIMS 2000 CLAS chromatography laboratory automation system were seeing increased utilization, featuring the data acquisition and processing of up to 32 or more simultaneous chromatographs.[4]\nIn the 1990s, more affordable higher-performance PCs \u2014 combined with tighter networking standards \u2014 allowed for networks of CDMSs, especially those installed on personal computers. By the late '90s, the CDMS commonly featured the ability to set up a methodology and analytical run information, control some instruments, acquire injection data, process the data in different ways, save the data, and transmit it to other systems like a LIMS.[1] At the turn of the century the CDMS was becoming increasingly web-enabled[5], and by 2008, CDMS functions were becoming more enhanced, driven by improvements in liquid chromatographs (LC) and gas chromatographs (GC). The new innovation of high-speed LC and GC instruments meant the potential for faster data generation, improved separation, and higher resolutions and sensitivities.[6] While these next-generation machines would bring more processing power to chromatography labs, it also meant that vendors would have to improve CDMSs, specifically the analog-to-digital converter sampling rates. Some vendors were estimating at the time that data acquisition sampling rates on the order of 100 to 300 Hz would be needed to keep up with the new wave of speedier chromatography devices. Additional concerns of scalability and remote access were becoming important due to the expansion of pharmaceutical and chemical companies expanding into parts of Latin America, South America, and the Far East.[6]\n\nFeatures of a CDMS \nA CDMS may be set up for use in three primary ways[7]:\n\n as a standalone system that controls two or more chromatographs\n as a standalone system that controls a single chromatograph, including LC-MS or GC-MS instruments\n as a networked system that controls multiple instruments in one or more labs\nIn operation, a CDMS provides multiple features, including (but not limited to)[7][8]:\n\n sample and blank processing\n integration of peaks and construction of calibration curves\n data analysis, visualization, and validation\n third-party software integration\n third-party instrument integration\n data warehousing from multiple instruments\n workflow management\n procedure and experiment development and scheduling\n out-of-specification and out-of-tolerance testings\n audit trail and compliance control\nCDMS vendors \nSee the CDMS vendor page for a list of CDMS vendors past and present.\n\nReferences \n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 McDowall, R.D. (1999). \"Chromatography Data Systems I: The Fundamentals\" (PDF). pp. 7. Archived from the original on 03 December 2015. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151203095517\/http:\/\/www.21cfrpart11.com\/files\/library\/compliance\/cds_1.pdf . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Chemical Heritage Foundation (January 2002). \"David Nelson to receive the first annual PITTCON Heritage Award\". Science Blog. http:\/\/www3.scienceblog.com\/community\/older\/2002\/G\/20021575.html . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Felton, M.J. (2002). \"CDS: Networked and Regulated\" (PDF). Today's Chemist at Work 11 (9): 20. http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/11\/i09\/pdf\/902felton.pdf .   \n\n\u2191 Ryan, J.F. (2004). \"LIMS: From Chromatograms to Computers\" (PDF). Today's Chemist at Work 13 (4): 36. http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/13\/i04\/pdf\/404ryan.pdf .   \n\n\u2191 Rooney, T.A. (2001). \"Chromatography data systems: On track at speed\". Today's Chemist at Work 10 (9). http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/10\/i09\/html\/09rooney.html .   \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 Long, E.C. (19 August 2008). \"Trends in Chromatography Data System Software Development\". Scientific Computing. Advantage Business Media. https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2007\/09\/trends-chromatography-data-system-software-development . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 7.0 7.1 McDowall, R.D.; Burgess, C. (April 2016). \"The Ideal Chromatography Data System for a Regulated Laboratory\" (PDF). UBM. pp. 34. http:\/\/alfresco.ubm-us.net\/alfresco_images\/pharma\/2017\/04\/04\/931a92d6-8cd8-4156-8399-389082051852\/The%20Ideal%20Chrom%20Data%20Syst.pdf . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 DePalma, A. (13 October 2016). \"The Evolution of Chromatography Data Systems\". Lab Manager. LabX Media Group. http:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/product-focus\/2016\/10\/the-evolution-of-chromatography-data-systems- . Retrieved 29 September 2017 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_management_system<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Chromatography data management systemsLaboratory informaticsSoftware systems\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 29 September 2017, at 21:08.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 10,473 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","e0b59eaaca214b3b757b613af60743ad_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Chromatography_data_management_system skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Chromatography data management system<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:362px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:LC_and_LTQ.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"c637b73377bf136a207cef0bfe808ccd\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a2\/LC_and_LTQ.jpg\" width=\"360\" height=\"208\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:LC_and_LTQ.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"c637b73377bf136a207cef0bfe808ccd\"><\/a><\/div>A liquid chromatography linear ion trap instrument as an example of a device that may be interfaced with a CDMS<\/div><\/div><\/div>Sometimes referred to as a <b>chromatography data system<\/b> (CDS), a <b>chromatography data management system<\/b> (CDMS) is a set of dedicated data-collection tools that interface and\/or integrate with a laboratory's <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography\" title=\"Chromatography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2615535d1f14c6cffdfad7285999ad9d\">chromatography<\/a> equipment. A base CDMS will set up a desired methodology to be used by the chromatography equipment, acquire data from it, process the acquired data, store the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> in a database, and interface with other <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> systems to import and export files and data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDSI_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDSI-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_the_CDMS\">History of the CDMS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>The first attempts to automate the analysis of chromatography data through electronics took place in the early 1970s. These analysis tools utilized microprocessor-based integrators, \"dedicated devices for measuring chromatographic peaks and performing user-specified calculations\" which also featured a printer plotter to output the results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDSI_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDSI-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Limited memory plagued those early systems, preventing more than one chromatograph from being stored at any one time. This became less of problem for large labs with bigger budgets in the mid-1970s, as expensive centralized data systems were installed, allowing greater data storage and sharing capabilities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDSI_1-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDSI-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>As computers shrank in size, the personal computer became a viable reality. In 1980, entrepreneur and Hewlett-Packard prodigy Dave Nelson saw the potential the personal computer could have on the field of analytical chemistry, joining with partner Harmon Brown to create Nelson Analytical Inc. That year they developed the first CDMS personal computer software, soon followed by Turbochrom, the first CDMS system for MS Windows.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FeltonCDS02_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FeltonCDS02-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> This innovation quickly spread from analytical chemistry labs to the fields of environmental, forensic, and pharmaceutical sciences. At the same time chromatography minicomputers like Hewlett-Packard's 3350 LAS Lab Automation System and Perkin-Elmer's LIMS 2000 CLAS chromatography laboratory automation system were seeing increased utilization, featuring the data acquisition and processing of up to 32 or more simultaneous chromatographs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RyanLIMS04_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RyanLIMS04-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In the 1990s, more affordable higher-performance PCs \u2014 combined with tighter networking standards \u2014 allowed for networks of CDMSs, especially those installed on personal computers. By the late '90s, the CDMS commonly featured the ability to set up a methodology and analytical run information, control some instruments, acquire injection data, process the data in different ways, save the data, and transmit it to other systems like a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS\" title=\"LIMS\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"21b7bfebbba300be00cdbb84cddb338d\">LIMS<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDSI_1-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDSI-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> At the turn of the century the CDMS was becoming increasingly web-enabled<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RooneyChroma01_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RooneyChroma01-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>, and by 2008, CDMS functions were becoming more enhanced, driven by improvements in liquid chromatographs (LC) and gas chromatographs (GC). The new innovation of high-speed LC and GC instruments meant the potential for faster data generation, improved separation, and higher resolutions and sensitivities.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp1_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> While these next-generation machines would bring more processing power to chromatography labs, it also meant that vendors would have to improve CDMSs, specifically the analog-to-digital converter sampling rates. Some vendors were estimating at the time that data acquisition sampling rates on the order of 100 to 300 Hz would be needed to keep up with the new wave of speedier chromatography devices. Additional concerns of scalability and remote access were becoming important due to the expansion of pharmaceutical and chemical companies expanding into parts of Latin America, South America, and the Far East.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp1_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp1-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Features_of_a_CDMS\">Features of a CDMS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A CDMS may be set up for use in three primary ways<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McDowallTheIdeal16_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McDowallTheIdeal16-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> as a standalone system that controls two or more chromatographs<\/li>\n<li> as a standalone system that controls a single chromatograph, including LC-MS or GC-MS instruments<\/li>\n<li> as a networked system that controls multiple instruments in one or more labs<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>In operation, a CDMS provides multiple features, including (but not limited to)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McDowallTheIdeal16_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McDowallTheIdeal16-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DePalmaTheEvo16_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DePalmaTheEvo16-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> sample and blank processing<\/li>\n<li> integration of peaks and construction of calibration curves<\/li>\n<li> data analysis, visualization, and validation<\/li>\n<li> third-party software integration<\/li>\n<li> third-party instrument integration<\/li>\n<li> data warehousing from multiple instruments<\/li>\n<li> workflow management<\/li>\n<li> procedure and experiment development and scheduling<\/li>\n<li> out-of-specification and out-of-tolerance testings<\/li>\n<li> audit trail and compliance control<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"CDMS_vendors\">CDMS vendors<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>See the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/CDMS_vendor\" title=\"CDMS vendor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2260d9bbc6cdd77852ea48d9ddf82d9d\">CDMS vendor<\/a> page for a list of CDMS vendors past and present.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-CDSI-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDSI_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDSI_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDSI_1-2\">1.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CDSI_1-3\">1.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">McDowall, R.D. (1999). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151203095517\/http:\/\/www.21cfrpart11.com\/files\/library\/compliance\/cds_1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chromatography Data Systems I: The Fundamentals\"<\/a> (PDF). pp. 7. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.21cfrpart11.com\/files\/library\/compliance\/cds_1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 03 December 2015<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151203095517\/http:\/\/www.21cfrpart11.com\/files\/library\/compliance\/cds_1.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20151203095517\/http:\/\/www.21cfrpart11.com\/files\/library\/compliance\/cds_1.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chromatography+Data+Systems+I%3A+The+Fundamentals&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=McDowall%2C+R.D.&rft.au=McDowall%2C+R.D.&rft.date=1999&rft.pages=pp.+7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20151203095517%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.21cfrpart11.com%2Ffiles%2Flibrary%2Fcompliance%2Fcds_1.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Chemical Heritage Foundation (January 2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www3.scienceblog.com\/community\/older\/2002\/G\/20021575.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"David Nelson to receive the first annual PITTCON Heritage Award\"<\/a>. <i>Science Blog<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www3.scienceblog.com\/community\/older\/2002\/G\/20021575.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www3.scienceblog.com\/community\/older\/2002\/G\/20021575.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=David+Nelson+to+receive+the+first+annual+PITTCON+Heritage+Award&rft.atitle=Science+Blog&rft.aulast=Chemical+Heritage+Foundation&rft.au=Chemical+Heritage+Foundation&rft.date=January+2002&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.scienceblog.com%2Fcommunity%2Folder%2F2002%2FG%2F20021575.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FeltonCDS02-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FeltonCDS02_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Felton, M.J. (2002). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/11\/i09\/pdf\/902felton.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"CDS: Networked and Regulated\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>Today's Chemist at Work<\/i> <b>11<\/b> (9): 20<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/11\/i09\/pdf\/902felton.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/11\/i09\/pdf\/902felton.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=CDS%3A+Networked+and+Regulated&rft.jtitle=Today%27s+Chemist+at+Work&rft.aulast=Felton%2C+M.J.&rft.au=Felton%2C+M.J.&rft.date=2002&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fsubscribe%2Farchive%2Ftcaw%2F11%2Fi09%2Fpdf%2F902felton.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RyanLIMS04-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RyanLIMS04_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Ryan, J.F. (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/13\/i04\/pdf\/404ryan.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS: From Chromatograms to Computers\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>Today's Chemist at Work<\/i> <b>13<\/b> (4): 36<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/13\/i04\/pdf\/404ryan.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/13\/i04\/pdf\/404ryan.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=LIMS%3A+From+Chromatograms+to+Computers&rft.jtitle=Today%27s+Chemist+at+Work&rft.aulast=Ryan%2C+J.F.&rft.au=Ryan%2C+J.F.&rft.date=2004&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=36&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fsubscribe%2Farchive%2Ftcaw%2F13%2Fi04%2Fpdf%2F404ryan.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RooneyChroma01-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RooneyChroma01_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Rooney, T.A. (2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/10\/i09\/html\/09rooney.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chromatography data systems: On track at speed\"<\/a>. <i>Today's Chemist at Work<\/i> <b>10<\/b> (9)<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/10\/i09\/html\/09rooney.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/subscribe\/archive\/tcaw\/10\/i09\/html\/09rooney.html<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Chromatography+data+systems%3A+On+track+at+speed&rft.jtitle=Today%27s+Chemist+at+Work&rft.aulast=Rooney%2C+T.A.&rft.au=Rooney%2C+T.A.&rft.date=2001&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fsubscribe%2Farchive%2Ftcaw%2F10%2Fi09%2Fhtml%2F09rooney.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciComp1-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciComp1_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciComp1_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Long, E.C. (19 August 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2007\/09\/trends-chromatography-data-system-software-development\" target=\"_blank\">\"Trends in Chromatography Data System Software Development\"<\/a>. <i>Scientific Computing<\/i>. Advantage Business Media<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2007\/09\/trends-chromatography-data-system-software-development\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2007\/09\/trends-chromatography-data-system-software-development<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Trends+in+Chromatography+Data+System+Software+Development&rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing&rft.aulast=Long%2C+E.C.&rft.au=Long%2C+E.C.&rft.date=19+August+2008&rft.pub=Advantage+Business+Media&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Farticle%2F2007%2F09%2Ftrends-chromatography-data-system-software-development&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-McDowallTheIdeal16-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-McDowallTheIdeal16_7-0\">7.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-McDowallTheIdeal16_7-1\">7.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">McDowall, R.D.; Burgess, C. (April 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/alfresco.ubm-us.net\/alfresco_images\/pharma\/2017\/04\/04\/931a92d6-8cd8-4156-8399-389082051852\/The%20Ideal%20Chrom%20Data%20Syst.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Ideal Chromatography Data System for a Regulated Laboratory\"<\/a> (PDF). UBM. pp. 34<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/alfresco.ubm-us.net\/alfresco_images\/pharma\/2017\/04\/04\/931a92d6-8cd8-4156-8399-389082051852\/The%20Ideal%20Chrom%20Data%20Syst.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/alfresco.ubm-us.net\/alfresco_images\/pharma\/2017\/04\/04\/931a92d6-8cd8-4156-8399-389082051852\/The%20Ideal%20Chrom%20Data%20Syst.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+Ideal+Chromatography+Data+System+for+a+Regulated+Laboratory&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=McDowall%2C+R.D.%3B+Burgess%2C+C.&rft.au=McDowall%2C+R.D.%3B+Burgess%2C+C.&rft.date=April+2016&rft.pages=pp.+34&rft.pub=UBM&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Falfresco.ubm-us.net%2Falfresco_images%2Fpharma%2F2017%2F04%2F04%2F931a92d6-8cd8-4156-8399-389082051852%2FThe%2520Ideal%2520Chrom%2520Data%2520Syst.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DePalmaTheEvo16-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DePalmaTheEvo16_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">DePalma, A. (13 October 2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/product-focus\/2016\/10\/the-evolution-of-chromatography-data-systems-\" target=\"_blank\">\"The Evolution of Chromatography Data Systems\"<\/a>. <i>Lab Manager<\/i>. LabX Media Group<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/product-focus\/2016\/10\/the-evolution-of-chromatography-data-systems-\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/product-focus\/2016\/10\/the-evolution-of-chromatography-data-systems-<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Chromatography+Data+Systems&rft.atitle=Lab+Manager&rft.aulast=DePalma%2C+A.&rft.au=DePalma%2C+A.&rft.date=13+October+2016&rft.pub=LabX+Media+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.labmanager.com%2Fproduct-focus%2F2016%2F10%2Fthe-evolution-of-chromatography-data-systems-&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Chromatography_data_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202946\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.219 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.070 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5244\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 15897\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 36165\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 15249\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 13\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 155.942 1 - -total\n 89.83% 140.079 8 - Template:Citation\/core\n 66.08% 103.043 5 - Template:Cite_web\n 33.26% 51.873 3 - Template:Cite_journal\n 5.92% 9.236 12 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:100-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403202945 and revision id 31780\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chromatography_data_management_system<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","e0b59eaaca214b3b757b613af60743ad_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a2\/LC_and_LTQ.jpg"],"e0b59eaaca214b3b757b613af60743ad_timestamp":1554323385,"b9d429b16b89b35fe74097a3e0c2d1ee_type":"article","b9d429b16b89b35fe74097a3e0c2d1ee_title":"Document management system","b9d429b16b89b35fe74097a3e0c2d1ee_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Document_management_system","b9d429b16b89b35fe74097a3e0c2d1ee_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tDocument management system\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\"Digital archiving\" redirects here. For the long-term archiving of digital media, see digital preservation.\n\"EDMS\" redirects here. For an airport with ICAO acronym \"EDMS\", see Straubing Wallm\u00fchle Airport.\nA document management system (DMS) is a system (based on computer programs in the case of the management of digital documents) used to track, manage and store documents and reduce paper. Most are capable of keeping a record of the various versions created and modified by different users (history tracking). The term has some overlap with the concepts of content management systems. It is often viewed as a component of enterprise content management (ECM) systems and related to digital asset management, document imaging, workflow systems and records management systems.\n\nContents \n\n1 History \n2 Components \n3 Standardization \n4 Document control \n5 Integrated DM \n6 Document management software \n7 See also \n8 References \n9 External links \n\n\nHistory \nBeginning in the 1980s, a number of vendors began to develop software systems to manage paper-based documents. These systems dealt with paper documents, which included not only printed and published documents, but also photographs, prints, etc...\nLater developers began to write a second type of system which could manage electronic documents, i.e., all those documents, or files, created on computers, and often stored on users' local file-systems. The earliest electronic document management (EDM) systems managed either proprietary file types, or a limited number of file formats. Many of these systems later[when? ] became known as document imaging systems, because they focused on the capture, storage, indexing and retrieval of image file formats. EDM systems evolved to a point where systems could manage any type of file format that could be stored on the network. The applications grew to encompass electronic documents, collaboration tools, security, workflow, and auditing capabilities.\nThese systems enabled an organization to capture faxes and forms, to save copies of the documents as images, and to store the image files in the repository for security and quick retrieval (retrieval made possible because the system handled the extraction of the text from the document in the process of capture, and the text-indexer function provided text-retrieval capabilities).\nWhile many EDM systems store documents in their native file format (Microsoft Word or Excel, PDF), some web-based document management systems are beginning to store content in the form of html. These policy management systems[1] require content to be imported into the system. However, once content is imported, the software acts like a search engine so users can find what they are looking for faster. The html format allows for better application of search capabilities such as full-text searching and stemming.[2]\n\nComponents \nDocument management systems commonly provide storage, versioning, metadata, security, as well as indexing and retrieval capabilities. Here is a description of these components:\n\n\n\n\nTopic\nDescription\n\n\nMetadata\nMetadata is typically stored for each document. Metadata may, for example, include the date the document will be stored and the identity of the user storing it. The DMS may also extract metadata from the document automatically or prompt the user to add metadata. Some systems also use optical character recognition on scanned images, or perform text extraction on electronic documents. The resulting extracted text can be used to assist users in locating documents by identifying probable keywords or providing for full text search capability, or can be used on its own. Extracted text can also be stored as a component of metadata, stored with the document, or separately from the document as a source for searching document collections.[3]\n\n\nIntegration\nMany document management systems attempt to provide document management functionality directly to other applications, so that users may retrieve existing documents directly from the document management system repository, make changes, and save the changed document back to the repository as a new version, all without leaving the application. Such integration is commonly available for a variety of software tools such as workflow management and content management systems, typically through an application programming interface (API) using open standards such as ODMA, LDAP, WebDAV, and SOAP or RESTful web services.[4][5]\n\n\nCapture\nCapture primarily involves accepting and processing images of paper documents from scanners or multifunction printers. Optical character recognition (OCR) software is often used, whether integrated into the hardware or as stand-alone software, in order to convert digital images into machine readable text. Optical mark recognition (OMR) software is sometimes used to extract values of check-boxes or bubbles. Capture may also involve accepting electronic documents and other computer-based files.[6]\n\n\nData validation\nData validation rules can check for document failures, missing signatures, misspelled names, and other issues, recommending real-time correction options before importing data into the DMS. Additional processing in the form of harmonization and data format changes may also be applied as part of data validation.[7][8]\n\n\nIndexing\nIndexing tracks electronic documents. Indexing may be as simple as keeping track of unique document identifiers; but often it takes a more complex form, providing classification through the documents' metadata or even through word indexes extracted from the documents' contents. Indexing exists mainly to support information query and retrieval. One area of critical importance for rapid retrieval is the creation of an index topology or scheme.[9]\n\n\nStorage\nStore electronic documents. Storage of the documents often includes management of those same documents; where they are stored, for how long, migration of the documents from one storage media to another (hierarchical storage management) and eventual document destruction.\n\n\nRetrieval\nRetrieve the electronic documents from the storage. Although the notion of retrieving a particular document is simple, retrieval in the electronic context can be quite complex and powerful. Simple retrieval of individual documents can be supported by allowing the user to specify the unique document identifier, and having the system use the basic index (or a non-indexed query on its data store) to retrieve the document.[9] More flexible retrieval allows the user to specify partial search terms involving the document identifier and\/or parts of the expected metadata. This would typically return a list of documents which match the user's search terms. Some systems provide the capability to specify a Boolean expression containing multiple keywords or example phrases expected to exist within the documents' contents. The retrieval for this kind of query may be supported by previously built indexes[9], or may perform more time-consuming searches through the documents' contents to return a list of the potentially relevant documents. See also Document retrieval.\n\n\nDistribution\nA document ready for distribution has to be in a format that cannot be easily altered. An original master copy of the document is usually never used for distribution; rather, an electronic link to the document itself is more common. If a document is to be distributed electronically in a regulatory environment, then additional criteria must be met, including assurances of traceability and versioning, even across other systems.[10] This approach applies to both of the systems by which the document is to be inter-exchanged, if the integrity of the document is imperative.\n\n\nSecurity\nDocument security is vital in many document management applications. Compliance requirements for certain documents can be quite complex depending on the type of documents. For instance, in the United States, standards such as ISO 9001 and ISO 13485, as well as U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulations, dictate how the document control process should be addressed.[11] Document management systems may have a rights management module that allows an administrator to give access to documents based on type to only certain people or groups of people. Document marking at the time of printing or PDF-creation is an essential element to preclude alteration or unintended use.\n\n\nWorkflow\nWorkflow is a complex process, and some document management systems have either a built-in workflow module[12] or can integrate with workflow management tools.[5] There are different types of workflow. Usage depends on the environment to which the electronic document management system (EDMS) is applied. Manual workflow requires a user to view the document and decide whom to send it to. Rules-based workflow allows an administrator to create a rule that dictates the flow of the document through an organization: for instance, an invoice passes through an approval process and then is routed to the accounts-payable department. Dynamic rules allow for branches to be created in a workflow process. A simple example would be to enter an invoice amount and if the amount is lower than a certain set amount, it follows different routes through the organization. Advanced workflow mechanisms can manipulate content or signal external processes while these rules are in effect.\n\n\nCollaboration\nCollaboration should be inherent in an EDMS. In its basic form, collaborative EDMS should allow documents to be retrieved and worked on by an authorized user. Access should be blocked to other users while work is being performed on the document. Other advanced forms of collaboration act in real time, allowing multiple users to view and modify (or markup) documents at the same time. The resulting document is comprehensive, including all users additions. Collaboration within document management systems means that the various markups by each individual user during the collaboration session are recorded, allowing document history to be monitored.[13]\n\n\nVersioning\nVersioning is a process by which documents are checked in or out of the document management system, allowing users to retrieve previous versions and to continue work from a selected point. Versioning is useful for documents that change over time and require updating, but it may be necessary to go back to or reference a previous copy.[13]\n\n\nSearching\nSearching finds documents and folders using template attributes or full text search. Documents can be searched using various attributes and document content.\n\n\nFederated search\nThis refers to the capability to extend search capabilities to draw results from multiple sources, or from multiple DMSes within an enterprise.[14]\n\n\nPublishing\nPublishing a document involves the procedures of proofreading, peer or public reviewing, authorizing, printing and approving etc. Those steps ensure prudence and logical thinking. Any careless handling may result in the inaccuracy of the document and therefore mislead or upset its users and readers. In law regulated industries, some of the procedures have to be completed as evidenced by their corresponding signatures and the date(s) on which the document was signed. Refer to the ISO divisions of ICS 01.140.40 and 35.240.30 for further information.[15][16]\nThe published document should be in a format that is not easily altered without a specific knowledge or tools, and yet it is read-only or portable.[17]\n\n\n\nHard copy reproduction\nDocument\/image reproduction is often necessary within a document management system, and its supported output devices and reproduction capabilities should be considered.[18]\n\nStandardization \nMany industry associations publish their own lists of particular document control standards that are used in their particular field. Following is a list of some of the relevant ISO documents. Divisions ICS 01.140.10 and 01.140.20.[19][20] The ISO has also published a series of standards regarding the technical documentation, covered by the division of 01.110.[21]\n\nISO 2709 Information and documentation \u2013 Format for information exchange\nISO 15836 Information and documentation \u2013 The Dublin Core metadata element set\nISO 15489 Information and documentation \u2013 Records management\nISO 21127 Information and documentation \u2013 A reference ontology for the interchange of cultural heritage information\nISO 23950 Information and documentation \u2013 Information retrieval (Z39.50) \u2013 Application service definition and protocol specification\nISO 10244 Document management \u2013 Business process baselining and analysis\nISO 32000 Document management \u2013 Portable document format\nISO 27001 Specification for an information security management system\nDocument control \nGovernment regulations require that companies working in certain industries control their documents. These industries include accounting (for example: 8th EU Directive, Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act), food safety (e.g., Food Safety Modernization Act), ISO (mentioned above), medical-device manufacturing (FDA), manufacture of blood, human cells, and tissue products (FDA), healthcare (JCAHO), and information technology (ITIL).[22]\nSome industries work under stricter document control requirements due to the type of information they retain for privacy, warranty, or other highly regulated purposes. Examples include Protected Health Information (PHI) as required by HIPAA or construction project documents required for warranty periods. An information systems strategy plan (ISSP) can shape organisational information systems over medium to long-term periods.[23]\nDocuments stored in a document management system\u2014such as procedures, work instructions, and policy statements\u2014provide evidence of documents under control. Failing to comply can cause fines, the loss of business, or damage to a business's reputation.\nThe following are important aspects of document control:\n\n\nreviewing and approving documents prior to release\nreviews and approvals\nensuring changes and revisions are clearly identified\nensuring that relevant versions of applicable documents are available at their \"points of use\"\nensuring that documents remain legible and identifiable\nensuring that external documents (such as customer-supplied documents or supplier manuals) are identified and controlled\npreventing \u201cunintended\u201d use of obsolete documents\n \n\n\n\nIntegrated DM \nIntegrated document management comprises the technologies, tools, and methods used to capture, manage, store, preserve, deliver and dispose of 'documents' across an enterprise. In this context 'documents' are any of a myriad of information assets including images, office documents, graphics, and drawings as well as the new electronic objects such as Web pages, email, instant messages, and video.\n\nDocument management software \nPaper documents have long been used in storing information. However, paper can be costly and, if used excessively, wasteful. Document management software is not simply a tool but it lets a user manage access, track and edit information stored. Document management software is an electronic cabinet that can be used to organize all paper and digital files.[24] The software helps the businesses to combine paper to digital files and store it into a single hub after it is scanned and digital formats gets imported.[25] Web based document management software are becoming the staple of the industry.[citation needed ]\n\nSee also \n\nConstruction collaboration technology\nCustomer communications management\nData proliferation\nDocument automation\nDocumentation\nEnterprise content management\nInformation repository\nInformation science\nIntelligent document\nKnowledge base\nKnowledge management\nLibrary science\nProduct data management\nRevision control\nSnippet management\nTaxonomy (general)\nTechnical data management system\nTechnical documentation\n\nReferences \n\n\n^ Policy Management System Archived 29 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ Stemming: Making searching easier Archived 11 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine \n\n^ Parsons, M. (2004). Effective Knowledge Management for Law Firms. Oxford University Press. p. 234. ISBN 9780195169683. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ Shivakumar, S.K. (2016). Enterprise Content and Search Management for Building Digital Platforms. John Wiley & Sons. p. 93. ISBN 9781119206828. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b Fletcher, A.N.; Brahm, M.; Pargmann, H. (2003). Workflow Management with SAP WebFlow: A Practical Manual. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 15\u201316. ISBN 9783540404033. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ Webber, M.; Webber, L. (2016). It Governance: Policies and Procedures. Wolters Kluwer. p. 41-4. ISBN 9781454871323. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ Trinchieri, D. (2003). Evaluation of Integrated Document Management System (IDMS) Options for the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT). Arizona Department of Transportation. p. 158. The data validation rules should be embedded in the form itself, rather than accomplished in a post-processing environment. This provides the use an interactive real-time experience. Often data validation requires a database look-up. The rules should allow this database query, providing the user real-time choices based on query results. \n\n^ Morley, D.; Parker, C.S. (2014). Understanding Computers: Today and Tomorrow, Comprehensive. Cengage Learning. p. 558\u2013559. ISBN 9781285767277. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b c Meurant, G. (2012). Introduction to Electronic Document Management Systems. Academic Press. p. 120. ISBN 9780323140621. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ Sommerville, J.; Craig, N. (2006). Implementing IT in Construction. Routledge. p. 130. ISBN 9781134198986. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ Skipper, S.L. (2015). How to Establish a Document Control System for Compliance with ISO 9001:2015, ISO 13485:2016, and FDA Requirements. ASQ Quality Press. p. 156. ISBN 9780873899178. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ Austerberry, D. (2012). Digital Asset Management. CRC Press. pp. 27\u201328. ISBN 9781136033629. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ a b Austerberry, D. (2012). Digital Asset Management. CRC Press. p. 30. ISBN 9781136033629. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ White, M. (2012). Enterprise Search. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp. 73\u201374. ISBN 9781449330408. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ International Organization for Standardization. \"01.140.40: Publishing\". Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 14 July 2008 . \n\n^ International Organization for Standardization. \"35.240.30: IT applications in information, documentation and publishing\". Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 14 July 2008 . \n\n^ OnSphere Corporation. \"SOP Document Management in a Validated Environments\" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 September 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2011 . \n\n^ Meurant, G. (2012). Introduction to Electronic Document Management Systems. Academic Press. p. 16. ISBN 9780323140621. Retrieved 19 May 2018 . \n\n^ International Organization for Standardization. \"01.140.10: Writing and transliteration\". Archived from the original on 7 July 2009. Retrieved 14 July 2008 . \n\n^ International Organization for Standardization. \"01.140.20: Information sciences\". Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 14 July 2008 . \n\n^ International Organization for Standardization. \"01.110: Technical product documentation\". Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 15 July 2008 . \n\n^ \n\"Code of Federal Regulations Title 21, Part 1271\". Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original on 10 October 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2012 . \n\n^ \nWiggins, Bob (2000). Effective Document Management: Unlocking Corporate Knowledge (2 ed.). Gower. p. 25. ISBN 9780566081484. Archived from the original on 13 January 2018. Retrieved 9 April 2016 . At the organisational level an information systems strategy plan (ISSP) is a way to determine in general terms what information systems an organisation should have in place over the medium to long term (typically around three to five years [...]). \n\n^ \"Document Management Systems - A Buyer's Guide\". Archived from the original on 10 January 2017. Retrieved 10 January 2017 . \n\n^ Chaouni, Mamoun (5 February 2015). \"7 Powerful Advantages of Using a Document Management System\" Archived 10 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine \n\n\nExternal links \n\n\n\nWikimedia Commons has media related to Document management systems.\nSoftware\/Document Management at Curlie\n\n\nAuthority control \nGND: 4303691-0 \n\n\n\n\n<\/pre>\n\nNotes \nThis article is a direct transclusion of the Wikipedia article and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Document_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Document_management_system<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Business and data managementSoftware systemsHidden category: Articles transcluded from other wikis\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 19 May 2018, at 20:50.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 281 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","b9d429b16b89b35fe74097a3e0c2d1ee_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Document_management_system skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Document management system<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"mw-parser-output\"><div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"Digital archiving\" redirects here. For the long-term archiving of digital media, see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_preservation\" title=\"Digital preservation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea48f80fdfaa95d7a085e2cde2d342a4\">digital preservation<\/a>.<\/div>\n<div role=\"note\" class=\"hatnote navigation-not-searchable\">\"EDMS\" redirects here. For an airport with ICAO acronym \"EDMS\", see <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Straubing_Wallm%C3%BChle_Airport\" title=\"Straubing Wallm\u00fchle Airport\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac772915d874175f5d50ee7d0d93ebb5\">Straubing Wallm\u00fchle Airport<\/a>.<\/div>\n<p>A <b>document management system<\/b> (<b>DMS<\/b>) is a system (based on computer programs in the case of the management of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_document\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital document\" data-key=\"40762313f3151a329f6aa972663187e6\">digital documents<\/a>) used to track, manage and store documents and reduce paper. Most are capable of keeping a record of the various versions created and modified by different users (history tracking). The term has some overlap with the concepts of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_management_system\" title=\"Content management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3eac85f5c05cd41688150c2d211e93cf\">content management systems<\/a>. It is often viewed as a component of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_content_management\" title=\"Enterprise content management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c41c797e73c520a9ca95ccbdf23ca7e\">enterprise content management<\/a> (ECM) systems and related to <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_asset_management\" title=\"Digital asset management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"67180976fc37adbd3f686b6a21e67f2b\">digital asset management<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_imaging\" title=\"Document imaging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d01584651c6799bcace84955d063f1b\">document imaging<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a7b055462a00234621920f7bd77834c\">workflow<\/a> systems and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Records_management\" title=\"Records management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"776f0cc59b663e870b7d26c6b5868575\">records management<\/a> systems.\n<\/p>\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Beginning in the 1980s, a number of vendors began to develop software systems to manage paper-based documents. These systems dealt with , which included not only printed and published documents, but also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Photograph\" title=\"Photograph\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"caf40749d2fb59df575480fa05be996e\">photographs<\/a>, prints, etc...\n<\/p><p>Later developers began to write a second type of system which could manage <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronic_document\" title=\"Electronic document\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a7c91cfec24309af317a72bdf6e04634\">electronic documents<\/a>, i.e., all those documents, or files, created on computers, and often stored on users' local <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File-system\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"File-system\" data-key=\"4217742f3819d33c795cdf1e1385bb78\">file-systems<\/a>. The earliest electronic document management (EDM) systems managed either proprietary file types, or a limited number of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File_format\" title=\"File format\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"62c4671544f65b354f06ff1ad16d0f2f\">file formats<\/a>. Many of these systems later<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style\/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items\" title=\"Wikipedia:Manual of Style\/Dates and numbers\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a4cfbab771e1d842adb00b68f8cdf8bd\"><span title=\"The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (February 2011)\">when?<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup> became known as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_imaging\" title=\"Document imaging\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9d01584651c6799bcace84955d063f1b\">document imaging<\/a> systems, because they focused on the capture, storage, indexing and retrieval of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Image_file_formats\" title=\"Image file formats\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"22816eaf32c8a267edeebfedfa9d7634\">image file formats<\/a>. EDM systems evolved to a point where systems could manage any type of file format that could be stored on the network. The applications grew to encompass electronic documents, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Collaboration_tool\" title=\"Collaboration tool\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"77a9feebdc15937bb5ed0e41272155fd\">collaboration tools<\/a>, security, workflow, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Audit\" title=\"Audit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ee71ac41bc47437c62c140a7ec1ebdbe\">auditing<\/a> capabilities.\n<\/p><p>These systems enabled an organization to capture faxes and forms, to save copies of the documents as images, and to store the image files in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_repository\" title=\"Information repository\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"983d22d660b1bb04da4b544a8ff35040\">repository<\/a> for security and quick retrieval (retrieval made possible because the system handled the extraction of the text from the document in the process of capture, and the text-indexer function provided <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Text_retrieval\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Text retrieval\" data-key=\"b0039ee57ac3565760c22a169bd6d1c9\">text-retrieval<\/a> capabilities).\n<\/p><p>While many EDM systems store documents in their native file format (Microsoft Word or Excel, PDF), some web-based document management systems are beginning to store content in the form of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Html\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Html\" data-key=\"85822c70d098abadb23ce6e66ff5998d\">html<\/a>. These policy management systems<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> require content to be imported into the system. However, once content is imported, the software acts like a search engine so users can find what they are looking for faster. The html format allows for better application of search capabilities such as full-text searching and stemming.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Components\">Components<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Document management systems commonly provide storage, versioning, metadata, security, as well as indexing and retrieval capabilities. Here is a description of these components:\n<\/p>\n<table class=\"wikitable\" style=\"\">\n\n<tbody><tr>\n<th>Topic<\/th>\n<th>Description\n<\/th><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">Metadata<\/a><\/b><\/td>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">Metadata<\/a> is typically stored for each document. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Metadata\" title=\"Metadata\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cee808fe01d61a4892d7ef554d65437c\">Metadata<\/a> may, for example, include the date the document will be stored and the identity of the user storing it. The DMS may also extract metadata from the document automatically or prompt the user to add metadata. Some systems also use <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_character_recognition\" title=\"Optical character recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61174982accbb4d0c9bccbdc56a02144\">optical character recognition<\/a> on scanned images, or perform text extraction on electronic documents. The resulting extracted text can be used to assist users in locating documents by identifying probable keywords or providing for full text search capability, or can be used on its own. Extracted text can also be stored as a component of metadata, stored with the document, or separately from the document as a source for searching document collections.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ParsonsEffective04_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ParsonsEffective04-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Integration<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Many document management systems attempt to provide document management functionality directly to other applications, so that users may retrieve existing documents directly from the document management system repository, make changes, and save the changed document back to the repository as a new version, all without leaving the application. Such integration is commonly available for a variety of software tools such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow_management_system\" title=\"Workflow management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6431e43c8af23358c867106d508ce082\">workflow management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Content_management_system\" title=\"Content management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3eac85f5c05cd41688150c2d211e93cf\">content management systems<\/a>, typically through an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Application_programming_interface\" title=\"Application programming interface\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c3b6475d989fc4f46d473299c5f0a76b\">application programming interface<\/a> (API) using open standards such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ODMA\" title=\"ODMA\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cb10aaf5b99bcb38ec6dbbcec5aa9c1b\">ODMA<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lightweight_Directory_Access_Protocol\" title=\"Lightweight Directory Access Protocol\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"73614b88ebb944abb2b190b96ec0d478\">LDAP<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/WebDAV\" title=\"WebDAV\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af6c2b694eb465654de2abc28fdb0a51\">WebDAV<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/SOAP\" title=\"SOAP\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"952e7ea001d98d86e8321b60c06caa6d\">SOAP<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Representational_state_transfer\" title=\"Representational state transfer\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e54b62a1f8ac222520161f4177ee552a\">RESTful<\/a> web services.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ShivakumarEnter16_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ShivakumarEnter16-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FletcherWorkflow03_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FletcherWorkflow03-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Capture<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Capture primarily involves accepting and processing images of paper documents from <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Image_scanner\" title=\"Image scanner\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eab0d1501c372bd47753accf7378dca7\">scanners<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Multifunction_printer\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Multifunction printer\" data-key=\"d89480115e600c035ccb7159c2d5baf3\">multifunction printers<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_character_recognition\" title=\"Optical character recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"61174982accbb4d0c9bccbdc56a02144\">Optical character recognition<\/a> (OCR) software is often used, whether integrated into the hardware or as stand-alone software, in order to convert digital images into machine readable text. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Optical_mark_recognition\" title=\"Optical mark recognition\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec794ba81d445961540fda3771a2b2d0\">Optical mark recognition<\/a> (OMR) software is sometimes used to extract values of check-boxes or bubbles. Capture may also involve accepting electronic documents and other computer-based files.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WebberITGov16_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WebberITGov16-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Data validation<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Data validation rules can check for document failures, missing signatures, misspelled names, and other issues, recommending real-time correction options before importing data into the DMS. Additional processing in the form of harmonization and data format changes may also be applied as part of data validation.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TrinchieriEval03_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TrinchieriEval03-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MorleyUnder14_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MorleyUnder14-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Indexing<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Indexing tracks electronic documents. Indexing may be as simple as keeping track of unique document identifiers; but often it takes a more complex form, providing classification through the documents' metadata or even through word indexes extracted from the documents' contents. Indexing exists mainly to support information query and retrieval. One area of critical importance for rapid retrieval is the creation of an index <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Topology\" title=\"Topology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef1bb60da633b4b23e207e474c03dd0e\">topology<\/a> or scheme.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MeurantInto12-1_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MeurantInto12-1-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Storage<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Store electronic documents. Storage of the documents often includes management of those same documents; where they are stored, for how long, migration of the documents from one storage media to another (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Hierarchical_storage_management\" title=\"Hierarchical storage management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"af8af779a60755ebffebb7223339a53f\">hierarchical storage management<\/a>) and eventual document destruction.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Retrieval<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Retrieve the electronic documents from the storage. Although the notion of retrieving a particular document is simple, retrieval in the electronic context can be quite complex and powerful. Simple retrieval of individual documents can be supported by allowing the user to specify the unique document identifier, and having the system use the basic index (or a non-indexed query on its data store) to retrieve the document.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MeurantInto12-1_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MeurantInto12-1-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> More flexible retrieval allows the user to specify partial search terms involving the document identifier and\/or parts of the expected metadata. This would typically return a list of documents which match the user's search terms. Some systems provide the capability to specify a <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Boolean_expression\" title=\"Boolean expression\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b68573f9f90d6e7ccd7f37936f11552\">Boolean expression<\/a> containing multiple keywords or example phrases expected to exist within the documents' contents. The retrieval for this kind of query may be supported by previously built indexes<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MeurantInto12-1_9-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MeurantInto12-1-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>, or may perform more time-consuming searches through the documents' contents to return a list of the potentially relevant documents. <i>See also <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_retrieval\" title=\"Document retrieval\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"604c1bc847f9fd32a27c5a3eb1b8904b\">Document retrieval<\/a>.<\/i>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Distribution<\/b><\/td>\n<td>A document ready for distribution has to be in a format that cannot be easily altered. An original master copy of the document is usually never used for distribution; rather, an electronic link to the document itself is more common. If a document is to be distributed electronically in a regulatory environment, then additional criteria must be met, including assurances of traceability and versioning, even across other systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SommervilleImp06_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SommervilleImp06-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> This approach applies to both of the systems by which the document is to be inter-exchanged, if the integrity of the document is imperative.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Security<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Document security is vital in many document management applications. Compliance requirements for certain documents can be quite complex depending on the type of documents. For instance, in the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/United_States_of_America\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"United States of America\" data-key=\"a022a098bca5dfde0d90fdb5ac1d73af\">United States<\/a>, standards such as <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_9001\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 9001\" data-key=\"45cf4657ea69b334ee95b95c9187f373\">ISO 9001<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_13485\" title=\"ISO 13485\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8248b26d81c246c0a6cbc320d1670e01\">ISO 13485<\/a>, as well as U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> regulations, dictate how the document control process should be addressed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SkipperHowTo15_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SkipperHowTo15-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> Document management systems may have a rights management module that allows an administrator to give access to documents based on type to only certain people or groups of people. Document marking at the time of printing or PDF-creation is an essential element to preclude alteration or unintended use.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9a7b055462a00234621920f7bd77834c\">Workflow<\/a><\/b><\/td>\n<td>Workflow is a complex process, and some document management systems have either a built-in workflow module<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AusterberryDigital12-1_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AusterberryDigital12-1-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> or can integrate with workflow management tools.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FletcherWorkflow03_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FletcherWorkflow03-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> There are different types of workflow. Usage depends on the environment to which the electronic document management system (EDMS) is applied. Manual workflow requires a user to view the document and decide whom to send it to. Rules-based workflow allows an administrator to create a rule that dictates the flow of the document through an organization: for instance, an invoice passes through an approval process and then is routed to the accounts-payable department. Dynamic rules allow for branches to be created in a workflow process. A simple example would be to enter an invoice amount and if the amount is lower than a certain set amount, it follows different routes through the organization. Advanced workflow mechanisms can manipulate content or signal external processes while these rules are in effect.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Collaboration<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Collaboration should be inherent in an EDMS. In its basic form, collaborative EDMS should allow documents to be retrieved and worked on by an authorized user. Access should be blocked to other users while work is being performed on the document. Other advanced forms of collaboration act in real time, allowing multiple users to view and modify (or markup) documents at the same time. The resulting document is comprehensive, including all users additions. Collaboration within document management systems means that the various markups by each individual user during the collaboration session are recorded, allowing document history to be monitored.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AusterberryDigital12-2_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AusterberryDigital12-2-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Version_control\" title=\"Version control\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26e89feabadbf7abca76d5b5d945a458\">Versioning<\/a><\/b><\/td>\n<td>Versioning is a process by which documents are checked in or out of the document management system, allowing users to retrieve previous versions and to continue work from a selected point. Versioning is useful for documents that change over time and require updating, but it may be necessary to go back to or reference a previous copy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AusterberryDigital12-2_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AusterberryDigital12-2-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Searching<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Searching finds documents and folders using template attributes or full text search. Documents can be searched using various attributes and document content.\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Federated search<\/b><\/td>\n<td>This refers to the capability to extend search capabilities to draw results from multiple sources, or from multiple DMSes within an enterprise.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WhiteEnterprise12_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WhiteEnterprise12-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Publishing\" title=\"Publishing\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7482cdd00619a2e36a6a9b776defc758\">Publishing<\/a><\/b><\/td>\n<td>Publishing a document involves the procedures of <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Proofreading\" title=\"Proofreading\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c90d105e4ab7ecd0687fe2d7d26a29c\">proofreading<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Peer_review\" title=\"Peer review\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"804a002d7470d3bdb52f8818a8c0fe22\">peer<\/a> or public reviewing, authorizing, printing and approving etc. Those steps ensure <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Prudence\" title=\"Prudence\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"eb9e66f343f40ccb8f852e65f9ca8a94\">prudence<\/a> and logical thinking. Any careless handling may result in the inaccuracy of the document and therefore mislead or upset its users and readers. In law regulated industries, some of the procedures have to be completed as evidenced by their corresponding signatures and the date(s) on which the document was signed. Refer to the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Organization_for_Standardization\" title=\"International Organization for Standardization\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef9904309649741613d73bb73ca51e39\">ISO<\/a> divisions of ICS 01.140.40 and 35.240.30 for further information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-pub_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-pub-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-itpub_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-itpub-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>The published document should be in a format that is not easily altered without a specific knowledge or tools, and yet it is read-only or portable.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-sdmv_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-sdmv-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/td><\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><b>Hard copy reproduction<\/b><\/td>\n<td>Document\/image reproduction is often necessary within a document management system, and its supported output devices and reproduction capabilities should be considered.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MeurantInto12-2_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MeurantInto12-2-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standardization\">Standardization<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Many industry associations publish their own lists of particular document control standards that are used in their particular field. Following is a list of some of the relevant ISO documents. Divisions ICS 01.140.10 and 01.140.20.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-wt_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-wt-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-is_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-is-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> The ISO has also published a series of standards regarding the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technical_documentation\" title=\"Technical documentation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bd9b24505c17507d13718483570f036\">technical documentation<\/a>, covered by the division of 01.110.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-tpd_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-tpd-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_2709\" title=\"ISO 2709\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"229f54a204e801b4cc06eff792126086\">ISO 2709<\/a> Information and documentation \u2013 Format for information exchange<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=52142\" target=\"_blank\">ISO 15836<\/a> Information and documentation \u2013 The <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dublin_Core\" title=\"Dublin Core\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"244dee6f75bb503ebdcf3d3df5729d4a\">Dublin Core<\/a> metadata element set<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=31908\" target=\"_blank\">ISO 15489<\/a> Information and documentation \u2013 Records management<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=57832\" target=\"_blank\">ISO 21127<\/a> Information and documentation \u2013 A reference <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ontology_(information_science)\" title=\"Ontology (information science)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a6cd018caae9a0c95e80b08c71758343\">ontology<\/a> for the interchange of cultural heritage information<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_23950\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 23950\" data-key=\"9b9c7d114db2421f2f7065104c148b82\">ISO 23950<\/a> Information and documentation \u2013 Information retrieval (Z39.50) \u2013 Application service definition and protocol specification<\/li>\n<li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/iso_catalogue\/catalogue_tc\/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=45935\" target=\"_blank\">ISO 10244<\/a> Document management \u2013 Business process baselining and analysis<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_32000\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 32000\" data-key=\"95042833579f55d9038f40c1555e5701\">ISO 32000<\/a> Document management \u2013 Portable document format<\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ISO_27001\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"ISO 27001\" data-key=\"47263cd31e2ddfc0b74e16037a05d20d\">ISO 27001<\/a> Specification for an information security management system<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Document_control\">Document control<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Government regulations require that companies working in certain industries control their documents. These industries include accounting (for example: 8th <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Directive_(European_Union)\" title=\"Directive (European Union)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"05c782d4ebddeb1a932f6a901167cb0f\">EU Directive<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sarbanes%E2%80%93Oxley_Act\" title=\"Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7bc225a8cadba29f9f88c2930c3a91b9\">Sarbanes\u2013Oxley Act<\/a>), food safety (e.g., <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_Safety_Modernization_Act\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Food Safety Modernization Act\" data-key=\"4955372c56585133c9e43d248589fa0c\">Food Safety Modernization Act<\/a>), ISO (mentioned above), medical-device manufacturing (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca55241ad9c093129dc98415471604a0\">FDA<\/a>), manufacture of blood, human cells, and tissue products (FDA), healthcare (<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/JCAHO\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"JCAHO\" data-key=\"10d6140676151e0edf46d83de2be058e\">JCAHO<\/a><\/i>), and information technology (<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/ITIL\" title=\"ITIL\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7ecb066fc21e166ca22e8a9091e3791d\">ITIL<\/a><\/i>).<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-22\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\nSome industries work under stricter document control requirements due to the type of information they retain for privacy, warranty, or other highly regulated purposes. Examples include <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Protected_Health_Information\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Protected Health Information\" data-key=\"a442155b686f9430d88d93f6599d8f5b\">Protected Health Information<\/a> (PHI) as required by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"HIPAA\" data-key=\"e5d765dfa9187745e2a5463d1b49a4c9\">HIPAA<\/a> or construction project documents required for warranty periods. An information systems strategy plan (ISSP) can shape organisational information systems over medium to long-term periods.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-23\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Documents stored in a document management system\u2014such as procedures, work instructions, and policy statements\u2014provide evidence of documents under control. Failing to comply can cause fines, the loss of business, or damage to a business's reputation.\n<\/p><p>The following are important aspects of document control:\n<\/p>\n<div>\n<ul><li>reviewing and approving documents prior to release\n<ul><li>reviews and approvals<\/li><\/ul><\/li>\n<li>ensuring changes and revisions are clearly identified<\/li>\n<li>ensuring that relevant versions of applicable documents are available at their \"points of use\"<\/li>\n<li>ensuring that documents remain legible and identifiable<\/li>\n<li>ensuring that external documents (such as customer-supplied documents or supplier manuals) are identified and controlled<\/li>\n<li>preventing \u201cunintended\u201d use of obsolete documents<\/li><\/ul>\n<p> \n<\/p>\n<table class=\"multicol\" role=\"presentation\" style=\"border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; border: 0; background:transparent; width:100%;\">\n<tbody><tr><td><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Integrated_DM\">Integrated DM<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><b>Integrated document management<\/b> comprises the technologies, tools, and methods used to capture, manage, store, preserve, deliver and dispose of 'documents' across an enterprise. In this context 'documents' are any of a myriad of information assets including images, office documents, graphics, and drawings as well as the new electronic objects such as Web pages, email, instant messages, and video.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Document_management_software\">Document management software<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Paper documents have long been used in storing <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3af0e7a381a856e93e11b5036866eb24\">information<\/a>. However, paper can be costly and, if used excessively, wasteful. Document management software is not simply a tool but it lets a user manage access, track and edit information stored. Document management software is an <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Electronics\" title=\"Electronics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6cc4c102223083779a5fa0e7a609cbe0\">electronic<\/a> cabinet that can be used to organize all paper and digital files.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> The software helps the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Businesses\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Businesses\" data-key=\"e6d9945fde342b5624daa88fcf4209cd\">businesses<\/a> to combine paper to digital files and store it into a single hub after it is scanned and <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_formats\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Digital formats\" data-key=\"bb8853a12bf2b6c11738d217146bda0a\">digital formats<\/a> gets imported.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Web_based\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Web based\" data-key=\"3d98efcc24ed9ba84ac92610941b6583\">Web based<\/a> document management software are becoming the staple of the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Industry\" title=\"Industry\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3d3290d342ed6397d8d5f453d8686e4a\">industry<\/a>.<sup class=\"noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact\" style=\"white-space:nowrap;\">[<i><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wikipedia:Citation_needed\" title=\"Wikipedia:Citation needed\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b5f815aa2b02dc5fbeaa167be7366d7e\"><span title=\"This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2019)\">citation needed<\/span><\/a><\/i>]<\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"div-col columns column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 22em; -webkit-column-width: 22em; column-width: 22em;\">\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Construction_collaboration_technology\" title=\"Construction collaboration technology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f65ba582a814b108b3df63a396f8b4f\">Construction collaboration technology<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Customer_communications_management\" title=\"Customer communications management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1400f0f2e3285dd0bdbcc322ad73f51\">Customer communications management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Data_proliferation\" title=\"Data proliferation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"385ff440045f7fea4690ac382bed09e8\">Data proliferation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_automation\" title=\"Document automation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"20ee72738e1b69bef62898c10122f938\">Document automation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Documentation\" title=\"Documentation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f1a7be74b80f082ae573ff1d8a6f5e6\">Documentation<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Enterprise_content_management\" title=\"Enterprise content management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6c41c797e73c520a9ca95ccbdf23ca7e\">Enterprise content management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_repository\" title=\"Information repository\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"983d22d660b1bb04da4b544a8ff35040\">Information repository<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Information_science\" title=\"Information science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1d03d37d20fd3931e86c370316d1a14a\">Information science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Intelligent_document\" title=\"Intelligent document\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3c69cc2efa918dff3e64e2e07c46131\">Intelligent document<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_base\" title=\"Knowledge base\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dae3d5f45726413ec5e9e2654dec91e8\">Knowledge base<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Knowledge_management\" title=\"Knowledge management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8f2fb2a531340ab3802bff82a8cdaff7\">Knowledge management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Library_science\" title=\"Library science\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d0008364809b9d88fca31ad1d366db7b\">Library science<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Product_data_management\" title=\"Product data management\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"391f1a51b36de98338588155a6a199b1\">Product data management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Revision_control\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Revision control\" data-key=\"f5187cd78a5d0dd95b9723a2743cf831\">Revision control<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Snippet_management\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Snippet management\" data-key=\"3fb2d40f33e1e0a9612e55f2f49d70b8\">Snippet management<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Taxonomy_(general)\" title=\"Taxonomy (general)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4aaa26205adafdaaad56521acf7bbfb6\">Taxonomy (general)<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technical_data_management_system\" title=\"Technical data management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba3b7720d81fc98a1d13ea98fdcb269a\">Technical data management system<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Technical_documentation\" title=\"Technical documentation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8bd9b24505c17507d13718483570f036\">Technical documentation<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist columns references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-1\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.policystat.com\/health-systems-or-networks\/\" target=\"_blank\">Policy Management System<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111029013250\/http:\/\/www.policystat.com\/health-systems-or-networks\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 29 October 2011 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-2\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.policystat.com\/blog\/2011\/11\/08\/making-medical-office-policies-easier-to-find-with-stemming\/\" target=\"_blank\">Stemming: Making searching easier<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20120111094547\/http:\/\/www.policystat.com\/blog\/2011\/11\/08\/making-medical-office-policies-easier-to-find-with-stemming\/\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 11 January 2012 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ParsonsEffective04-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ParsonsEffective04_3-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Parsons, M. (2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=R_oRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA234\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Effective Knowledge Management for Law Firms<\/i><\/a>. Oxford University Press. p. 234. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780195169683<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Effective+Knowledge+Management+for+Law+Firms&rft.pages=234&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780195169683&rft.aulast=Parsons&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR_oRDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ShivakumarEnter16-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-ShivakumarEnter16_4-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Shivakumar, S.K. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=wFK9DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA93\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Enterprise Content and Search Management for Building Digital Platforms<\/i><\/a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 93. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781119206828<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enterprise+Content+and+Search+Management+for+Building+Digital+Platforms&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781119206828&rft.aulast=Shivakumar&rft.aufirst=S.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwFK9DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FletcherWorkflow03-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-FletcherWorkflow03_5-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-FletcherWorkflow03_5-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Fletcher, A.N.; Brahm, M.; Pargmann, H. (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Z0VuXKlaLNcC&pg=PA16\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Workflow Management with SAP WebFlow: A Practical Manual<\/i><\/a>. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 15\u201316. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9783540404033<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Workflow+Management+with+SAP+WebFlow%3A+A+Practical+Manual&rft.pages=15-16&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9783540404033&rft.aulast=Fletcher&rft.aufirst=A.N.&rft.au=Brahm%2C+M.&rft.au=Pargmann%2C+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ0VuXKlaLNcC%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WebberITGov16-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WebberITGov16_6-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Webber, M.; Webber, L. (2016). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=4OzyDAAAQBAJ&pg=SA41-PA4\" target=\"_blank\"><i>It Governance: Policies and Procedures<\/i><\/a>. Wolters Kluwer. p. 41-4. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781454871323<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=It+Governance%3A+Policies+and+Procedures&rft.pages=41-4&rft.pub=Wolters+Kluwer&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781454871323&rft.aulast=Webber&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Webber%2C+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4OzyDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DSA41-PA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-TrinchieriEval03-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-TrinchieriEval03_7-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Trinchieri, D. (2003). <i>Evaluation of Integrated Document Management System (IDMS) Options for the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT)<\/i>. Arizona Department of Transportation. p. 158. <q>The data validation rules should be embedded in the form itself, rather than accomplished in a post-processing environment. This provides the use an interactive real-time experience. Often data validation requires a database look-up. The rules should allow this database query, providing the user real-time choices based on query results.<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evaluation+of+Integrated+Document+Management+System+%28IDMS%29+Options+for+the+Arizona+Department+of+Transportation+%28ADOT%29&rft.pages=158&rft.pub=Arizona+Department+of+Transportation&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Trinchieri&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MorleyUnder14-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MorleyUnder14_8-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Morley, D.; Parker, C.S. (2014). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=bDAeCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA558\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Understanding Computers: Today and Tomorrow, Comprehensive<\/i><\/a>. Cengage Learning. p. 558\u2013559. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781285767277<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Computers%3A+Today+and+Tomorrow%2C+Comprehensive&rft.pages=558-559&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781285767277&rft.aulast=Morley&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Parker%2C+C.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbDAeCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA558&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MeurantInto12-1-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-MeurantInto12-1_9-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-MeurantInto12-1_9-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-MeurantInto12-1_9-2\"><sup><i><b>c<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Meurant, G. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=lzGGHLDERYIC&pg=PA120\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Introduction to Electronic Document Management Systems<\/i><\/a>. Academic Press. p. 120. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780323140621<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Electronic+Document+Management+Systems&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780323140621&rft.aulast=Meurant&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlzGGHLDERYIC%26pg%3DPA120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SommervilleImp06-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SommervilleImp06_10-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Sommerville, J.; Craig, N. (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QkUqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA130\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Implementing IT in Construction<\/i><\/a>. Routledge. p. 130. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781134198986<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Implementing+IT+in+Construction&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781134198986&rft.aulast=Sommerville&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Craig%2C+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQkUqBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SkipperHowTo15-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-SkipperHowTo15_11-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Skipper, S.L. (2015). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=HLIDCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10\" target=\"_blank\"><i>How to Establish a Document Control System for Compliance with ISO 9001:2015, ISO 13485:2016, and FDA Requirements<\/i><\/a>. ASQ Quality Press. p. 156. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780873899178<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+Establish+a+Document+Control+System+for+Compliance+with+ISO+9001%3A2015%2C+ISO+13485%3A2016%2C+and+FDA+Requirements&rft.pages=156&rft.pub=ASQ+Quality+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780873899178&rft.aulast=Skipper&rft.aufirst=S.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHLIDCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AusterberryDigital12-1-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-AusterberryDigital12-1_12-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Austerberry, D. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=c5ncAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Digital Asset Management<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. pp. 27\u201328. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781136033629<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Digital+Asset+Management&rft.pages=27-28&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781136033629&rft.aulast=Austerberry&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc5ncAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AusterberryDigital12-2-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">^ <a href=\"#cite_ref-AusterberryDigital12-2_13-0\"><sup><i><b>a<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a> <a href=\"#cite_ref-AusterberryDigital12-2_13-1\"><sup><i><b>b<\/b><\/i><\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Austerberry, D. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=c5ncAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT38\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Digital Asset Management<\/i><\/a>. CRC Press. p. 30. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781136033629<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Digital+Asset+Management&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781136033629&rft.aulast=Austerberry&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc5ncAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WhiteEnterprise12-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-WhiteEnterprise12_14-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">White, M. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=4M46PRgJmJYC&pg=PA73\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Enterprise Search<\/i><\/a>. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp. 73\u201374. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9781449330408<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enterprise+Search&rft.pages=73-74&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781449330408&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4M46PRgJmJYC%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-pub-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-pub_15-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">International Organization for Standardization. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=140&ICS3=40&\" target=\"_blank\">\"01.140.40: Publishing\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110606045311\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=140&ICS3=40&\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 June 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 July<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=01.140.40%3A+Publishing&rft.au=International+Organization+for+Standardization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fproducts%2Fstandards%2Fcatalogue_ics_browse.htm%3FICS1%3D01%26ICS2%3D140%26ICS3%3D40%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-itpub-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-itpub_16-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">International Organization for Standardization. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/catalogue_ics_browse?ICS1=35&ICS2=240&ICS3=30&\" target=\"_blank\">\"35.240.30: IT applications in information, documentation and publishing\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110606045331\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/catalogue_ics_browse?ICS1=35&ICS2=240&ICS3=30&\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 June 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 July<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=35.240.30%3A+IT+applications+in+information%2C+documentation+and+publishing&rft.au=International+Organization+for+Standardization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fcatalogue_ics_browse%3FICS1%3D35%26ICS2%3D240%26ICS3%3D30%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-sdmv-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-sdmv_17-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">OnSphere Corporation. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110904190514\/http:\/\/www.avidoffice.com\/docushare\/dsweb\/Get\/Document-9101\/Standard%20Operation%20Procedure%20%28SOP%29%20Document%20Management%20in%20Validated%20Environments.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"SOP Document Management in a Validated Environments\"<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span>. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.avidoffice.com\/docushare\/dsweb\/Get\/Document-9101\/Standard%20Operation%20Procedure%20(SOP)%20Document%20Management%20in%20Validated%20Environments.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> <span class=\"cs1-format\">(PDF)<\/span> on 4 September 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">25 April<\/span> 2011<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SOP+Document+Management+in+a+Validated+Environments&rft.au=OnSphere+Corporation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.avidoffice.com%2Fdocushare%2Fdsweb%2FGet%2FDocument-9101%2FStandard%2520Operation%2520Procedure%2520%28SOP%29%2520Document%2520Management%2520in%2520Validated%2520Environments.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MeurantInto12-2-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-MeurantInto12-2_18-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation book\">Meurant, G. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=lzGGHLDERYIC&pg=PA16\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Introduction to Electronic Document Management Systems<\/i><\/a>. Academic Press. p. 16. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780323140621<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">19 May<\/span> 2018<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Electronic+Document+Management+Systems&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780323140621&rft.aulast=Meurant&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlzGGHLDERYIC%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-wt-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-wt_19-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">International Organization for Standardization. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=140&ICS3=10&\" target=\"_blank\">\"01.140.10: Writing and transliteration\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20090707023803\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=140&ICS3=10&\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 7 July 2009<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 July<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=01.140.10%3A+Writing+and+transliteration&rft.au=International+Organization+for+Standardization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fproducts%2Fstandards%2Fcatalogue_ics_browse.htm%3FICS1%3D01%26ICS2%3D140%26ICS3%3D10%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-is-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-is_20-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">International Organization for Standardization. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=140&ICS3=20&\" target=\"_blank\">\"01.140.20: Information sciences\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20081205165925\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=140&ICS3=20&\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 5 December 2008<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">14 July<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=01.140.20%3A+Information+sciences&rft.au=International+Organization+for+Standardization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fproducts%2Fstandards%2Fcatalogue_ics_browse.htm%3FICS1%3D01%26ICS2%3D140%26ICS3%3D20%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-tpd-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-tpd_21-0\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\">International Organization for Standardization. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=110&\" target=\"_blank\">\"01.110: Technical product documentation\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110606045413\/http:\/\/www.iso.org\/iso\/products\/standards\/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=01&ICS2=110&\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 6 June 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">15 July<\/span> 2008<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=01.110%3A+Technical+product+documentation&rft.au=International+Organization+for+Standardization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iso.org%2Fiso%2Fproducts%2Fstandards%2Fcatalogue_ics_browse.htm%3FICS1%3D01%26ICS2%3D110%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-22\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=1271&showFR=1\" target=\"_blank\">\"Code of Federal Regulations Title 21, Part 1271\"<\/a>. Food and Drug Administration. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20111010114628\/http:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/scripts\/cdrh\/cfdocs\/cfcfr\/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=1271&showFR=1\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 October 2011<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">31 January<\/span> 2012<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Code+of+Federal+Regulations+Title+21%2C+Part+1271&rft.pub=Food+and+Drug+Administration&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcdrh%2Fcfdocs%2Fcfcfr%2FCFRSearch.cfm%3FCFRPart%3D1271%26showFR%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-23\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">\n<cite class=\"citation book\">Wiggins, Bob (2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JnDwAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Effective Document Management: Unlocking Corporate Knowledge<\/i><\/a> (2 ed.). Gower. p. 25. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" title=\"International Standard Book Number\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0150e4fecaecd60497625c1c8420694b\">ISBN<\/a> 9780566081484. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20180113184109\/https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=JnDwAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 13 January 2018<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">9 April<\/span> 2016<\/span>. <q>At the organisational level an information systems strategy plan (ISSP) is a way to determine in general terms what information systems an organisation should have in place over the medium to long term (typically around three to five years [...]).<\/q><\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Effective+Document+Management%3A+Unlocking+Corporate+Knowledge&rft.pages=25&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Gower&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780566081484&rft.aulast=Wiggins&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJnDwAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><cite class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.businessnewsdaily.com\/8026-choosing-a-document-management-system.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Document Management Systems - A Buyer's Guide\"<\/a>. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170110162200\/http:\/\/www.businessnewsdaily.com\/8026-choosing-a-document-management-system.html\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> from the original on 10 January 2017<span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved <span class=\"nowrap\">10 January<\/span> 2017<\/span>.<\/cite><span title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Document+Management+Systems+-+A+Buyer%27s+Guide&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessnewsdaily.com%2F8026-choosing-a-document-management-system.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADocument+management+system\" class=\"Z3988\"><\/span><link rel=\"mw-deduplicated-inline-style\" href=\"mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886058088\"\/><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><b><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">^<\/a><\/b><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\">Chaouni, Mamoun (5 February 2015). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text\" href=\"#QByJYdR4YItDZzq1.97\">\"7 Powerful Advantages of Using a Document Management System\"<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170110162348\/http:\/\/www.business2community.com\/tech-gadgets\/7-powerful-advantages-using-document-management-system-01148648\" target=\"_blank\">Archived<\/a> 10 January 2017 at the <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Wayback_Machine\" title=\"Wayback Machine\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b3e78766ed960ef978ae6dcb27c1842\">Wayback Machine<\/a><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_links\">External links<\/span><\/h2>\n\n<ul><li><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/curlie.org\/Computers\/Software\/Document_Management\" target=\"_blank\">Software\/Document Management<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Curlie\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" title=\"Curlie\" data-key=\"f2bf78e9dbc70f166d4b3bd9f21cf9f3\">Curlie<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p class=\"mw-empty-elt\">\n<\/p>\n\n<p><!-- \nNewPP limit report\nParsed by mw1256\nCached time: 20190330202503\nCache expiry: 2592000\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.456 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.593 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 1803\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 0\/1500000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 54576\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 1780\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 12\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 6\/500\nUnstrip recursion depth: 1\/20\nUnstrip post\u2010expand size: 73859\/5000000 bytes\nNumber of Wikibase entities loaded: 1\/400\nLua time usage: 0.264\/10.000 seconds\nLua memory usage: 5.01 MB\/50 MB\n-->\n<!--\nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 525.878 1 -total\n<\/p>\n<pre>51.20% 269.238 1 Template:Reflist\n32.14% 169.028 14 Template:Cite_book\n11.62% 61.103 2 Template:Fix\n11.23% 59.044 1 Template:When\n 9.63% 50.655 8 Template:Cite_web\n 9.14% 48.052 1 Template:Commons_category\n 6.96% 36.585 2 Template:Redirects_here\n 6.52% 34.273 4 Template:Category_handler\n 6.06% 31.889 1 Template:Authority_control\n<\/pre>\n<p>-->\n<\/p><p><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:71608-1!canonical and timestamp 20190330202502 and revision id 889705701\n<\/p>\n<pre>-->\n<\/pre>\n<\/div>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>This article is a direct transclusion of <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Document_management_system\" data-key=\"8235aea0fbac667128bf4f6c18ad7536\">the Wikipedia article<\/a> and therefore may not meet the same editing standards as LIMSwiki.\n<\/p>\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202945\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.185 seconds\nReal time usage: 0.287 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 5\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 20\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 20\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 0\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 2\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 278.327 1 - wikipedia:Document_management_system\n100.00% 278.327 1 - -total\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:10594-0!*!*!*!*!*!* and timestamp 20190403202944 and revision id 33268\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Document_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Document_management_system<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","b9d429b16b89b35fe74097a3e0c2d1ee_images":[],"b9d429b16b89b35fe74097a3e0c2d1ee_timestamp":1554323384,"23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1_type":"article","23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1_title":"LIS feature","23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature","23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tLIS feature\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\n \n You can find a listing of all LIS vendors \u2014 and by extension, the features their products offer \u2014 on the LIS vendor page. \n\n\n Thousands of hospital laboratories like this one benefit from the use of a laboratory information system.A LIS feature is one or more pieces of functionality that appear within a laboratory information system (LIS).\nThe LIS has traditionally been utilized in clinical, pathology, and medical research laboratories as well as numerous public health institutions.[1] Yet as laboratory demands have changed and technological progress has continued, the functions of a LIS have also changed, with the distinction between a LIS and a laboratory information management system (LIMS) fading as some LIMS vendors have adopted the case-centric information management normally reserved for a LIS.[2][3].\nDespite the blurring of distinction between a LIS and a LIMS, the LIS generally continues to feature the following[4]:\n\n patient management, including admission date, admitting physician, ordering department, specimen type, etc.\n patient data tracking\n decision support, including comparisons of lab orders with their respective ICD codes\n quality assurance of ordered tests\n workload and management reporting\nOf course, there are LIS features that are difficult to categorize or simply contribute to the whole of the LIS rather than add a function. For example, multilingual support allows users to interact with the LIS in more than one language. Some functionality may also overlap several research phases, making it difficult to firmly classify. \nThe features described below come from an analysis of freely available LIS product information on vendor websites. An attempt was made to discover the features most utilized in vendors' LIS products and collect information on those features for each LIS. Not every possible feature is referenced here; some LIS products fill specific niches, utilizing unique functionality to solve a specific problem. \nThat said, keep in mind the categorization of features below is very loose. It may be viable to argue a feature belongs under a different section or multiple sections. For the purposes of organizing this information in an uncomplicated manner, however, some liberty has been taken in the categorizing of features.\n\nContents\n\n1 Experiment, patient, and data management \n\n1.1 Sample login and management \n1.2 Sample tracking \n1.3 Sample and result batching \n1.4 Task and event scheduling \n1.5 Option for manual result entry \n1.6 Multiple data viewing methods \n1.7 Configurable templates and forms \n1.8 Data and trend analysis \n1.9 Data and equipment sharing \n1.10 Data mining \n1.11 Customizable fields and\/or interface \n1.12 Query capability \n1.13 Import data \n1.14 Internal file or data linking \n1.15 External file or data linking \n1.16 ELN support or integration \n1.17 Export to MS Excel \n1.18 Raw data management \n1.19 Data warehouse \n1.20 Project and\/or task management \n1.21 Test, experiment, and\/or trial management \n1.22 Inventory management \n1.23 Document and\/or image management \n1.24 Patient and case management \n1.25 Workflow management \n1.26 Specification management \n1.27 Customer, supplier, and physician management \n1.28 Billing and revenue management \n\n\n2 Quality, security, and compliance \n\n2.1 Regulatory compliance \n2.2 QA\/QC functions \n2.3 Performance evaluation \n2.4 Audit trail \n2.5 Chain of custody \n2.6 Configurable roles and security \n2.7 Data normalization \n2.8 Data validation \n2.9 Data encryption \n2.10 Version control \n2.11 Automatic data backup \n2.12 Environmental monitoring \n\n\n3 Reporting, barcoding, and printing \n\n3.1 Custom reporting \n3.2 Synoptic reporting \n3.3 Report printing \n3.4 Label support \n3.5 Barcode and\/or RFID support \n3.6 Export to PDF \n3.7 Export to MS Word \n3.8 Export to HTML or XML \n3.9 Fax integration \n3.10 Email integration \n\n\n4 Base functionality \n\n4.1 Administrator management \n4.2 Modular \n4.3 Instrument interfacing and management \n4.4 Mobile device integration \n4.5 Third-party software integration \n4.6 Alarms and\/or alerts \n4.7 Work-related time tracking \n4.8 Voice recognition system \n4.9 External monitoring \n4.10 Messaging \n4.11 Commenting \n4.12 Multilingual \n4.13 Network-capable \n4.14 Web client or portal \n4.15 Online or integrated help \n4.16 Software as a service delivery model \n4.17 Usage-based cost \n\n\n5 References \n\n\n\nExperiment, patient, and data management \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n \nSample login and management \nSample login and management \u2014 often referred to as accessioning or specimen management \u2014 is an important component of the clinical laboratory, whether it's a molecular pathology lab testing samples for disease indicators or a contract lab running pharmacokinetic and biomarker analysis on samples from a clinical trial.[5][6] As such, researchers and technicians who work in these types of labs are unable to complete their tasks without an effective method of managing samples. The process of sample management and accessioning includes, but is not limited to[7][5]:\n\n storing related sample information, including demographics, dates, and external links\n creating and documenting viewable sample container schemas with name and status\n assigning sample access rights\n assigning custom sample ID or accessioning numbers based on a specification\n applying additional processing to the sample before storage and\/or analysis\nAdditional functionality that could potentially fall under this feature:\n\n barcoding or RFID tagging of samples\n defining sample points and series\n creating data associations for samples - such as pedigree for sample\/aliquot relationships or relationships based on experiment, etc.\n issuing sample receipts\nSample tracking \n Where's sample 20110512_122GJH? Sample tracking functionality will let you know which lab oven it's in.For most laboratory personnel, knowing that a sample has arrived to the lab isn't good enough; they need to know where it's located and what is being done with it. Enter the sample tracking feature. Without it, many problems arise. In the forensic world, for example, many samples are linked to a criminal investigation. In this case, misidentification, contamination, or duplication can become significant issues: a lost sample is essentially missing evidence, while a duplicated sample can render it useless as evidence.[8]\nAfter sample reception and its initial handling procedures, many LIS can then track sample location as well as chain of custody. Location tracking usually involves assigning the sample to a particular freezer, oven, or other location, often down to the granular level of shelf, rack, box, row, and column. The process of tracking a sample has become more streamlined with increasing support of 2-D barcode or radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology. While handwritten labels were the norm, now barcode and RDIF support in a LIS can \"tie together a vast amount of information, clearly relating each sample to a specific case.\"[8] Other event tracking such as freeze and thaw cycles that a sample undergoes in the laboratory may also be required. As each laboratory's needs for tracking additional data points can vary widely, many modern LIMS and LIS have implemented extensive configurability to compensate for varying environments.[9]\nThe functionality of sample tracking strongly ties into the audit trail and chain of custody features of a LIS.\n\nSample and result batching \nWhat is batching? The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines a batch as \"a group of samples which behave similarly with respect to the sampling or testing procedures being employed and which are processed as a unit.\"[10] This definition can be applied to many laboratories which handle large quantities of samples for some form of analysis or processing. A LIS that has the ability to check in, link, and track groups of samples across one or multiple facilities is valuable to such laboratories. Additionally, batching the analysis results of multiple samples or groups of samples gives laboratories more flexibility with how they manage their data. Batching also offers the benefit of mimicking the production groups of samples while also capturing quality control data for the entire group.\n\nTask and event scheduling \nWithin the context of a LIS, the ability to schedule a task or event is a natural extension of how work was done in a laboratory before the advent of data management systems. Sample processing, data analysis, equipment maintenance, and case management follow-ups are assigned to technicians and other personnel. Outpatient scheduling is another aspect of some clinical atmospheres, better handled with computerized scheduling functionality. While these tasks have in the past been performed without the LIS, a modern data management system can now optimize those tasks and provide additional scheduling functionality to streamline the operation of a lab. Some LISs like Elekta AB's IntelliLab include a scheduling calendar for recurring test orders, rules-based orders, and pre-defined selection lists.[11] Additional functionality within this feature group includes the ability to configure automated assignments of experiment requests, establish recurring events, and in most cases, create printable reports.\nExamples of tasks and events that can feasibly be scheduled in a LIS include:\n\n production of reports\n creation and sending of e-mails and alerts\n maintenance of equipment\n assignment of accessioning tasks to technicians\n scheduling outpatient visits\nOption for manual result entry \nWhile many LIS vendors tout the ability of their product to automate the entry of sample analysis results into LIS' or other databases, the need for manual data entry of analysis results still exists. This feature is important to laboratories obtaining analysis results from multiple sources, including non-digital paper-based results and instruments that can't be connected to the LIS. Additional functionality associated with this feature includes a customizable spell-check dictionary and the ability to add comments, notes, and narratives to many of the data items in the LIS.\n\nMultiple data viewing methods \nHospitals, physicians, and clinical research facilities produce reams of data, and the LIS exists to help organize and distribute that data to the necessary entities. Additionally, even before the existence of the LIS, scientists have had a corresponding need for visually representing that data for clearer analysis and hypothesis creation. Today a LIS can not only collect and analyze data, but it also can represent that data in reports, graphs, gradients, and spreadsheets. Depending on the LIS, more than one way to visually represent the data may exist. \nThis category ties in with the custom templates and forms functionality apparent in some LIS, providing both custom and standardized ways to present information across a healthcare or medical research enterprise.\n\nConfigurable templates and forms \nSimilar to an electronic laboratory notebook (ELN), a template in a LIS is a functionality item which allows users to increase the productivity and quality of their work by allowing for the creation of a standardized analysis page, patient page, or reporting process across a healthcare or medical research enterprise. These templates allow researchers to maintain more consistent data representation for similar tasks in the LIS and save time by not needing to manually input common data outputs or recreate experiments. Templates and forms typically utilize a wide field library, and the data that is posted to those template fields can also be normalized to a specific standard. Types of templates that may be created include those for renal and blood pressure analysis, patient demographics, test ordering, and department-level reports.[12]\n\nData and trend analysis \n Some LISs allow users to analyze patient test results or clinical research data with built-in software tools. For public health centers and pharmaceutical research centers alike, data analysis plays an important role in their operations, helping clinicians and researchers make better sense of their collected data and reach valuable conclusions about them. While this important phase of laboratory work has often been done externally from the LIS, it's now more common to see basic analysis tools being included. Such tools allow raw data to be imported directly to the LIS, which then can store, process, and display it in a shareable form. Vendors may include data analysis functionality by simply including Microsoft Excel compatibility or providing advanced reporting tools, or they may take a more advanced approach by programming and including their own custom data and trend analysis tools in their informatics software. As sample analysis is increasingly an important part of most if not all laboratories, such functionality \u2014 which has often come in the form of a separate application or analysis device \u2014 will likely continue to merge into software like LIS, LIMS, and other laboratory informatics solutions.[13]\nData and equipment sharing \nAside from data storage and sample registration, a modern LIS's major contribution to the laboratory is aiding in the sharing of test results, reports, and patient data with other entities across the clinical and research enterprise. Rather than pieces of information becoming misplaced or locked away in a physician's office or pathology lab, the LIS makes it easier to test results and increase the efficiency of patient-doctor-lab collaboration in general. Yet data is more than just test results; it also can come in the form of charts, reports, policy and procedure, and other documents. Additionally, the need for controlling who has access to those types of data is also an important consideration. As such, this feature is at least partially tied to other features like document management and configurable security.\n\nData mining \nData mining, in the field of computational science, involves \"the process of discovering interesting and useful patterns and relationships in large volumes of data\" and includes three computational steps: model-learning, model evaluation, and model usage.[14] As informatics software allows both research and clinical laboratories to collect and manage increasing quantities of data, a corresponding demand for tools capable of modeling that data is appearing.[15] For example, public health laboratories may wish to utilize data mining for statistical analysis and surveillance of populations for specific diseases. LIMSs like LabWare LIMS and LISs like Orchard Harvest are examples of laboratory informatics software which incorporate data mining and reporting tools.[16][17]\n\nCustomizable fields and\/or interface \nAs thorough as some user interface (UI) developers may be in adding relevant fields and interface options for end users, there are at times options that are either omitted or unanticipated. This has traditionally required the end user to contact the vendor and ask if the needed option(s) can be added in the next release. However, many modern LIS vendors have responded instead by adding functionality that gives end users and\/or LIS administrators more control over the user interface. \nAspects of the LIS's user interface that are often customizable by the end user include:\n\n report interface and display\n patient profile display\n project and experiment display\nNote in many cases an interface may be customized through the use of templates and forms, and as such, this functionality may be closely tied to the configurable templates and forms functionality.\n\nQuery capability \nAs was the case before the advent of databases and electronic data management solutions, today researchers must search through test results, patient notes, and other types of data to better draw conclusions from experiments, diagnose patient illnesses, and plan pharmaceutical research activities. Whereas this used to mean browsing through laboratory notebooks, Excel spreadsheets, or Access databases, now powerful query tools exists within data management tools like the LIS and ELN. A flexible search algorithm can be implemented to allow users to search a dataset by patient name (full or partial) or by any accessioning number. Or more advanced query tools may be implemented to collate and search across multiple datasets.\nQuery functionality often includes the ability to:\n\n search both transactional data and archived data tables\n search multiple databases via an application programming interface (API) or open database connectivity (ODBC) connection \n filter and sort data\n collate queried data for further analysis and visualization\n create ad-hoc queries\nImport data \nData can originate from numerous places in the laboratory. The ability to import that data into a LIS can be beneficial, especially when an instrument can't be connected or external clients collaborating on a project need to submit relevant data. Of course instrument interfacing allows for even more importation options. Additional data validation procedures may be applied to the imported data to guarantee information homogeneity. For the LIS, one of the common sources of importing data is a separate electronic medical record (EMR) system, for collecting patient data and test orders.[18][19]\n\nInternal file or data linking \n Many informatics systems allow for internal linking of data; however, entities outside of the system often need to access the data housed within. A LIS is often capable of such external data linking.This feature allows research collaborators using a LIS to link together sample batches, reports, protocols, results, and more, providing greater contextual clarity to projects and datasets. Examples include:\n linking a sample batch to a test or sample preparation methodology\n linking a test process to a particular experiment\n linking a report to a sample batch\n linking a group of experiment results to a raw data file\n linking multiple images to a patient record\n linking all experiment results with the correct reporting test methods\nExternal file or data linking \nThis feature allows research collaborators using a LIS to link together data and files housed in the database with data, files, and customers outside the LIS's domain. Examples include:\n\n linking to an external practice management or electronic medical record (EMR) system using an an HL7-compliant interface\n linking one public health data source with others to pool demographic and medical information for better disease modeling\n linking to separate clinical trial laboratory data files within a report\nELN support or integration \nThe functionality of a LIMS and an ELN began to blur in the 2000s, with both types of software incorporating features from the other.[20][21] It has been more common to see a LIMS take on some sort of ELN support (or vice versa), but less common in the LIS. Though uncommon, some LIS may include some sort of integration or compatibility with an ELN, and thusly this functionality is at least mentioned.\n\nExport to MS Excel \nWhile Microsoft Excel has long been used within the laboratory setting, a slow shift towards relational databases and LIMS occurred in the late 1990s and early 2000s.[22] Additional concerns with the difficulties of Excel's validation and compliance with FDA 21 CFR Part 11 and other regulations have led many labs to turn to data management solutions that are easier to validate.[23] Nevertheless, laboratories continue to use Excel in some fashion, and thus Excel integration or data exportation in Excel format is a real need for LIS customers. LISs with this feature allow raw, processed, or imported data to be exported in the Excel format for further analysis and dissemination elsewhere in the LIS or externally from it.\n\nRaw data management \nWhile not described as a feature on most LIS vendor websites, a few indicate their product is capable of managing (import, export, editing, etc.) data in its raw format for future analysis and dissemination.\n\nData warehouse \nAn LIS's data warehouse serves the important function of storing, extracting, and managing the data that laboratories, physician offices, and other facilities produce for the purposes of analysis, reporting, and dissemination, typically separate from the primary storage database. Data warehouses also offer the benefit of speeding up queries, making queries and data mining more user-friendly, and smoothing out data gaps.[24]\n\nProject and\/or task management \nProject and task management within a LIS typically involves the scheduling of tasks to technicians and organizing associated tasks into a more cohesive unit for better tracking and management. While the functionality of task and event scheduling can also be found in project and task management, many LISs include functionality beyond scheduling that warrants the addition of the project and\/or task management feature. This functionality includes:\n\n job allocation and rescheduling\n instrument workload tracking\n pending workload verification\n project- and experiment-based workflow management\n sample, batch, and document linking\n work template sharing\n recurring event management\nSee also: Patient and case management\n\nTest, experiment, and\/or trial management \nSpecimen or sample test management is a common component of a LIS, while experiment and research trial management functionality is a component of some LISs, often limited to those that are designed to help manage clinical trials. Test, experiment, and trial management can cover a wide variety of tasks, from setting up the design of a clinical trial to specimen task assignments, from ordering tests for patients to planning trial experiments. Note: this may also be referred to as \"order management\" with some vendors.\nIt's worth noting this functionality category may seem broad in scope and include other functionality listed on this page, including workflow management and project and task management. Its inclusion when reviewing software functionality is primarily to indicate when a vendor or project team indicates the existence of specific test, experiment, or trial management tools in their software.\n\nInventory management \nLaboratories use a wide array of inventory, from reagents to glassware, from radiopharmaceuticals to laboratory baths. With that comes the need to know how much\/many and the frequency of use. For this, some LIS products (especially those for pathology labs) now offer limited or full-featured inventory management functionality, which may include the ability to:\n\n register the origin and demographics of incoming materials.\n track used and in-use items via barcodes or RFID tags.\n track inventory reduction based on usage and shipping out of the lab.\n create alerts for when items reach a certain stock level.\n calculate inventory cost and fluctuation.\n manage transportation and routing.\n manual incrementing\/decrementing of items.\n track location and usage of laboratory equipment.\n track location and usage of reagents.\n assign storage locations.\n track forensic evidence.\nIt should be noted electronic equipment may also be considered inventory, and thus there is likely some functionality crossover with instrument management features.\n\nDocument and\/or image management \n Standard operating procedures, workflow diagrams, and business models can all be handled effectively with document management functionality.Standard operation procedures, (SOPs), specifications, reports, graphs, images, and receipts are all collected and used in the average laboratory. With a LIS already designed to reference and store test and patient data of all types, it makes sense to include functionality to create, import, export, and manage other sorts of data files. As experimental data can be indexed, queried, and linked, so too can document data. Functionality of a typical document management system includes the ability to:\n upload and index documents.\n add images and photos inline to a patient or case entry.\n enforce version control.\n provide full text searches.\n export to PDF, XML, or other relevant formats.\n add documents as attachments.\nPatient and case management \nThe laboratory information system (LIS) has played an important role in the case management tasks of patient-centric and clinical laboratories. LIS products have included patient or case management tools suitable for the clinical, public health, and veterinary industries, as well as the fields of law enforcement and forensic science. Functionality seen in the patient and case management feature includes:\n\n case accessioning and assignment\n disease tracking\n trend analysis\n clinical history follow-up\n out-of-range result alerts\n document and result association\n evidence control\n study management\n collating of patient data across multiple spectrum\nWorkflow management \n Capturing workflow in the lab is becoming more commonplace for laboratory informatics products.Workflow management is common in the laboratory, acting as a graphical representation of planned sequential steps to either automate or clarify a process or experiment within the lab. Separate standards-based workflow management systems (in the form of a software component) have traditionally performed this task.[25] However, in the 2000s vendors began incorporating workflow management functionality into their laboratory informatics software, reducing customization headaches in the process.[26] \nModern commercial and open-source LIS solutions recognize clinical laboratory workflow often has its own share of requirements, requiring specific workflow management functionality, including[27]:\n\n managing the request cycle within a laboratory\n organizing and executing diagnostic testing\n managing specific chemistry- and biology-related procedures\n defining activity attributes\n managing automation tools to better workflows\n re-route samples based on changes to a process\n dynamically modifying workflow in case of future changes\n receiving notification of changes to the workflow\nSpecification management \nSpecification (spec) management is vital to not only the manufacturing and research industries but also to a host of other laboratories requiring precise measurements and infallible test methods. Just as the ASTM offers standards and specs for laboratory informatics software[28], so too do users have standards and specs for their laboratory. \nSpec management has primarily been seen in a manufacturing execution system (MES) or a LIMS, but occasionally a LIS may appear which includes such functionality. With spec management in place, laboratories can then:\n\n enforce standard operating procedures and business rules.\n create specs down to a project or sample level.\n validate recipes and procedures.\n accept or reject sample batches.\n document internal and external spec history.\nNote some of the functionality of spec management may cross over into the realm of quality control and data validation.\n\nCustomer, supplier, and physician management \nUnless a laboratory is conducting internalized independent research, in most cases it will do business with external entities such as contract labs, physician offices, equipment providers, and reagent suppliers. In some cases, even internal employees may be considered a customer, necessitating documentation of who is using the system and in what ways. For a veterinary lab, the customer may be the animal and handler. For a forensic lab the customer may be more complex: internal staff, university staff, police departments, and maintainers of nationwide crime databases may all at some point act as customers. In these cases, documenting these various points of contact and linking them to tests, equipment, and patients becomes vital. Managing demographics, complaints, correspondence, and history are all feasible with customer, supplier, and physician management functionality. This process is often made simpler through the use of a more context-neutral entity creation system, which allows for more flexible management of contacts.\nThis feature may also be referred to as contact management, an address book module, or a customer service module.\n\nBilling and revenue management \nWhile the finances of a laboratory are important, they've typically been handled separately as a business process. However, some LISs include additional functionality to make handling financial transactions and documentation of all sorts possible within the LIS. In theory, such functionality brings the possibility of keeping more of a laboratory's data centrally located and queryable. This feature may include[11][29]:\n\n payment processing\n expense reporting\n price quotes\n revenue management\n workload tracking of billable hours\n bill of materials\n sales team and client management\n profitability analysis\n medical necessity checks\n\n \nQuality, security, and compliance \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n \nRegulatory compliance \nThe topic of whether or not a LIS meets regulatory compliance is often a complex one. While Title 21 CFR Part 11 has arguably had the largest influence on an electronic data management system's compliance, other influential standards have shaped the way laboratory informatics systems handle and store data.[30][31][32] Other compliance-based codes, standards, and regulations include:\n\n ASTM \n ASCLD\/LAB \n Classified data\n Freedom of information legislation (various)\n GALP and GAMP \n HIPAA \n Health Level 7\t\n ICD\n ISO\/IEC 17025\n ISO 9000\/9001\n ISO\/TS 16949\n ODBC\n TNI and NELAP \n Title 40 CFR Part 3\nWith so many codes, standards, and regulations, LIS consumers are advised to contact vendors with their user requirements and ask how the vendor's software meets and\/or exceeds those requirements.\n\nQA\/QC functions \nThe quality management functions of a LIS allow users to maintain a level of necessary quality across many of the functions in a laboratory. Some of the activities quality assurance \/ quality control functionality allows for includes[33][34][35]:\n\n force random review of cases by second pathologist before case verification\n receive and process QC results from laboratory analyzers\n create user rules\n set up custom alerts and flags for out-of-range results\n observe standard deviations in outcome research\n review and sign off on data electronically\n delta checking\nPerformance evaluation \nAs document and file management plays an important role in clinical and research laboratories, it only makes sense to collate and store all the associated data for future reference, including documentation relating to individual training and performance. Changes to laboratory techniques, scientific understanding, and business practices force lab technicians and researchers to learn, reevaluate, and demonstrate competency in order to maintain quality levels in the laboratory. Evaluations can frequently extend beyond staff members, however. Clinics, visit types, vendors, or test species can also be tracked and evaluated based on custom criteria. The performance evaluation functionality of a LIS makes this possible. \nThat functionality typically includes the ability to maintain training records and history, and also to link that training to a technique or piece of equipment. Afterwards, the staff member, vendor, etc. can be marked as competent or certified in the equipment, knowledge, or process. Periodical assessment of the training and its practical effectiveness can later be performed. Productivity of an entity or process can also be gauged over a certain date range based on tracked time, pre-determined milestones, or some other criteria.\n\nAudit trail \n Whether validating an instrument's data or an entire LIS, maintaining an audit trail is an important part of 21 CFR Part 11 compliance. As codes and regulations like Title 21 CFR Part 11 mandate \"computer systems (including hardware and software), controls, and attendant documentation\" utilize electronic signatures and audit trails[36], LIS developers must put serious thought into how their software handles audit trail functionality. The audit trail \u2014 documentation of the sequence of activities that have affected an action \u2014 must be thorough and seamlessly integrated into the software. \n\r\n\nInformation recorded in the audit trail typically includes:\n\n operator code\t\n time stamp\t\n location\n case number\n accessioning number\n transaction type\n amount and quantity prior to change\n user notes\n\r\n\n\nChain of custody \nThe chain of custody (COC) of an item is of varying importance, depending on the type of laboratory. A highly regulated laboratory that works under Code of Federal Regulation or other guidelines makes tracking COC a vital part of its operations. This is especially true in forensic labs, which depend on continuous accountability of their evidence collection, retention, and disposal procedures.[37] As with an audit trail, a laboratory depends on recorded information like user ID, time stamp, and location ID to maintain a robust and accurate COC. Barcodes and RFID tags, inventory management, and configurable security roles all play an important part in maintaining chain of custody.\n\nConfigurable roles and security \nMany roles exist within the clinical and research setting, each with its own set of responsibilities. And just as the role an individual plays within the laboratory may change, so may the responsibilities associated with each role. This sort of change necessitates a flexible and configurable security system, one that allows for the placement of individual LIS users into standardized security roles which provide role-specific access to certain functionality. Additionally, as responsibilities change within roles, that same flexible configuration is necessary for assigning or restricting access to specific functionality for each existing or newly created role. \nOf course, roles aren't always assigned on an individual level. Often large groups of individuals may need to be assigned to roles, necessitating group assignments for security purposes. For example, a group of hospital laboratory trainees may not be given access to the inventory management functionality of the system through a custom \"Trainees\" group role, while the head of the lab may be given the \"Administrator\" role, which allows that individual to access a much broader spectrum of the LIS's functionality.\n\nData normalization \nFor the purposes of describing LIS functionality, \"data normalization\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring incoming\/imported data into the LIS is standardized to the same format of existing data. \nHere's an example to better explain this issue. When a LIS is initially configured, in most if not all cases a clear standard can be set for how logged test results and their associated measurements pre- and post-analysis are recorded in the system. Perhaps all temperatures will be recorded in Celsius to three decimal places. If temperature data imported from a spreadsheet or a lab instrument is not in this format, the LIS can normalize the incoming data to match the standard already set for existing temperature data. This ensures consistency within the database and typically leads to better data validation efforts later on.\nNote: Some LIS developers may include data normalization functionality within what they may refer to as data validation functionality. The line between these two may be blurred or not exist at all.\n\nData validation \n In a LIS, data and data models can be forced through a validation process to remove errors and reconcile that those data and models.For the purposes of describing LIS functionality, \"data validation\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring existing data in the LIS \u2014 either pre-analysis or post-analysis \u2014 sufficiently meets any number of standards or thresholds set for any given data management process. This validation process may be completely automatic and system-based, or it may also include additional steps on the part of the user base utilizing additional LIS functionality, including verification of standard operating procedures (SOPs), QC samples, and QA approval.[38][39]\nNote: This functionality shouldn't be confused with the process of validating the application itself, which is an entirely different process partially falling under regulatory compliance and involves the process of ensuring \"the software is performing in a manner for which it was designed.\"[40]\n\nData encryption \nThe existence of this functionality in a LIS indicates the software has the ability to protect the integrity and authenticity of its housed data through the use of a variety of technologies which makes data unreadable except to those possessing a key\/right\/etc. to unlock\/read the data. This functionality is especially vital to the web-enabled LIS, which transfers information over the Internet in a client-server relationship. As a wide variety of encryption technologies exist, it's generally a good idea to consult with the developers of a LIS to determine the strengths and weaknesses of their employed encryption methods.\n\nVersion control \nVersion control is a form of safeguard which helps preserve data integrity and thus ties in with the topic of regulatory compliance. This is typically done by creating a modifiable new version of a piece of information rather than allowing the original to be modified. Such versioning may be applied to a wide variety of digital information housed in the LIS, including templates, training certifications, instrument logs, specifications, and process and procedure (P&P) documentation. Information tracked with such revisions includes attributes like user name, time the edit was made, and what exactly was edited. This also benefits those managing audit trails and chains of custody.\nOther LIS vendors may employ a different form of version control called file locking, which simply puts the affected information into a read-only mode for users while someone else is busy editing it. Another popular strategy is to, rather than locking the file, allow multiple people to edit a piece of information, later merging the various edits. Potential LIS buyers may need to inquire with developers to determine what type of versioning scheme is used in the vendor's software.\n\nAutomatic data backup \nThe existence of this piece of functionality in a LIS usually means information contained in one or more associated databases or data warehouses can be automatically preserved in an additional backup file. The save location for that file as well as the scheduled backup time is configurable, typically through the administrative module of the software.\n\nEnvironmental monitoring \nWhile not common at all, a few LIS may allow users to monitor the environmental conditions of not only sample storage containers but also the entire laboratory itself. Attributes like humidity, air quality, and temperature may be monitored to ensure sample storage units and experiments maintain desired conditions. This monitoring may be done by treating the storage container as a device, which must be interfaced with the LIS. Alarms may be able to be configured to notify staff if a storage container's environmental attributes go beyond a certain threshold.\n\n\n \nReporting, barcoding, and printing \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n \nCustom reporting \nReporting often provides useful information representation for gaining a clearer picture of collected data and potential trends. At a minimum, a number of pre-configured report templates typically come standard with a LIS. However, other systems are more flexible than others, offering the ability to customize reports in numerous ways. The most popular attributes of custom reporting include custom headers, custom information placement, charts, pivot tables, and multiple output formats.\nNote: Some LIS vendors may offer custom reporting as an option as an added cost, depending on the level of customization required.\n\nSynoptic reporting \nSynoptic reporting is a specific type of reporting applicable to pathology and other associated laboratories. Synoptic reporting essentially involves a structured, pre-formatted \"checklist\" of clinically and morphologically relevant data elements (ideally passed to a relational database where they are efficiently organized, searched, and retrieved), with the intent of making reporting more efficient, uniform, and relevant to internal and external researchers. This style of reporting has the advantage of obviating the need for transcription services, reducing specimen turnaround time, and prioritizing the presentation of large amounts of diagnostic information. [41] Some LISs, especially those oriented towards pathology, may include this specialized functionality. In some cases, a configurable templates or form may be utilized to structure a report in a synoptic format, providing similar functionality to a separate synoptic reporting module.\n\nReport printing \nToday's software almost universally offers the ability to print reports and other materials, so this feature may seem a bit redundant to list. Nonetheless, printer support is a feature worth confirming when considering a piece of laboratory informatics software.\n\nLabel support \nThe label \u2014 typically affixed to a sample container or piece of equipment \u2014 is a vital part of many laboratory operations.[42] Identifying information such as sample number, batch number, and barcodes are printed on such labels to ensure optimize managing the location of items in a lab. As such, numerous LISs allow users to design and print labels directly from the software.\n\n The word \"Wikipedia\" encoded in Code 128 and Code 39\nBarcode and\/or RFID support \nBarcodes offer many advantages to laboratory techs handling samples, including more accurate data input, tighter sample\/instrument associations, tighter sample\/study associations, and more room for human-readable information on a label.[42] Given such advantages, many laboratory informatics developers have integrated barcode support into their software, including support for symbologies like Code 128, Code 39, and Interleaved 2 of 5. Aside from printing options, a LISmay also offer support for a variety of barcode readers.\nAdditionally, some LIS include the ability to handle radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags, which have several advantages over a more traditional label-based approach to accessioning.[43]\nBarcode support and label support are typically found together in LIS software, but not always, thus their separation into two features.\n\nExport to PDF \nA LIS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Portable Document Format (PDF).\n\nExport to MS Word \nA LIS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Microsoft Office Word format.\n\nExport to HTML or XML \nA LIS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a HyperText Markup Language (HTML) and\/or Extensible Markup Language (XML) format.\n\nFax integration \nA LIS with this feature is able to connect with a fax machine and send information to it via manual input, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals.\n\nEmail integration \nA LIS with this feature is able to integrate with and use the electronic mail information exchange method to send reports, alerts, and more manually, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals.\n\n\n \nBase functionality \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n \nAdministrator management \nThe administrator management tools of a LIS allows researchers to set up the software most optimally for the facility and its projects. Through the administrator management interface, other features may be accessed like setting up user roles and scheduling automatic data backups.\nLike report printing, administrator management is nearly ubiquitous in laboratory informatics software, generally considered a mandatory feature. However, for the purposes of being thorough, it's important to point out its existence.\n\nModular \nThis feature indicates that a LIS has an intentional modular design, which separates some functionality into manageable components of the overall system. Generally speaking, a modular design allows for 1. the structured addition of new functionality to a LIS and 2. the limiting of overall effects on the system design as new functionality is added.\n\nInstrument interfacing and management \nIn laboratories there are instruments, and with those instruments comes scientific measurements which produce data. It's therefor natural a researcher would want to connect those instruments to a laboratory information system, which is already organizing and storing laboratory data for hospitals and medical research facilities. This sort of interfacing is typically handled with instrument-to-software interfaces, which started out as merely data-transfer mechanisms. Later that interface mechanism became much more robust as a data management tool, though often at great expense with heavy involvement from third parties.[44] Today, \"vendors can act as single source providers of the entire instrument interfacing solution,\"[45], providing a cheaper and smoother solution to laboratory informatics customers. In the clinical laboratory setting, a LIS vendor may have additional considerations to make, such as Health Level 7 (HL7) triggers, messages, and segments transported across communication interfaces.[46]\n\nFile:Mobile devices DSC 0988.JPG In some cases mobile devices like these may access and utilize a LIS, typically through a Web portal or special mobile version of the software.\nMobile device integration \nWhile not ubiquitous by any means, LIS developers are increasingly including support for mobile devices in their software, usually in the form of a separate mobile version of the software. Research and development labs, for example, potentially can put mobile technology to use in the laboratory as remotely monitoring a lab or using mobile phone microscopy.[47] Those uses aside, the relatively simple action of recording and reviewing laboratory research results while on the move or at a conference gives researchers flexibility, and LIS developers like McKesson are beginning to include that functionality.[48]\n\nThird-party software integration \nA few LIS vendors either incorporate third-party software into their product or they provide the means to integrate the LIS with other applications. The most typical integration involves simply communicating with common authoring tools like Microsoft Word, allowing users to work directly from the third-party application and then transferring the information to the LIS.\n\nAlarms and\/or alerts \nAlarms and alerts in a LIS can be automatic or scheduled, and they can come in the form of an e-mail, a pop-up message, or a mobile text message. For example, when a test result goes out-of-range, an automatic warning message can appear on the screen of the lab analyst responsible for the test. Another example: a scheduled alert can be e-mailed to a lab technician every month indicating a piece of laboratory equipment needs routine maintenance. Both scenarios represent a tiny fraction of the possible implementation of alarms and alerts in a LIS, highlighting how powerful (yet easy to take for granted) this feature is.\n\nWork-related time tracking \nThis feature specifically refers to a LIS' ability to track the amount of time an employee spends at work in general (for payroll purposes) or on more specific projects and tasks (as part of an employee work evaluation program). May also be referred to as \"workload tracking\" or \"workload tracking.\"\n\nVoice recognition system \nA LIS with this feature allows some functions of the software (for example, accessing test results) to be accessed via voice commands.\n\nExternal monitoring \nThis feature allows clients and\/or collaborators outside the laboratory to monitor the status of experiments, test results, and more via an online web portal or, less commonly, as activity alerts sent via e-mail or SMS.\n\n An instant messaging client built into a LIS often makes it easier to collaborate.\nMessaging \nThe messaging feature of a LIS may refer to one of two (or both) things:\n\n a built-in instant messaging system that allows users to converse with each other through text messages real-time\n an SMS text messaging integration that allows the users or the LIS itself to send messages or alerts to one or more user's mobile or smart phone\nCommenting \nClinical data collection and research collaboration require data sharing and communication tools to be most effective. One of the collaborative communication features of some LISs is commenting on test results, patient records, or study protocols.\n\nMultilingual \nIf a LIS is listed as multilingual, its an indication the software interface can be configured to display more than one language depending on the preference a user or administrator chooses. Some LIS interfaces can only be displayed in one of two languages (English or German, for example), while others come configured with support for dozens of languages.\n\nNetwork-capable \nThis feature is perhaps archaic and\/or obvious, but it is mentioned nonetheless. It's generally applied to a non-web-based LIS installed over a local or wide-area computer network, essentially indicating the LIS is not an isolated application, but rather one that can interface with other instances or other networked instruments.\n\nWeb client or portal \nA LIS with a web client or portal is either a web-based LIS (one that is not installed on every computer, but rather is hosted on a server and accessed via a web browser) or a non-web-based LIS with an included portal to access it via the Internet.\n\nOnline or integrated help \nThis indicates a LIS has help infrastructure integrated into the software, support documentation via the vendor's website, or both.\n\nSoftware as a service delivery model \nThis indicates the software can be licensed and utilized via the software as a service (SaaS) delivery model.\n\nUsage-based cost \nWhile rare, some software vendors allow potential clients to license and utilize the vendor's software under a usage-based cost model. An example of this model in use is Bytewize AB's O3 LimsXpress, which has a cost directly related to the amount of samples processed each month.[49]\n\n\n \nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 \"Quick Start Guide to Laboratory Information System (LIS) Implementation\" (PDF). Association of Public Health Laboratories. http:\/\/www.aphl.org\/aphlprograms\/global\/initiatives\/Documents\/LISQuickStartGuide.pdf . Retrieved 27 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Hice, Randy (01 July 2009). \"Swimming in the Clinical Pool: Why LIMS are supplanting old-school clinical LIS applications\". STARLIMS' Laboratory Informatics Blog. http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/ . Retrieved 27 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"How Do I Find the Right LIMS \u2014 And How Much Will It Cost?\" (PDF). Laboratory Informatics Institute, Inc. http:\/\/files.limstitute.com\/share\/lbgprofiles\/findlims.pdf . 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Retrieved 27 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Park, Seung Lyung; Pantanowitz, Liron; Sharma, Gaurav; Parwani, Anil Vasdev (March 2012). \"Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems: A Review\" (PDF). Advances in Anatomic Pathology 19 (2): 81\u201396. doi:10.1097\/PAP.0b013e318248b787. http:\/\/bpa-pathology.com\/uploads\/file\/docs\/Anatomic%20Pathology%20Laboratory%20Information%20Systems%20-%20A%20Review%20-%20SLPark%20et%20all.%20-%20Adv%20Anat%20Pathol%202012.pdf . Retrieved 27 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Macneil, Rory (2011). \"The benefits of integrated systems for managing both samples and experimental data: An opportunity for labs in universities and government research institutions to lead the way\". Automated Experimentation 3 (2). doi:10.1186\/1759-4499-3-2. http:\/\/www.aejournal.net\/content\/3\/1\/2 .   \n\n\u2191 \"data mining\". Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica. Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica, Inc. http:\/\/www.britannica.com\/EBchecked\/topic\/1056150\/data-mining . Retrieved 29 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Sepulveda, Jorge L.; Young, Donald S. (05 Decemeber 2012). \"The Ideal Laboratory Information System\". Archives of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine preprint. PMID 23216205. http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/23216205 . Retrieved 29 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"LabWare LIMS - Public Health\". LabWare, Inc. http:\/\/www.labware.com\/LWCLWeb.nsf\/lp\/en0203 . Retrieved 29 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Orchard Software - Data Mining\". Orchard Software Corporation. http:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/product\/h_dataMining.html . Retrieved 29 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"LabDAQ Laboratory Information System (LIS)\". CompuGroup Medical AG. http:\/\/cgmus.com\/products--solutions\/laboratory\/labdaq_lis.aspx . Retrieved 29 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Foster, Kerry (February 2006). \"Which comes first - the EMR or LIS?\" (PDF). ADVANCE for Medical Laboratory Professionals. Merion Matters. http:\/\/www.orchardsoft.com\/news_links\/WhichComesFirstEMRorLIS.pdf . Retrieved 29 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Elliot, Michael H. (December 2006\u2013January 2007). \"The state of the ELN Market\". Scientific Computing World. http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=50 . Retrieved 04 May 2011 .   \n\n\u2191 Elliot, Michael H. (October 2011). \"Informatics Convergence Presents Opportunities and Challenges\". Scientific Computing. http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/articles-IN-Informatics-Convergence-Presents-Opportunities-and-Challenges-111111.aspx . Retrieved 25 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Williams, Robert W. (2003). \"Managing Your Lab Data Flux: Getting Beyond Excel\" (PDF). The Bioinformatics of Brains: From Genes and Proteins to Behaviors. Washington, DC: Society for Neuroscience. http:\/\/www.sfn.org\/skins\/main\/pdf\/ShortCourses\/2003\/sc1_9.pdf . Retrieved 17 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Howard, David A.; David Harrison (2007). \"A Pragmatic Approach to the Validation of Excel Spreadsheets \u2013 Overview\" (PDF). Pharma IT 1 (2): 30\u201335. http:\/\/www.spreadsheetvalidation.com\/pdf\/Excel_Spreadsheet_Validation_Overview.pdf .   \n\n\u2191 Vannest, Jeff (11 February 2011). \"Advantages of a Data Warehouse\". LABVANTAGE Solutions, Inc. http:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/blog\/?p=79 . Retrieved 12 February 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Workflow Management Coalition Terminology & Glossary\" (PDF). Workflow Management Coalition. February 1999. pp. 9. http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/standards\/docs\/TC-1011_term_glossary_v3.pdf . Retrieved 20 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Maxwell, Glen (1 November 2003). \"Using Workflows in LIMS to Reduce Customization\". Scientific Computing and Instrumentation. http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/using-workflows-in-lims-to-reduce.aspx . Retrieved 20 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Feist, Kelly (22 July 2011). \"Harnessing Laboratory Information Systems to Support Increased Capacity and Staff Productivity\". LabCompare. http:\/\/www.labcompare.com\/10-Featured-Articles\/19389-Harnessing-Laboratory-Information-Systems-to-Support-Increased-Capacity-and-Staff-Productivity\/ . Retrieved 29 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E1578 - 06 Standard Guide for Laboratory Information Management Systems (LIMS)\". ASTM International. http:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm . Retrieved 22 February 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Horizon Lab Financials\". McKesson Corporation. http:\/\/www.mckesson.com\/en_us\/McKesson.com\/For%2BHealthcare%2BProviders\/Hospitals\/Laboratory%2BSolutions\/Horizon%2BLab%2BFinancials.html . Retrieved 29 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"ELN Reduces Regulatory Compliance Costs\" (PDF). Labtronics Inc. January 2005. http:\/\/www.vialis.ch\/fileadmin\/files\/imgs\/pdf\/Newsletter\/q2-09\/ELN_LAB.pdf . Retrieved 12 February 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Price, Michael (17 August 2012). \"How an ELN Mitigates the Risks Associated with Regulatory Compliance\". KineMatik Ltd. http:\/\/www.kinematik.com\/blog\/bid\/207452\/How-an-ELN-Mitigates-the-Risks-Associated-with-Regulatory-Compliance . Retrieved 12 February 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Proffitt, Allison (22 February 2012). \"ELN Excellence: The New Lab Notebooks\". BioIT World. http:\/\/www.bio-itworld.com\/2012\/02\/22\/eln-excellence-new-lab-notebooks.html . Retrieved 12 February 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Owens, S.R.; Dhir, R.; Yousem, S.A.; Kelly, S.M.; Piccoli, A.; Wiehagen, L.; Lassige, K.; Parwani, A.V. (June 2010). \"The development and testing of a laboratory information system-driven tool for pre-sign-out quality assurance of random surgical pathology reports\". American Journal of Clinical Pathology 133 (6): 836\u201341. doi:10.1309\/AJCPLN9DU9LNXSXA. http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/20472840 . Retrieved 29 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Netlims - AutoQuality\". NeTLIMS NJ, LLC. http:\/\/www.netlims.com\/lis_software_autoquality.asp . Retrieved 29 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"CLIN1 Laboratory Quality Control Software\". Clin1, LLC. http:\/\/www.clin1.net\/Quality_Control.htm . Retrieved 29 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21: Food and Drugs - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\". U.S. Government Printing Office. http:\/\/ecfr.gpoaccess.gov\/cgi\/t\/text\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=21:1.0.1.1.7&idno=21 . Retrieved 02 March 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Jones, Andrew; Craig Valli (2008). \"Chapter 1: An Introduction to Digital Forensics\". Building a Digital Forensic Laboratory: Establishing and Managing a Successful Facility. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 11. ISBN 1856175103. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC .   \n\n\u2191 \"Quality Assurance - Data Management\" (PDF). Stable Isotope Ratio Facility for Environmental Research (SIRFER) at the University of Utah. http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf . Retrieved 07 May 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Hitchcock, Noel (2005). \"Chapter 10: Efficient utilization of LIMS data and integration with mining process management systems\". In Dessureault, Sean D.; Rajive Ganguli; Vladislav Kecojevic; Jami Girard Dwyer. Application of Computers and Operations Research in the Mineral Industry. Taylor & Francis. pp. 85\u201388. doi:10.1201\/9781439833407.ch10. ISBN 9780415374491. http:\/\/www.crcnetbase.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1201\/9781439833407.ch10 .   \n\n\u2191 Turner, Elizabeth; Jojean Bolton (2001). \"Required steps for the validation of a Laboratory Information Management System\". Quality Assurance 9 (3\u20134): 217\u2013224. PMID 12553085. http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/12553085 .   \n\n\u2191 Amin, Waqas; Sirintrapun, S. Joseph; Parwani, Anil V. (August 2010). \"Utility and applications of synoptic reporting in pathology\" (PDF). Open Access Bioinformatics 2010 (2): 105\u201312. doi:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.2147\/OAB.S12295. http:\/\/www.dovepress.com\/getfile.php?fileID=7293 . Retrieved 29 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 42.0 42.1 Gilles, Clarence (1 July 2008). \"Bar Code and Sample Tracking: It All Starts with the Label\". Scientific Computing. http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx . Retrieved 8 May 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Davidowitz, Hanan (31 July 2012). \"Use of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) for Sample Tracking\". American Laboratory. http:\/\/www.americanlaboratory.com\/913-Technical-Articles\/118171-Use-of-Radio-Frequency-Identification-RFID-for-Sample-Tracking\/ . Retrieved 29 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Pavlis, Robert (May\/June 2004). \"Trends in instrument-to-LIMS interfacing\". Scientific Computing World. http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88 . Retrieved 8 May 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 DeHeer, Larry (1 October 2009). \"Instrument Interfacing - The Great Paradox of LIMS?\". LIMSfinder.com. http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=33851_0_2_0_C . Retrieved 8 May 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Section 3: Clinical and Administrative Domains - HL7 Version 2.7 Standard: Chapter 13 - Clinical Laboratory Automation\". HL7. http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=203 . Retrieved 29 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Mobile Devices: On the Move from Laboratories to Clinics\". Society for Laboratory Automation and Screening. 02 July 2012. http:\/\/www.eln.slas.org\/story\/1\/69-mobile-devices-on-the-move-from-laboratories-to-clinics . Retrieved 13 February 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Horizon MobileCare Phlebotomy\". McKesson Corporation. http:\/\/www.mckesson.com\/en_us\/McKesson.com\/For%2BHealthcare%2BProviders\/Hospitals\/Laboratory%2BSolutions\/Horizon%2BMobileCare%2BPhlebotomy.html . Retrieved 29 April 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Modern web based Lims from 10 Euro cent\/sample\". Bytewize AB. http:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3lims-xpress\/prices\/?lang=en . Retrieved 8 May 2012 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Pages with broken file linksLaboratory informatics\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 12 February 2016, at 18:02.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 85,579 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-LIS_feature skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LIS feature<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\">\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Hospital_Laboratory.JPG\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"343175bb6f7198b1c792ec0f3ee9b350\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/00\/Hospital_Laboratory.JPG\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Hospital_Laboratory.JPG\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"343175bb6f7198b1c792ec0f3ee9b350\"><\/a><\/div>Thousands of hospital laboratories like this one benefit from the use of a laboratory information system.<\/div><\/div><\/div>A <b>LIS feature<\/b> is one or more pieces of functionality that appear within a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information system<\/a> (LIS).\n<p>The LIS has traditionally been utilized in clinical, pathology, and medical research laboratories as well as numerous public health institutions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APHLandLIS_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APHLandLIS-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Yet as laboratory demands have changed and technological progress has continued, the functions of a LIS have also changed, with the distinction between a LIS and a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) fading as some LIMS vendors have adopted the case-centric information management normally reserved for a LIS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-starlimsBlogLIS_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-starlimsBlogLIS-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HowDoIFindLII_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HowDoIFindLII-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>.\n<\/p><p>Despite the blurring of distinction between a LIS and a LIMS, the LIS generally continues to feature the following<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-biohealth_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-biohealth-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> patient management, including admission date, admitting physician, ordering department, specimen type, etc.<\/li>\n<li> patient data tracking<\/li>\n<li> decision support, including comparisons of lab orders with their respective <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems\" title=\"International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1de9af67005dfe2895e5d8cf6de57d4a\">ICD<\/a> codes<\/li>\n<li> quality assurance of ordered tests<\/li>\n<li> workload and management reporting<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Of course, there are LIS features that are difficult to categorize or simply contribute to the whole of the LIS rather than add a function. For example, <a href=\"#Multilingual\">multilingual support<\/a> allows users to interact with the LIS in more than one language. Some functionality may also overlap several research phases, making it difficult to firmly classify. \n<\/p><p>The features described below come from an analysis of freely available LIS product information on vendor websites. An attempt was made to discover the features most utilized in vendors' LIS products and collect information on those features for each LIS. Not every possible feature is referenced here; some LIS products fill specific niches, utilizing unique functionality to solve a specific problem. \n<\/p><p>That said, keep in mind the categorization of features below is very loose. It may be viable to argue a feature belongs under a different section or multiple sections. For the purposes of organizing this information in an uncomplicated manner, however, some liberty has been taken in the categorizing of features.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Experiment.2C_patient.2C_and_data_management\">Experiment, patient, and data management<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p> <\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample_login_and_management\">Sample login and management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Sample login and management \u2014 often referred to as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Accessioning_(medical)\" title=\"Accessioning (medical)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3a1f1a5d35fd9152d82893878bf9aa1\">accessioning<\/a> or specimen management \u2014 is an important component of the clinical laboratory, whether it's a molecular pathology lab testing samples for disease indicators or a contract lab running pharmacokinetic and biomarker analysis on samples from a clinical trial.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MolPath_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MolPath-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PPDiClinTrial_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PPDiClinTrial-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> As such, researchers and technicians who work in these types of labs are unable to complete their tasks without an effective method of managing samples. The process of sample management and accessioning includes, but is not limited to<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabTechBook_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabTechBook-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MolPath_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MolPath-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> storing related sample information, including demographics, dates, and external links<\/li>\n<li> creating and documenting viewable sample container schemas with name and status<\/li>\n<li> assigning sample <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"472befa27a67279b2d9818a15d649ef0\">access rights<\/a><\/li>\n<li> assigning custom sample ID or accessioning numbers based on a specification<\/li>\n<li> applying additional processing to the sample before storage and\/or analysis<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Additional functionality that could potentially fall under this feature:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18070de9d8004d989632cb309a165182\">barcoding<\/a> or RFID tagging of samples<\/li>\n<li> defining sample points and series<\/li>\n<li> creating data associations for samples - such as pedigree for sample\/aliquot relationships or relationships based on experiment, etc.<\/li>\n<li> issuing sample receipts<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample_tracking\">Sample tracking<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Laboratory_oven_for_samples-01.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"d31bc29a848fcb586a58e3aa4f9822bb\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/51\/Laboratory_oven_for_samples-01.jpg\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Laboratory_oven_for_samples-01.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"d31bc29a848fcb586a58e3aa4f9822bb\"><\/a><\/div>Where's sample 20110512_122GJH? Sample tracking functionality will let you know which lab oven it's in.<\/div><\/div><\/div>For most laboratory personnel, knowing that a sample has arrived to the lab isn't good enough; they need to know where it's located and what is being done with it. Enter the sample tracking feature. Without it, many problems arise. In the forensic world, for example, many samples are linked to a criminal investigation. In this case, misidentification, contamination, or duplication can become significant issues: a lost sample is essentially missing evidence, while a duplicated sample can render it useless as evidence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForensicSamp_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForensicSamp-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>After sample reception and its initial handling procedures, many LIS can then track sample location as well as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Chain_of_custody\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f949e83daf78d8368f040cea9a8ca188\">chain of custody<\/a>. Location tracking usually involves assigning the sample to a particular freezer, oven, or other location, often down to the granular level of shelf, rack, box, row, and column. The process of tracking a sample has become more streamlined with increasing support of 2-D <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Barcode_and.2For_RFID_support\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3029c1eb2ffdf072fdcf93dfb60f7c49\">barcode<\/a> or radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology. While handwritten labels were the norm, now barcode and RDIF support in a LIS can \"tie together a vast amount of information, clearly relating each sample to a specific case.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForensicSamp_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForensicSamp-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> Other event tracking such as freeze and thaw cycles that a sample undergoes in the laboratory may also be required. As each laboratory's needs for tracking additional data points can vary widely, many modern LIMS and LIS have implemented extensive configurability to compensate for varying environments.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PP0102_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PP0102-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The functionality of sample tracking strongly ties into the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4b71f1bc0b254fbb9dba4acb2c453ae\">audit trail<\/a> and chain of custody features of a LIS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample_and_result_batching\">Sample and result batching<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>What is batching? The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines a batch as \"a group of samples which behave similarly with respect to the sampling or testing procedures being employed and which are processed as a unit.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPABatch_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPABatch-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> This definition can be applied to many laboratories which handle large quantities of samples for some form of analysis or processing. A LIS that has the ability to check in, link, and track groups of samples across one or multiple facilities is valuable to such laboratories. Additionally, batching the analysis results of multiple samples or groups of samples gives laboratories more flexibility with how they manage their data. Batching also offers the benefit of mimicking the production groups of samples while also capturing quality control data for the entire group.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Task_and_event_scheduling\">Task and event scheduling<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Within the context of a LIS, the ability to schedule a task or event is a natural extension of how work was done in a laboratory before the advent of data management systems. Sample processing, data analysis, equipment maintenance, and case management follow-ups are assigned to technicians and other personnel. Outpatient scheduling is another aspect of some clinical atmospheres, better handled with computerized scheduling functionality. While these tasks have in the past been performed without the LIS, a modern data management system can now optimize those tasks and provide additional scheduling functionality to streamline the operation of a lab. Some LISs like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Elekta_AB\" title=\"Elekta AB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4d41e088186488cc85f2a04a78f2c6e4\">Elekta AB<\/a>'s IntelliLab include a scheduling calendar for recurring test orders, rules-based orders, and pre-defined selection lists.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ILAbout_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ILAbout-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> Additional functionality within this feature group includes the ability to configure automated assignments of experiment requests, establish recurring events, and in most cases, create printable reports.\n<\/p><p>Examples of tasks and events that can feasibly be scheduled in a LIS include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> production of reports<\/li>\n<li> creation and sending of e-mails and alerts<\/li>\n<li> maintenance of equipment<\/li>\n<li> assignment of accessioning tasks to technicians<\/li>\n<li> scheduling outpatient visits<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Option_for_manual_result_entry\">Option for manual result entry<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While many LIS vendors tout the ability of their product to automate the entry of sample analysis results into LIS' or other databases, the need for manual data entry of analysis results still exists. This feature is important to laboratories obtaining analysis results from multiple sources, including non-digital paper-based results and instruments that can't be connected to the LIS. Additional functionality associated with this feature includes a customizable spell-check dictionary and the ability to add comments, notes, and narratives to many of the data items in the LIS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Multiple_data_viewing_methods\">Multiple data viewing methods<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital\" title=\"Hospital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f070c66d8123fe91063594befebdff\">Hospitals<\/a>, physicians, and clinical research facilities produce reams of data, and the LIS exists to help organize and distribute that data to the necessary entities. Additionally, even before the existence of the LIS, scientists have had a corresponding need for visually representing that data for clearer analysis and hypothesis creation. Today a LIS can not only collect and analyze data, but it also can represent that data in reports, graphs, gradients, and spreadsheets. Depending on the LIS, more than one way to visually represent the data may exist. \n<\/p><p>This category ties in with the <a href=\"#Configurable_templates_and_forms\">custom templates and forms<\/a> functionality apparent in some LIS, providing both custom and standardized ways to present information across a healthcare or medical research enterprise.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Configurable_templates_and_forms\">Configurable templates and forms<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Similar to an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebook<\/a> (ELN), a template in a LIS is a functionality item which allows users to increase the productivity and quality of their work by allowing for the creation of a standardized analysis page, patient page, or reporting process across a healthcare or medical research enterprise. These templates allow researchers to maintain more consistent data representation for similar tasks in the LIS and save time by not needing to manually input common data outputs or recreate experiments. Templates and forms typically utilize a wide field library, and the data that is posted to those template fields can also be <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Data_normalization\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d4fc9126c76ada2445b393acd0406bd2\">normalized<\/a> to a specific standard. Types of templates that may be created include those for renal and blood pressure analysis, patient demographics, test ordering, and department-level reports.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AnPathRev_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AnPathRev-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_and_trend_analysis\">Data and trend analysis<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:262px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Analyse_residus.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e109757f723abf3b557ade246e65a88\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/58\/Analyse_residus.png\" width=\"260\" height=\"94\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Analyse_residus.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"0e109757f723abf3b557ade246e65a88\"><\/a><\/div>Some LISs allow users to analyze patient test results or clinical research data with built-in software tools.<\/div><\/div><\/div> For public health centers and pharmaceutical research centers alike, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1\">data analysis<\/a> plays an important role in their operations, helping clinicians and researchers make better sense of their collected data and reach valuable conclusions about them. While this important phase of laboratory work has often been done externally from the LIS, it's now more common to see basic analysis tools being included. Such tools allow raw data to be imported directly to the LIS, which then can store, process, and display it in a shareable form. Vendors may include data analysis functionality by simply including Microsoft Excel compatibility or providing advanced reporting tools, or they may take a more advanced approach by programming and including their own custom data and trend analysis tools in their informatics software. As sample analysis is increasingly an important part of most if not all laboratories, such functionality \u2014 which has often come in the form of a separate application or analysis device \u2014 will likely continue to merge into software like LIS, LIMS, and other <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> solutions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AE0302_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AE0302-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_and_equipment_sharing\">Data and equipment sharing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Aside from data storage and sample registration, a modern LIS's major contribution to the laboratory is aiding in the sharing of test results, reports, and patient data with other entities across the clinical and research enterprise. Rather than pieces of information becoming misplaced or locked away in a physician's office or pathology lab, the LIS makes it easier to test results and increase the efficiency of patient-doctor-lab collaboration in general. Yet data is more than just test results; it also can come in the form of charts, reports, policy and procedure, and other documents. Additionally, the need for controlling who has access to those types of data is also an important consideration. As such, this feature is at least partially tied to other features like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b1d04112bbc7ff839617189de2a11ea\">document management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"472befa27a67279b2d9818a15d649ef0\">configurable security<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_mining\">Data mining<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data mining, in the field of computational science, involves \"the process of discovering interesting and useful patterns and relationships in large volumes of data\" and includes three computational steps: model-learning, model evaluation, and model usage.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DataMEnBrit_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DataMEnBrit-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> As informatics software allows both research and clinical laboratories to collect and manage increasing quantities of data, a corresponding demand for tools capable of modeling that data is appearing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-IdealLIS_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-IdealLIS-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> For example, public health laboratories may wish to utilize data mining for statistical analysis and surveillance of populations for specific diseases. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">LIMSs<\/a> like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabWare,_Inc.#LabWare_LIMS\" title=\"LabWare, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebcf51e648458d511e5cdee899eda5f0\">LabWare LIMS<\/a> and LISs like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Orchard_Software_Corporation#Orchard_Harvest\" title=\"Orchard Software Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"282d8bd34a579b527714e64d0e6ffecc\">Orchard Harvest<\/a> are examples of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> software which incorporate data mining and reporting tools.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LWDM_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LWDM-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OSDM_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OSDM-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Customizable_fields_and.2For_interface\">Customizable fields and\/or interface<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As thorough as some user interface (UI) developers may be in adding relevant fields and interface options for end users, there are at times options that are either omitted or unanticipated. This has traditionally required the end user to contact the vendor and ask if the needed option(s) can be added in the next release. However, many modern LIS vendors have responded instead by adding functionality that gives end users and\/or LIS administrators more control over the user interface. \n<\/p><p>Aspects of the LIS's user interface that are often customizable by the end user include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> report interface and display<\/li>\n<li> patient profile display<\/li>\n<li> project and experiment display<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Note in many cases an interface may be customized through the use of templates and forms, and as such, this functionality may be closely tied to the <a href=\"#Configurable_templates_and_forms\">configurable templates and forms<\/a> functionality.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Query_capability\">Query capability<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As was the case before the advent of databases and electronic data management solutions, today researchers must search through test results, patient notes, and other types of data to better draw conclusions from experiments, diagnose patient illnesses, and plan pharmaceutical research activities. Whereas this used to mean browsing through laboratory notebooks, Excel spreadsheets, or Access databases, now powerful query tools exists within data management tools like the LIS and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">ELN<\/a>. A flexible search algorithm can be implemented to allow users to search a dataset by patient name (full or partial) or by any accessioning number. Or more advanced query tools may be implemented to collate and search across multiple datasets.\n<\/p><p>Query functionality often includes the ability to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> search both transactional data and archived data tables<\/li>\n<li> search multiple databases via an application programming interface (API) or open database connectivity (ODBC) connection <\/li>\n<li> filter and sort data<\/li>\n<li> collate queried data for further <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Data_and_trend_analysis\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b53cd61b96525d390e8e857f55feaf59\">analysis<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Multiple_data_viewing_methods\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a3157377edc9fb475bb6fff589f77f16\">visualization<\/a><\/li>\n<li> create ad-hoc queries<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Import_data\">Import data<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data can originate from numerous places in the laboratory. The ability to import that data into a LIS can be beneficial, especially when an instrument can't be connected or external clients collaborating on a project need to submit relevant data. Of course <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f2d7a1f94d82fdd1d60f467fb261e9e\">instrument interfacing<\/a> allows for even more importation options. Additional <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3fc44e00d7686bffee4879207d83579\">data validation<\/a> procedures may be applied to the imported data to guarantee information homogeneity. For the LIS, one of the common sources of importing data is a separate <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_medical_record\" title=\"Electronic medical record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99a695d2af23397807da0537d29d0be7\">electronic medical record<\/a> (EMR) system, for collecting patient data and test orders.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabDaqFeats_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabDaqFeats-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EMRLIS_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EMRLIS-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Internal_file_or_data_linking\">Internal file or data linking<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Linking-Open-Data-diagram_2007-09.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"e331ad282405cb5c1a330e17d7c28294\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/89\/Linking-Open-Data-diagram_2007-09.png\" width=\"300\" height=\"237\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Linking-Open-Data-diagram_2007-09.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"e331ad282405cb5c1a330e17d7c28294\"><\/a><\/div>Many informatics systems allow for internal linking of data; however, entities outside of the system often need to access the data housed within. A LIS is often capable of such external data linking.<\/div><\/div><\/div>This feature allows research collaborators using a LIS to link together sample batches, reports, protocols, results, and more, providing greater contextual clarity to projects and datasets. Examples include:\n<ul><li> linking a sample batch to a test or sample preparation methodology<\/li>\n<li> linking a test process to a particular experiment<\/li>\n<li> linking a report to a sample batch<\/li>\n<li> linking a group of experiment results to a raw data file<\/li>\n<li> linking multiple images to a patient record<\/li>\n<li> linking all experiment results with the correct reporting test methods<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_file_or_data_linking\">External file or data linking<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature allows research collaborators using a LIS to link together data and files housed in the database with data, files, and customers outside the LIS's domain. Examples include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> linking to an external practice management or electronic medical record (EMR) system using an an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">HL7<\/a>-compliant interface<\/li>\n<li> linking one public health data source with others to pool demographic and medical information for better disease modeling<\/li>\n<li> linking to separate clinical trial laboratory data files within a report<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ELN_support_or_integration\">ELN support or integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The functionality of a LIMS and an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">ELN<\/a> began to blur in the 2000s, with both types of software incorporating features from the other.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWorld1_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWorld1-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompELN_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompELN-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup> It has been more common to see a LIMS take on some sort of ELN support (or vice versa), but less common in the LIS. Though uncommon, some LIS may include some sort of integration or compatibility with an ELN, and thusly this functionality is at least mentioned.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_MS_Excel\">Export to MS Excel<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While Microsoft Excel has long been used within the laboratory setting, a slow shift towards relational databases and LIMS occurred in the late 1990s and early 2000s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilliamsExcel_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilliamsExcel-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> Additional concerns with the difficulties of Excel's validation and compliance with FDA <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> and other regulations have led many labs to turn to data management solutions that are easier to validate.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PragmaticExcelIntro_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PragmaticExcelIntro-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> Nevertheless, laboratories continue to use Excel in some fashion, and thus Excel integration or data exportation in Excel format is a real need for LIS customers. LISs with this feature allow raw, processed, or imported data to be exported in the Excel format for further analysis and dissemination elsewhere in the LIS or externally from it.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Raw_data_management\">Raw data management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While not described as a feature on most LIS vendor websites, a few indicate their product is capable of managing (import, export, editing, etc.) data in its raw format for future analysis and dissemination.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_warehouse\">Data warehouse<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>An LIS's <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca506499cdf544371c0a0d549ff0e9ee\">data warehouse<\/a> serves the important function of storing, extracting, and managing the data that laboratories, physician offices, and other facilities produce for the purposes of analysis, reporting, and dissemination, typically separate from the primary storage database. Data warehouses also offer the benefit of speeding up queries, making queries and data mining more user-friendly, and smoothing out data gaps.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LVAdvantages_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LVAdvantages-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Project_and.2For_task_management\">Project and\/or task management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Project and task management within a LIS typically involves the scheduling of tasks to technicians and organizing associated tasks into a more cohesive unit for better tracking and management. While the functionality of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7c25ec5bd3625a184d1f2accde264bef\">task and event scheduling<\/a> can also be found in project and task management, many LISs include functionality beyond scheduling that warrants the addition of the project and\/or task management feature. This functionality includes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> job allocation and rescheduling<\/li>\n<li> instrument workload tracking<\/li>\n<li> pending workload verification<\/li>\n<li> project- and experiment-based <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e5a749677e03c808d551148f8a56ca8\">workflow management<\/a><\/li>\n<li> sample, batch, and document <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Internal_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c689e34a1ba032aeb13d1af1cdd1df5\">linking<\/a><\/li>\n<li> work template sharing<\/li>\n<li> recurring event management<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>See also: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Patient_and_case_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f42818d5e7b03ceb7b8662bd6b136dca\">Patient and case management<\/a>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Test.2C_experiment.2C_and.2For_trial_management\">Test, experiment, and\/or trial management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Specimen or sample test management is a common component of a LIS, while experiment and research trial management functionality is a component of some LISs, often limited to those that are designed to help manage clinical trials. Test, experiment, and trial management can cover a wide variety of tasks, from setting up the design of a clinical trial to specimen task assignments, from ordering tests for patients to planning trial experiments. <b>Note<\/b>: this may also be referred to as \"order management\" with some vendors.\n<\/p><p>It's worth noting this functionality category may seem broad in scope and include other functionality listed on this page, including <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5e5a749677e03c808d551148f8a56ca8\">workflow management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Project_and_task_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9ab10d8804cc7760a8dbb976681e0ced\">project and task management<\/a>. Its inclusion when reviewing software functionality is primarily to indicate when a vendor or project team indicates the existence of specific test, experiment, or trial management tools in their software.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Inventory_management\">Inventory management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Laboratories use a wide array of inventory, from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Reagent\" title=\"Reagent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"39ef926218accd8f01f4c68c5a82f9dc\">reagents<\/a> to glassware, from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Radiopharmacology\" title=\"Radiopharmacology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c05f4c40cbd311d197b3e45faaed0146\">radiopharmaceuticals<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_bath\" title=\"Laboratory bath\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef20b7240457dba2d8433e9dca6047f7\">laboratory baths<\/a>. With that comes the need to know how much\/many and the frequency of use. For this, some LIS products (especially those for pathology labs) now offer limited or full-featured inventory management functionality, which may include the ability to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> register the origin and demographics of incoming materials.<\/li>\n<li> track used and in-use items via <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"18070de9d8004d989632cb309a165182\">barcodes<\/a> or RFID tags.<\/li>\n<li> track inventory reduction based on usage and shipping out of the lab.<\/li>\n<li> create alerts for when items reach a certain stock level.<\/li>\n<li> calculate inventory cost and fluctuation.<\/li>\n<li> manage transportation and routing.<\/li>\n<li> manual incrementing\/decrementing of items.<\/li>\n<li> track location and usage of laboratory equipment.<\/li>\n<li> track location and usage of reagents.<\/li>\n<li> assign storage locations.<\/li>\n<li> track forensic evidence.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>It should be noted electronic equipment may also be considered inventory, and thus there is likely some functionality crossover with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7f2d7a1f94d82fdd1d60f467fb261e9e\">instrument management<\/a> features.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Document_and.2For_image_management\">Document and\/or image management<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:322px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Process_and_data_modeling.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b1691d96fc9879bacbb744b20201ffd\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/thumb\/0\/01\/Process_and_data_modeling.svg\/320px-Process_and_data_modeling.svg.png\" width=\"320\" height=\"254\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Process_and_data_modeling.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"1b1691d96fc9879bacbb744b20201ffd\"><\/a><\/div>Standard operating procedures, workflow diagrams, and business models can all be handled effectively with document management functionality.<\/div><\/div><\/div>Standard operation procedures, (SOPs), specifications, reports, graphs, images, and receipts are all collected and used in the average laboratory. With a LIS already designed to reference and store test and patient data of all types, it makes sense to include functionality to create, import, export, and manage other sorts of data files. As experimental data can be indexed, queried, and linked, so too can document data. Functionality of a typical document management system includes the ability to:\n<ul><li> upload and index documents.<\/li>\n<li> add images and photos inline to a patient or case entry.<\/li>\n<li> enforce <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Version_control\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b3b24e66cee2120d37f65974e08f901a\">version control<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li> provide full text searches.<\/li>\n<li> export to PDF, XML, or other relevant formats.<\/li>\n<li> add documents as attachments.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Patient_and_case_management\">Patient and case management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information system<\/a> (LIS) has played an important role in the case management tasks of patient-centric and clinical laboratories. LIS products have included patient or case management tools suitable for the clinical, public health, and veterinary industries, as well as the fields of law enforcement and forensic science. Functionality seen in the patient and case management feature includes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> case accessioning and assignment<\/li>\n<li> disease tracking<\/li>\n<li> trend analysis<\/li>\n<li> clinical history follow-up<\/li>\n<li> out-of-range result <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"7e85e4aa70013668fcee5950de3afbbb\">alerts<\/a><\/li>\n<li> document and result association<\/li>\n<li> evidence control<\/li>\n<li> study management<\/li>\n<li> collating of patient data across multiple spectrum<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Workflow_management\">Workflow management<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Workflow_IA.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"00653041ded02667b937fcc40d1624d4\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2e\/Workflow_IA.png\" width=\"300\" height=\"240\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Workflow_IA.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"00653041ded02667b937fcc40d1624d4\"><\/a><\/div>Capturing workflow in the lab is becoming more commonplace for laboratory informatics products.<\/div><\/div><\/div><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">Workflow<\/a> management is common in the laboratory, acting as a graphical representation of planned sequential steps to either automate or clarify a process or experiment within the lab. Separate standards-based workflow management systems (in the form of a software component) have traditionally performed this task.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WfMC1_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WfMC1-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> However, in the 2000s vendors began incorporating workflow management functionality into their laboratory informatics software, reducing customization headaches in the process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWF_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWF-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup> \n<p>Modern commercial and open-source LIS solutions recognize clinical laboratory workflow often has its own share of requirements, requiring specific workflow management functionality, including<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WFLIS_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WFLIS-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> managing the request cycle within a laboratory<\/li>\n<li> organizing and executing diagnostic testing<\/li>\n<li> managing specific chemistry- and biology-related procedures<\/li>\n<li> defining activity attributes<\/li>\n<li> managing automation tools to better workflows<\/li>\n<li> re-route samples based on changes to a process<\/li>\n<li> dynamically modifying workflow in case of future changes<\/li>\n<li> receiving notification of changes to the workflow<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Specification_management\">Specification management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Specification_(technical_standard)\" title=\"Specification (technical standard)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc2050725de4ea7ca520800e4f969b20\">Specification<\/a> (spec) management is vital to not only the manufacturing and research industries but also to a host of other laboratories requiring precise measurements and infallible test methods. Just as the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_International\" title=\"ASTM International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfeafbac63fa786e77b472c3f86d07ed\">ASTM<\/a> offers standards and specs for laboratory informatics software<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTM_LIMS_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTM_LIMS-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup>, so too do users have standards and specs for their laboratory. \n<\/p><p>Spec management has primarily been seen in a manufacturing execution system (MES) or a LIMS, but occasionally a LIS may appear which includes such functionality. With spec management in place, laboratories can then:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> enforce standard operating procedures and business rules.<\/li>\n<li> create specs down to a project or sample level.<\/li>\n<li> validate recipes and procedures.<\/li>\n<li> accept or reject sample batches.<\/li>\n<li> document internal and external spec history.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Note some of the functionality of spec management may cross over into the realm of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#QA.2FQC_functions\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"47bc2def1727b39e330a321323ca99d0\">quality control<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3fc44e00d7686bffee4879207d83579\">data validation<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Customer.2C_supplier.2C_and_physician_management\">Customer, supplier, and physician management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Unless a laboratory is conducting internalized independent research, in most cases it will do business with external entities such as contract labs, physician offices, equipment providers, and reagent suppliers. In some cases, even internal employees may be considered a customer, necessitating documentation of who is using the system and in what ways. For a veterinary lab, the customer may be the animal and handler. For a forensic lab the customer may be more complex: internal staff, university staff, police departments, and maintainers of nationwide crime databases may all at some point act as customers. In these cases, documenting these various points of contact and linking them to tests, equipment, and patients becomes vital. Managing demographics, complaints, correspondence, and history are all feasible with customer, supplier, and physician management functionality. This process is often made simpler through the use of a more context-neutral entity creation system, which allows for more flexible management of contacts.\n<\/p><p>This feature may also be referred to as contact management, an address book module, or a customer service module.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Billing_and_revenue_management\">Billing and revenue management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While the finances of a laboratory are important, they've typically been handled separately as a business process. However, some LISs include additional functionality to make handling financial transactions and documentation of all sorts possible within the LIS. In theory, such functionality brings the possibility of keeping more of a laboratory's data centrally located and queryable. This feature may include<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ILAbout_11-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ILAbout-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McKessHori_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McKessHori-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> payment processing<\/li>\n<li> expense reporting<\/li>\n<li> price quotes<\/li>\n<li> revenue management<\/li>\n<li> workload tracking of billable hours<\/li>\n<li> bill of materials<\/li>\n<li> sales team and client management<\/li>\n<li> profitability analysis<\/li>\n<li> medical necessity checks<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p> <\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quality.2C_security.2C_and_compliance\">Quality, security, and compliance<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p> <\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regulatory_compliance\">Regulatory compliance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The topic of whether or not a LIS meets regulatory compliance is often a complex one. While Title <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> has arguably had the largest influence on an electronic data management system's compliance, other influential standards have shaped the way laboratory informatics systems handle and store data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LTELNCompPDF_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LTELNCompPDF-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KMHowELN_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KMHowELN-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BioITNewELNS_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BioITNewELNS-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup> Other compliance-based codes, standards, and regulations include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_International\" title=\"ASTM International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfeafbac63fa786e77b472c3f86d07ed\">ASTM<\/a> <\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\" title=\"The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f364a7d9dca831de0caaaba41cf0b7ea\">ASCLD\/LAB<\/a> <\/li>\n<li> Classified data<\/li>\n<li> Freedom of information legislation (various)<\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\" title=\"Good Automated Laboratory Practices\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6\">GALP<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\" title=\"Good Automated Manufacturing Practice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb\">GAMP<\/a> <\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153\">HIPAA<\/a> <\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level 7<\/a>\t<\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems\" title=\"International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1de9af67005dfe2895e5d8cf6de57d4a\">ICD<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9000\/9001<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/TS_16949\" title=\"ISO\/TS 16949\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98e43baa168925d15899a66e9c9f0b8f\">ISO\/TS 16949<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ODBC\" title=\"ODBC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58229ca4974143c9d42736a040160be\">ODBC<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute\" title=\"The NELAC Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991\">TNI<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute#National_Environmental_Laboratory_Accreditation_Program\" title=\"The NELAC Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4413d2879e883354b99ce8cb3f57240d\">NELAP<\/a> <\/li>\n<li> Title <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3\" title=\"40 CFR Part 3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef\">40 CFR Part 3<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>With so many codes, standards, and regulations, LIS consumers are advised to contact vendors with their user requirements and ask how the vendor's software meets and\/or exceeds those requirements.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"QA.2FQC_functions\">QA\/QC functions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The quality management functions of a LIS allow users to maintain a level of necessary quality across many of the functions in a laboratory. Some of the activities quality assurance \/ quality control functionality allows for includes<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RandomQAPaper_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RandomQAPaper-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NLQC_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NLQC-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Clin1_35-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Clin1-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> force random review of cases by second pathologist before case verification<\/li>\n<li> receive and process QC results from laboratory analyzers<\/li>\n<li> create user rules<\/li>\n<li> set up custom alerts and flags for out-of-range results<\/li>\n<li> observe standard deviations in outcome research<\/li>\n<li> review and sign off on data electronically<\/li>\n<li> delta checking<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Performance_evaluation\">Performance evaluation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b1d04112bbc7ff839617189de2a11ea\">document and file management<\/a> plays an important role in clinical and research laboratories, it only makes sense to collate and store all the associated data for future reference, including documentation relating to individual training and performance. Changes to laboratory techniques, scientific understanding, and business practices force lab technicians and researchers to learn, reevaluate, and demonstrate competency in order to maintain quality levels in the laboratory. Evaluations can frequently extend beyond staff members, however. Clinics, visit types, vendors, or test species can also be tracked and evaluated based on custom criteria. The performance evaluation functionality of a LIS makes this possible. \n<\/p><p>That functionality typically includes the ability to maintain training records and history, and also to link that training to a technique or piece of equipment. Afterwards, the staff member, vendor, etc. can be marked as competent or certified in the equipment, knowledge, or process. Periodical assessment of the training and its practical effectiveness can later be performed. Productivity of an entity or process can also be gauged over a certain date range based on <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Work-related_time_tracking\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2fe1134841ad00fdec9398c85a7818e9\">tracked time<\/a>, pre-determined milestones, or some other criteria.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Audit_trail\">Audit trail<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:282px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Syvalidate_screen.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b19e0089cab173f0bf3d99af53437ab\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/25\/Syvalidate_screen.jpg\" width=\"280\" height=\"202\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Syvalidate_screen.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"5b19e0089cab173f0bf3d99af53437ab\"><\/a><\/div>Whether validating an instrument's data or an entire LIS, maintaining an audit trail is an important part of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> compliance.<\/div><\/div><\/div> As codes and regulations like Title <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> mandate \"computer systems (including hardware and software), controls, and attendant documentation\" utilize electronic signatures and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0\">audit trails<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup>, LIS developers must put serious thought into how their software handles audit trail functionality. The audit trail \u2014 documentation of the sequence of activities that have affected an action \u2014 must be thorough and seamlessly integrated into the software. \n<p><br \/>\nInformation recorded in the audit trail typically includes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> operator code\t<\/li>\n<li> time stamp\t<\/li>\n<li> location<\/li>\n<li> case number<\/li>\n<li> accessioning number<\/li>\n<li> transaction type<\/li>\n<li> amount and quantity prior to change<\/li>\n<li> user notes<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Chain_of_custody\">Chain of custody<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chain_of_custody\" title=\"Chain of custody\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ba04fe2bb1c8375e133455821aa3894\">chain of custody<\/a> (COC) of an item is of varying importance, depending on the type of laboratory. A highly regulated laboratory that works under Code of Federal Regulation or other guidelines makes tracking COC a vital part of its operations. This is especially true in forensic labs, which depend on continuous accountability of their evidence collection, retention, and disposal procedures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DigForLabBook_37-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DigForLabBook-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup> As with an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0\">audit trail<\/a>, a laboratory depends on recorded information like user ID, time stamp, and location ID to maintain a robust and accurate COC. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Barcode_and.2For_RFID_support\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3029c1eb2ffdf072fdcf93dfb60f7c49\">Barcodes and RFID tags<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0390addc2f3c011f198e9b004bd66145\">inventory management<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b611be44c734e1d585e1c47835dd445a\">configurable security roles<\/a> all play an important part in maintaining chain of custody.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Configurable_roles_and_security\">Configurable roles and security<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Many roles exist within the clinical and research setting, each with its own set of responsibilities. And just as the role an individual plays within the laboratory may change, so may the responsibilities associated with each role. This sort of change necessitates a flexible and configurable security system, one that allows for the placement of individual LIS users into standardized security roles which provide role-specific access to certain functionality. Additionally, as responsibilities change within roles, that same flexible configuration is necessary for assigning or restricting access to specific functionality for each existing or newly created role. \n<\/p><p>Of course, roles aren't always assigned on an individual level. Often large groups of individuals may need to be assigned to roles, necessitating group assignments for security purposes. For example, a group of hospital laboratory trainees may not be given access to the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"26e788179e056c8553e0070eff323cb5\">inventory management<\/a> functionality of the system through a custom \"Trainees\" group role, while the head of the lab may be given the \"Administrator\" role, which allows that individual to access a much broader spectrum of the LIS's functionality.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_normalization\">Data normalization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>For the purposes of describing LIS functionality, \"data normalization\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring incoming\/imported data into the LIS is standardized to the same format of existing data. \n<\/p><p>Here's an example to better explain this issue. When a LIS is initially configured, in most if not all cases a clear standard can be set for how logged test results and their associated measurements pre- and post-analysis are recorded in the system. Perhaps all temperatures will be recorded in Celsius to three decimal places. If temperature data imported from a spreadsheet or a lab instrument is not in this format, the LIS can normalize the incoming data to match the standard already set for existing temperature data. This ensures consistency within the database and typically leads to better <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3fc44e00d7686bffee4879207d83579\">data validation<\/a> efforts later on.\n<\/p><p><i>Note<\/i>: Some LIS developers may include data normalization functionality within what they may refer to as data validation functionality. The line between these two may be blurred or not exist at all.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_validation\">Data validation<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Scheme_reconciliation.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ee24bca4f268fa5e308fec9d3fbb761\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/44\/Scheme_reconciliation.jpg\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Scheme_reconciliation.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"0ee24bca4f268fa5e308fec9d3fbb761\"><\/a><\/div>In a LIS, data and data models can be forced through a validation process to remove errors and reconcile that those data and models.<\/div><\/div><\/div>For the purposes of describing LIS functionality, \"data validation\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring existing data in the LIS \u2014 either pre-analysis or post-analysis \u2014 sufficiently meets any number of standards or thresholds set for any given data management process. This validation process may be completely automatic and system-based, or it may also include additional steps on the part of the user base utilizing additional LIS functionality, including verification of standard operating procedures (SOPs), QC samples, and QA approval.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SIRFERQA_38-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SIRFERQA-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CompMinIndBook_39-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CompMinIndBook-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p><i>Note<\/i>: This functionality shouldn't be confused with the process of validating the application itself, which is an entirely different process partially falling under <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"637370746c4cbf4112f108bda0601950\">regulatory compliance<\/a> and involves the process of ensuring \"the software is performing in a manner for which it was designed.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-QAJournValid_40-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-QAJournValid-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_encryption\">Data encryption<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The existence of this functionality in a LIS indicates the software has the ability to protect the integrity and authenticity of its housed data through the use of a variety of technologies which makes data unreadable except to those possessing a key\/right\/etc. to unlock\/read the data. This functionality is especially vital to the web-enabled LIS, which transfers information over the Internet in a client-server relationship. As a wide variety of encryption technologies exist, it's generally a good idea to consult with the developers of a LIS to determine the strengths and weaknesses of their employed encryption methods.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Version_control\">Version control<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Version control is a form of safeguard which helps preserve data integrity and thus ties in with the topic of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"637370746c4cbf4112f108bda0601950\">regulatory compliance<\/a>. This is typically done by creating a modifiable new version of a piece of information rather than allowing the original to be modified. Such versioning may be applied to a wide variety of digital information housed in the LIS, including templates, training certifications, instrument logs, specifications, and process and procedure (P&P) documentation. Information tracked with such revisions includes attributes like user name, time the edit was made, and what exactly was edited. This also benefits those managing <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e4b71f1bc0b254fbb9dba4acb2c453ae\">audit trails<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Chain_of_custody\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f949e83daf78d8368f040cea9a8ca188\">chains of custody<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Other LIS vendors may employ a different form of version control called file locking, which simply puts the affected information into a read-only mode for users while someone else is busy editing it. Another popular strategy is to, rather than locking the file, allow multiple people to edit a piece of information, later merging the various edits. Potential LIS buyers may need to inquire with developers to determine what type of versioning scheme is used in the vendor's software.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Automatic_data_backup\">Automatic data backup<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The existence of this piece of functionality in a LIS usually means information contained in one or more associated databases or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Data_warehouse\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"cd87679a8bb1ef4b395e8150dfa4001b\">data warehouses<\/a> can be automatically preserved in an additional backup file. The save location for that file as well as the scheduled backup time is configurable, typically through the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Administrator_management\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b4b4d8fa11691f07c422b85add85bd6\">administrative module<\/a> of the software.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Environmental_monitoring\">Environmental monitoring<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While not common at all, a few LIS may allow users to monitor the environmental conditions of not only sample storage containers but also the entire laboratory itself. Attributes like humidity, air quality, and temperature may be monitored to ensure sample storage units and experiments maintain desired conditions. This monitoring may be done by treating the storage container as a device, which must be interfaced with the LIS. Alarms may be able to be configured to notify staff if a storage container's environmental attributes go beyond a certain threshold.\n<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p> <\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reporting.2C_barcoding.2C_and_printing\">Reporting, barcoding, and printing<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p> <\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Custom_reporting\">Custom reporting<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Reporting often provides useful information representation for gaining a clearer picture of collected data and potential trends. At a minimum, a number of pre-configured report templates typically come standard with a LIS. However, other systems are more flexible than others, offering the ability to customize reports in numerous ways. The most popular attributes of custom reporting include custom headers, custom information placement, charts, pivot tables, and multiple output formats.\n<\/p><p>Note: Some LIS vendors may offer custom reporting as an option as an added cost, depending on the level of customization required.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Synoptic_reporting\">Synoptic reporting<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Synoptic reporting is a specific type of reporting applicable to pathology and other associated laboratories. Synoptic reporting essentially involves a structured, pre-formatted \"checklist\" of clinically and morphologically relevant data elements (ideally passed to a relational database where they are efficiently organized, searched, and retrieved), with the intent of making reporting more efficient, uniform, and relevant to internal and external researchers. This style of reporting has the advantage of obviating the need for transcription services, reducing specimen turnaround time, and prioritizing the presentation of large amounts of diagnostic information. <sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SynRepoPaper_41-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SynRepoPaper-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup> Some LISs, especially those oriented towards pathology, may include this specialized functionality. In some cases, a <a href=\"#Configurable_templates_and_forms\">configurable templates or form<\/a> may be utilized to structure a report in a synoptic format, providing similar functionality to a separate synoptic reporting module.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Report_printing\">Report printing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Today's software almost universally offers the ability to print reports and other materials, so this feature may seem a bit redundant to list. Nonetheless, printer support is a feature worth confirming when considering a piece of laboratory informatics software.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Label_support\">Label support<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The label \u2014 typically affixed to a sample container or piece of equipment \u2014 is a vital part of many laboratory operations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SCLabel_42-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SCLabel-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> Identifying information such as sample number, batch number, and barcodes are printed on such labels to ensure optimize managing the location of items in a lab. As such, numerous LISs allow users to design and print labels directly from the software.\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Code_barres.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"23481b6010df77bcb0ef723e7bef48fd\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/ba\/Code_barres.png\" width=\"300\" height=\"282\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Code_barres.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"23481b6010df77bcb0ef723e7bef48fd\"><\/a><\/div>The word \"Wikipedia\" encoded in Code 128 and Code 39<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Barcode_and.2For_RFID_support\">Barcode and\/or RFID support<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Barcodes offer many advantages to laboratory techs handling samples, including more accurate data input, tighter sample\/instrument associations, tighter sample\/study associations, and more room for human-readable information on a label.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SCLabel_42-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SCLabel-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> Given such advantages, many laboratory informatics developers have integrated barcode support into their software, including support for symbologies like Code 128, Code 39, and Interleaved 2 of 5. Aside from printing options, a LISmay also offer support for a variety of barcode readers.\n<\/p><p>Additionally, some LIS include the ability to handle radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags, which have several advantages over a more traditional label-based approach to accessioning.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ALRFID_43-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ALRFID-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Barcode support and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ELN_feature#Label_support\" title=\"ELN feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca0b39bae009797fe0b5600557171f11\">label support<\/a> are typically found together in LIS software, but not always, thus their separation into two features.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_PDF\">Export to PDF<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Portable Document Format (PDF).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_MS_Word\">Export to MS Word<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Microsoft Office Word format.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_HTML_or_XML\">Export to HTML or XML<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a HyperText Markup Language (HTML) and\/or Extensible Markup Language (XML) format.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Fax_integration\">Fax integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIS with this feature is able to connect with a fax machine and send information to it via manual input, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Email_integration\">Email integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIS with this feature is able to integrate with and use the electronic mail information exchange method to send reports, alerts, and more manually, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals.\n<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p> <\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Base_functionality\">Base functionality<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p> <\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Administrator_management\">Administrator management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The administrator management tools of a LIS allows researchers to set up the software most optimally for the facility and its projects. Through the administrator management interface, other features may be accessed like setting up <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"472befa27a67279b2d9818a15d649ef0\">user roles<\/a> and scheduling <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Automatic_data_backup\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"be1c63e511a98314049c8c1840a19f63\">automatic data backups<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature#Report_printing\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0f5f619daf147205f94caf0ee824bb2\">report printing<\/a>, administrator management is nearly ubiquitous in laboratory informatics software, generally considered a mandatory feature. However, for the purposes of being thorough, it's important to point out its existence.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modular\">Modular<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature indicates that a LIS has an intentional modular design, which separates some functionality into manageable components of the overall system. Generally speaking, a modular design allows for 1. the structured addition of new functionality to a LIS and 2. the limiting of overall effects on the system design as new functionality is added.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Instrument_interfacing_and_management\">Instrument interfacing and management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>In laboratories there are instruments, and with those instruments comes scientific measurements which produce data. It's therefor natural a researcher would want to connect those instruments to a laboratory information system, which is already organizing and storing laboratory data for hospitals and medical research facilities. This sort of interfacing is typically handled with instrument-to-software interfaces, which started out as merely data-transfer mechanisms. Later that interface mechanism became much more robust as a data management tool, though often at great expense with heavy involvement from third parties.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompInstr_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompInstr-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> Today, \"vendors can act as single source providers of the entire instrument interfacing solution,\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup>, providing a cheaper and smoother solution to laboratory informatics customers. In the clinical laboratory setting, a LIS vendor may have additional considerations to make, such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level 7<\/a> (HL7) triggers, messages, and segments transported across communication interfaces.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HL7Auto_46-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HL7Auto-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:182px;\">File:Mobile devices DSC 0988.JPG <div class=\"thumbcaption\">In some cases mobile devices like these may access and utilize a LIS, typically through a Web portal or special mobile version of the software.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Mobile_device_integration\">Mobile device integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While not ubiquitous by any means, LIS developers are increasingly including support for mobile devices in their software, usually in the form of a separate mobile version of the software. Research and development labs, for example, potentially can put mobile technology to use in the laboratory as remotely monitoring a lab or using mobile phone microscopy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SLASMobileDevs_47-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SLASMobileDevs-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup> Those uses aside, the relatively simple action of recording and reviewing laboratory research results while on the move or at a conference gives researchers flexibility, and LIS developers like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/McKesson_Corporation\" title=\"McKesson Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbbabd25f3d7fe9c82924c55dfa8d44c\">McKesson<\/a> are beginning to include that functionality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McKMobilePhleb_48-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McKMobilePhleb-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Third-party_software_integration\">Third-party software integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A few LIS vendors either incorporate third-party software into their product or they provide the means to integrate the LIS with other applications. The most typical integration involves simply communicating with common authoring tools like Microsoft Word, allowing users to work directly from the third-party application and then transferring the information to the LIS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Alarms_and.2For_alerts\">Alarms and\/or alerts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Alarms and alerts in a LIS can be automatic or scheduled, and they can come in the form of an e-mail, a pop-up message, or a mobile text message. For example, when a test result goes out-of-range, an automatic warning message can appear on the screen of the lab analyst responsible for the test. Another example: a scheduled alert can be e-mailed to a lab technician every month indicating a piece of laboratory equipment needs routine maintenance. Both scenarios represent a tiny fraction of the possible implementation of alarms and alerts in a LIS, highlighting how powerful (yet easy to take for granted) this feature is.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Work-related_time_tracking\">Work-related time tracking<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature specifically refers to a LIS' ability to track the amount of time an employee spends at work in general (for payroll purposes) or on more specific projects and tasks (as part of an employee work evaluation program). May also be referred to as \"workload tracking\" or \"workload tracking.\"\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Voice_recognition_system\">Voice recognition system<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIS with this feature allows some functions of the software (for example, accessing test results) to be accessed via voice commands.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_monitoring\">External monitoring<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature allows clients and\/or collaborators outside the laboratory to monitor the status of experiments, test results, and more via an online web portal or, less commonly, as activity alerts sent via e-mail or SMS.\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:217px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ae3b5e41e0c11ff4ca1baf0b7d4352f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b6\/Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png\" width=\"215\" height=\"243\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"4ae3b5e41e0c11ff4ca1baf0b7d4352f\"><\/a><\/div>An instant messaging client built into a LIS often makes it easier to collaborate.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Messaging\">Messaging<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The messaging feature of a LIS may refer to one of two (or both) things:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> a built-in instant messaging system that allows users to converse with each other through text messages real-time<\/li>\n<li> an SMS text messaging integration that allows the users or the LIS itself to send messages or alerts to one or more user's mobile or smart phone<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Commenting\">Commenting<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Clinical data collection and research collaboration require data sharing and communication tools to be most effective. One of the collaborative communication features of some LISs is commenting on test results, patient records, or study protocols.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Multilingual\">Multilingual<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>If a LIS is listed as multilingual, its an indication the software interface can be configured to display more than one language depending on the preference a user or administrator chooses. Some LIS interfaces can only be displayed in one of two languages (English or German, for example), while others come configured with support for dozens of languages.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Network-capable\">Network-capable<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature is perhaps archaic and\/or obvious, but it is mentioned nonetheless. It's generally applied to a non-web-based LIS installed over a local or wide-area computer network, essentially indicating the LIS is not an isolated application, but rather one that can interface with other instances or other networked instruments.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Web_client_or_portal\">Web client or portal<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIS with a web client or portal is either a web-based LIS (one that is not installed on every computer, but rather is hosted on a server and accessed via a web browser) or a non-web-based LIS with an included portal to access it via the Internet.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Online_or_integrated_help\">Online or integrated help<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This indicates a LIS has help infrastructure integrated into the software, support documentation via the vendor's website, or both.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Software_as_a_service_delivery_model\">Software as a service delivery model<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This indicates the software can be licensed and utilized via the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> (SaaS) delivery model.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Usage-based_cost\">Usage-based cost<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While rare, some software vendors allow potential clients to license and utilize the vendor's software under a usage-based cost model. An example of this model in use is Bytewize AB's <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bytewize_AB#O3_Lims_and_O3_LimsXpress\" title=\"Bytewize AB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65bc566848b41a14e430d1bedd8eb6ac\">O3 LimsXpress<\/a>, which has a cost directly related to the amount of samples processed each month.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-O3Prices_49-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-O3Prices-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p> <\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-count references-column-count-2\" style=\"-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-APHLandLIS-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-APHLandLIS_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aphl.org\/aphlprograms\/global\/initiatives\/Documents\/LISQuickStartGuide.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quick Start Guide to Laboratory Information System (LIS) Implementation\"<\/a> (PDF). Association of Public Health Laboratories<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aphl.org\/aphlprograms\/global\/initiatives\/Documents\/LISQuickStartGuide.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.aphl.org\/aphlprograms\/global\/initiatives\/Documents\/LISQuickStartGuide.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 27 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Quick+Start+Guide+to+Laboratory+Information+System+%28LIS%29+Implementation&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Association+of+Public+Health+Laboratories&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aphl.org%2Faphlprograms%2Fglobal%2Finitiatives%2FDocuments%2FLISQuickStartGuide.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-starlimsBlogLIS-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-starlimsBlogLIS_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Hice, Randy (01 July 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Swimming in the Clinical Pool: Why LIMS are supplanting old-school clinical LIS applications\"<\/a>. STARLIMS' Laboratory Informatics Blog<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 27 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Swimming+in+the+Clinical+Pool%3A+Why+LIMS+are+supplanting+old-school+clinical+LIS+applications&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Hice%2C+Randy&rft.au=Hice%2C+Randy&rft.date=01+July+2009&rft.pub=STARLIMS%27+Laboratory+Informatics+Blog&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.starlims.com%2F2009%2F07%2F01%2Fswimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HowDoIFindLII-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HowDoIFindLII_3-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/files.limstitute.com\/share\/lbgprofiles\/findlims.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"How Do I Find the Right LIMS \u2014 And How Much Will It Cost?\"<\/a> (PDF). Laboratory Informatics Institute, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/files.limstitute.com\/share\/lbgprofiles\/findlims.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/files.limstitute.com\/share\/lbgprofiles\/findlims.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 27 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=How+Do+I+Find+the+Right+LIMS+%E2%80%94+And+How+Much+Will+It+Cost%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Laboratory+Informatics+Institute%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffiles.limstitute.com%2Fshare%2Flbgprofiles%2Ffindlims.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-biohealth-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-biohealth_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.biohealthmatics.com\/technologies\/his\/lis.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Information Systems\"<\/a>. Biohealthmatics.com. 10 August 2006<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.biohealthmatics.com\/technologies\/his\/lis.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.biohealthmatics.com\/technologies\/his\/lis.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 27 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Laboratory+Information+Systems&rft.atitle=&rft.date=10+August+2006&rft.pub=Biohealthmatics.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biohealthmatics.com%2Ftechnologies%2Fhis%2Flis.aspx&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MolPath-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MolPath_5-0\">5.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MolPath_5-1\">5.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Leonard, Debra G. B.; Bagg, Adam, ed. (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Z2YNhh51SmQC&pg=PA567\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Molecular Pathology in Clinical Practice<\/i><\/a> (Illustrated ed.). Springer. p. 567. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 0387332278<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Z2YNhh51SmQC&pg=PA567\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=Z2YNhh51SmQC&pg=PA567<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 27 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+Pathology+in+Clinical+Practice&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B567&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Springer&rft.isbn=0387332278&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ2YNhh51SmQC%26pg%3DPA567&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PPDiClinTrial-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PPDiClinTrial_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ppdi.com\/Services\/Laboratories\/Central-Labs\/Operational-Excellence\/Specimen-Management.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"PPD - Clinical Trial Sample Management\"<\/a>. Pharmaceutical Product Development, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ppdi.com\/Services\/Laboratories\/Central-Labs\/Operational-Excellence\/Specimen-Management.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ppdi.com\/Services\/Laboratories\/Central-Labs\/Operational-Excellence\/Specimen-Management.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 27 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=PPD+-+Clinical+Trial+Sample+Management&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Pharmaceutical+Product+Development%2C+LLC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ppdi.com%2FServices%2FLaboratories%2FCentral-Labs%2FOperational-Excellence%2FSpecimen-Management.aspx&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LabTechBook-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LabTechBook_7-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Esteridge, Barbara H.; Reynolds, Anna P.; Walters, Norma J. (2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=qMgAbOHSlsMC&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Basic Medical Laboratory Techniques<\/i><\/a> (4th, revised ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 8. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 0766812065<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=qMgAbOHSlsMC&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=qMgAbOHSlsMC&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 27 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Basic+Medical+Laboratory+Techniques&rft.aulast=Esteridge%2C+Barbara+H.%3B+Reynolds%2C+Anna+P.%3B+Walters%2C+Norma+J.&rft.au=Esteridge%2C+Barbara+H.%3B+Reynolds%2C+Anna+P.%3B+Walters%2C+Norma+J.&rft.date=2000&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B8&rft.edition=4th%2C+revised&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.isbn=0766812065&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqMgAbOHSlsMC%26pg%3DPA8%26lpg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ForensicSamp-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ForensicSamp_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ForensicSamp_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Murthy, Tal; Brian Hewson (01 September 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/new.americanlaboratory.com\/914-Application-Notes\/506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Effective Forensic Sample Tracking and Handling\"<\/a>. American Laboratory<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/new.americanlaboratory.com\/914-Application-Notes\/506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/new.americanlaboratory.com\/914-Application-Notes\/506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 10 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Effective+Forensic+Sample+Tracking+and+Handling&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Murthy%2C+Tal%3B+Brian+Hewson&rft.au=Murthy%2C+Tal%3B+Brian+Hewson&rft.date=01+September+2010&rft.pub=American+Laboratory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnew.americanlaboratory.com%2F914-Application-Notes%2F506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PP0102-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PP0102_9-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Muntean, Edwarda; Nicoleta Munteanb; Tania Mih\u0103iescua; Radu Mih\u0103iescuc (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.usamvcluj.ro\/index.php\/promediu\/article\/download\/2835\/2696\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS use in laboratory data management\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>ProEnvironment\/Promediu<\/i> <b>1<\/b> (2): 19\u201323<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/journals.usamvcluj.ro\/index.php\/promediu\/article\/download\/2835\/2696\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/journals.usamvcluj.ro\/index.php\/promediu\/article\/download\/2835\/2696<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=LIMS+use+in+laboratory+data+management&rft.jtitle=ProEnvironment%2FPromediu&rft.aulast=Muntean%2C+Edwarda%3B+Nicoleta+Munteanb%3B+Tania+Mih%C4%83iescua%3B+Radu+Mih%C4%83iescuc&rft.au=Muntean%2C+Edwarda%3B+Nicoleta+Munteanb%3B+Tania+Mih%C4%83iescua%3B+Radu+Mih%C4%83iescuc&rft.date=2008&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=19%E2%80%9323&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.usamvcluj.ro%2Findex.php%2Fpromediu%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F2835%2F2696&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EPABatch-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EPABatch_10-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/osw\/hazard\/testmethods\/faq\/faqs_qc.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Batch Sizes And QC Questions\"<\/a>. U.S. EPA. 27 July 2011<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/osw\/hazard\/testmethods\/faq\/faqs_qc.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.epa.gov\/osw\/hazard\/testmethods\/faq\/faqs_qc.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 27 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Batch+Sizes+And+QC+Questions&rft.atitle=&rft.date=27+July+2011&rft.pub=U.S.+EPA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fosw%2Fhazard%2Ftestmethods%2Ffaq%2Ffaqs_qc.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ILAbout-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ILAbout_11-0\">11.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ILAbout_11-1\">11.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.elekta.com\/healthcare-professionals\/products\/elekta-software\/clinical-laboratory\/laboratory-information-system.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Elekta - Laboratory Information System\"<\/a>. Elekta AB<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.elekta.com\/healthcare-professionals\/products\/elekta-software\/clinical-laboratory\/laboratory-information-system.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.elekta.com\/healthcare-professionals\/products\/elekta-software\/clinical-laboratory\/laboratory-information-system.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 27 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Elekta+-+Laboratory+Information+System&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Elekta+AB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.elekta.com%2Fhealthcare-professionals%2Fproducts%2Felekta-software%2Fclinical-laboratory%2Flaboratory-information-system.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AnPathRev-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AnPathRev_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Park, Seung Lyung; Pantanowitz, Liron; Sharma, Gaurav; Parwani, Anil Vasdev (March 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/bpa-pathology.com\/uploads\/file\/docs\/Anatomic%20Pathology%20Laboratory%20Information%20Systems%20-%20A%20Review%20-%20SLPark%20et%20all.%20-%20Adv%20Anat%20Pathol%202012.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems: A Review\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>Advances in Anatomic Pathology<\/i> <b>19<\/b> (2): 81\u201396. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e318248b787\" target=\"_blank\">10.1097\/PAP.0b013e318248b787<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/bpa-pathology.com\/uploads\/file\/docs\/Anatomic%20Pathology%20Laboratory%20Information%20Systems%20-%20A%20Review%20-%20SLPark%20et%20all.%20-%20Adv%20Anat%20Pathol%202012.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/bpa-pathology.com\/uploads\/file\/docs\/Anatomic%20Pathology%20Laboratory%20Information%20Systems%20-%20A%20Review%20-%20SLPark%20et%20all.%20-%20Adv%20Anat%20Pathol%202012.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 27 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Anatomic+Pathology+Laboratory+Information+Systems%3A+A+Review&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Anatomic+Pathology&rft.aulast=Park%2C+Seung+Lyung%3B+Pantanowitz%2C+Liron%3B+Sharma%2C+Gaurav%3B+Parwani%2C+Anil+Vasdev&rft.au=Park%2C+Seung+Lyung%3B+Pantanowitz%2C+Liron%3B+Sharma%2C+Gaurav%3B+Parwani%2C+Anil+Vasdev&rft.date=March+2012&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=81%E2%80%9396&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e318248b787&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbpa-pathology.com%2Fuploads%2Ffile%2Fdocs%2FAnatomic%2520Pathology%2520Laboratory%2520Information%2520Systems%2520-%2520A%2520Review%2520-%2520SLPark%2520et%2520all.%2520-%2520Adv%2520Anat%2520Pathol%25202012.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AE0302-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AE0302_13-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Macneil, Rory (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aejournal.net\/content\/3\/1\/2\" target=\"_blank\">\"The benefits of integrated systems for managing both samples and experimental data: An opportunity for labs in universities and government research institutions to lead the way\"<\/a>. <i>Automated Experimentation<\/i> <b>3<\/b> (2). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1186%2F1759-4499-3-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/1759-4499-3-2<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aejournal.net\/content\/3\/1\/2\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.aejournal.net\/content\/3\/1\/2<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+benefits+of+integrated+systems+for+managing+both+samples+and+experimental+data%3A+An+opportunity+for+labs+in+universities+and+government+research+institutions+to+lead+the+way&rft.jtitle=Automated+Experimentation&rft.aulast=Macneil%2C+Rory&rft.au=Macneil%2C+Rory&rft.date=2011&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1186%2F1759-4499-3-2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aejournal.net%2Fcontent%2F3%2F1%2F2&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DataMEnBrit-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DataMEnBrit_14-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.britannica.com\/EBchecked\/topic\/1056150\/data-mining\" target=\"_blank\">\"data mining\"<\/a>. <i>Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica<\/i>. 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Retrieved 20 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Using+Workflows+in+LIMS+to+Reduce+Customization&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Maxwell%2C+Glen&rft.au=Maxwell%2C+Glen&rft.date=1+November+2003&rft.pub=Scientific+Computing+and+Instrumentation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Fusing-workflows-in-lims-to-reduce.aspx&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WFLIS-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WFLIS_27-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Feist, Kelly (22 July 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labcompare.com\/10-Featured-Articles\/19389-Harnessing-Laboratory-Information-Systems-to-Support-Increased-Capacity-and-Staff-Productivity\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Harnessing Laboratory Information Systems to Support Increased Capacity and Staff Productivity\"<\/a>. LabCompare<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labcompare.com\/10-Featured-Articles\/19389-Harnessing-Laboratory-Information-Systems-to-Support-Increased-Capacity-and-Staff-Productivity\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.labcompare.com\/10-Featured-Articles\/19389-Harnessing-Laboratory-Information-Systems-to-Support-Increased-Capacity-and-Staff-Productivity\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Harnessing+Laboratory+Information+Systems+to+Support+Increased+Capacity+and+Staff+Productivity&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Feist%2C+Kelly&rft.au=Feist%2C+Kelly&rft.date=22+July+2011&rft.pub=LabCompare&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.labcompare.com%2F10-Featured-Articles%2F19389-Harnessing-Laboratory-Information-Systems-to-Support-Increased-Capacity-and-Staff-Productivity%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ASTM_LIMS-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ASTM_LIMS_28-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"ASTM E1578 - 06 Standard Guide for Laboratory Information Management Systems (LIMS)\"<\/a>. ASTM International<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 22 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ASTM+E1578+-+06+Standard+Guide+for+Laboratory+Information+Management+Systems+%28LIMS%29&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=ASTM+International&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FE1578.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-McKessHori-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-McKessHori_29-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mckesson.com\/en_us\/McKesson.com\/For%2BHealthcare%2BProviders\/Hospitals\/Laboratory%2BSolutions\/Horizon%2BLab%2BFinancials.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Horizon Lab Financials\"<\/a>. McKesson Corporation<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mckesson.com\/en_us\/McKesson.com\/For%2BHealthcare%2BProviders\/Hospitals\/Laboratory%2BSolutions\/Horizon%2BLab%2BFinancials.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.mckesson.com\/en_us\/McKesson.com\/For%2BHealthcare%2BProviders\/Hospitals\/Laboratory%2BSolutions\/Horizon%2BLab%2BFinancials.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Horizon+Lab+Financials&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=McKesson+Corporation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mckesson.com%2Fen_us%2FMcKesson.com%2FFor%252BHealthcare%252BProviders%2FHospitals%2FLaboratory%252BSolutions%2FHorizon%252BLab%252BFinancials.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LTELNCompPDF-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LTELNCompPDF_30-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.vialis.ch\/fileadmin\/files\/imgs\/pdf\/Newsletter\/q2-09\/ELN_LAB.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"ELN Reduces Regulatory Compliance Costs\"<\/a> (PDF). Labtronics Inc. January 2005<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.vialis.ch\/fileadmin\/files\/imgs\/pdf\/Newsletter\/q2-09\/ELN_LAB.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.vialis.ch\/fileadmin\/files\/imgs\/pdf\/Newsletter\/q2-09\/ELN_LAB.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 12 February 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ELN+Reduces+Regulatory+Compliance+Costs&rft.atitle=&rft.date=January+2005&rft.pub=Labtronics+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vialis.ch%2Ffileadmin%2Ffiles%2Fimgs%2Fpdf%2FNewsletter%2Fq2-09%2FELN_LAB.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KMHowELN-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-KMHowELN_31-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Price, Michael (17 August 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kinematik.com\/blog\/bid\/207452\/How-an-ELN-Mitigates-the-Risks-Associated-with-Regulatory-Compliance\" target=\"_blank\">\"How an ELN Mitigates the Risks Associated with Regulatory Compliance\"<\/a>. KineMatik Ltd<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.kinematik.com\/blog\/bid\/207452\/How-an-ELN-Mitigates-the-Risks-Associated-with-Regulatory-Compliance\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.kinematik.com\/blog\/bid\/207452\/How-an-ELN-Mitigates-the-Risks-Associated-with-Regulatory-Compliance<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 12 February 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=How+an+ELN+Mitigates+the+Risks+Associated+with+Regulatory+Compliance&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Price%2C+Michael&rft.au=Price%2C+Michael&rft.date=17+August+2012&rft.pub=KineMatik+Ltd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kinematik.com%2Fblog%2Fbid%2F207452%2FHow-an-ELN-Mitigates-the-Risks-Associated-with-Regulatory-Compliance&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-BioITNewELNS-32\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-BioITNewELNS_32-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Proffitt, Allison (22 February 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bio-itworld.com\/2012\/02\/22\/eln-excellence-new-lab-notebooks.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"ELN Excellence: The New Lab Notebooks\"<\/a>. BioIT World<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bio-itworld.com\/2012\/02\/22\/eln-excellence-new-lab-notebooks.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.bio-itworld.com\/2012\/02\/22\/eln-excellence-new-lab-notebooks.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 12 February 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ELN+Excellence%3A+The+New+Lab+Notebooks&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Proffitt%2C+Allison&rft.au=Proffitt%2C+Allison&rft.date=22+February+2012&rft.pub=BioIT+World&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bio-itworld.com%2F2012%2F02%2F22%2Feln-excellence-new-lab-notebooks.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-RandomQAPaper-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-RandomQAPaper_33-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Owens, S.R.; Dhir, R.; Yousem, S.A.; Kelly, S.M.; Piccoli, A.; Wiehagen, L.; Lassige, K.; Parwani, A.V. (June 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/20472840\" target=\"_blank\">\"The development and testing of a laboratory information system-driven tool for pre-sign-out quality assurance of random surgical pathology reports\"<\/a>. <i>American Journal of Clinical Pathology<\/i> <b>133<\/b> (6): 836\u201341. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1309%2FAJCPLN9DU9LNXSXA\" target=\"_blank\">10.1309\/AJCPLN9DU9LNXSXA<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/20472840\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/20472840<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+development+and+testing+of+a+laboratory+information+system-driven+tool+for+pre-sign-out+quality+assurance+of+random+surgical+pathology+reports&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Clinical+Pathology&rft.aulast=Owens%2C+S.R.%3B+Dhir%2C+R.%3B+Yousem%2C+S.A.%3B+Kelly%2C+S.M.%3B+Piccoli%2C+A.%3B+Wiehagen%2C+L.%3B+Lassige%2C+K.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&rft.au=Owens%2C+S.R.%3B+Dhir%2C+R.%3B+Yousem%2C+S.A.%3B+Kelly%2C+S.M.%3B+Piccoli%2C+A.%3B+Wiehagen%2C+L.%3B+Lassige%2C+K.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&rft.date=June+2010&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=836%E2%80%9341&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1309%2FAJCPLN9DU9LNXSXA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpubmed%2F20472840&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-NLQC-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-NLQC_34-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.netlims.com\/lis_software_autoquality.asp\" target=\"_blank\">\"Netlims - AutoQuality\"<\/a>. NeTLIMS NJ, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.netlims.com\/lis_software_autoquality.asp\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.netlims.com\/lis_software_autoquality.asp<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Netlims+-+AutoQuality&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=NeTLIMS+NJ%2C+LLC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.netlims.com%2Flis_software_autoquality.asp&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-Clin1-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-Clin1_35-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clin1.net\/Quality_Control.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"CLIN1 Laboratory Quality Control Software\"<\/a>. Clin1, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clin1.net\/Quality_Control.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.clin1.net\/Quality_Control.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=CLIN1+Laboratory+Quality+Control+Software&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Clin1%2C+LLC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clin1.net%2FQuality_Control.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ecfr.gpoaccess.gov\/cgi\/t\/text\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=21:1.0.1.1.7&idno=21\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21: Food and Drugs - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>. U.S. Government Printing Office<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/ecfr.gpoaccess.gov\/cgi\/t\/text\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=21:1.0.1.1.7&idno=21\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/ecfr.gpoaccess.gov\/cgi\/t\/text\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=21:1.0.1.1.7&idno=21<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 02 March 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Electronic+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+-+Title+21%3A+Food+and+Drugs+-+Part+11%3A+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fecfr.gpoaccess.gov%2Fcgi%2Ft%2Ftext%2Ftext-idx%3Fc%3Decfr%26sid%3D5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2%26rgn%3Ddiv5%26view%3Dtext%26node%3D21%3A1.0.1.1.7%26idno%3D21&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-DigForLabBook-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-DigForLabBook_37-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Jones, Andrew; Craig Valli (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: An Introduction to Digital Forensics\"<\/a>. <i>Building a Digital Forensic Laboratory: Establishing and Managing a Successful Facility<\/i>. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 11. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 1856175103<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+An+Introduction+to+Digital+Forensics&rft.atitle=Building+a+Digital+Forensic+Laboratory%3A+Establishing+and+Managing+a+Successful+Facility&rft.aulast=Jones%2C+Andrew%3B+Craig+Valli&rft.au=Jones%2C+Andrew%3B+Craig+Valli&rft.date=2008&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B11&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.isbn=1856175103&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF5IU7XXKwCQC&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SIRFERQA-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SIRFERQA_38-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quality Assurance - Data Management\"<\/a> (PDF). Stable Isotope Ratio Facility for Environmental Research (SIRFER) at the University of Utah<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 07 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Quality+Assurance+-+Data+Management&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Stable+Isotope+Ratio+Facility+for+Environmental+Research+%28SIRFER%29+at+the+University+of+Utah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsirfer.utah.edu%2Fqaqc.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CompMinIndBook-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CompMinIndBook_39-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Hitchcock, Noel (2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.crcnetbase.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1201\/9781439833407.ch10\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 10: Efficient utilization of LIMS data and integration with mining process management systems\"<\/a>. In Dessureault, Sean D.; Rajive Ganguli; Vladislav Kecojevic; Jami Girard Dwyer. <i>Application of Computers and Operations Research in the Mineral Industry<\/i>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 85\u201388. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1201%2F9781439833407.ch10\" target=\"_blank\">10.1201\/9781439833407.ch10<\/a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 9780415374491<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.crcnetbase.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1201\/9781439833407.ch10\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.crcnetbase.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1201\/9781439833407.ch10<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+10%3A+Efficient+utilization+of+LIMS+data+and+integration+with+mining+process+management+systems&rft.atitle=Application+of+Computers+and+Operations+Research+in+the+Mineral+Industry&rft.aulast=Hitchcock%2C+Noel&rft.au=Hitchcock%2C+Noel&rft.date=2005&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B85%E2%80%9388&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1201%2F9781439833407.ch10&rft.isbn=9780415374491&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crcnetbase.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1201%2F9781439833407.ch10&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-QAJournValid-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-QAJournValid_40-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Turner, Elizabeth; Jojean Bolton (2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/12553085\" target=\"_blank\">\"Required steps for the validation of a Laboratory Information Management System\"<\/a>. <i>Quality Assurance<\/i> <b>9<\/b> (3\u20134): 217\u2013224. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/12553085\" target=\"_blank\">12553085<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/12553085\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/12553085<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Required+steps+for+the+validation+of+a+Laboratory+Information+Management+System&rft.jtitle=Quality+Assurance&rft.aulast=Turner%2C+Elizabeth%3B+Jojean+Bolton&rft.au=Turner%2C+Elizabeth%3B+Jojean+Bolton&rft.date=2001&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=217%E2%80%93224&rft_id=info:pmid\/12553085&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpubmed%2F12553085&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SynRepoPaper-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SynRepoPaper_41-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Amin, Waqas; Sirintrapun, S. Joseph; Parwani, Anil V. (August 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dovepress.com\/getfile.php?fileID=7293\" target=\"_blank\">\"Utility and applications of synoptic reporting in pathology\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>Open Access Bioinformatics<\/i> <b>2010<\/b> (2): 105\u201312. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2147%2FOAB.S12295\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.2147\/OAB.S12295<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dovepress.com\/getfile.php?fileID=7293\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.dovepress.com\/getfile.php?fileID=7293<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Utility+and+applications+of+synoptic+reporting+in+pathology&rft.jtitle=Open+Access+Bioinformatics&rft.aulast=Amin%2C+Waqas%3B+Sirintrapun%2C+S.+Joseph%3B+Parwani%2C+Anil+V.&rft.au=Amin%2C+Waqas%3B+Sirintrapun%2C+S.+Joseph%3B+Parwani%2C+Anil+V.&rft.date=August+2010&rft.volume=2010&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=105%E2%80%9312&rft_id=info:doi\/http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2147%2FOAB.S12295&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dovepress.com%2Fgetfile.php%3FfileID%3D7293&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SCLabel-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SCLabel_42-0\">42.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SCLabel_42-1\">42.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Gilles, Clarence (1 July 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bar Code and Sample Tracking: It All Starts with the Label\"<\/a>. Scientific Computing<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 8 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Bar+Code+and+Sample+Tracking%3A+It+All+Starts+with+the+Label&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Gilles%2C+Clarence&rft.au=Gilles%2C+Clarence&rft.date=1+July+2008&rft.pub=Scientific+Computing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Fbar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ALRFID-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ALRFID_43-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Davidowitz, Hanan (31 July 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.americanlaboratory.com\/913-Technical-Articles\/118171-Use-of-Radio-Frequency-Identification-RFID-for-Sample-Tracking\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Use of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) for Sample Tracking\"<\/a>. American Laboratory<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.americanlaboratory.com\/913-Technical-Articles\/118171-Use-of-Radio-Frequency-Identification-RFID-for-Sample-Tracking\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.americanlaboratory.com\/913-Technical-Articles\/118171-Use-of-Radio-Frequency-Identification-RFID-for-Sample-Tracking\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Use+of+Radio+Frequency+Identification+%28RFID%29+for+Sample+Tracking&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Davidowitz%2C+Hanan&rft.au=Davidowitz%2C+Hanan&rft.date=31+July+2012&rft.pub=American+Laboratory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanlaboratory.com%2F913-Technical-Articles%2F118171-Use-of-Radio-Frequency-Identification-RFID-for-Sample-Tracking%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SciCompInstr-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SciCompInstr_44-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Pavlis, Robert (May\/June 2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88\" target=\"_blank\">\"Trends in instrument-to-LIMS interfacing\"<\/a>. Scientific Computing World<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 8 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Trends+in+instrument-to-LIMS+interfacing&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Pavlis%2C+Robert&rft.au=Pavlis%2C+Robert&rft.date=May%2FJune+2004&rft.pub=Scientific+Computing+World&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientific-computing.com%2Ffeatures%2Ffeature.php%3Ffeature_id%3D88&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">DeHeer, Larry (1 October 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=33851_0_2_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">\"Instrument Interfacing - The Great Paradox of LIMS?\"<\/a>. LIMSfinder.com<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=33851_0_2_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=33851_0_2_0_C<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 8 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Instrument+Interfacing+-+The+Great+Paradox+of+LIMS%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=DeHeer%2C+Larry&rft.au=DeHeer%2C+Larry&rft.date=1+October+2009&rft.pub=LIMSfinder.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.limsfinder.com%2FBlogDetail.aspx%3Fid%3D33851_0_2_0_C&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HL7Auto-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-HL7Auto_46-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=203\" target=\"_blank\">\"Section 3: Clinical and Administrative Domains - HL7 Version 2.7 Standard: Chapter 13 - Clinical Laboratory Automation\"<\/a>. HL7<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=203\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.hl7.org\/implement\/standards\/product_brief.cfm?product_id=203<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Section+3%3A+Clinical+and+Administrative+Domains+-+HL7+Version+2.7+Standard%3A+Chapter+13+-+Clinical+Laboratory+Automation&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=HL7&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hl7.org%2Fimplement%2Fstandards%2Fproduct_brief.cfm%3Fproduct_id%3D203&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SLASMobileDevs-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SLASMobileDevs_47-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.eln.slas.org\/story\/1\/69-mobile-devices-on-the-move-from-laboratories-to-clinics\" target=\"_blank\">\"Mobile Devices: On the Move from Laboratories to Clinics\"<\/a>. Society for Laboratory Automation and Screening. 02 July 2012<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.eln.slas.org\/story\/1\/69-mobile-devices-on-the-move-from-laboratories-to-clinics\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.eln.slas.org\/story\/1\/69-mobile-devices-on-the-move-from-laboratories-to-clinics<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 13 February 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Mobile+Devices%3A+On+the+Move+from+Laboratories+to+Clinics&rft.atitle=&rft.date=02+July+2012&rft.pub=Society+for+Laboratory+Automation+and+Screening&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eln.slas.org%2Fstory%2F1%2F69-mobile-devices-on-the-move-from-laboratories-to-clinics&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-McKMobilePhleb-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-McKMobilePhleb_48-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mckesson.com\/en_us\/McKesson.com\/For%2BHealthcare%2BProviders\/Hospitals\/Laboratory%2BSolutions\/Horizon%2BMobileCare%2BPhlebotomy.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Horizon MobileCare Phlebotomy\"<\/a>. McKesson Corporation<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mckesson.com\/en_us\/McKesson.com\/For%2BHealthcare%2BProviders\/Hospitals\/Laboratory%2BSolutions\/Horizon%2BMobileCare%2BPhlebotomy.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.mckesson.com\/en_us\/McKesson.com\/For%2BHealthcare%2BProviders\/Hospitals\/Laboratory%2BSolutions\/Horizon%2BMobileCare%2BPhlebotomy.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 29 April 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Horizon+MobileCare+Phlebotomy&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=McKesson+Corporation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mckesson.com%2Fen_us%2FMcKesson.com%2FFor%252BHealthcare%252BProviders%2FHospitals%2FLaboratory%252BSolutions%2FHorizon%252BMobileCare%252BPhlebotomy.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-O3Prices-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-O3Prices_49-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3lims-xpress\/prices\/?lang=en\" target=\"_blank\">\"Modern web based Lims from 10 Euro cent\/sample\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bytewize_AB\" title=\"Bytewize AB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b7e72632dace83ccc9312311dc06e57\">Bytewize AB<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3lims-xpress\/prices\/?lang=en\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3lims-xpress\/prices\/?lang=en<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 8 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Modern+web+based+Lims+from+10+Euro+cent%2Fsample&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=%5B%5BBytewize+AB%5D%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bytewize.com%2Fo3lims-xpress%2Fprices%2F%3Flang%3Den&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202944\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 1.297 seconds\nReal time usage: 9.801 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 30384\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 27955\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 210534\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 84120\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 890.044 1 - -total\n 93.47% 831.911 1 - Template:Reflist\n 81.22% 722.936 49 - Template:Citation\/core\n 59.81% 532.375 37 - Template:Cite_web\n 17.02% 151.461 8 - Template:Cite_journal\n 9.59% 85.347 4 - Template:Cite_book\n 4.15% 36.914 54 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 2.18% 19.377 11 - Template:Citation\/identifier\n 0.72% 6.364 1 - Template:Ombox\n 0.71% 6.293 22 - Template:Hide_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:4219-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403202934 and revision id 23897\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/00\/Hospital_Laboratory.JPG","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/51\/Laboratory_oven_for_samples-01.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/58\/Analyse_residus.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/89\/Linking-Open-Data-diagram_2007-09.png","https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/thumb\/0\/01\/Process_and_data_modeling.svg\/640px-Process_and_data_modeling.svg.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2e\/Workflow_IA.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/25\/Syvalidate_screen.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/44\/Scheme_reconciliation.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/ba\/Code_barres.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b6\/Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png"],"23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1_timestamp":1554323374,"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64_type":"article","37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64_title":"Laboratory information system","37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system","37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tLaboratory information system\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t Hospitals and labs around the world depend on a laboratory information system to manage and report patient data and test results.\nA laboratory information system (LIS) is a software system that records, manages, and stores data for clinical laboratories. A LIS has traditionally been most adept at sending laboratory test orders to lab instruments, tracking those orders, and then recording the results, typically to a searchable database.[1] The standard LIS has supported the operations of public health institutions (like hospitals and clinics) and their associated labs by managing and reporting critical data concerning \"the status of infection, immunology, and care and treatment status of patients.\"[2]\n\nContents\n\n1 History of the LIS \n2 Common LIS functions \n\n2.1 Clinical vs. anatomic pathology LIS \n\n\n3 Differences between a LIS and LIMS \n4 LIS vendors \n5 See also \n6 Further reading \n7 References \n\n\n\nHistory of the LIS \nAdvances in computational technology in the early 1960s led some to experiment with time and data management functions in the healthcare setting. Company Bolt Beranek Newman and the Massachusetts General Hospital worked together to create a system that \"included time-sharing and multiuser techniques that would later be essential to the implementation of the modern LIS.\"[3] At around the same time General Electric announced plans to program a hospital information system (HIS), though those plans eventually fell through.[4] \nAside from the Massachusetts General Hospital experiment, the idea of a software system capable of managing time and data management functions wasn't heavily explored until the late 1960s, primarily because of the lack of proper technology and of communication between providers and end-users. The development of the Massachusetts General Hospital Utility Multi-Programming System (MUMPS) in the mid-'60s certainly helped as it suddenly allowed for a multi-user interface and a hierarchical system for persistent storage of data.[3] Yet due to its advanced nature, fragmented use across multiple entities, and inherent difficulty in extracting and analyzing data from the database, development of healthcare and laboratory systems on MUMPS was sporadic at best.[4] By the 1980s, however, the advent of Structured Query Language (SQL), relational database management systems (RDBMS), and Health Level 7 (HL7) allowed software developers to expand the functionality and interoperability of the LIS, including the application of business analytics and business intelligence techniques to clinical data.[5] \nIn the early 2010s, web-based and database-centric internet applications of laboratory informatics software changed the way researchers and technicians interacted with data, with web-driven data formatting technologies like Extensible Markup Language (XML) making LIS and electronic medical record (EMR) interoperability a much-needed reality.[6] SaaS and cloud computing technologies have since further changed how the LIS is implemented, while at the same time raising new questions about security and stability.[3] \nThe modern LIS has evolved to take on new functionalities not previously seen, including configurable clinical decision support rules, system integration, laboratory outreach tools, and support for point-of-care testing (POCT) data. LIS modules have also begun to show up in EMR and EHR products, giving some laboratories the option to have an enterprise-wide solution that can cover multiple aspects of the lab.[7] Additionally, the distinction between a LIS and laboratory information management system (LIMS) has blurred somewhat, with some vendors choosing to use the \"LIMS\" acronym to market their clinical laboratory data management system. \n\nCommon LIS functions \nFunctions that a LIS has historically performed include, but are not limited to[1][7][8][9]:\n\n patient management, including admission date, admitting physician, ordering department, specimen type, etc.\n patient data tracking\n decision support, including comparisons of lab orders with their respective ICD-9 codes\n standard test ordering and specimen tracking\n test ordering for point-of-care, molecular, and genetic testing\n quality assurance\n workload and management reporting\n analytical reporting\n workflow management\n billing\n third-party software integration\nClinical vs. anatomic pathology LIS \nThe laboratory information system has been primarily segmented into two broad categories (though other variations exist): the clinical pathology and anatomic pathology LIS.[8][9][10]\nIn clinical pathology the chemical, hormonal, and biochemical components of body fluids are analyzed and interpreted to determine if a disease is present, while anatomic pathology tends to focus on the analysis and interpretation of a wide variety of tissue structures, from small slivers via biopsy to complete organs from a surgery or autopsy.[11] These differences may appear to be small, but the differentiation in laboratory workflow of these two medical specialties has led to the creation of different functionalities within LISs. Specimen collection, receipt, and tracking; work distribution; and report generation may vary \u2014 sometimes significantly \u2014 between the two types of labs, requiring targeted functionality in the LIS.[10][12] Other differences include[3]:\n\n Specific dictionary-driven tests are found in clinical pathology environments but not so much in anatomic pathology environments.\n Ordered anatomic pathology tests typically require more information than clinical pathology tests.\n A single anatomic pathology order may be comprised of several tissues from several organs; clinical pathology orders usually do not.\n Anatomic pathology specimen collection may be a very procedural, multi-step processes, while clinical pathology specimen collection is routinely more simple.\nDifferences between a LIS and LIMS \nThere is often confusion regarding the difference between a LIS and a LIMS. While the two laboratory informatics components are related, their purposes diverged early in their existences. Up until recently, the LIS and LIMS have exhibited a few key differences[13]:\n1. A LIS has been designed primarily for processing and reporting data related to individual patients in a clinical setting. A LIMS has traditionally been designed to process and report data related to batches of samples from drug trials, water treatment facilities, and other entities that handle complex batches of data.[14][15]\n2. A LIS must satisfy the reporting and auditing needs of hospital accreditation agencies, HIPAA, and other clinical medical practitioners. A LIMS, however, needs to satisfy good manufacturing practice (GMP) and meet the reporting and audit needs of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and research scientists in many different industries.[14]\n3. A LIS is usually most competitive in patient-centric settings (dealing with \"subjects\" and \"specimens\") and clinical labs, whereas a LIMS is most competitive in group-centric settings (dealing with \"batches\" and \"samples\") that often deal with mostly anonymous research-specific laboratory data.[15][16][17]\nHowever, these distinctions began to fade somewhat in the early 2010s as some LIMS vendors began to adopt the case-centric information management normally reserved for a LIS, blurring the lines between the two components further.[17] Thermo Scientific's Clinical LIMS was an example of this merger of the LIS with LIMS, with Dave Champagne, informatics vice president and general manager, stating: \"Routine molecular diagnostics requires a convergence of the up-to-now separate systems that have managed work in the lab (the LIMS) and the clinic (the LIS). The industry is asking for, and the science is requiring, a single lab-centric solution that delivers patient-centric results.\"[18] Abbott Informatics Corporation's STARLIMS product was another example of this LIS\/LIMS merger.[13] With the distinction between the two entities becoming less clear, discussions within the laboratory informatics community began to includes the question of whether or not the two entities should be considered the same.[19][20] As of 2017[update], vendors continue to recognize the historical differences between the two products while also continuing to acknowledge that some developed LIMS are taking on more of the clinical aspects usually reserved for a LIS.[21][22][23]\n\nLIS vendors \nSee the LIS vendor page for a list of LIS vendors past and present.\n\nSee also \nLaboratory informatics\nCommon LIS features\nFurther reading \n Henricks, W.H. (09 October 2012). \"LIS Basics: CP and AP LIS Design and Operations\" (PDF). Pathology Informatics 2012. University of Pittsburgh. http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf .   \n Park, S.L.; Pantanowitz, L.; Sharma, G.; Parwani, A.V. (2012). \"Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems: A Review\". Advances in Anatomic Pathology 19 (2): 81\u201396. doi:10.1097\/PAP.0b013e318248b787.   \nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 \"Laboratory Information Systems\". Biohealthmatics.com. Biomedical Informatics Ltd. 10 August 2006. http:\/\/www.biohealthmatics.com\/technologies\/his\/lis.aspx . Retrieved 06 May 2011 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Quick Start Guide to Laboratory Information System (LIS) Implementation\" (PDF). Association of Public Health Laboratories. October 2005. https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/MRC\/Documents\/GH_2005Oct_LIS-Quick-Start-Guide.pdf . Retrieved 19 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Park, S.L.; Pantanowitz, L.; Sharma, G.; Parwani, A.V. (2012). \"Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems: A Review\". Advances in Anatomic Pathology 19 (2): 81\u201396. doi:10.1097\/PAP.0b013e318248b787.   \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 Blum, B.I.; Duncan, K.A. (1990). A History of Medical Informatics. ACM Press. pp. 141\u201353. ISBN 9780201501287. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/about\/A_History_of_medical_informatics.html?id=AR5rAAAAMAAJ .   \n\n\u2191 Sinard, J.H. (2006). Practical Pathology Informatics: Demstifying Informatics for the Practicing Anatomic Pathologist. Springer. pp. 393. ISBN 0387280588. https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=WerUyK618fcC .   \n\n\u2191 Kumar, S.; Aldrich, K. (2011). \"Overcoming barriers to electronic medical record (EMR) implementation in the US healthcare system: A comparative study\". Health Informatics Journal 16 (4). doi:10.1177\/1460458210380523.   \n\n\u2191 7.0 7.1 Futrell, K. (23 January 2017). \"What's new in today's LIS?\". Medical Laboratory Observer. NP Communications, LLC. https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/what%E2%80%99s-new-today%E2%80%99s-lis . Retrieved 19 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 Pantanowitz, L.; Henricks, W.H.; Beckwith, B.A. (2007). \"Medical Laboratory Informatics\". Clinics in Laboratory Medicine 27 (4): 823\u201343. doi:10.1016\/j.cll.2007.07.011.   \n\n\u2191 9.0 9.1 \"Medical laboratory informatics\". ClinfoWiki. 19 November 2011. http:\/\/clinfowiki.org\/wiki\/index.php\/Medical_laboratory_informatics . Retrieved 03 June 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 10.0 10.1 Henricks, W.H. (09 October 2012). \"LIS Basics: CP and AP LIS Design and Operations\" (PDF). Pathology Informatics 2012. University of Pittsburgh. http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf . Retrieved 03 June 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Adelman, H.C. (2009). Forensic Medicine. Infobase Publishing. pp. 3\u20134. ISBN 1438103816. https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=x5FftcZOv1UC&pg=PA3 . Retrieved 03 June 2013 .   \n\n\u2191 Clifford, L.-J. (01 August 2011). \"The evolving LIS needs to be \"everything\" for today's laboratories\". Medical Laboratory Observer. NP Communications, LLC. https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/the-evolving-lis-needs-to-be-everything-for-todays-laboratories.php . Retrieved 19 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 13.0 13.1 \"Adding \"Management\" to Your LIS\". STARLIMS Corporation. 2012. Archived from the original on 28 April 2014. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/ . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 14.0 14.1 Friedman, B. (04 November 2008). \"LIS vs. LIMS: It's Time to Blend the Two Types of Lab Information Systems\". Lab Soft News. http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html . Retrieved 07 November 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 15.0 15.1 \"LIMS\/LIS Market and POCT Supplement\". analytica-world.com. 20 February 2004. http:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html . Retrieved 07 November 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Friedman, B. (19 November 2008). \"LIS vs. LIMS: Some New Insights\". Lab Soft News. http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html . Retrieved 07 November 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 17.0 17.1 Hice, R. (01 July 2009). \"Swimming in the Clinical Pool: Why LIMS are supplanting old-school clinical LIS applications\". STARLIMS Corporation. Archived from the original on 13 March 2011. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/ . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Tufel, G. (01 February 2012). \"Convergence of LIMS and LIS\". Clinical Lab Products. MEDQOR. http:\/\/www.clpmag.com\/2012\/02\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/ . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Jones, J. (March 2012). \"What is the difference between a LIS and a LIMS?\". LinkedIn. https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/2069898\/2069898-98494737 . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Jones, John (September 2012). \"Are LIMS and LIS the same thing?\". LinkedIn. http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083 . Retrieved 07 November 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"FAQ: What is the difference between a LIMS and a medical laboratory quality system?\". AgiLab SAS. http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/ . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Difference Between LIS and LIMS\". CloudLIMS.com, LLC. 01 October 2016. https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Reisenwitz, C. (11 May 2017). \"What Is a Laboratory Information Management System?\". Capterra Medical Software Blog. Capterra, Inc. http:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/ . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2017Articles with invalid date parameter in templateAll articles containing potentially dated statementsLaboratory informaticsSoftware systems\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 19 September 2017, at 20:02.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 44,936 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Laboratory_information_system skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Laboratory information system<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:252px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Nurse_ict_uganda.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"a8418397f19714ba4f68ec98fd183293\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f5\/Nurse_ict_uganda.jpg\" width=\"250\" height=\"333\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Nurse_ict_uganda.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"a8418397f19714ba4f68ec98fd183293\"><\/a><\/div>Hospitals and labs around the world depend on a laboratory information system to manage and report patient data and test results.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>A <b>laboratory information system<\/b> (LIS) is a software system that records, manages, and stores data for clinical <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratories<\/a>. A LIS has traditionally been most adept at sending laboratory test orders to lab instruments, tracking those orders, and then recording the results, typically to a searchable database.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-biohealth_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-biohealth-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The standard LIS has supported the operations of public health institutions (like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital\" title=\"Hospital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f070c66d8123fe91063594befebdff\">hospitals<\/a> and clinics) and their associated labs by managing and reporting critical data concerning \"the status of infection, immunology, and care and treatment status of patients.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APHLLIS_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APHLLIS-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_the_LIS\">History of the LIS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Advances in computational technology in the early 1960s led some to experiment with time and data management functions in the healthcare setting. Company Bolt Beranek Newman and the Massachusetts General Hospital worked together to create a system that \"included time-sharing and multiuser techniques that would later be essential to the implementation of the modern LIS.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APLISReview_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APLISReview-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> At around the same time General Electric announced plans to program a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital_information_system\" title=\"Hospital information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d8385de7b1f39a39d793f8ce349b448d\">hospital information system<\/a> (HIS), though those plans eventually fell through.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HistMedInfo_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HistMedInfo-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>Aside from the Massachusetts General Hospital experiment, the idea of a software system capable of managing time and data management functions wasn't heavily explored until the late 1960s, primarily because of the lack of proper technology and of communication between providers and end-users. The development of the Massachusetts General Hospital Utility Multi-Programming System (MUMPS) in the mid-'60s certainly helped as it suddenly allowed for a multi-user interface and a hierarchical system for persistent storage of data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APLISReview_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APLISReview-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Yet due to its advanced nature, fragmented use across multiple entities, and inherent difficulty in extracting and analyzing data from the database, development of healthcare and laboratory systems on MUMPS was sporadic at best.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-HistMedInfo_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-HistMedInfo-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup> By the 1980s, however, the advent of Structured Query Language (SQL), relational database management systems (RDBMS), and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level 7<\/a> (HL7) allowed software developers to expand the functionality and interoperability of the LIS, including the application of business analytics and business intelligence techniques to clinical data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PractPathInfo_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PractPathInfo-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>In the early 2010s, web-based and database-centric internet applications of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">laboratory informatics<\/a> software changed the way researchers and technicians interacted with data, with web-driven data formatting technologies like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Extensible_Markup_Language\" title=\"Extensible Markup Language\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f7c17028e7fb39d8b39c6d31504411a8\">Extensible Markup Language<\/a> (XML) making LIS and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_medical_record\" title=\"Electronic medical record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"99a695d2af23397807da0537d29d0be7\">electronic medical record<\/a> (EMR) interoperability a much-needed reality.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OverBarEMR_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OverBarEMR-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">SaaS<\/a> and cloud computing technologies have since further changed how the LIS is implemented, while at the same time raising new questions about security and stability.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APLISReview_3-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APLISReview-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>The modern LIS has evolved to take on new functionalities not previously seen, including configurable <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_decision_support_system\" title=\"Clinical decision support system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"095141425468d057aa977016869ca37d\">clinical decision support<\/a> rules, system integration, laboratory outreach tools, and support for point-of-care testing (POCT) data. LIS modules have also begun to show up in EMR and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_health_record\" title=\"Electronic health record\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f2e31a73217185bb01389404c1fd5255\">EHR<\/a> products, giving some laboratories the option to have an enterprise-wide solution that can cover multiple aspects of the lab.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FutrellWhatsNew17_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FutrellWhatsNew17-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, the distinction between a LIS and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS) has blurred somewhat, with some vendors choosing to use the \"LIMS\" acronym to market their clinical laboratory data management system. \n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Common_LIS_functions\">Common LIS functions<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Functions that a LIS has historically performed include, but are not limited to<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-biohealth_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-biohealth-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FutrellWhatsNew17_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FutrellWhatsNew17-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MedLabInfoPaper_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MedLabInfoPaper-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MedLabInfoDesc_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MedLabInfoDesc-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> patient management, including admission date, admitting physician, ordering department, specimen type, etc.<\/li>\n<li> patient data tracking<\/li>\n<li> decision support, including comparisons of lab orders with their respective <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ICD-9\" title=\"ICD-9\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"4c97d7b65be8dc20134c311ac80a2ce1\">ICD-9<\/a> codes<\/li>\n<li> standard test ordering and specimen tracking<\/li>\n<li> test ordering for point-of-care, molecular, and genetic testing<\/li>\n<li> quality assurance<\/li>\n<li> workload and management reporting<\/li>\n<li> analytical reporting<\/li>\n<li> workflow management<\/li>\n<li> billing<\/li>\n<li> third-party software integration<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Clinical_vs._anatomic_pathology_LIS\">Clinical vs. anatomic pathology LIS<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The laboratory information system has been primarily segmented into two broad categories (though other variations exist): the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Clinical_pathology\" title=\"Clinical pathology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9b0b91aa13ae0209e073db6f30493daf\">clinical pathology<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Anatomical_pathology\" title=\"Anatomical pathology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"5668db6faf37e8c1432a1d7953f30cb7\">anatomic pathology<\/a> LIS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MedLabInfoPaper_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MedLabInfoPaper-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MedLabInfoDesc_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MedLabInfoDesc-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CPAPLISDiffs_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CPAPLISDiffs-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>In clinical pathology the chemical, hormonal, and biochemical components of body fluids are analyzed and interpreted to determine if a disease is present, while anatomic pathology tends to focus on the analysis and interpretation of a wide variety of tissue structures, from small slivers via biopsy to complete organs from a surgery or autopsy.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForensicMedBook_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForensicMedBook-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup> These differences may appear to be small, but the differentiation in laboratory workflow of these two medical specialties has led to the creation of different functionalities within LISs. Specimen collection, receipt, and tracking; work distribution; and report generation may vary \u2014 sometimes significantly \u2014 between the two types of labs, requiring targeted functionality in the LIS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CPAPLISDiffs_10-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CPAPLISDiffs-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EvolvingLIS_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EvolvingLIS-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup> Other differences include<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-APLISReview_3-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-APLISReview-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> Specific dictionary-driven tests are found in clinical pathology environments but not so much in anatomic pathology environments.<\/li>\n<li> Ordered anatomic pathology tests typically require more <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> than clinical pathology tests.<\/li>\n<li> A single anatomic pathology order may be comprised of several tissues from several organs; clinical pathology orders usually do not.<\/li>\n<li> Anatomic pathology specimen collection may be a very procedural, multi-step processes, while clinical pathology specimen collection is routinely more simple.<\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Differences_between_a_LIS_and_LIMS\">Differences between a LIS and LIMS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>There is often confusion regarding the difference between a LIS and a LIMS. While the two laboratory informatics components are related, their purposes diverged early in their existences. Up until recently, the LIS and LIMS have exhibited a few key differences<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StarlimsLimsLis-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p><p>1. A LIS has been designed primarily for processing and reporting data related to individual patients in a clinical setting. A LIMS has traditionally been designed to process and report data related to batches of samples from drug trials, water treatment facilities, and other entities that handle complex batches of data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lislims1_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lislims1-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-analytica_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-analytica-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>2. A LIS must satisfy the reporting and auditing needs of hospital accreditation agencies, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/HIPAA\" title=\"HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"70050974d1eda9ff8cf9ecf7e4fcd015\">HIPAA<\/a>, and other clinical medical practitioners. A LIMS, however, needs to satisfy <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_manufacturing_practice\" title=\"Good manufacturing practice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"50b520c825b1702be310362c66e0343f\">good manufacturing practice<\/a> (GMP) and meet the reporting and audit needs of the U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2be8927071ac419c0929f7aa1ede7fe\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> and research scientists in many different industries.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lislims1_14-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lislims1-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>3. A LIS is usually most competitive in patient-centric settings (dealing with \"subjects\" and \"specimens\") and clinical labs, whereas a LIMS is most competitive in group-centric settings (dealing with \"batches\" and \"samples\") that often deal with mostly anonymous research-specific laboratory data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-analytica_15-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-analytica-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lislims2_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lislims2-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-starlims_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-starlims-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, these distinctions began to fade somewhat in the early 2010s as some LIMS vendors began to adopt the case-centric information management normally reserved for a LIS, blurring the lines between the two components further.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-starlims_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-starlims-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Thermo_Scientific\" title=\"Thermo Scientific\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e914753f99d483d4577b35fed71b3c94\">Thermo Scientific<\/a>'s Clinical LIMS was an example of this merger of the LIS with LIMS, with Dave Champagne, informatics vice president and general manager, stating: \"Routine molecular diagnostics requires a convergence of the up-to-now separate systems that have managed work in the lab (the LIMS) and the clinic (the LIS). The industry is asking for, and the science is requiring, a single lab-centric solution that delivers patient-centric results.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ConvergeLimsLis_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ConvergeLimsLis-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\" title=\"Abbott Informatics Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90479bab12020c96864541696a62156f\">Abbott Informatics Corporation<\/a>'s STARLIMS product was another example of this LIS\/LIMS merger.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_13-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StarlimsLimsLis-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup> With the distinction between the two entities becoming less clear, discussions within the laboratory informatics community began to includes the question of whether or not the two entities should be considered the same.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LinkedInDifLisLims_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LinkedInDifLisLims-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LinkedInLisLimsSame_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LinkedInLisLimsSame-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> As of 2017<sup class=\"plainlinks noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, vendors continue to recognize the historical differences between the two products while also continuing to acknowledge that some developed LIMS are taking on more of the clinical aspects usually reserved for a LIS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AgilabFAQ_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AgilabFAQ-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CloudLISDifference16_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CloudLISDifference16-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReisenwitzWhatIs17_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReisenwitzWhatIs17-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIS_vendors\">LIS vendors<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>See the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_vendor\" title=\"LIS vendor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"28459eb218e1163e19c62c819c9c4b34\">LIS vendor<\/a> page for a list of LIS vendors past and present.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">Laboratory informatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIS_feature\" title=\"LIS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"23b167bed768658047c44710d3c186d1\">Common LIS features<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation web\">Henricks, W.H. (09 October 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIS Basics: CP and AP LIS Design and Operations\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>Pathology Informatics 2012<\/i>. University of Pittsburgh<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LIS+Basics%3A+CP+and+AP+LIS+Design+and+Operations&rft.atitle=Pathology+Informatics+2012&rft.aulast=Henricks%2C+W.H.&rft.au=Henricks%2C+W.H.&rft.date=09+October+2012&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pathinformatics.pitt.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2012Powerpoints%2F01HenricksTues.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation Journal\">Park, S.L.; Pantanowitz, L.; Sharma, G.; Parwani, A.V. (2012). \"Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems: A Review\". <i>Advances in Anatomic Pathology<\/i> <b>19<\/b> (2): 81\u201396. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e318248b787\" target=\"_blank\">10.1097\/PAP.0b013e318248b787<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Anatomic+Pathology+Laboratory+Information+Systems%3A+A+Review&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Anatomic+Pathology&rft.aulast=Park%2C+S.L.%3B+Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Sharma%2C+G.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&rft.au=Park%2C+S.L.%3B+Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Sharma%2C+G.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&rft.date=2012&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=81%E2%80%9396&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e318248b787&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-biohealth-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-biohealth_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-biohealth_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.biohealthmatics.com\/technologies\/his\/lis.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory Information Systems\"<\/a>. <i>Biohealthmatics.com<\/i>. Biomedical Informatics Ltd. 10 August 2006<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.biohealthmatics.com\/technologies\/his\/lis.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.biohealthmatics.com\/technologies\/his\/lis.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 06 May 2011<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Laboratory+Information+Systems&rft.atitle=Biohealthmatics.com&rft.date=10+August+2006&rft.pub=Biomedical+Informatics+Ltd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biohealthmatics.com%2Ftechnologies%2Fhis%2Flis.aspx&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-APHLLIS-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-APHLLIS_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/MRC\/Documents\/GH_2005Oct_LIS-Quick-Start-Guide.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quick Start Guide to Laboratory Information System (LIS) Implementation\"<\/a> (PDF). Association of Public Health Laboratories. October 2005<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/MRC\/Documents\/GH_2005Oct_LIS-Quick-Start-Guide.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.aphl.org\/MRC\/Documents\/GH_2005Oct_LIS-Quick-Start-Guide.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Quick+Start+Guide+to+Laboratory+Information+System+%28LIS%29+Implementation&rft.atitle=&rft.date=October+2005&rft.pub=Association+of+Public+Health+Laboratories&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aphl.org%2FMRC%2FDocuments%2FGH_2005Oct_LIS-Quick-Start-Guide.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-APLISReview-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-APLISReview_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-APLISReview_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-APLISReview_3-2\">3.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-APLISReview_3-3\">3.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Park, S.L.; Pantanowitz, L.; Sharma, G.; Parwani, A.V. (2012). \"Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems: A Review\". <i>Advances in Anatomic Pathology<\/i> <b>19<\/b> (2): 81\u201396. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e318248b787\" target=\"_blank\">10.1097\/PAP.0b013e318248b787<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Anatomic+Pathology+Laboratory+Information+Systems%3A+A+Review&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Anatomic+Pathology&rft.aulast=Park%2C+S.L.%3B+Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Sharma%2C+G.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&rft.au=Park%2C+S.L.%3B+Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Sharma%2C+G.%3B+Parwani%2C+A.V.&rft.date=2012&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=81%E2%80%9396&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1097%2FPAP.0b013e318248b787&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-HistMedInfo-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HistMedInfo_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-HistMedInfo_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Blum, B.I.; Duncan, K.A. (1990). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/about\/A_History_of_medical_informatics.html?id=AR5rAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\"><i>A History of Medical Informatics<\/i><\/a>. ACM Press. pp. 141\u201353. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 9780201501287<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/about\/A_History_of_medical_informatics.html?id=AR5rAAAAMAAJ\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/about\/A_History_of_medical_informatics.html?id=AR5rAAAAMAAJ<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Medical+Informatics&rft.aulast=Blum%2C+B.I.%3B+Duncan%2C+K.A.&rft.au=Blum%2C+B.I.%3B+Duncan%2C+K.A.&rft.date=1990&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B141%E2%80%9353&rft.pub=ACM+Press&rft.isbn=9780201501287&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FA_History_of_medical_informatics.html%3Fid%3DAR5rAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PractPathInfo-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PractPathInfo_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Sinard, J.H. (2006). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=WerUyK618fcC\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Practical Pathology Informatics: Demstifying Informatics for the Practicing Anatomic Pathologist<\/i><\/a>. Springer. pp. 393. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 0387280588<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=WerUyK618fcC\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=WerUyK618fcC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Practical+Pathology+Informatics%3A+Demstifying+Informatics+for+the+Practicing+Anatomic+Pathologist&rft.aulast=Sinard%2C+J.H.&rft.au=Sinard%2C+J.H.&rft.date=2006&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B393&rft.pub=Springer&rft.isbn=0387280588&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWerUyK618fcC&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OverBarEMR-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-OverBarEMR_6-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Kumar, S.; Aldrich, K. (2011). \"Overcoming barriers to electronic medical record (EMR) implementation in the US healthcare system: A comparative study\". <i>Health Informatics Journal<\/i> <b>16<\/b> (4). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1177%2F1460458210380523\" target=\"_blank\">10.1177\/1460458210380523<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Overcoming+barriers+to+electronic+medical+record+%28EMR%29+implementation+in+the+US+healthcare+system%3A+A+comparative+study&rft.jtitle=Health+Informatics+Journal&rft.aulast=Kumar%2C+S.%3B+Aldrich%2C+K.&rft.au=Kumar%2C+S.%3B+Aldrich%2C+K.&rft.date=2011&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=4&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1177%2F1460458210380523&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FutrellWhatsNew17-7\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FutrellWhatsNew17_7-0\">7.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-FutrellWhatsNew17_7-1\">7.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Futrell, K. (23 January 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/what%E2%80%99s-new-today%E2%80%99s-lis\" target=\"_blank\">\"What's new in today's LIS?\"<\/a>. <i>Medical Laboratory Observer<\/i>. NP Communications, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/what%E2%80%99s-new-today%E2%80%99s-lis\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/what%E2%80%99s-new-today%E2%80%99s-lis<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=What%27s+new+in+today%27s+LIS%3F&rft.atitle=Medical+Laboratory+Observer&rft.aulast=Futrell%2C+K.&rft.au=Futrell%2C+K.&rft.date=23+January+2017&rft.pub=NP+Communications%2C+LLC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mlo-online.com%2Fwhat%25E2%2580%2599s-new-today%25E2%2580%2599s-lis&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MedLabInfoPaper-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MedLabInfoPaper_8-0\">8.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MedLabInfoPaper_8-1\">8.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Pantanowitz, L.; Henricks, W.H.; Beckwith, B.A. (2007). \"Medical Laboratory Informatics\". <i>Clinics in Laboratory Medicine<\/i> <b>27<\/b> (4): 823\u201343. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2Fj.cll.2007.07.011\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/j.cll.2007.07.011<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Medical+Laboratory+Informatics&rft.jtitle=Clinics+in+Laboratory+Medicine&rft.aulast=Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Henricks%2C+W.H.%3B+Beckwith%2C+B.A.&rft.au=Pantanowitz%2C+L.%3B+Henricks%2C+W.H.%3B+Beckwith%2C+B.A.&rft.date=2007&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=823%E2%80%9343&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2Fj.cll.2007.07.011&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MedLabInfoDesc-9\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MedLabInfoDesc_9-0\">9.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-MedLabInfoDesc_9-1\">9.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/clinfowiki.org\/wiki\/index.php\/Medical_laboratory_informatics\" target=\"_blank\">\"Medical laboratory informatics\"<\/a>. <i>ClinfoWiki<\/i>. 19 November 2011<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/clinfowiki.org\/wiki\/index.php\/Medical_laboratory_informatics\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/clinfowiki.org\/wiki\/index.php\/Medical_laboratory_informatics<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 03 June 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Medical+laboratory+informatics&rft.atitle=ClinfoWiki&rft.date=19+November+2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclinfowiki.org%2Fwiki%2Findex.php%2FMedical_laboratory_informatics&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CPAPLISDiffs-10\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CPAPLISDiffs_10-0\">10.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-CPAPLISDiffs_10-1\">10.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Henricks, W.H. (09 October 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIS Basics: CP and AP LIS Design and Operations\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>Pathology Informatics 2012<\/i>. University of Pittsburgh<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.pathinformatics.pitt.edu\/sites\/default\/files\/2012Powerpoints\/01HenricksTues.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 03 June 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LIS+Basics%3A+CP+and+AP+LIS+Design+and+Operations&rft.atitle=Pathology+Informatics+2012&rft.aulast=Henricks%2C+W.H.&rft.au=Henricks%2C+W.H.&rft.date=09+October+2012&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pathinformatics.pitt.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2012Powerpoints%2F01HenricksTues.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ForensicMedBook-11\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ForensicMedBook_11-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Adelman, H.C. (2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=x5FftcZOv1UC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Forensic Medicine<\/i><\/a>. Infobase Publishing. pp. 3\u20134. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 1438103816<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=x5FftcZOv1UC&pg=PA3\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=x5FftcZOv1UC&pg=PA3<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 03 June 2013<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forensic+Medicine&rft.aulast=Adelman%2C+H.C.&rft.au=Adelman%2C+H.C.&rft.date=2009&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B3%E2%80%934&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.isbn=1438103816&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx5FftcZOv1UC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-EvolvingLIS-12\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-EvolvingLIS_12-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Clifford, L.-J. (01 August 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/the-evolving-lis-needs-to-be-everything-for-todays-laboratories.php\" target=\"_blank\">\"The evolving LIS needs to be \"everything\" for today's laboratories\"<\/a>. <i>Medical Laboratory Observer<\/i>. NP Communications, LLC<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/the-evolving-lis-needs-to-be-everything-for-todays-laboratories.php\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.mlo-online.com\/the-evolving-lis-needs-to-be-everything-for-todays-laboratories.php<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 19 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+evolving+LIS+needs+to+be+%22everything%22+for+today%27s+laboratories&rft.atitle=Medical+Laboratory+Observer&rft.aulast=Clifford%2C+L.-J.&rft.au=Clifford%2C+L.-J.&rft.date=01+August+2011&rft.pub=NP+Communications%2C+LLC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mlo-online.com%2Fthe-evolving-lis-needs-to-be-everything-for-todays-laboratories.php&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-StarlimsLimsLis-13\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_13-0\">13.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_13-1\">13.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Adding \"Management\" to Your LIS\"<\/a>. STARLIMS Corporation. 2012. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/services-and-resources\/resources\/lis-vs-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 28 April 2014<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Adding+%22Management%22+to+Your+LIS&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2012&rft.pub=STARLIMS+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140428060811%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.starlims.com%2Fen-us%2Fresources%2Fwhite-papers%2Flis-vs-lims%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-lislims1-14\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-lislims1_14-0\">14.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-lislims1_14-1\">14.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Friedman, B. (04 November 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIS vs. LIMS: It's Time to Blend the Two Types of Lab Information Systems\"<\/a>. <i>Lab Soft News<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 07 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LIS+vs.+LIMS%3A+It%27s+Time+to+Blend+the+Two+Types+of+Lab+Information+Systems&rft.atitle=Lab+Soft+News&rft.aulast=Friedman%2C+B.&rft.au=Friedman%2C+B.&rft.date=04+November+2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flabsoftnews.typepad.com%2Flab_soft_news%2F2008%2F11%2Fliss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-analytica-15\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-analytica_15-0\">15.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-analytica_15-1\">15.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS\/LIS Market and POCT Supplement\"<\/a>. <i>analytica-world.com<\/i>. 20 February 2004<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 07 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LIMS%2FLIS+Market+and+POCT+Supplement&rft.atitle=analytica-world.com&rft.date=20+February+2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.analytica-world.com%2Fen%2Fnews%2F35566%2Flims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-lislims2-16\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-lislims2_16-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Friedman, B. (19 November 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIS vs. LIMS: Some New Insights\"<\/a>. <i>Lab Soft News<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 07 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LIS+vs.+LIMS%3A+Some+New+Insights&rft.atitle=Lab+Soft+News&rft.aulast=Friedman%2C+B.&rft.au=Friedman%2C+B.&rft.date=19+November+2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flabsoftnews.typepad.com%2Flab_soft_news%2F2008%2F11%2Flis-vs-lims.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-starlims-17\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-starlims_17-0\">17.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-starlims_17-1\">17.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Hice, R. (01 July 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Swimming in the Clinical Pool: Why LIMS are supplanting old-school clinical LIS applications\"<\/a>. STARLIMS Corporation. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 13 March 2011<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Swimming+in+the+Clinical+Pool%3A+Why+LIMS+are+supplanting+old-school+clinical+LIS+applications&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Hice%2C+R.&rft.au=Hice%2C+R.&rft.date=01+July+2009&rft.pub=STARLIMS+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20110313145726%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fblog.starlims.com%2F2009%2F07%2F01%2Fswimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ConvergeLimsLis-18\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ConvergeLimsLis_18-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Tufel, G. (01 February 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clpmag.com\/2012\/02\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Convergence of LIMS and LIS\"<\/a>. <i>Clinical Lab Products<\/i>. MEDQOR<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clpmag.com\/2012\/02\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.clpmag.com\/2012\/02\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Convergence+of+LIMS+and+LIS&rft.atitle=Clinical+Lab+Products&rft.aulast=Tufel%2C+G.&rft.au=Tufel%2C+G.&rft.date=01+February+2012&rft.pub=MEDQOR&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clpmag.com%2F2012%2F02%2Fconvergence-of-lims-and-lis%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LinkedInDifLisLims-19\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LinkedInDifLisLims_19-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jones, J. (March 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/2069898\/2069898-98494737\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is the difference between a LIS and a LIMS?\"<\/a>. LinkedIn<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/2069898\/2069898-98494737\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/2069898\/2069898-98494737<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=What+is+the+difference+between+a+LIS+and+a+LIMS%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Jones%2C+J.&rft.au=Jones%2C+J.&rft.date=March+2012&rft.pub=LinkedIn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linkedin.com%2Fgroups%2F2069898%2F2069898-98494737&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LinkedInLisLimsSame-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LinkedInLisLimsSame_20-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jones, John (September 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083\" target=\"_blank\">\"Are LIMS and LIS the same thing?\"<\/a>. LinkedIn<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 07 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Are+LIMS+and+LIS+the+same+thing%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Jones%2C+John&rft.au=Jones%2C+John&rft.date=September+2012&rft.pub=LinkedIn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.linkedin.com%2Fgroups%2FAre-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AgilabFAQ-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AgilabFAQ_21-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"FAQ: What is the difference between a LIMS and a medical laboratory quality system?\"<\/a>. AgiLab SAS<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=FAQ%3A+What+is+the+difference+between+a+LIMS+and+a+medical+laboratory+quality+system%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=AgiLab+SAS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fagilab.com%2Ffaq%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CloudLISDifference16-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CloudLISDifference16_22-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Difference Between LIS and LIMS\"<\/a>. CloudLIMS.com, LLC. 01 October 2016<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Difference+Between+LIS+and+LIMS&rft.atitle=&rft.date=01+October+2016&rft.pub=CloudLIMS.com%2C+LLC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcloudlims.com%2Flims%2Flims-vs-lis.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ReisenwitzWhatIs17-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ReisenwitzWhatIs17_23-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Reisenwitz, C. (11 May 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is a Laboratory Information Management System?\"<\/a>. <i>Capterra Medical Software Blog<\/i>. Capterra, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=What+Is+a+Laboratory+Information+Management+System%3F&rft.atitle=Capterra+Medical+Software+Blog&rft.aulast=Reisenwitz%2C+C.&rft.au=Reisenwitz%2C+C.&rft.date=11+May+2017&rft.pub=Capterra%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.capterra.com%2Fwhat-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202934\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.539 seconds\nReal time usage: 1.397 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 16107\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 24643\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 109605\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 44119\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 15\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 479.602 1 - -total\n 83.67% 401.274 1 - Template:Reflist\n 83.26% 399.302 25 - Template:Citation\/core\n 62.09% 297.781 18 - Template:Cite_web\n 16.01% 76.790 4 - Template:Cite_journal\n 11.28% 54.087 3 - Template:Cite_book\n 5.71% 27.375 38 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 3.01% 14.436 7 - Template:Citation\/identifier\n 2.92% 14.014 1 - Template:As_of\n 2.14% 10.260 1 - Template:DMCA\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:316-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403202933 and revision id 31763\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f5\/Nurse_ict_uganda.jpg"],"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64_timestamp":1554323373,"ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa_type":"article","ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa_title":"LIMS feature","ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature","ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tLIMS feature\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\n \n You can find a listing of all LIMS vendors \u2014 and by extension, the features their products offer \u2014 on the LIMS vendor page. \n\n\nA LIMS feature is one or more pieces of functionality that appear within a laboratory information management system (LIMS).\nThe LIMS is an evolving concept, with new features and abilities being introduced every year. As laboratory demands change and technological progress continues, the functions of a LIMS will also change. Yet like the automobile, the LIMS tends to have a base set of functionality that defines it. That functionality can roughly be divided into five laboratory processing phases, with numerous software functions falling under each[1]: \n\n the reception and log in of a sample and its associated customer data\n the assignment, scheduling, and tracking of the sample and the associated analytical workload\n the processing and quality control associated with the sample and the utilized equipment and inventory\n the storage of data associated with the sample analysis\n the inspection, approval, and compilation of the sample data for reporting and\/or further analysis\nOf course, there are LIMS features that are difficult to categorize under any of these phases. Such features often contribute to the entire LIMS and how it's utilized. For example, multilingual support appears in LIMS like Assaynet Inc.'s LIMS2010 and Two Fold Software's Qualoupe LIMS, allowing users to interact with the LIMS in more than one language. Some functionality may also overlap several laboratory phases, making it difficult to firmly classify. \nThe features described below come from an analysis of freely available LIMS product information on vendor websites. An attempt was made to discover the features most utilized in vendors' LIMS products and collect information on those features for each LIMS. Not every possible feature is referenced here; some LIMS products fill specific niches, utilizing unique functionality to solve a specific problem. \nThat said, keep in mind the categorization of features below is very loose. It may be viable to argue a feature belongs under a different section or multiple sections. For the purposes of organizing this information in an uncomplicated manner, however, some liberty has been taken in the categorizing of features.\n\nContents\n\n1 Sample, inventory, and data management \n\n1.1 Sample login and management \n1.2 Sample tracking \n1.3 Sample and result batching \n1.4 Task and event scheduling \n1.5 Option for manual result entry \n1.6 Multiple data viewing methods \n1.7 Data and trend analysis \n1.8 Data and equipment sharing \n1.9 Customizable fields and\/or interface \n1.10 Query capability \n1.11 Import data \n1.12 Internal file or data linking \n1.13 External file or data linking \n1.14 ELN support or integration \n1.15 Export to MS Excel \n1.16 Raw data management \n1.17 Data warehouse \n1.18 Deadline control \n1.19 Production control \n1.20 Project and\/or task management \n1.21 Inventory management \n1.22 Document creation and management \n1.23 Case management \n1.24 Workflow management \n1.25 Specification management \n1.26 Customer and supplier management \n1.27 Billing management \n\n\n2 Quality, security, and compliance \n\n2.1 Regulatory compliance \n2.2 QA\/QC functions \n2.3 Performance evaluation \n2.4 Audit trail \n2.5 Chain of custody \n2.6 Configurable roles and security \n2.7 Data normalization \n2.8 Data validation \n2.9 Data encryption \n2.10 Version control \n2.11 Automatic data backup \n2.12 Environmental monitoring \n\n\n3 Reporting, barcoding, and printing \n\n3.1 Custom reporting \n3.2 Report printing \n3.3 Label support \n3.4 Barcode support \n3.5 Export to PDF \n3.6 Export to MS Word \n3.7 Export to HTML or XML \n3.8 Fax integration \n3.9 Email integration \n\n\n4 Base functionality \n\n4.1 Administrator management \n4.2 Modular \n4.3 Instrument interfacing and management \n4.4 Mobile device integration \n4.5 Alarms and\/or alerts \n4.6 Work-related time tracking \n4.7 Voice recognition system \n4.8 External monitoring \n4.9 Messaging \n4.10 Multilingual \n4.11 Network-capable \n4.12 Web client or portal \n4.13 Online or integrated help \n4.14 Software as a service delivery model \n4.15 Usage-based cost \n\n\n5 References \n\n\n\nSample, inventory, and data management \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n \nSample login and management \nSample accessioning and management is one of the core functions a modern LIMS is tasked with, whether it's in a manufacturing, water treatment, or pharmaceutical laboratory.[2] As such, researchers who work in these types of labs are unable to complete their experiment-based goals without an effective method of managing samples. The process of sample management for experiments includes, but is not limited to[2]:\n\n storing related sample information, including aliquot numbers, dates, and external links\n setting user alerts for sample status\n creating and documenting viewable sample container schemas with name and status\n assigning sample access rights\n assigning custom sample ID numbers based on a specification\nAdditional functionality that could potentially fall under this feature:\n\n utilizing a unique ID system\n barcoding of samples\n defining sample points and series\n creating data associations for samples - such as pedigree for sample\/aliquot relationships or relationships based on experiment, etc.\n issuing sample receipts\nSample tracking \n Where's sample 20110512_122GJH? Sample tracking functionality will let you know which lab oven it's in.For most laboratory personnel, knowing that a sample has arrived to the lab isn't good enough; they need to know where it's located and what is being done with it. Enter the sample tracking feature. Without it, many problems arise. In the forensic world, for example, many samples are linked to a criminal investigation. In this case, misidentification, contamination, or duplication can become significant issues: a lost sample is essentially missing evidence, while a duplicated sample can render it useless as evidence.[3]\nAfter sample reception and its initial handling procedures, many LIMS can then track sample location as well as chain of custody. Location tracking usually involves assigning the sample to a particular freezer location, often down to the granular level of shelf, rack, box, row, and column. The process of tracking a sample has become more streamlined with increasing support of 2-D barcode technology. While handwritten labels were the norm, now barcode support in a LIMS can \"tie together a vast amount of information, clearly relating each sample to a specific case.\"[3] Other event tracking such as freeze and thaw cycles that a sample undergoes in the laboratory may also be required. As each laboratory's needs for tracking additional data points can vary widely, many modern LIMS have implemented extensive configurability to compensate for varying environments.[4]\nThe functionality of sample tracking strongly ties into the audit trail and chain of custody features of a LIMS.\n\nSample and result batching \nWhat is batching? The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines a batch as \"a group of samples which behave similarly with respect to the sampling or testing procedures being employed and which are processed as a unit.\"[5] This definition can be applied to many laboratories which handle large quantities of samples for some form of analysis or processing. A LIMS that has the ability to check in, link, and track groups of samples across one or multiple facilities is valuable to such laboratories. Additionally, batching the analysis results of multiple samples or groups of samples gives laboratories more flexibility with how they manage their data. Batching also offers the benefit of mimicking the production groups of samples while also capturing quality control data for the entire group.\n\nTask and event scheduling \nWithin the context of a LIMS, the ability to schedule a task or event is a natural extension of how work was done in a laboratory before the advent of data management systems. Workloads are assigned to technicians, maintenance schedules are created and followed, and research deadlines must be observed. While these tasks have in the past been performed without LIMS, a modern data management system can now optimize those tasks and provide additional scheduling functionality to streamline the operation of a lab. Autoscribe Ltd., for example, offers a scheduling module for its LIMS that allows users to automatically schedule multiple jobs, data backups, alarms, and reports.[6] Some LIMS like LabWare, Inc.'s LabWare LIMS offer multiple types of schedulers that match to the particular functions of a research laboratory.[7] Additional functionality within this feature includes the ability to configure automated assignments of analysis requests, establish recurring events, and in most cases, create printable schedules.\nExamples of tasks and events that can feasibly be scheduled in a LIMS include:\n\n registration of received samples into the system\n production of reports\n creation and sending of e-mails and alerts\n maintenance of equipment\n assignment of workloads to personnel\nOption for manual result entry \nWhile many LIMS vendors tout the ability of their product to automate the entry of results into the LIMS database, the need for manual data entry of analysis results still exists. This feature is important to laboratories obtaining analysis results from multiple sources, including non-digital paper-based results and instruments that can't be connected to the LIMS. Additional functionality associated with this feature includes a customizable spell check dictionary and the ability to add comments, notes, and narratives to most anything in the LIMS.\n\nMultiple data viewing methods \nLaboratories produce data, and LIMS exist to help manage that data. Additionally, even before the existence of LIMS, scientists have had a corresponding need for visually representing data. Today a LIMS can not only collect and analyze data from samples, but it also can represent that data in reports, graphs, gradients, and spreadsheets. Depending on the LIMS, more than one way to visually represent the data may exist.\nSome laboratory information management systems take a very specialized approach to data views. For example, Biomatters Ltd.'s Geneious and Geneious Pro offer multiple methods of viewing complicated sequence analysis data, including 3-D structuring and representations of plasmid vectors.[8]\n\nData and trend analysis \n Some LIMS allow users to analyze sample data directly from the software. Sample experimentation and analysis plays an important part of laboratory informatics, helping laboratories make better sense of their experiments and reach valuable conclusions about them. While this important phase of laboratory work has often been done externally from the LIMS, it's now more common to see basic analysis tools being included. Such tools allow raw data to be imported directly to the LIMS, which then can store, process, and report information about it. Additionally, calculations and functions used in the analysis are typically definable and editable for further flexibility.\nAs with the feature \"multiple data viewing methods,\" data and trend analysis is also increasingly important in laboratories that have very specialized data management needs. When even in 2009 genetic scientists in large- and medium-sized sequencing and core centers were voicing concerns about \"a lack of adequate vendor-supported software and laboratory information management systems (LIMS),\"[9], today data management options like the previously mentioned Geneious Pro are starting to emerge, offering the ability to perform specialized analytical tasks for the sequencing industry.[8] \nAs sample experimentation and data analysis are important parts of most if not all laboratories, such functionality \u2014 which has often come in the form of a separate application or analysis device \u2014 will likely continue to merge into LIMS and other data management solutions.[2]\n\r\n\n\nData and equipment sharing \nAside from data storage and sample registration, a modern LIMS' major contribution to the laboratory is aiding in the sharing of experiment results, reports, and other data types with those who need it most. Rather than pieces of information becoming misplaced or forgotten in laboratory notebooks, the LIMS makes it easier to share sample test results and increase the efficiency of collaboration inside and outside the laboratory. Yet data is more than just sample test results; it also can come in the form of charts, reports, policy and procedure, and other documents. Additionally, the need for controlling who has access to those types of data is also an important consideration. As such, this feature is at least partially tied to other features like document management and configurable security.\n\nCustomizable fields and\/or interface \nAs thorough as some user interface (UI) developers may be in adding relevant fields and interface options for LIMS end users, there are at times options that are either omitted or unanticipated. This has traditionally required the end user to contact the vendor and ask if the needed option(s) can be added in the next release. However, some modern LIMS vendors have responded instead by adding functionality that gives end users and\/or LIMS administrators more control over the user interface.\nAspects of the LIMS' user interface that are becoming more customizable by the end user include:[10][11][12]\n\n system nomenclature\n equations used in calculations \n data and universal fields\n appearance of the interface and\/or menus\n primary system language\n the LIMS source code, especially if in a non-proprietary format\nQuery capability \n Advanced query tools allow researchers to better complete project objectives.As was the case before the advent of databases and electronic data management solutions, today researchers must search through sample results, experiment notes, and other types of data to better draw conclusions about their research. Whereas this used to mean browsing through laboratory notebooks, Excel spreadsheets, or Access databases, now powerful query tools exists within data management tools like a LIMS. Not only can data be searched for based on name, number, or vendor, LIMSs like eBioSys' eLab and Mountain States Consulting's MSC-LIMS allow for queries of attached meta-data like user ID, project number, task number, sample type, location, and collection date.[13][14] Finally, as LIMS continue to include both sample management and experimental data management functionality, queries become more powerful in general as now sample and experiment can be matched together in one database.[2]\nQuery functionality often includes the ability to:\n\n search both transactional data and archived data tables\n search multiple databases via an application programming interface (API) or open database connectivity (ODBC) connection\n filter and sort data\n create ad-hoc queries\nImport data \nData can originate from numerous places in the laboratory. The ability to import that data into a LIMS can be beneficial, especially when an instrument can't be connected or an external client provides a data feed independent of the LIMS. Some LIMS like Bridge-Soft's QMS even allow to cross-reference laboratory nomenclature from received data sources with the recipient's.[15] And of course instrument interfacing allows for even more importation options. Additional data validation procedures may be applied to the imported data to guarantee information homogeneity. Additionally, some LIMS may allow for the import and integration of non-normalized legacy data tables with LIMS data tables into a single database.\n\nInternal file or data linking \nThis feature allows LIMS users to link together reports, protocols, sample results, and more, providing greater contextual clarity to projects. Examples include:\n\n linking a sample batch to a test or sample preparation methodology\n linking a test process to a particular customer\n linking a report to a sample batch\n linking a group of test results to a raw data file\n linking an image to a work order\n linking all lab results with the correct reporting test method\nExternal file or data linking \nThis feature allows LIMS users to link together data and files in the LIMS with data, files, and customers outside the scope of the LIMS. Examples include:\n\n linking data files from chromatography equipment to synthesis data[16]\n linking equipment ID with an external annotation database[17]\n linking external standard operating procedure documents with an internal test specification[18]\nELN support or integration \nAs a software replacement for more traditional paper laboratory notebooks, the electronic laboratory notebook (ELN) has been important to laboratory functions. Yet the lines between ELN and LIMS began to blur in the 2000s, with both types of software incorporating features from the other.[19][20] The result today is some LIMS either include traditional ELN functionality or link physical laboratory notebook references to data in the LIMS.[21]\n\nExport to MS Excel \nWhile Microsoft Excel has long been used within the laboratory setting, a slow shift towards relational databases and LIMS occurred in the late 1990s and early 2000s.[22] Additional concerns with the difficulties of Excel's validation and compliance with FDA 21 CFR Part 11 and other regulations have led many labs to turn to data management solutions that are easier to validate.[23] Nevertheless, laboratories continue to use Excel in some fashion, and thus Excel integration or data exportation in Excel format is a real need for LIMS customers. LIMS with this feature allow raw, processed, or imported data to be exported in the Excel format for further analysis and dissemination.\n\nRaw data management \nWhile not described as a feature on most LIMS vendor websites, a few indicate that their LIMS is capable of managing (import, export, editing, etc.) data in its raw format for future analysis.\n\nData warehouse \nA LIMS' data warehouse serves the important function of storing, extracting, and managing the data that laboratories crank out for the purposes or analysis, reporting, and process management, typically separate from the primary storage database. Data warehouses also offer the benefit of speeding up queries, making queries and data mining more user-friendly, and smoothing out data gaps.[24]\n\nDeadline control \nDeadline control is functionality within a LIMS that allows users to manage and be notified of events that occur within the laboratory. With this functionality users can also be notified of upcoming deadlines on anything from sample analysis to license renewal. \nNote that this functionality may also feasibly fall under the task and event scheduling or alarms features. As deadline control seems to be advertised as a notable feature by only a few vendors, it seems even more likely that this functionality is considered part of scheduling or alarms.\n\nProduction control \nThere are many types of businesses that produce goods, and in most cases there is a research laboratory involved at some point in the process. This is especially true in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries, where production measurements such as yield, volume, activity, and impurity are vital. As LIMSs have already recorded such information during tests and analysis, the addition of production control functionality seems natural. Some LIMS take a very active approach to this. For example, 2nd Sight Solutions' OhNo! features production control as major functionality for the synthesis of radiopharmaceuticals.[25] Other LIMS may have less pronounced production functionality, while still offering the ability to track the production process in and out of the lab. And yet other LIMSs like dialog's diaLIMS offer robust production-based functionality but as a module or add-on to the base LIMS software.[26]\nThe types of functionality that may fall under this feature include:\n\n recipe management\n consumable tracking\n batch traceability\n production planning\n enterprise resource planning\nProject and\/or task management \nProject and task management within a LIMS typically involves the scheduling of tasks to workers and organizing associated tasks into a more cohesive unit for better tracking and management. While the functionality of task and event scheduling can also be found in project and task management, many LIMS include functionality beyond scheduling that warrants the addition of the project and\/or task management feature. This functionality includes:\n\n job allocation and rescheduling\n instrument workload tracking\n time tracking\n pending workload verification\n priority setting\n project-based workflow management\n sample, batch, and document linking\n work list sharing\n recurring event management\nInventory management \n LIMS can help laboratories keep track of their stock of reagents and even streamline reordering of them.Laboratories use a wide array of inventory, from reagents to glassware, from radiopharmaceuticals to laboratory baths. With that comes the need to know how much\/many and the frequency of use. For this, most LIMS products now include some sort of inventory management functionality. \n register origin, demographics of incoming materials\n track used and in-use items via barcodes\n track inventory reduction based on usage and shipping out of the lab\n create alerts for when items reach a certain stock level\n calculate inventory cost and fluctuation\n manage transportation and routing\n manual incrementing\/decrementing of items\n track location and usage of laboratory equipment\n assign storage locations\n track forensic evidence\nIt should be noted that samples and electronic equipment may also be considered inventory, and thus there is likely some functionality crossover with the sample management and instrument management features.\n\nDocument creation and management \nStandard operation procedures, (SOPs), specifications, reports, graphs, images, and receipts are all collected and used in the average laboratory. With a LIMS already designed to manage and store sample and experiment data, it makes sense to include functionality to create, import, export, and manage other sorts of data files. As sample and experimental data can be indexed, queried, and linked, so too can document data. Functionality of a typical document management system includes the ability to:\n\n upload and index documents\n enforce version control\n provide full text search\n export to PDF or other relevant format\n add documents as attachments\nCase management \nThe laboratory information system (LIS) has played an important role in the case management tasks of patient-centric and clinical laboratories. However, some LIMS have gained case management functionality, effectively blurring the lines between LIS and LIMS.[27]. Self-proclaimed LIMS products have emerged in the clinical, public health, and veterinary industries, areas that have historically been served by LIS software. When also considering the fields of law enforcement and forensic science, case management has an increasingly important role in some LIMS. Functionality seen in the case management feature includes:\n\n case accessioning and assignment\n disease tracking\n trend analysis\n clinical history follow-up\n out-of-range result alerts\n document and result association\n evidence control\n study management\nWorkflow management \n Capturing workflow in the lab is becoming more commonplace for the LIMS.Workflow management is common in the laboratory, acting as a graphical representation of planned sequential steps to either fully or partially automate a process within the lab. Separate standards-based workflow management systems (in the form of a software component) have traditionally performed this task.[28] However, in the 2000s LIMS vendors began incorporating workflow management functionality into their LIMS software, reducing the headaches that customization of a LIMS often brought.[29] \n\r\n\nModern commercial and open-source LIMS solutions often feature workflow management functionality, including[30][31][29]:\n\n attribute definition of activities\n definition of inputs and outputs of activities\n assignment of documentation to activities\n setting of quality control limits\n dynamically modify workflow in case of future changes\n receive notification of changes to the workflow\n sending user-defined messages during the process\n\r\n\n\nSpecification management \nSpecification (spec) management is vital to not only the manufacturing and research industries but also to a host of other laboratories requiring precise measurements and infallible test methods. Just as the ASTM offers standards and specs for LIMS[32], so too do LIMS users have standards and specs for their laboratory. With spec management in place within the LIMS, laboratories can then:\n\n enforce standard operating procedures and business rules\n create specs down to a project or sample level\n validate recipes and procedures\n accept or reject sample batches\n document internal and external spec history\nNote that some of the functionality of spec management may cross over into the realm of quality control and data validation.\n\nCustomer and supplier management \nUnless a laboratory is conducting internalized independent research, in most cases it will do business with external entities such as contract labs, sample providers, equipment providers, and reagent suppliers. In some cases, even internal employees may be considered a customer, necessitating documentation of who is using the system and in what ways. For a veterinary lab, the customer may be the animal and handler. For a forensic lab the customer may be more complex: internal staff, university staff, police departments, and maintainers of nationwide crime databases may all at some point act as customers. In these cases, documenting these various points of contact and linking them to samples, equipment, and tests becomes vital. Managing demographics, complaints, correspondence, and history are all feasible with customer management functionality. This process is often made simpler through the use of a more context-neutral entity creation system, which allows for more flexible management of contacts.\nThis feature may also be referred to as contact management, an address book module, or a customer service module.\n\nBilling management \nWhile the finances of a laboratory are important, they've typically been handled separately as a business process. However, some LIMS include additional functionality to make handling financial transactions and documentation of all sorts possible within the LIMS. In theory, such functionality brings the possibility of keeping more of a laboratory's data centrally located and queryable. This feature may include:\n\n payment processing\n expense reporting\n price quotes\n revenue management\n workload tracking of billable hours\n bill of materials\n grant management\n\n \nQuality, security, and compliance \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n \nRegulatory compliance \nThe topic of whether or not a LIMS meets regulatory compliance is often a complex one. While Title 21 CFR Part 11 has arguably had the largest influence on a electronic data management system's compliance, other influential standards have shaped the way LIMS and other systems handle and store data. Other compliance-based codes, standards, and regulations include:\n\n ASTM \n ASCLD\/LAB \n Classified data\n Freedom of information legislation (various)\n GALP and GAMP \n HIPAA \n Health Level 7\t\n ICD\n ISO\/IEC 17025\n ISO 9000\/9001\n ISO\/TS 16949\n ODBC\n TNI and NELAP \n Title 40 CFR Part 3\nWith so many codes, standards, and regulations, LIMS consumers are advised to contact vendors with their user requirements and ask how the vendor's software meets and\/or exceeds those requirements.\n\nQA\/QC functions \nThe quality management functions of a LIMS allow users to maintain a level of necessary quality across many of the functions in a laboratory. From running quality assurance tests to ensuring employed researchers are proficient at certain tasks, the QA\/QC functionality of a LIMS is largely responsible for the output of consistent data and manufactured products in and out of the lab.\nCommon functionality includes[33][34]:\n\n single or batch QA\/QC tests\n quality control charts and reports\n proficiency testing\n document management\n instrument maintenance\n data acceptance\/rejection\n certificates of analysis (COA)\n data types defined by QC analysis\nPerformance evaluation \nAs document management becomes increasingly prevalent in LIMS, it only makes sense to also collate and store all the documentation associated with employee training and certification. Changes to laboratory techniques, scientific understanding, and business practices force researchers to learn, reevaluate, and demonstrate competency in order to maintain quality levels in the laboratory. Evaluations can frequently extend beyond staff members, however. Clinics, visit types, vendors, or test species can also be tracked and evaluated based on custom criteria. The performance evaluation functionality of a LIMS makes this possible. \nThat functionality typically includes the ability to maintain training records and history, and also to link that training to a technique or piece of equipment. Afterwards, the staff member, vendor, etc. can be marked as competent or certified in the equipment, knowledge, or process. Periodical assessment of the training and its practical effectiveness can later be performed. Productivity of an entity or process can also be gauged over a certain date range based on tracked time, pre-determined milestones, or some other criteria.\n\nAudit trail \n Whether validating sample data or an entire LIMS, maintaining an audit trail is an important part of 21 CFR Part 11 compliance. As codes and regulations like Title 21 CFR Part 11 mandate \"computer systems (including hardware and software), controls, and attendant documentation\" utilize electronic signatures and audit trails[35], LIMS developers must put serious thought into how their software handles audit trail functionality. The audit trail \u2014 documentation of the sequence of activities that have affected an action \u2014 must be thorough and seamlessly integrated into the software. \nInformation recorded in the audit trail typically includes:\n\n operator code\t\n time stamp\t\n location\n case number\n transaction type\n amount and quantity prior to change\n user notes\n\r\n\n\nChain of custody \nThe chain of custody (COC) of an item is of varying importance, depending on the type of laboratory. A highly regulated laboratory that works under Code of Federal Regulation or other guidelines makes tracking COC a vital part of its operations. This is especially true in forensic labs, which depend on continuous accountability of their evidence collection, retention, and disposal procedures.[36] As with an audit trail, a laboratory depends on recorded information like user ID, time stamp, and location ID to maintain a robust and accurate COC. Barcodes, inventory management, and configurable security roles all play an important part in maintaining chain of custody.\n\nConfigurable roles and security \nMany roles exist within the laboratory setting, each with its own set of responsibilities. And just as the role an individual plays within the laboratory may change, so may the responsibilities associated with each role. This sort of change necessitates a flexible and configurable security system, one that allows for the placement of individual LIMS users into standardized security roles which provide role-specific access to certain LIMS functionality. Additionally, as responsibilities change within roles, that same flexible configuration is necessary for assigning or restricting access to certain LIMS functionality for each existing or newly created role. \nOf course, roles aren't always assigned on an individual level. Often large groups of individuals may need to be assigned to roles, necessitating group assignments for security purposes. For example, a group of laboratory trainees may only be given read-only access to the sample login and sample tracking functionality of the system through a custom \"Trainees\" group role, while the head researcher of the lab may be given the \"Administrator\" role, which allows that individual to access most if not all of the LIMS' functionality.\n\nData normalization \nFor the purposes of describing LIMS functionality, \"data normalization\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring incoming\/imported data into the LIMS is standardized to the same format of existing LIMS data. \nHere's an example to better explain this issue. When a LIMS is initially configured, in most if not all cases a clear standard can be set for how logged samples and their associated measurements pre- and post-analysis are recorded in the system. Perhaps all temperatures will be recorded in Celsius to two decimal places. If temperature data imported from a spreadsheet or a lab instrument is not in this format, the LIMS can normalize the incoming data to match the standard already set for existing LIMS temperature data. This ensures consistency within the LIMS database and typically leads to better data validation efforts later on.\nNote: Some LIMS developers may include data normalization functionality within what they may refer to as data validation functionality. The line between these two may be blurred or not exist at all.\n\nData validation \nFor the purposes of describing LIMS functionality, \"data validation\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring existing data in the LIMS \u2014 either pre-analysis or post-analysis \u2014 sufficiently meets any number of standards or thresholds set for sample login, sample analysis, or any other data management process in the LIMS. This validation process may be completely automatic and system-based, or it may also include additional steps on the part of the user base utilizing additional LIMS functionality, including verification of standard operating procedures (SOPs), QC samples, and QA approval.[37][38]\nNote: This functionality shouldn't be confused with the process of validating the LIMS itself, which is an entirely different process partially falling under regulatory compliance and involves the process of ensuring \"the software is performing in a manner for which it was designed.\"[39]\n\nData encryption \nThe existence of this functionality in LIMS software generally indicates the LIMS has the ability to protect the integrity and authenticity of its housed data through the use of a variety of technologies which makes data unreadable except to those possessing a key\/right\/etc. to unlock\/read the data. This functionality is especially vital to the Web-enabled LIMS, which transfers information over the Internet in a client-server relationship. As a wide variety of encryption technologies exist, it's generally a good idea to consult with the developers of a LIMS to determine the strengths and weaknesses of their employed encryption methods. \n\nVersion control \nVersion control is a form of safeguard which helps preserve data integrity. This is typically done by creating a modifiable new version of a piece of information rather than allowing the original to be modified. Such versioning may be applied to a wide variety of digital information housed in the LIMS, including test methods, training certifications, instrument logs, specifications, and process and procedure (P&P) documentation. In LIMS like LabWare LIMS, reference data can also be versioned while also retaining the original relationship between samples and test results, including the version of reference data current at the time lab testing is performed.[40] Information tracked with such revisions includes attributes like user name, time the edit was made, and what exactly was edited. This also benefits those managing audit trails and chains of custody.\n\n The temperature of an open cryopreservation container may be monitored on a computer via a connection to a LIMS with environmental monitoring functionality. Other LIMS may employ a different form of version control called file locking, which simply puts the affected information into a read-only mode for users while someone else is busy editing it. Another popular strategy is to, rather than locking the file, allow multiple people edit to a piece of information, later merging the various edits. Potential LIMS buyers may need to inquire with developers to determine what type of versioning scheme is used in the vendor's software.\nAutomatic data backup \nThe existence of this piece of functionality in a LIMS usually means information contained in one or more associated databases or data warehouses can be automatically preserved in an additional backup file. The save location for that file as well as the scheduled backup time is configurable, typically through the administrative module of the LIMS.\n\nEnvironmental monitoring \nSome LIMS like Core LIMS and Oracle Health Sciences LabPas allow users to monitor the environmental conditions of not only sample storage containers but also the entire laboratory itself.[41][42] Attributes like humidity, air quality, and temperature may be monitored to ensure sample storage units and experiments maintain desired conditions. Alarms may be able to be configured to notify staff if a storage container's environmental attributes go beyond a certain threshold. Manufacturers utilizing a LIMS like NOVA-LIMS may also be able to employ more advanced environmental tracking features in the plant to guarantee a more consistent, higher quality product is created.[43]\n\n\n \nReporting, barcoding, and printing \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n \nCustom reporting \nReporting is a vital part of a LIMS, as it allows users to gain a clearer picture of collected data and potential trends. At a minimum a number of pre-configured report styles come standard with a LIMS. However, some LIMS are more flexible than others, offering the ability to customize reports in numerous ways. The most popular attributes of custom reporting include custom headers, custom information placement, charts, pivot tables, and multiple output formats.\nNote: Some LIMS vendors will offer custom reporting as an option as an added cost, depending on the level of customization required.\n\nReport printing \nToday's LIMS software almost universally offers the ability to print reports and other materials, so this feature may seem a bit redundant to list. Nonetheless, printer support is a feature worth confirming when considering a piece of LIMS software.\n\nLabel support \nThe label \u2014 typically affixed to a sample container \u2014 is a vital part of the sample tracking process.[44] Identifying information such as sample number, batch number, and barcodes are printed on such labels to ensure optimized sample management and more precise sample data. As such, some LIMS allow users to design and print labels directly from the software.\n\n The word \"Wikipedia\" encoded in Code 128 and Code 39\nBarcode support \nBarcodes offer many advantages to laboratory techs handling samples, including more accurate data input, tighter sample\/instrument associations, tighter sample\/study associations, and more room for human-readable information on a label.[44] Given such advantages, many LIMS developers have integrated barcode support into their laboratory information management systems, including support for symbologies like Code 128, Code 39, and Interleaved 2 of 5. Aside from printing options, a LIMS may also offer support for a variety of bar code readers.\nBarcode support and label support are typically found together in LIMS software, but not always, thus their separation into two features of a LIMS.\n\nExport to PDF \nA LIMS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Portable Document Format (PDF).\n\nExport to MS Word \nA LIMS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Microsoft Office Word format.\n\nExport to HTML or XML \nA LIMS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a HyperText Markup Language (HTML) and\/or Extensible Markup Language (XML) format.\n\nFax integration \nA LIMS with this feature is able to connect with a fax machine and send information to it via manual input, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals.\n\nEmail integration \nA LIMS with this feature is able to integrate with and use the electronic mail information exchange method to send reports, alerts, and more via manual input, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals.\n\n\n \nBase functionality \nTo hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.\n\n\n \nAdministrator management \nThe administrator management tools of a LIMS allow lab technicians to set up the LIMS most optimally for the laboratory. Through the administrator management interface of a LIMS, other features may be accessed like setting up user roles and scheduling automatic data backups.\nLike report printing, administrator management is nearly ubiquitous in LIMS software, generally considered a mandatory feature. However, for the purposes of being thorough, it's important to point out its existence. \n\nModular \nThis feature indicates that a LIMS has an intentional modular design, which separates some functionality into manageable components of the overall system. Generally speaking, a modular design allows for 1. the structured addition of new functionality to a LIMS and 2. the limiting of overall effects on the system design as new functionality is added.\n\nInstrument interfacing and management \n An entire room of gas chromatography instruments could potentially be connected to a LIMS via instrument interfacing.In laboratories there are instruments, and with those instruments comes scientific measurements which produce data. It's therefor natural a lab technician would want to connect those instruments to a laboratory information management system, which is already organizing and storing laboratory data. This sort of interfacing is typically handled with instrument-to-LIMS interfaces, which started out as merely data-transfer mechanisms. Later that interface mechanism became much more robust as a data management tool, though often at great expense with heavy involvement from third parties.[45] Today, \"many LIMS vendors can act as single source providers of the entire instrument interfacing solution,\"[46], providing a cheaper and smoother solution to LIMS customers. The ability to calibrate and schedule maintenance for interfaced instruments may also be included in this category.\nMobile device integration \nWhile not incredibly common, a few LIMS developers are including support for mobile devices in their laboratory information management system. LabCollector, for example, extends its LIMS' functionality to Pocket PC or Windows CE devices equipped with wireless barcode scanners, allowing users to read or collect sample information while on the move.[47] Future Technologies' DNA LIMS, designed for labs performing DNA analysis, has its own mobile version for technicians who need access but can't be in the lab.[48]\n\nAlarms and\/or alerts \nAlarms and alerts are an integral part of a LIMS. They can be automatic or scheduled, and they can come in the form of an e-mail, a pop-up message, or a mobile text message. When the results for a sample analysis go out out of range, an automatic warning message can appear on the screen of the technician responsible for the analysis. A scheduled alert can be e-mailed to a lab technician every month indicating a piece of laboratory equipment needs routine maintenance. If the LIMS is equipped with environmental monitoring, an alert can be sent in the form of an SMS text message to the head researcher if the temperature inside a freezer unexpectedly rises. All of these scenarios represent a tiny fraction of the possible implementation of alarms and alerts in a LIMS, highlighting how powerful (yet easy to take for granted) this feature is.\n\nWork-related time tracking \nThis feature specifically refers to a LIMS' ability to track the amount of time an employee spends at work in general (for payroll purposes) or on more specific projects and tasks (as part of an employee work evaluation program).\n\nVoice recognition system \nA LIMS with this feature allows some functions of the LIMS (for example, accessing sample analysis results) to be accessed via voice commands.\n\nExternal monitoring \nThis feature allows clients outside the laboratory to monitor the status of sample batches, test results, and more via an online Web portal or, less commonly, as activity alerts sent via e-mail, fax, or SMS.\n\nMessaging \n Instant messaging clients built into a LIMS often make it easier to collaborate.The messaging feature of a LIMS may refer to one (or both) of two things:\n a built-in instant messaging system that allows users to converse with each other through text messages real-time\n an SMS text messaging integration that allows the users or the LIMS itself to send messages or alerts to a user's mobile or smart phone\nMultilingual \nIf a LIMS is listed as multilingual, its an indication the LIMS interface can be configured to display more than one language depending on the preference a user or administrator chooses. Some LIMS interfaces can only be displayed in one of two languages (English or German, for example), while others come configured with support for dozens of languages.\n\nNetwork-capable \nThis feature is perhaps archaic and\/or obvious, but it is mentioned nonetheless. It's generally applied to a non-Web-based LIMS installed over a local or wide-area computer network, essentially indicating the LIMS is not an isolated application, but rather one that can interface with other instances of the LIMS or other networked instruments.\n\nWeb client or portal \nA LIMS with a Web client or portal is either a Web-based LIMS (one that is not installed on every computer, but rather is hosted on a server and accessed via a Web browser) or a non-Web-based LIMS with an included portal to access it via the Internet.\n\nOnline or integrated help \nThis indicates a LIMS has help infrastructure integrated into the software, support documentation via the LIMS vendor's website, or both.\n\nSoftware as a service delivery model \nThis indicates the software can be licensed and utilized via the software as a service (SaaS) delivery model.\n\nUsage-based cost \nWhile rare, some LIMS vendors allow potential clients to license and utilize the vendor's software under a usage-based cost model. An example of this model in use is Bytewize AB's O3 LimsXpress, which has a cost directly related to the amount of samples processed each month.[49]\n\n\n \nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 Skobelev, D.O.; T.M. Zaytseva; A.D. Kozlov; V.L. Perepelitsa; A.S. Makarova (2011). \"Laboratory information management systems in the work of the analytic laboratory\" (PDF). Measurement Techniques 53 (10): 1182\u20131189. doi:10.1007\/s11018-011-9638-7. http:\/\/www.springerlink.com\/content\/6564211m773v70j1\/ .   \n\n\u2191 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Macneil, Rory (2011). \"The benefits of integrated systems for managing both samples and experimental data: An opportunity for labs in universities and government research institutions to lead the way\". Automated Experimentation 3 (2). doi:10.1186\/1759-4499-3-2. http:\/\/www.aejournal.net\/content\/3\/1\/2 .   \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 Murthy, Tal; Brian Hewson (01 September 2010). \"Effective Forensic Sample Tracking and Handling\". 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Retrieved 02 March 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Jones, Andrew; Craig Valli (2008). \"Chapter 1: An Introduction to Digital Forensics\". Building a Digital Forensic Laboratory: Establishing and Managing a Successful Facility. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 11. ISBN 1856175103. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC .   \n\n\u2191 \"Quality Assurance - Data Management\". Stable Isotope Ratio Facility for Environmental Research (SIRFER) at the University of Utah. http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf . Retrieved 07 May 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Hitchcock, Noel (2005). \"Chapter 10: Efficient utilization of LIMS data and integration with mining process management systems\". In Dessureault, Sean D.; Rajive Ganguli; Vladislav Kecojevic; Jami Girard Dwyer. Application of Computers and Operations Research in the Mineral Industry. Taylor & Francis. pp. 85\u201388. doi:10.1201\/9781439833407.ch10. ISBN 9780415374491. http:\/\/www.crcnetbase.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1201\/9781439833407.ch10 .   \n\n\u2191 Turner, Elizabeth; Jojean Bolton (2001). \"Required steps for the validation of a Laboratory Information Management System\". Quality Assurance 9 (3\u20134): 217\u2013224. PMID 12553085. http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/12553085 .   \n\n\u2191 \"LabWare - Table Explorer\". LabWare, Inc.. http:\/\/www.labware.com\/LWWeb.nsf\/lp\/en041001 . Retrieved 07 May 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Core LIMS Features & Components\". Core Informatics, LLC. http:\/\/www.corelims.com\/features.htm . Retrieved 07 May 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Oracle Health Sciences LabPas\" (PDF). Oracle Corporation. 2011. http:\/\/www.oracle.com\/us\/industries\/life-sciences\/health-sciences-labpas-ds-396097.pdf . Retrieved 07 May 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Environmental Monitoring Program\". Novatek International. http:\/\/ntint.com\/prod-envmon.shtml . Retrieved 07 May 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 44.0 44.1 Gilles, Clarence (1 July 2008). \"Bar Code and Sample Tracking: It All Starts with the Label\". Scientific Computing. http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx . Retrieved 8 May 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Pavlis, Robert (May\/June 2004). \"Trends in instrument-to-LIMS interfacing\". Scientific Computing World. http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88 . Retrieved 8 May 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 DeHeer, Larry (1 October 2009). \"Instrument Interfacing - The Great Paradox of LIMS?\". LIMSfinder.com. http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=33851_0_2_0_C . Retrieved 8 May 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"LabCollector - Features in detail\". AgileBio. http:\/\/labcollector.com\/index.php\/labcollector-on-pdahtml . Retrieved 8 May 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Biometrics and DNA Laboratory Information Management and Analysis System Development\". Future Technologies, Inc.. http:\/\/www.ftechi.com\/dna_biometric.shtml . Retrieved 8 May 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Modern web based Lims from 10 Euro cent\/sample\". Bytewize AB. http:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3lims-xpress\/prices\/?lang=en . Retrieved 8 May 2012 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Laboratory informatics\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 9 September 2013, at 19:11.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 144,702 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-LIMS_feature skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">LIMS feature<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\">\n<p>A <b>LIMS feature<\/b> is one or more pieces of functionality that appear within a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\" title=\"Laboratory information management system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00\">laboratory information management system<\/a> (LIMS).\n<\/p><p>The LIMS is an evolving concept, with new features and abilities being introduced every year. As laboratory demands change and technological progress continues, the functions of a LIMS will also change. Yet like the automobile, the LIMS tends to have a base set of functionality that defines it. That functionality can roughly be divided into five laboratory processing phases, with numerous software functions falling under each<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MT5310_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MT5310-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>: \n<\/p>\n<ul><li> the reception and log in of a sample and its associated customer data<\/li>\n<li> the assignment, scheduling, and tracking of the sample and the associated analytical workload<\/li>\n<li> the processing and quality control associated with the sample and the utilized equipment and inventory<\/li>\n<li> the storage of data associated with the sample analysis<\/li>\n<li> the inspection, approval, and compilation of the sample data for reporting and\/or further analysis<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Of course, there are LIMS features that are difficult to categorize under any of these phases. Such features often contribute to the entire LIMS and how it's utilized. For example, multilingual support appears in LIMS like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Assaynet_Inc.\" title=\"Assaynet Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2f78169d45cd9ed8cbf34e76f4c6cf04\">Assaynet Inc.'s<\/a> LIMS2010 and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Two_Fold_Software_Limited\" title=\"Two Fold Software Limited\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"10567b23ec0e460523bc83408b1c8ce0\">Two Fold Software's<\/a> Qualoupe LIMS, allowing users to interact with the LIMS in more than one language. Some functionality may also overlap several laboratory phases, making it difficult to firmly classify. \n<\/p><p>The features described below come from an analysis of freely available LIMS product information on vendor websites. An attempt was made to discover the features most utilized in vendors' LIMS products and collect information on those features for each LIMS. Not every possible feature is referenced here; some LIMS products fill specific niches, utilizing unique functionality to solve a specific problem. \n<\/p><p>That said, keep in mind the categorization of features below is very loose. It may be viable to argue a feature belongs under a different section or multiple sections. For the purposes of organizing this information in an uncomplicated manner, however, some liberty has been taken in the categorizing of features.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample.2C_inventory.2C_and_data_management\">Sample, inventory, and data management<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p> <\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample_login_and_management\">Sample login and management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Sample <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Accessioning_(medical)\" title=\"Accessioning (medical)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3a1f1a5d35fd9152d82893878bf9aa1\">accessioning<\/a> and management is one of the core functions a modern LIMS is tasked with, whether it's in a manufacturing, water treatment, or pharmaceutical laboratory.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AE0302_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AE0302-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> As such, researchers who work in these types of labs are unable to complete their experiment-based goals without an effective method of managing samples. The process of sample management for experiments includes, but is not limited to<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AE0302_2-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AE0302-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> storing related sample information, including aliquot numbers, dates, and external links<\/li>\n<li> setting <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2851659b2739ded940b9f4bfd6415cf2\">user alerts<\/a> for sample status<\/li>\n<li> creating and documenting viewable sample container schemas with name and status<\/li>\n<li> assigning sample <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">access rights<\/a><\/li>\n<li> assigning custom sample ID numbers based on a specification<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Additional functionality that could potentially fall under this feature:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> utilizing a unique ID system<\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">barcoding<\/a> of samples<\/li>\n<li> defining sample points and series<\/li>\n<li> creating data associations for samples - such as pedigree for sample\/aliquot relationships or relationships based on experiment, etc.<\/li>\n<li> issuing sample receipts<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample_tracking\">Sample tracking<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Laboratory_oven_for_samples-02.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"3845378e9adab989c8133c27bd702ca9\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/45\/Laboratory_oven_for_samples-02.jpg\" width=\"300\" height=\"348\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Laboratory_oven_for_samples-02.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"3845378e9adab989c8133c27bd702ca9\"><\/a><\/div>Where's sample 20110512_122GJH? Sample tracking functionality will let you know which lab oven it's in.<\/div><\/div><\/div>For most laboratory personnel, knowing that a sample has arrived to the lab isn't good enough; they need to know where it's located and what is being done with it. Enter the sample tracking feature. Without it, many problems arise. In the forensic world, for example, many samples are linked to a criminal investigation. In this case, misidentification, contamination, or duplication can become significant issues: a lost sample is essentially missing evidence, while a duplicated sample can render it useless as evidence.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForensicSamp_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForensicSamp-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>After sample reception and its initial handling procedures, many LIMS can then track sample location as well as chain of custody. Location tracking usually involves assigning the sample to a particular freezer location, often down to the granular level of shelf, rack, box, row, and column. The process of tracking a sample has become more streamlined with increasing support of 2-D <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">barcode<\/a> technology. While handwritten labels were the norm, now barcode support in a LIMS can \"tie together a vast amount of information, clearly relating each sample to a specific case.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ForensicSamp_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ForensicSamp-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> Other event tracking such as freeze and thaw cycles that a sample undergoes in the laboratory may also be required. As each laboratory's needs for tracking additional data points can vary widely, many modern LIMS have implemented extensive configurability to compensate for varying environments.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PP0102_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PP0102-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The functionality of sample tracking strongly ties into the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d184d528c3d8bec99c88b45a9e026379\">audit trail<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Chain_of_custody\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57c608855a16e5bdf3db2a1f6abb50db\">chain of custody<\/a> features of a LIMS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample_and_result_batching\">Sample and result batching<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>What is batching? The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines a batch as \"a group of samples which behave similarly with respect to the sampling or testing procedures being employed and which are processed as a unit.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-EPABatch_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-EPABatch-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> This definition can be applied to many laboratories which handle large quantities of samples for some form of analysis or processing. A LIMS that has the ability to check in, link, and track groups of samples across one or multiple facilities is valuable to such laboratories. Additionally, batching the analysis results of multiple samples or groups of samples gives laboratories more flexibility with how they manage their data. Batching also offers the benefit of mimicking the production groups of samples while also capturing quality control data for the entire group.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Task_and_event_scheduling\">Task and event scheduling<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Within the context of a LIMS, the ability to schedule a task or event is a natural extension of how work was done in a laboratory before the advent of data management systems. Workloads are assigned to technicians, maintenance schedules are created and followed, and research deadlines must be observed. While these tasks have in the past been performed without LIMS, a modern data management system can now optimize those tasks and provide additional scheduling functionality to streamline the operation of a lab. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Autoscribe_Ltd.\" title=\"Autoscribe Ltd.\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"ba9f78c6da480063a9fa9fb861ec7013\">Autoscribe Ltd.<\/a>, for example, offers a scheduling module for its LIMS that allows users to automatically schedule multiple jobs, data backups, alarms, and reports.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASSched_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASSched-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup> Some LIMS like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabWare,_Inc.\" title=\"LabWare, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34254ba2e2bbcd4ce616eba66db7d2f6\">LabWare, Inc.'s<\/a> LabWare LIMS offer multiple types of schedulers that match to the particular functions of a research laboratory.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LWSched_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LWSched-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup> Additional functionality within this feature includes the ability to configure automated assignments of analysis requests, establish recurring events, and in most cases, create printable schedules.\n<\/p><p>Examples of tasks and events that can feasibly be scheduled in a LIMS include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> registration of received samples into the system<\/li>\n<li> production of reports<\/li>\n<li> creation and sending of e-mails and alerts<\/li>\n<li> maintenance of equipment<\/li>\n<li> assignment of workloads to personnel<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Option_for_manual_result_entry\">Option for manual result entry<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While many LIMS vendors tout the ability of their product to automate the entry of results into the LIMS database, the need for manual data entry of analysis results still exists. This feature is important to laboratories obtaining analysis results from multiple sources, including non-digital paper-based results and instruments that can't be connected to the LIMS. Additional functionality associated with this feature includes a customizable spell check dictionary and the ability to add comments, notes, and narratives to most anything in the LIMS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Multiple_data_viewing_methods\">Multiple data viewing methods<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Laboratories produce data, and LIMS exist to help manage that data. Additionally, even before the existence of LIMS, scientists have had a corresponding need for visually representing data. Today a LIMS can not only collect and analyze data from samples, but it also can represent that data in reports, graphs, gradients, and spreadsheets. Depending on the LIMS, more than one way to visually represent the data may exist.\n<\/p><p>Some laboratory information management systems take a very specialized approach to data views. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Biomatters_Ltd.\" title=\"Biomatters Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"506681e49f25e73e9bd31f6bbd62b506\">Biomatters Ltd.'s<\/a> Geneious and Geneious Pro offer multiple methods of viewing complicated sequence analysis data, including 3-D structuring and representations of .<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BioView_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BioView-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_and_trend_analysis\">Data and trend analysis<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:262px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Analyse_residus.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"0e109757f723abf3b557ade246e65a88\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/58\/Analyse_residus.png\" width=\"260\" height=\"94\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Analyse_residus.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"0e109757f723abf3b557ade246e65a88\"><\/a><\/div>Some LIMS allow users to analyze sample data directly from the software.<\/div><\/div><\/div> Sample experimentation and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_analysis\" title=\"Data analysis\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"545c95e40ca67c9e63cd0a16042a5bd1\">analysis<\/a> plays an important part of laboratory informatics, helping laboratories make better sense of their experiments and reach valuable conclusions about them. While this important phase of laboratory work has often been done externally from the LIMS, it's now more common to see basic analysis tools being included. Such tools allow raw data to be imported directly to the LIMS, which then can store, process, and report information about it. Additionally, calculations and functions used in the analysis are typically definable and editable for further flexibility.\n<p>As with the feature \"multiple data viewing methods,\" data and trend analysis is also increasingly important in laboratories that have very specialized data management needs. When even in 2009 genetic scientists in large- and medium-sized <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Sequencing\" title=\"Sequencing\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" data-key=\"e36167a9eb152ca16a0c4c4e6d13f323\">sequencing<\/a> and core centers were voicing concerns about \"a lack of adequate vendor-supported software and laboratory information management systems (LIMS),\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PLoS0506_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PLoS0506-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>, today data management options like the previously mentioned Geneious Pro are starting to emerge, offering the ability to perform specialized analytical tasks for the sequencing industry.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-BioView_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-BioView-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>As sample experimentation and data analysis are important parts of most if not all laboratories, such functionality \u2014 which has often come in the form of a separate application or analysis device \u2014 will likely continue to merge into LIMS and other data management solutions.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AE0302_2-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AE0302-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_and_equipment_sharing\">Data and equipment sharing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Aside from data storage and sample registration, a modern LIMS' major contribution to the laboratory is aiding in the sharing of experiment results, reports, and other data types with those who need it most. Rather than pieces of information becoming misplaced or forgotten in laboratory notebooks, the LIMS makes it easier to share sample test results and increase the efficiency of collaboration inside and outside the laboratory. Yet data is more than just sample test results; it also can come in the form of charts, reports, policy and procedure, and other documents. Additionally, the need for controlling who has access to those types of data is also an important consideration. As such, this feature is at least partially tied to other features like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd9e325ecd80a3deb3b4aa2159bc0eda\">document management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">configurable security<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Customizable_fields_and.2For_interface\">Customizable fields and\/or interface<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As thorough as some user interface (UI) developers may be in adding relevant fields and interface options for LIMS end users, there are at times options that are either omitted or unanticipated. This has traditionally required the end user to contact the vendor and ask if the needed option(s) can be added in the next release. However, some modern LIMS vendors have responded instead by adding functionality that gives end users and\/or LIMS administrators more control over the user interface.\n<\/p><p>Aspects of the LIMS' user interface that are becoming more customizable by the end user include:<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-10\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-11\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-12\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> system nomenclature<\/li>\n<li> equations used in calculations <\/li>\n<li> data and universal fields<\/li>\n<li> appearance of the interface and\/or menus<\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Multilingual\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4fd0b3665c1c3057e482b85ebea2bab8\">primary system language<\/a><\/li>\n<li> the LIMS source code, especially if in a non-proprietary format<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Query_capability\">Query capability<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:242px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:QueryBuilder.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"389ea5f11fd662766f644c6e29299402\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/bc\/QueryBuilder.png\" width=\"240\" height=\"157\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:QueryBuilder.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"389ea5f11fd662766f644c6e29299402\"><\/a><\/div>Advanced query tools allow researchers to better complete project objectives.<\/div><\/div><\/div>As was the case before the advent of databases and electronic data management solutions, today researchers must search through sample results, experiment notes, and other types of data to better draw conclusions about their research. Whereas this used to mean browsing through laboratory notebooks, Excel spreadsheets, or Access databases, now powerful query tools exists within data management tools like a LIMS. Not only can data be searched for based on name, number, or vendor, LIMSs like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/EBioSys_Pty._Ltd.\" title=\"EBioSys Pty. Ltd.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"59b5e7309996858ca6063872c07e6444\">eBioSys'<\/a> eLab and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Mountain_States_Consulting,_LLC\" title=\"Mountain States Consulting, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"07aa1abcf286c45d2d5f3b6713e6d43d\">Mountain States Consulting's<\/a> MSC-LIMS allow for queries of attached meta-data like user ID, project number, task number, sample type, location, and collection date.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-13\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-14\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup> Finally, as LIMS continue to include both sample management and experimental data management functionality, queries become more powerful in general as now sample and experiment can be matched together in one database.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AE0302_2-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AE0302-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>Query functionality often includes the ability to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> search both transactional data and archived data tables<\/li>\n<li> search multiple databases via an application programming interface (API) or open database connectivity (ODBC) connection<\/li>\n<li> filter and sort data<\/li>\n<li> create ad-hoc queries<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Import_data\">Import data<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Data can originate from numerous places in the laboratory. The ability to import that data into a LIMS can be beneficial, especially when an instrument can't be connected or an external client provides a data feed independent of the LIMS. Some LIMS like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bridge-Soft,_LLC\" title=\"Bridge-Soft, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6728046103b6280263177f45a45ef60\">Bridge-Soft's<\/a> QMS even allow to cross-reference laboratory nomenclature from received data sources with the recipient's.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-15\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup> And of course <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19c828f7d6e33928579d97389a65a675\">instrument interfacing<\/a> allows for even more importation options. Additional <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148c3f13ce1e0562e2d8b33c7002622e\">data validation<\/a> procedures may be applied to the imported data to guarantee information homogeneity. Additionally, some LIMS may allow for the import and integration of non-normalized legacy data tables with LIMS data tables into a single database.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Internal_file_or_data_linking\">Internal file or data linking<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature allows LIMS users to link together reports, protocols, sample results, and more, providing greater contextual clarity to projects. Examples include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> linking a sample batch to a test or sample preparation methodology<\/li>\n<li> linking a test process to a particular customer<\/li>\n<li> linking a report to a sample batch<\/li>\n<li> linking a group of test results to a raw data file<\/li>\n<li> linking an image to a work order<\/li>\n<li> linking all lab results with the correct reporting test method<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_file_or_data_linking\">External file or data linking<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature allows LIMS users to link together data and files in the LIMS with data, files, and customers outside the scope of the LIMS. Examples include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> linking data files from chromatography equipment to synthesis data<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-16\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li> linking equipment ID with an external annotation database<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-17\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><\/li>\n<li> linking external standard operating procedure documents with an internal test specification<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-18\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup><\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"ELN_support_or_integration\">ELN support or integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As a software replacement for more traditional paper laboratory notebooks, the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebook<\/a> (ELN) has been important to laboratory functions. Yet the lines between ELN and LIMS began to blur in the 2000s, with both types of software incorporating features from the other.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWorld1_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWorld1-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompELN_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompELN-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> The result today is some LIMS either include traditional ELN functionality or link physical laboratory notebook references to data in the LIMS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-21\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_MS_Excel\">Export to MS Excel<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While Microsoft Excel has long been used within the laboratory setting, a slow shift towards relational databases and LIMS occurred in the late 1990s and early 2000s.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WilliamsExcel_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WilliamsExcel-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup> Additional concerns with the difficulties of Excel's validation and compliance with FDA <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> and other regulations have led many labs to turn to data management solutions that are easier to validate.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PragmaticExcelIntro_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PragmaticExcelIntro-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup> Nevertheless, laboratories continue to use Excel in some fashion, and thus Excel integration or data exportation in Excel format is a real need for LIMS customers. LIMS with this feature allow raw, processed, or imported data to be exported in the Excel format for further analysis and dissemination.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Raw_data_management\">Raw data management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While not described as a feature on most LIMS vendor websites, a few indicate that their LIMS is capable of managing (import, export, editing, etc.) data in its raw format for future analysis.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_warehouse\">Data warehouse<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS' <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Data_warehouse\" title=\"Data warehouse\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca506499cdf544371c0a0d549ff0e9ee\">data warehouse<\/a> serves the important function of storing, extracting, and managing the data that laboratories crank out for the purposes or analysis, reporting, and process management, typically separate from the primary storage database. Data warehouses also offer the benefit of speeding up queries, making queries and data mining more user-friendly, and smoothing out data gaps.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-24\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Deadline_control\">Deadline control<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Deadline control is functionality within a LIMS that allows users to manage and be notified of events that occur within the laboratory. With this functionality users can also be notified of upcoming deadlines on anything from sample analysis to license renewal. \n<\/p><p>Note that this functionality may also feasibly fall under the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f358fd26f821c76edf862b7dee946f8\">task and event scheduling<\/a> or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2851659b2739ded940b9f4bfd6415cf2\">alarms<\/a> features. As deadline control seems to be advertised as a notable feature by only a few vendors, it seems even more likely that this functionality is considered part of scheduling or alarms.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Production_control\">Production control<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>There are many types of businesses that produce goods, and in most cases there is a research laboratory involved at some point in the process. This is especially true in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries, where production measurements such as yield, volume, activity, and impurity are vital. As LIMSs have already recorded such information during tests and analysis, the addition of production control functionality seems natural. Some LIMS take a very active approach to this. For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/2nd_Sight_Solutions\" title=\"2nd Sight Solutions\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a1c0c8211e99fa5b1721f70d18f27361\">2nd Sight Solutions'<\/a> OhNo! features production control as major functionality for the synthesis of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Radiopharmacology\" title=\"Radiopharmacology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c05f4c40cbd311d197b3e45faaed0146\">radiopharmaceuticals<\/a>.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-25\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> Other LIMS may have less pronounced production functionality, while still offering the ability to track the production process in and out of the lab. And yet other LIMSs like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Dialog_EDV_Systementwicklung_GmbH\" title=\"Dialog EDV Systementwicklung GmbH\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b356876b61fc0ab262b96797fb30d14\">dialog's<\/a> diaLIMS offer robust production-based functionality but as a module or add-on to the base LIMS software.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-26\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>The types of functionality that may fall under this feature include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> recipe management<\/li>\n<li> consumable tracking<\/li>\n<li> batch traceability<\/li>\n<li> production planning<\/li>\n<li> enterprise resource planning<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Project_and.2For_task_management\">Project and\/or task management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Project and task management within a LIMS typically involves the scheduling of tasks to workers and organizing associated tasks into a more cohesive unit for better tracking and management. While the functionality of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Task_and_event_scheduling\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4f358fd26f821c76edf862b7dee946f8\">task and event scheduling<\/a> can also be found in project and task management, many LIMS include functionality beyond scheduling that warrants the addition of the project and\/or task management feature. This functionality includes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> job allocation and rescheduling<\/li>\n<li> instrument workload tracking<\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Work-related_time_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a1c775a9fc866d0f19372667539beb9\">time tracking<\/a><\/li>\n<li> pending workload verification<\/li>\n<li> priority setting<\/li>\n<li> project-based <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Workflow_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"233ebf71073035e741a5acf410dc8242\">workflow management<\/a><\/li>\n<li> sample, batch, and document <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Internal_file_or_data_linking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e535cc310bda347927d684c2b50f959a\">linking<\/a><\/li>\n<li> work list sharing<\/li>\n<li> recurring event management<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Inventory_management\">Inventory management<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:242px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Laboratory-reagents.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd30923c04993dafc55a83cbb6fc5283\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/4d\/Laboratory-reagents.jpg\" width=\"240\" height=\"180\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Laboratory-reagents.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"bd30923c04993dafc55a83cbb6fc5283\"><\/a><\/div>LIMS can help laboratories keep track of their stock of reagents and even streamline reordering of them.<\/div><\/div><\/div>Laboratories use a wide array of inventory, from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Reagent\" title=\"Reagent\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"39ef926218accd8f01f4c68c5a82f9dc\">reagents<\/a> to glassware, from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Radiopharmacology\" title=\"Radiopharmacology\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c05f4c40cbd311d197b3e45faaed0146\">radiopharmaceuticals<\/a> to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_bath\" title=\"Laboratory bath\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" data-key=\"ef20b7240457dba2d8433e9dca6047f7\">laboratory baths<\/a>. With that comes the need to know how much\/many and the frequency of use. For this, most LIMS products now include some sort of inventory management functionality. \n<ul><li> register origin, demographics of incoming materials<\/li>\n<li> track used and in-use items via barcodes<\/li>\n<li> track inventory reduction based on usage and shipping out of the lab<\/li>\n<li> create alerts for when items reach a certain stock level<\/li>\n<li> calculate inventory cost and fluctuation<\/li>\n<li> manage transportation and routing<\/li>\n<li> manual incrementing\/decrementing of items<\/li>\n<li> track location and usage of laboratory equipment<\/li>\n<li> assign storage locations<\/li>\n<li> track forensic evidence<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>It should be noted that samples and electronic equipment may also be considered inventory, and thus there is likely some functionality crossover with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_login_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98071177bc94b23b88297692a3a52005\">sample management<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Instrument_interfacing_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"19c828f7d6e33928579d97389a65a675\">instrument management<\/a> features.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Document_creation_and_management\">Document creation and management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Standard operation procedures, (SOPs), specifications, reports, graphs, images, and receipts are all collected and used in the average laboratory. With a LIMS already designed to manage and store sample and experiment data, it makes sense to include functionality to create, import, export, and manage other sorts of data files. As sample and experimental data can be indexed, queried, and linked, so too can document data. Functionality of a typical document management system includes the ability to:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> upload and index documents<\/li>\n<li> enforce <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Version_control\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0f243a35540cf60e68f6749ca5ffaac\">version control<\/a><\/li>\n<li> provide full text search<\/li>\n<li> export to PDF or other relevant format<\/li>\n<li> add documents as attachments<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Case_management\">Case management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information system<\/a> (LIS) has played an important role in the case management tasks of patient-centric and clinical laboratories. However, some LIMS have gained case management functionality, effectively blurring the lines between LIS and LIMS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-27\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup>. Self-proclaimed LIMS products have emerged in the clinical, public health, and veterinary industries, areas that have historically been served by LIS software. When also considering the fields of law enforcement and forensic science, case management has an increasingly important role in some LIMS. Functionality seen in the case management feature includes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> case accessioning and assignment<\/li>\n<li> disease tracking<\/li>\n<li> trend analysis<\/li>\n<li> clinical history follow-up<\/li>\n<li> out-of-range result <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Alarms_and.2For_alerts\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2851659b2739ded940b9f4bfd6415cf2\">alerts<\/a><\/li>\n<li> document and result association<\/li>\n<li> evidence control<\/li>\n<li> study management<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Workflow_management\">Workflow management<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Workflow_IA.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"00653041ded02667b937fcc40d1624d4\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2e\/Workflow_IA.png\" width=\"300\" height=\"240\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Workflow_IA.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"00653041ded02667b937fcc40d1624d4\"><\/a><\/div>Capturing workflow in the lab is becoming more commonplace for the LIMS.<\/div><\/div><\/div><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">Workflow<\/a> management is common in the laboratory, acting as a graphical representation of planned sequential steps to either fully or partially automate a process within the lab. Separate standards-based workflow management systems (in the form of a software component) have traditionally performed this task.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WfMC1_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WfMC1-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup> However, in the 2000s LIMS vendors began incorporating workflow management functionality into their LIMS software, reducing the headaches that customization of a LIMS often brought.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWF_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWF-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup> \n<p><br \/>\nModern commercial and open-source LIMS solutions often feature workflow management functionality, including<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SIGLa_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SIGLa-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-X-LIMS_31-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-X-LIMS-31\">[31]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompWF_29-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompWF-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> attribute definition of activities<\/li>\n<li> definition of inputs and outputs of activities<\/li>\n<li> assignment of documentation to activities<\/li>\n<li> setting of quality control limits<\/li>\n<li> dynamically modify workflow in case of future changes<\/li>\n<li> receive notification of changes to the workflow<\/li>\n<li> sending user-defined messages during the process<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Specification_management\">Specification management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Specification_(technical_standard)\" title=\"Specification (technical standard)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dc2050725de4ea7ca520800e4f969b20\">Specification<\/a> (spec) management is vital to not only the manufacturing and research industries but also to a host of other laboratories requiring precise measurements and infallible test methods. Just as the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_International\" title=\"ASTM International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfeafbac63fa786e77b472c3f86d07ed\">ASTM<\/a> offers standards and specs for LIMS<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTM_LIMS_32-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTM_LIMS-32\">[32]<\/a><\/sup>, so too do LIMS users have standards and specs for their laboratory. With spec management in place within the LIMS, laboratories can then:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> enforce standard operating procedures and business rules<\/li>\n<li> create specs down to a project or sample level<\/li>\n<li> validate recipes and procedures<\/li>\n<li> accept or reject sample batches<\/li>\n<li> document internal and external spec history<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>Note that some of the functionality of spec management may cross over into the realm of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#QA.2FQC_functions\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6b2bf55c170c7429ac892dd177aaa2e2\">quality control<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_validation\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"148c3f13ce1e0562e2d8b33c7002622e\">data validation<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Customer_and_supplier_management\">Customer and supplier management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Unless a laboratory is conducting internalized independent research, in most cases it will do business with external entities such as contract labs, sample providers, equipment providers, and reagent suppliers. In some cases, even internal employees may be considered a customer, necessitating documentation of who is using the system and in what ways. For a veterinary lab, the customer may be the animal and handler. For a forensic lab the customer may be more complex: internal staff, university staff, police departments, and maintainers of nationwide crime databases may all at some point act as customers. In these cases, documenting these various points of contact and linking them to samples, equipment, and tests becomes vital. Managing demographics, complaints, correspondence, and history are all feasible with customer management functionality. This process is often made simpler through the use of a more context-neutral entity creation system, which allows for more flexible management of contacts.\n<\/p><p>This feature may also be referred to as contact management, an address book module, or a customer service module.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Billing_management\">Billing management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While the finances of a laboratory are important, they've typically been handled separately as a business process. However, some LIMS include additional functionality to make handling financial transactions and documentation of all sorts possible within the LIMS. In theory, such functionality brings the possibility of keeping more of a laboratory's data centrally located and queryable. This feature may include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> payment processing<\/li>\n<li> expense reporting<\/li>\n<li> price quotes<\/li>\n<li> revenue management<\/li>\n<li> workload tracking of billable hours<\/li>\n<li> bill of materials<\/li>\n<li> grant management<\/li><\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p> <\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Quality.2C_security.2C_and_compliance\">Quality, security, and compliance<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p> <\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Regulatory_compliance\">Regulatory compliance<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The topic of whether or not a LIMS meets regulatory compliance is often a complex one. While Title <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> has arguably had the largest influence on a electronic data management system's compliance, other influential standards have shaped the way LIMS and other systems handle and store data. Other compliance-based codes, standards, and regulations include:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ASTM_International\" title=\"ASTM International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"dfeafbac63fa786e77b472c3f86d07ed\">ASTM<\/a> <\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_American_Society_of_Crime_Laboratory_Directors\/Laboratory_Accreditation_Board\" title=\"The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors\/Laboratory Accreditation Board\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f364a7d9dca831de0caaaba41cf0b7ea\">ASCLD\/LAB<\/a> <\/li>\n<li> Classified data<\/li>\n<li> Freedom of information legislation (various)<\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Laboratory_Practices\" title=\"Good Automated Laboratory Practices\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bef4ea1fa3e792ccf7471f9f09b804e6\">GALP<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Good_Automated_Manufacturing_Practice\" title=\"Good Automated Manufacturing Practice\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a0f3d9c5bc4e330dbaec137fbe7f5dbb\">GAMP<\/a> <\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act\" title=\"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b70673a0117c21576016cb7498867153\">HIPAA<\/a> <\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level 7<\/a>\t<\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems\" title=\"International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1de9af67005dfe2895e5d8cf6de57d4a\">ICD<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/IEC_17025\" title=\"ISO\/IEC 17025\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0a89cebb34370dd860cce86881cbf29c\">ISO\/IEC 17025<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_9000\" title=\"ISO 9000\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"53ace2d12e80a7d890ce881bc6fe244a\">ISO 9000\/9001<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO\/TS_16949\" title=\"ISO\/TS 16949\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98e43baa168925d15899a66e9c9f0b8f\">ISO\/TS 16949<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ODBC\" title=\"ODBC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d58229ca4974143c9d42736a040160be\">ODBC<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute\" title=\"The NELAC Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"8c3143a94da249329391b763571f1991\">TNI<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/The_NELAC_Institute#National_Environmental_Laboratory_Accreditation_Program\" title=\"The NELAC Institute\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4413d2879e883354b99ce8cb3f57240d\">NELAP<\/a> <\/li>\n<li> Title <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/40_CFR_Part_3\" title=\"40 CFR Part 3\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f6e16cb8df3738dee667b175cc486cef\">40 CFR Part 3<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<p>With so many codes, standards, and regulations, LIMS consumers are advised to contact vendors with their user requirements and ask how the vendor's software meets and\/or exceeds those requirements.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"QA.2FQC_functions\">QA\/QC functions<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The quality management functions of a LIMS allow users to maintain a level of necessary quality across many of the functions in a laboratory. From running quality assurance tests to ensuring employed researchers are proficient at certain tasks, the QA\/QC functionality of a LIMS is largely responsible for the output of consistent data and manufactured products in and out of the lab.\n<\/p><p>Common functionality includes<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AL3218_33-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AL3218-33\">[33]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CCHTS1409_34-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CCHTS1409-34\">[34]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> single or batch QA\/QC tests<\/li>\n<li> quality control charts and reports<\/li>\n<li> proficiency testing<\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Document_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c7cdfd8a9cb7d3fb30940b90e227ee90\">document management<\/a><\/li>\n<li> instrument maintenance<\/li>\n<li> data acceptance\/rejection<\/li>\n<li> certificates of analysis (COA)<\/li>\n<li> data types defined by QC analysis<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Performance_evaluation\">Performance evaluation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>As <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Document_creation_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"bd9e325ecd80a3deb3b4aa2159bc0eda\">document management<\/a> becomes increasingly prevalent in LIMS, it only makes sense to also collate and store all the documentation associated with employee training and certification. Changes to laboratory techniques, scientific understanding, and business practices force researchers to learn, reevaluate, and demonstrate competency in order to maintain quality levels in the laboratory. Evaluations can frequently extend beyond staff members, however. Clinics, visit types, vendors, or test species can also be tracked and evaluated based on custom criteria. The performance evaluation functionality of a LIMS makes this possible. \n<\/p><p>That functionality typically includes the ability to maintain training records and history, and also to link that training to a technique or piece of equipment. Afterwards, the staff member, vendor, etc. can be marked as competent or certified in the equipment, knowledge, or process. Periodical assessment of the training and its practical effectiveness can later be performed. Productivity of an entity or process can also be gauged over a certain date range based on <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Work-related_time_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1a1c775a9fc866d0f19372667539beb9\">tracked time<\/a>, pre-determined milestones, or some other criteria.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Audit_trail\">Audit trail<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Syvalidate_screen.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"5b19e0089cab173f0bf3d99af53437ab\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/25\/Syvalidate_screen.jpg\" width=\"300\" height=\"216\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Syvalidate_screen.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"5b19e0089cab173f0bf3d99af53437ab\"><\/a><\/div>Whether validating sample data or an entire LIMS, maintaining an audit trail is an important part of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> compliance.<\/div><\/div><\/div> As codes and regulations like Title <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">21 CFR Part 11<\/a> mandate \"computer systems (including hardware and software), controls, and attendant documentation\" utilize electronic signatures and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0\">audit trails<\/a><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-35\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-35\">[35]<\/a><\/sup>, LIMS developers must put serious thought into how their software handles audit trail functionality. The audit trail \u2014 documentation of the sequence of activities that have affected an action \u2014 must be thorough and seamlessly integrated into the software. \n<p>Information recorded in the audit trail typically includes:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> operator code\t<\/li>\n<li> time stamp\t<\/li>\n<li> location<\/li>\n<li> case number<\/li>\n<li> transaction type<\/li>\n<li> amount and quantity prior to change<\/li>\n<li> user notes<\/li><\/ul>\n<p><br \/>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Chain_of_custody\">Chain of custody<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Chain_of_custody\" title=\"Chain of custody\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6ba04fe2bb1c8375e133455821aa3894\">chain of custody<\/a> (COC) of an item is of varying importance, depending on the type of laboratory. A highly regulated laboratory that works under Code of Federal Regulation or other guidelines makes tracking COC a vital part of its operations. This is especially true in forensic labs, which depend on continuous accountability of their evidence collection, retention, and disposal procedures.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-36\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-36\">[36]<\/a><\/sup> As with an <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit_trail\" title=\"Audit trail\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"96a617b543c5b2f26617288ba923c0f0\">audit trail<\/a>, a laboratory depends on recorded information like user ID, time stamp, and location ID to maintain a robust and accurate COC. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Barcode_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"113ea2587c798f5c7f8445c6b8fddd0b\">Barcodes<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Inventory_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"922cb0190a1750c3545849959a860288\">inventory management<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">configurable security roles<\/a> all play an important part in maintaining chain of custody.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Configurable_roles_and_security\">Configurable roles and security<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Many roles exist within the laboratory setting, each with its own set of responsibilities. And just as the role an individual plays within the laboratory may change, so may the responsibilities associated with each role. This sort of change necessitates a flexible and configurable security system, one that allows for the placement of individual LIMS users into standardized security roles which provide role-specific access to certain LIMS functionality. Additionally, as responsibilities change within roles, that same flexible configuration is necessary for assigning or restricting access to certain LIMS functionality for each existing or newly created role. \n<\/p><p>Of course, roles aren't always assigned on an individual level. Often large groups of individuals may need to be assigned to roles, necessitating group assignments for security purposes. For example, a group of laboratory trainees may only be given read-only access to the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_login_and_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"98071177bc94b23b88297692a3a52005\">sample login<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Sample_tracking\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4622d31a3236faeab999eee2d2493313\">sample tracking<\/a> functionality of the system through a custom \"Trainees\" group role, while the head researcher of the lab may be given the \"Administrator\" role, which allows that individual to access most if not all of the LIMS' functionality.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_normalization\">Data normalization<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>For the purposes of describing LIMS functionality, \"data normalization\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring incoming\/imported data into the LIMS is standardized to the same format of existing LIMS data. \n<\/p><p>Here's an example to better explain this issue. When a LIMS is initially configured, in most if not all cases a clear standard can be set for how logged samples and their associated measurements pre- and post-analysis are recorded in the system. Perhaps all temperatures will be recorded in Celsius to two decimal places. If temperature data imported from a spreadsheet or a lab instrument is not in this format, the LIMS can normalize the incoming data to match the standard already set for existing LIMS temperature data. This ensures consistency within the LIMS database and typically leads to better data validation efforts later on.\n<\/p><p><i>Note<\/i>: Some LIMS developers may include data normalization functionality within what they may refer to as data validation functionality. The line between these two may be blurred or not exist at all.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_validation\">Data validation<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>For the purposes of describing LIMS functionality, \"data validation\" specifically refers to the process of ensuring existing data in the LIMS \u2014 either pre-analysis or post-analysis \u2014 sufficiently meets any number of standards or thresholds set for sample login, sample analysis, or any other data management process in the LIMS. This validation process may be completely automatic and system-based, or it may also include additional steps on the part of the user base utilizing additional LIMS functionality, including verification of standard operating procedures (SOPs), QC samples, and QA approval.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-37\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-37\">[37]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-38\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-38\">[38]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><i>Note<\/i>: This functionality shouldn't be confused with the process of validating the LIMS itself, which is an entirely different process partially falling under <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Regulatory_compliance\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"9e58f73cb3d51704d053508c71fae968\">regulatory compliance<\/a> and involves the process of ensuring \"the software is performing in a manner for which it was designed.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-39\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-39\">[39]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Data_encryption\">Data encryption<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The existence of this functionality in LIMS software generally indicates the LIMS has the ability to protect the integrity and authenticity of its housed data through the use of a variety of technologies which makes data unreadable except to those possessing a key\/right\/etc. to unlock\/read the data. This functionality is especially vital to the Web-enabled LIMS, which transfers information over the Internet in a client-server relationship. As a wide variety of encryption technologies exist, it's generally a good idea to consult with the developers of a LIMS to determine the strengths and weaknesses of their employed encryption methods. \n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Version_control\">Version control<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Version control is a form of safeguard which helps preserve data integrity. This is typically done by creating a modifiable new version of a piece of information rather than allowing the original to be modified. Such versioning may be applied to a wide variety of digital information housed in the LIMS, including test methods, training certifications, instrument logs, specifications, and process and procedure (P&P) documentation. In LIMS like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabWare,_Inc.#LabWare_LIMS\" title=\"LabWare, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebcf51e648458d511e5cdee899eda5f0\">LabWare LIMS<\/a>, reference data can also be versioned while also retaining the original relationship between samples and test results, including the version of reference data current at the time lab testing is performed.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-40\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-40\">[40]<\/a><\/sup> Information tracked with such revisions includes attributes like user name, time the edit was made, and what exactly was edited. This also benefits those managing <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Audit_trail\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d184d528c3d8bec99c88b45a9e026379\">audit trails<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Chain_of_custody\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"57c608855a16e5bdf3db2a1f6abb50db\">chains of custody<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Freezers_for_cryopreservation_at_IMSC.JPG\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"eafe2339f92df1db9f02a21886dd6b81\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b3\/Freezers_for_cryopreservation_at_IMSC.JPG\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Freezers_for_cryopreservation_at_IMSC.JPG\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"eafe2339f92df1db9f02a21886dd6b81\"><\/a><\/div>The temperature of an open cryopreservation container may be monitored on a computer via a connection to a LIMS with environmental monitoring functionality.<\/div><\/div><\/div> Other LIMS may employ a different form of version control called file locking, which simply puts the affected information into a read-only mode for users while someone else is busy editing it. Another popular strategy is to, rather than locking the file, allow multiple people edit to a piece of information, later merging the various edits. Potential LIMS buyers may need to inquire with developers to determine what type of versioning scheme is used in the vendor's software.\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Automatic_data_backup\">Automatic data backup<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The existence of this piece of functionality in a LIMS usually means information contained in one or more associated databases or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Data_warehouse\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"3082d0bb37d14d6ab62b393bd2834094\">data warehouses<\/a> can be automatically preserved in an additional backup file. The save location for that file as well as the scheduled backup time is configurable, typically through the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Administrator_management\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"f50a63eeb9565f98cb5f9288a37bd9e9\">administrative module<\/a> of the LIMS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Environmental_monitoring\">Environmental monitoring<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Some LIMS like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Core_Informatics,_LLC#Core_LIMS\" title=\"Core Informatics, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2ada2b0ccdfbe0f51cd99e3529c5939a\">Core LIMS<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Oracle_Corporation#Oracle_Health_Sciences_LabPas\" title=\"Oracle Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"42fb15e828e9766accc5fd6e657a5ac9\">Oracle Health Sciences LabPas<\/a> allow users to monitor the environmental conditions of not only sample storage containers but also the entire laboratory itself.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-41\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-41\">[41]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-42\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-42\">[42]<\/a><\/sup> Attributes like humidity, air quality, and temperature may be monitored to ensure sample storage units and experiments maintain desired conditions. Alarms may be able to be configured to notify staff if a storage container's environmental attributes go beyond a certain threshold. Manufacturers utilizing a LIMS like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Novatek_International#NOVA-LIMS\" title=\"Novatek International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1c36b899722c716eb95076fc0807ca0d\">NOVA-LIMS<\/a> may also be able to employ more advanced environmental tracking features in the plant to guarantee a more consistent, higher quality product is created.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-43\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-43\">[43]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p> <\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Reporting.2C_barcoding.2C_and_printing\">Reporting, barcoding, and printing<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p> <\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Custom_reporting\">Custom reporting<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Reporting is a vital part of a LIMS, as it allows users to gain a clearer picture of collected data and potential trends. At a minimum a number of pre-configured report styles come standard with a LIMS. However, some LIMS are more flexible than others, offering the ability to customize reports in numerous ways. The most popular attributes of custom reporting include custom headers, custom information placement, charts, pivot tables, and multiple output formats.\n<\/p><p>Note: Some LIMS vendors will offer custom reporting as an option as an added cost, depending on the level of customization required.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Report_printing\">Report printing<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Today's LIMS software almost universally offers the ability to print reports and other materials, so this feature may seem a bit redundant to list. Nonetheless, printer support is a feature worth confirming when considering a piece of LIMS software.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Label_support\">Label support<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The label \u2014 typically affixed to a sample container \u2014 is a vital part of the sample tracking process.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SCLabel_44-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SCLabel-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> Identifying information such as sample number, batch number, and barcodes are printed on such labels to ensure optimized sample management and more precise sample data. As such, some LIMS allow users to design and print labels directly from the software.\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"thumb tleft\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:302px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Code_barres.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"23481b6010df77bcb0ef723e7bef48fd\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/ba\/Code_barres.png\" width=\"300\" height=\"282\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Code_barres.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"23481b6010df77bcb0ef723e7bef48fd\"><\/a><\/div>The word \"Wikipedia\" encoded in Code 128 and Code 39<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Barcode_support\">Barcode support<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Barcodes offer many advantages to laboratory techs handling samples, including more accurate data input, tighter sample\/instrument associations, tighter sample\/study associations, and more room for human-readable information on a label.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SCLabel_44-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SCLabel-44\">[44]<\/a><\/sup> Given such advantages, many LIMS developers have integrated barcode support into their laboratory information management systems, including support for symbologies like Code 128, Code 39, and Interleaved 2 of 5. Aside from printing options, a LIMS may also offer support for a variety of bar code readers.\n<\/p><p>Barcode support and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Label_support\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c45986a47a971ad2357a50e5d5fd8db0\">label support<\/a> are typically found together in LIMS software, but not always, thus their separation into two features of a LIMS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_PDF\">Export to PDF<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Portable Document Format (PDF).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_MS_Word\">Export to MS Word<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a Microsoft Office Word format.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Export_to_HTML_or_XML\">Export to HTML or XML<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS with this feature is able to collect and save information into a HyperText Markup Language (HTML) and\/or Extensible Markup Language (XML) format.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Fax_integration\">Fax integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS with this feature is able to connect with a fax machine and send information to it via manual input, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Email_integration\">Email integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS with this feature is able to integrate with and use the electronic mail information exchange method to send reports, alerts, and more via manual input, automatically, and\/or at scheduled intervals.\n<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p> <\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Base_functionality\">Base functionality<\/span><\/h2>\n<p><i>To hide the contents of this section for easier reading of other sections, click the \"Collapse\" link to the right.<\/i>\n<\/p>\n<div class=\"mw-collapsible\" style=\"width:100%; background-color:white;\">\n<p> <\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Administrator_management\">Administrator management<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The administrator management tools of a LIMS allow lab technicians to set up the LIMS most optimally for the laboratory. Through the administrator management interface of a LIMS, other features may be accessed like setting up <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Configurable_roles_and_security\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"fbc79850406a41ae48cfacf2eed5ae8c\">user roles<\/a> and scheduling <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Automatic_data_backup\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6f865b497bf295ba58d4ee5d9a03b2e6\">automatic data backups<\/a>.\n<\/p><p>Like <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Report_printing\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ebf26bf9e1368b8e9ac1c5ba42a10bb0\">report printing<\/a>, administrator management is nearly ubiquitous in LIMS software, generally considered a mandatory feature. However, for the purposes of being thorough, it's important to point out its existence. \n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Modular\">Modular<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature indicates that a LIMS has an intentional modular design, which separates some functionality into manageable components of the overall system. Generally speaking, a modular design allows for 1. the structured addition of new functionality to a LIMS and 2. the limiting of overall effects on the system design as new functionality is added.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Instrument_interfacing_and_management\">Instrument interfacing and management<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:262px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Gas_Chromatography_Laboratory.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"3a01d42750c6ad2ab9e8146264958b8a\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f9\/Gas_Chromatography_Laboratory.jpg\" width=\"260\" height=\"195\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Gas_Chromatography_Laboratory.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"3a01d42750c6ad2ab9e8146264958b8a\"><\/a><\/div>An entire room of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Gas_chromatography\" title=\"Gas chromatography\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e621fc6f90266fbc8db27d516e9cbb94\">gas chromatography<\/a> instruments could potentially be connected to a LIMS via instrument interfacing.<\/div><\/div><\/div>In laboratories there are instruments, and with those instruments comes scientific measurements which produce data. It's therefor natural a lab technician would want to connect those instruments to a laboratory information management system, which is already organizing and storing laboratory data. This sort of interfacing is typically handled with instrument-to-LIMS interfaces, which started out as merely data-transfer mechanisms. Later that interface mechanism became much more robust as a data management tool, though often at great expense with heavy involvement from third parties.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-45\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-45\">[45]<\/a><\/sup> Today, \"many LIMS vendors can act as single source providers of the entire instrument interfacing solution,\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-46\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-46\">[46]<\/a><\/sup>, providing a cheaper and smoother solution to LIMS customers. The ability to calibrate and schedule maintenance for interfaced instruments may also be included in this category.\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Mobile_device_integration\">Mobile device integration<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While not incredibly common, a few LIMS developers are including support for mobile devices in their laboratory information management system. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/AgileBio#LabCollector\" title=\"AgileBio\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"01a2126bbafbd513b4ab3090c0e776e1\">LabCollector<\/a>, for example, extends its LIMS' functionality to Pocket PC or Windows CE devices equipped with wireless barcode scanners, allowing users to read or collect sample information while on the move.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-47\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-47\">[47]<\/a><\/sup> Future Technologies' <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Future_Technologies,_Inc.#DNA_LIMS\" title=\"Future Technologies, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"1b5d2b157e2115202aad7602e7f3651c\">DNA LIMS<\/a>, designed for labs performing DNA analysis, has its own mobile version for technicians who need access but can't be in the lab.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-48\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-48\">[48]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Alarms_and.2For_alerts\">Alarms and\/or alerts<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>Alarms and alerts are an integral part of a LIMS. They can be automatic or scheduled, and they can come in the form of an e-mail, a pop-up message, or a mobile text message. When the results for a sample analysis go out out of range, an automatic warning message can appear on the screen of the technician responsible for the analysis. A scheduled alert can be e-mailed to a lab technician every month indicating a piece of laboratory equipment needs routine maintenance. If the LIMS is equipped with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature#Environmental_monitoring\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"784f7ba1fb87304630630ab73bb57cc6\">environmental monitoring<\/a>, an alert can be sent in the form of an SMS text message to the head researcher if the temperature inside a freezer unexpectedly rises. All of these scenarios represent a tiny fraction of the possible implementation of alarms and alerts in a LIMS, highlighting how powerful (yet easy to take for granted) this feature is.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Work-related_time_tracking\">Work-related time tracking<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature specifically refers to a LIMS' ability to track the amount of time an employee spends at work in general (for payroll purposes) or on more specific projects and tasks (as part of an employee work evaluation program).\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Voice_recognition_system\">Voice recognition system<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS with this feature allows some functions of the LIMS (for example, accessing sample analysis results) to be accessed via voice commands.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"External_monitoring\">External monitoring<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature allows clients outside the laboratory to monitor the status of sample batches, test results, and more via an online Web portal or, less commonly, as activity alerts sent via e-mail, fax, or SMS.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Messaging\">Messaging<\/span><\/h3>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:217px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"4ae3b5e41e0c11ff4ca1baf0b7d4352f\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b6\/Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png\" width=\"215\" height=\"243\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"4ae3b5e41e0c11ff4ca1baf0b7d4352f\"><\/a><\/div>Instant messaging clients built into a LIMS often make it easier to collaborate.<\/div><\/div><\/div>The messaging feature of a LIMS may refer to one (or both) of two things:\n<ul><li> a built-in instant messaging system that allows users to converse with each other through text messages real-time<\/li>\n<li> an SMS text messaging integration that allows the users or the LIMS itself to send messages or alerts to a user's mobile or smart phone<\/li><\/ul>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Multilingual\">Multilingual<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>If a LIMS is listed as multilingual, its an indication the LIMS interface can be configured to display more than one language depending on the preference a user or administrator chooses. Some LIMS interfaces can only be displayed in one of two languages (English or German, for example), while others come configured with support for dozens of languages.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Network-capable\">Network-capable<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This feature is perhaps archaic and\/or obvious, but it is mentioned nonetheless. It's generally applied to a non-Web-based LIMS installed over a local or wide-area computer network, essentially indicating the LIMS is not an isolated application, but rather one that can interface with other instances of the LIMS or other networked instruments.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Web_client_or_portal\">Web client or portal<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS with a Web client or portal is either a Web-based LIMS (one that is not installed on every computer, but rather is hosted on a server and accessed via a Web browser) or a non-Web-based LIMS with an included portal to access it via the Internet.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Online_or_integrated_help\">Online or integrated help<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This indicates a LIMS has help infrastructure integrated into the software, support documentation via the LIMS vendor's website, or both.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Software_as_a_service_delivery_model\">Software as a service delivery model<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>This indicates the software can be licensed and utilized via the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> (SaaS) delivery model.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Usage-based_cost\">Usage-based cost<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>While rare, some LIMS vendors allow potential clients to license and utilize the vendor's software under a usage-based cost model. An example of this model in use is Bytewize AB's <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bytewize_AB#O3_Lims_and_O3_LimsXpress\" title=\"Bytewize AB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"65bc566848b41a14e430d1bedd8eb6ac\">O3 LimsXpress<\/a>, which has a cost directly related to the amount of samples processed each month.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-49\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-49\">[49]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p> <\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-count references-column-count-2\" style=\"-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-MT5310-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MT5310_1-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Skobelev, D.O.; T.M. Zaytseva; A.D. Kozlov; V.L. Perepelitsa; A.S. Makarova (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.springerlink.com\/content\/6564211m773v70j1\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Laboratory information management systems in the work of the analytic laboratory\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>Measurement Techniques<\/i> <b>53<\/b> (10): 1182\u20131189. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007%2Fs11018-011-9638-7\" target=\"_blank\">10.1007\/s11018-011-9638-7<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.springerlink.com\/content\/6564211m773v70j1\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.springerlink.com\/content\/6564211m773v70j1\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Laboratory+information+management+systems+in+the+work+of+the+analytic+laboratory&rft.jtitle=Measurement+Techniques&rft.aulast=Skobelev%2C+D.O.%3B+T.M.+Zaytseva%3B+A.D.+Kozlov%3B+V.L.+Perepelitsa%3B+A.S.+Makarova&rft.au=Skobelev%2C+D.O.%3B+T.M.+Zaytseva%3B+A.D.+Kozlov%3B+V.L.+Perepelitsa%3B+A.S.+Makarova&rft.date=2011&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1182%E2%80%931189&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1007%2Fs11018-011-9638-7&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.springerlink.com%2Fcontent%2F6564211m773v70j1%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AE0302-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AE0302_2-0\">2.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AE0302_2-1\">2.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AE0302_2-2\">2.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-AE0302_2-3\">2.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Macneil, Rory (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aejournal.net\/content\/3\/1\/2\" target=\"_blank\">\"The benefits of integrated systems for managing both samples and experimental data: An opportunity for labs in universities and government research institutions to lead the way\"<\/a>. <i>Automated Experimentation<\/i> <b>3<\/b> (2). <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1186%2F1759-4499-3-2\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/1759-4499-3-2<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.aejournal.net\/content\/3\/1\/2\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.aejournal.net\/content\/3\/1\/2<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+benefits+of+integrated+systems+for+managing+both+samples+and+experimental+data%3A+An+opportunity+for+labs+in+universities+and+government+research+institutions+to+lead+the+way&rft.jtitle=Automated+Experimentation&rft.aulast=Macneil%2C+Rory&rft.au=Macneil%2C+Rory&rft.date=2011&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1186%2F1759-4499-3-2&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aejournal.net%2Fcontent%2F3%2F1%2F2&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ForensicSamp-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ForensicSamp_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-ForensicSamp_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Murthy, Tal; Brian Hewson (01 September 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/new.americanlaboratory.com\/914-Application-Notes\/506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Effective Forensic Sample Tracking and Handling\"<\/a>. American Laboratory<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/new.americanlaboratory.com\/914-Application-Notes\/506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/new.americanlaboratory.com\/914-Application-Notes\/506-Effective-Forensic-Sample-Tracking-and-Handling\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved 17 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Managing+Your+Lab+Data+Flux%3A+Getting+Beyond+Excel&rft.atitle=The+Bioinformatics+of+Brains%3A+From+Genes+and+Proteins+to+Behaviors&rft.aulast=Williams%2C+Robert+W.&rft.au=Williams%2C+Robert+W.&rft.date=2003&rft.pub=Washington%2C+DC%3A+Society+for+Neuroscience&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfn.org%2Fskins%2Fmain%2Fpdf%2FShortCourses%2F2003%2Fsc1_9.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-PragmaticExcelIntro-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-PragmaticExcelIntro_23-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Howard, David A.; David Harrison (2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.spreadsheetvalidation.com\/pdf\/Excel_Spreadsheet_Validation_Overview.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"A Pragmatic Approach to the Validation of Excel Spreadsheets \u2013 Overview\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>Pharma IT<\/i> <b>1<\/b> (2): 30\u201335<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.spreadsheetvalidation.com\/pdf\/Excel_Spreadsheet_Validation_Overview.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.spreadsheetvalidation.com\/pdf\/Excel_Spreadsheet_Validation_Overview.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=A+Pragmatic+Approach+to+the+Validation+of+Excel+Spreadsheets+%E2%80%93+Overview&rft.jtitle=Pharma+IT&rft.aulast=Howard%2C+David+A.%3B+David+Harrison&rft.au=Howard%2C+David+A.%3B+David+Harrison&rft.date=2007&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=30%E2%80%9335&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spreadsheetvalidation.com%2Fpdf%2FExcel_Spreadsheet_Validation_Overview.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-24\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Vannest, Jeff (11 February 2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/blog\/?p=79\" target=\"_blank\">\"Advantages of a Data Warehouse\"<\/a>. LABVANTAGE Solutions, Inc.<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/blog\/?p=79\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/blog\/?p=79<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 17 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Advantages+of+a+Data+Warehouse&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Vannest%2C+Jeff&rft.au=Vannest%2C+Jeff&rft.date=11+February+2011&rft.pub=LABVANTAGE+Solutions%2C+Inc.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.labvantage.com%2Fblog%2F%3Fp%3D79&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-25\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.2sslab.com\/Production.html\" target=\"_blank\">Use OhNo! for complete control<\/a>\" 2nd Sight Solutions. Retrieved 20 February 2012.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-26\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span id=\"rdp-ebb-.7B.7B.7Bref.7D.7D.7D\" class=\"citation\">\"<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.dialims.de\/standardloesungen\/lims-produktionsunterstuetzung.html\" target=\"_blank\">Standardl\u00f6sung f\u00fcr die Produktion<\/a>\" dialog EDV Systementwicklung GmbH. Retrieved 20 February 2012.<\/span>\n<\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-27\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Hice, Randy (01 July 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Swimming in the Clinical Pool: Why LIMS are supplanting old-school clinical LIS applications\"<\/a>. STARLIMS' Laboratory Informatics Blog<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 09 May 2011<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Swimming+in+the+Clinical+Pool%3A+Why+LIMS+are+supplanting+old-school+clinical+LIS+applications&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Hice%2C+Randy&rft.au=Hice%2C+Randy&rft.date=01+July+2009&rft.pub=STARLIMS%27+Laboratory+Informatics+Blog&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.starlims.com%2F2009%2F07%2F01%2Fswimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-WfMC1-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-WfMC1_28-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/standards\/docs\/TC-1011_term_glossary_v3.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Workflow Management Coalition Terminology & Glossary\"<\/a> (PDF). Workflow Management Coalition. February 1999. pp. 9<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/standards\/docs\/TC-1011_term_glossary_v3.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.wfmc.org\/standards\/docs\/TC-1011_term_glossary_v3.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved 20 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Using+Workflows+in+LIMS+to+Reduce+Customization&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Maxwell%2C+Glen&rft.au=Maxwell%2C+Glen&rft.date=1+November+2003&rft.pub=Scientific+Computing+and+Instrumentation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Fusing-workflows-in-lims-to-reduce.aspx&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SIGLa-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-SIGLa_30-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Melo, Alexandre; Alessandra Faria-Campos; Daiane M DeLaat; Rodrigo Keller; Vin\u00edcius Abreu; S\u00e9rgio Campos (2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.biomedcentral.com\/1471-2164\/11\/S5\/S8\" target=\"_blank\">\"SIGLa: an adaptable LIMS for multiple laboratories\"<\/a>. <i>BMC Genomics<\/i> <b>11<\/b> (Suppl 5): S8. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1186%2F1471-2164-11-S5-S8\" target=\"_blank\">10.1186\/1471-2164-11-S5-S8<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.biomedcentral.com\/1471-2164\/11\/S5\/S8\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.biomedcentral.com\/1471-2164\/11\/S5\/S8<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=SIGLa%3A+an+adaptable+LIMS+for+multiple+laboratories&rft.jtitle=BMC+Genomics&rft.aulast=Melo%2C+Alexandre%3B+Alessandra+Faria-Campos%3B+Daiane+M+DeLaat%3B+Rodrigo+Keller%3B+Vin%C3%ADcius+Abreu%3B+S%C3%A9rgio+Campos&rft.au=Melo%2C+Alexandre%3B+Alessandra+Faria-Campos%3B+Daiane+M+DeLaat%3B+Rodrigo+Keller%3B+Vin%C3%ADcius+Abreu%3B+S%C3%A9rgio+Campos&rft.date=2010&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=Suppl+5&rft.pages=S8&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1186%2F1471-2164-11-S5-S8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biomedcentral.com%2F1471-2164%2F11%2FS5%2FS8&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-X-LIMS-31\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-X-LIMS_31-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ethosoft.com\/LIMS\/XLIMSProductInfo\/XLIMSFAQ\/tabid\/69\/Default.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"My laboratory has unique processes, Can X-LIMS work for me?\"<\/a>. EthoSoft, Inc.<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ethosoft.com\/LIMS\/XLIMSProductInfo\/XLIMSFAQ\/tabid\/69\/Default.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ethosoft.com\/LIMS\/XLIMSProductInfo\/XLIMSFAQ\/tabid\/69\/Default.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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Retrieved 22 February 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=ASTM+E1578+-+06+Standard+Guide+for+Laboratory+Information+Management+Systems+%28LIMS%29&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=ASTM+International&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FStandards%2FE1578.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AL3218-33\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AL3218_33-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Paszko, Christine; Carol Pugsley (2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mendeley.com\/research\/considerations-selecting-laboratory-information-management-system-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Considerations in selecting a laboratory information management system (LIMS)\"<\/a>. <i>American Laboratory<\/i> <b>32<\/b> (18): 38\u201342. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2F0169-7439%2894%2990006-X\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/0169-7439(94)90006-X<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.mendeley.com\/research\/considerations-selecting-laboratory-information-management-system-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.mendeley.com\/research\/considerations-selecting-laboratory-information-management-system-lims\/<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Considerations+in+selecting+a+laboratory+information+management+system+%28LIMS%29&rft.jtitle=American+Laboratory&rft.aulast=Paszko%2C+Christine%3B+Carol+Pugsley&rft.au=Paszko%2C+Christine%3B+Carol+Pugsley&rft.date=2000&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=38%E2%80%9342&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2F0169-7439%2894%2990006-X&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mendeley.com%2Fresearch%2Fconsiderations-selecting-laboratory-information-management-system-lims%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CCHTS1409-34\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CCHTS1409_34-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Hull, Carl; Bruce Wray; Ford Winslow; Mark Vilicich (2011). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.uniconnect.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2011\/11\/CCHTS-LIMS-Article.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Tracking and Controlling Everything that Affects Quality is the Key to a Quality Management System\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>Combinatorial Chemistry & High Throughput Screening<\/i> <b>14<\/b> (9): 772\u2013780. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.2174%2F138620711796957125\" target=\"_blank\">10.2174\/138620711796957125<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.uniconnect.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2011\/11\/CCHTS-LIMS-Article.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.uniconnect.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2011\/11\/CCHTS-LIMS-Article.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Tracking+and+Controlling+Everything+that+Affects+Quality+is+the+Key+to+a+Quality+Management+System&rft.jtitle=Combinatorial+Chemistry+%26+High+Throughput+Screening&rft.aulast=Hull%2C+Carl%3B+Bruce+Wray%3B+Ford+Winslow%3B+Mark+Vilicich&rft.au=Hull%2C+Carl%3B+Bruce+Wray%3B+Ford+Winslow%3B+Mark+Vilicich&rft.date=2011&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=772%E2%80%93780&rft_id=info:doi\/10.2174%2F138620711796957125&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uniconnect.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2011%2F11%2FCCHTS-LIMS-Article.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-35\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-35\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ecfr.gpoaccess.gov\/cgi\/t\/text\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=21:1.0.1.1.7&idno=21\" target=\"_blank\">\"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21: Food and Drugs - Part 11: Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures\"<\/a>. U.S. Government Printing Office<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/ecfr.gpoaccess.gov\/cgi\/t\/text\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=21:1.0.1.1.7&idno=21\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/ecfr.gpoaccess.gov\/cgi\/t\/text\/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2&rgn=div5&view=text&node=21:1.0.1.1.7&idno=21<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 02 March 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Electronic+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+-+Title+21%3A+Food+and+Drugs+-+Part+11%3A+Electronic+Records%3B+Electronic+Signatures&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fecfr.gpoaccess.gov%2Fcgi%2Ft%2Ftext%2Ftext-idx%3Fc%3Decfr%26sid%3D5ff3a0efed913ef8fae9e225869688a2%26rgn%3Ddiv5%26view%3Dtext%26node%3D21%3A1.0.1.1.7%26idno%3D21&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-36\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-36\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Jones, Andrew; Craig Valli (2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: An Introduction to Digital Forensics\"<\/a>. <i>Building a Digital Forensic Laboratory: Establishing and Managing a Successful Facility<\/i>. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 11. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 1856175103<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=F5IU7XXKwCQC<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+An+Introduction+to+Digital+Forensics&rft.atitle=Building+a+Digital+Forensic+Laboratory%3A+Establishing+and+Managing+a+Successful+Facility&rft.aulast=Jones%2C+Andrew%3B+Craig+Valli&rft.au=Jones%2C+Andrew%3B+Craig+Valli&rft.date=2008&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B11&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.isbn=1856175103&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF5IU7XXKwCQC&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-37\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-37\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Quality Assurance - Data Management\"<\/a>. Stable Isotope Ratio Facility for Environmental Research (SIRFER) at the University of Utah<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/sirfer.utah.edu\/qaqc.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 07 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Quality+Assurance+-+Data+Management&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Stable+Isotope+Ratio+Facility+for+Environmental+Research+%28SIRFER%29+at+the+University+of+Utah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsirfer.utah.edu%2Fqaqc.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-38\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-38\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Hitchcock, Noel (2005). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.crcnetbase.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1201\/9781439833407.ch10\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 10: Efficient utilization of LIMS data and integration with mining process management systems\"<\/a>. In Dessureault, Sean D.; Rajive Ganguli; Vladislav Kecojevic; Jami Girard Dwyer. <i>Application of Computers and Operations Research in the Mineral Industry<\/i>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 85\u201388. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1201%2F9781439833407.ch10\" target=\"_blank\">10.1201\/9781439833407.ch10<\/a>. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 9780415374491<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.crcnetbase.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1201\/9781439833407.ch10\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.crcnetbase.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1201\/9781439833407.ch10<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+10%3A+Efficient+utilization+of+LIMS+data+and+integration+with+mining+process+management+systems&rft.atitle=Application+of+Computers+and+Operations+Research+in+the+Mineral+Industry&rft.aulast=Hitchcock%2C+Noel&rft.au=Hitchcock%2C+Noel&rft.date=2005&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B85%E2%80%9388&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1201%2F9781439833407.ch10&rft.isbn=9780415374491&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crcnetbase.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1201%2F9781439833407.ch10&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-39\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-39\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Turner, Elizabeth; Jojean Bolton (2001). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/12553085\" target=\"_blank\">\"Required steps for the validation of a Laboratory Information Management System\"<\/a>. <i>Quality Assurance<\/i> <b>9<\/b> (3\u20134): 217\u2013224. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/12553085\" target=\"_blank\">12553085<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/12553085\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/12553085<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Required+steps+for+the+validation+of+a+Laboratory+Information+Management+System&rft.jtitle=Quality+Assurance&rft.aulast=Turner%2C+Elizabeth%3B+Jojean+Bolton&rft.au=Turner%2C+Elizabeth%3B+Jojean+Bolton&rft.date=2001&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=217%E2%80%93224&rft_id=info:pmid\/12553085&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpubmed%2F12553085&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-40\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-40\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labware.com\/LWWeb.nsf\/lp\/en041001\" target=\"_blank\">\"LabWare - Table Explorer\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LabWare,_Inc.\" title=\"LabWare, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"34254ba2e2bbcd4ce616eba66db7d2f6\">LabWare, Inc.<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labware.com\/LWWeb.nsf\/lp\/en041001\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.labware.com\/LWWeb.nsf\/lp\/en041001<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 07 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LabWare+-+Table+Explorer&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=%5B%5BLabWare%2C+Inc.%5D%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.labware.com%2FLWWeb.nsf%2Flp%2Fen041001&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-41\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-41\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.corelims.com\/features.htm\" target=\"_blank\">\"Core LIMS Features & Components\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Core_Informatics,_LLC\" title=\"Core Informatics, LLC\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca7be316a3db322a0fb60c66d41e8647\">Core Informatics, LLC<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.corelims.com\/features.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.corelims.com\/features.htm<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 07 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Core+LIMS+Features+%26+Components&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=%5B%5BCore+Informatics%2C+LLC%5D%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.corelims.com%2Ffeatures.htm&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-42\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-42\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.oracle.com\/us\/industries\/life-sciences\/health-sciences-labpas-ds-396097.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Oracle Health Sciences LabPas\"<\/a> (PDF). <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Oracle_Corporation\" title=\"Oracle Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7c297d8baacdc1f11f4852085c4adc7\">Oracle Corporation<\/a>. 2011<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.oracle.com\/us\/industries\/life-sciences\/health-sciences-labpas-ds-396097.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.oracle.com\/us\/industries\/life-sciences\/health-sciences-labpas-ds-396097.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 07 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Oracle+Health+Sciences+LabPas&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2011&rft.pub=%5B%5BOracle+Corporation%5D%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oracle.com%2Fus%2Findustries%2Flife-sciences%2Fhealth-sciences-labpas-ds-396097.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-43\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-43\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/ntint.com\/prod-envmon.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"Environmental Monitoring Program\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Novatek_International\" title=\"Novatek International\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"85ba3d679d422a871106d090e2cdd0b0\">Novatek International<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/ntint.com\/prod-envmon.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/ntint.com\/prod-envmon.shtml<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 07 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Environmental+Monitoring+Program&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=%5B%5BNovatek+International%5D%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fntint.com%2Fprod-envmon.shtml&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-SCLabel-44\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SCLabel_44-0\">44.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SCLabel_44-1\">44.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Gilles, Clarence (1 July 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">\"Bar Code and Sample Tracking: It All Starts with the Label\"<\/a>. Scientific Computing<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/bar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 8 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Bar+Code+and+Sample+Tracking%3A+It+All+Starts+with+the+Label&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Gilles%2C+Clarence&rft.au=Gilles%2C+Clarence&rft.date=1+July+2008&rft.pub=Scientific+Computing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Fbar-code-and-sample-tracking.aspx&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-45\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-45\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Pavlis, Robert (May\/June 2004). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88\" target=\"_blank\">\"Trends in instrument-to-LIMS interfacing\"<\/a>. Scientific Computing World<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.scientific-computing.com\/features\/feature.php?feature_id=88<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 8 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Trends+in+instrument-to-LIMS+interfacing&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Pavlis%2C+Robert&rft.au=Pavlis%2C+Robert&rft.date=May%2FJune+2004&rft.pub=Scientific+Computing+World&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientific-computing.com%2Ffeatures%2Ffeature.php%3Ffeature_id%3D88&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-46\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-46\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">DeHeer, Larry (1 October 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=33851_0_2_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">\"Instrument Interfacing - The Great Paradox of LIMS?\"<\/a>. LIMSfinder.com<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=33851_0_2_0_C\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.limsfinder.com\/BlogDetail.aspx?id=33851_0_2_0_C<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 8 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Instrument+Interfacing+-+The+Great+Paradox+of+LIMS%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=DeHeer%2C+Larry&rft.au=DeHeer%2C+Larry&rft.date=1+October+2009&rft.pub=LIMSfinder.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.limsfinder.com%2FBlogDetail.aspx%3Fid%3D33851_0_2_0_C&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-47\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-47\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/labcollector.com\/index.php\/labcollector-on-pdahtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"LabCollector - Features in detail\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/AgileBio\" title=\"AgileBio\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c34addf58af91e53114eed40843f5e6e\">AgileBio<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/labcollector.com\/index.php\/labcollector-on-pdahtml\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/labcollector.com\/index.php\/labcollector-on-pdahtml<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 8 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LabCollector+-+Features+in+detail&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=%5B%5BAgileBio%5D%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flabcollector.com%2Findex.php%2Flabcollector-on-pdahtml&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-48\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-48\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ftechi.com\/dna_biometric.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">\"Biometrics and DNA Laboratory Information Management and Analysis System Development\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Future_Technologies,_Inc.\" title=\"Future Technologies, Inc.\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"4097e35d9bbda909a18d28054f78e0ca\">Future Technologies, Inc.<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ftechi.com\/dna_biometric.shtml\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ftechi.com\/dna_biometric.shtml<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 8 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Biometrics+and+DNA+Laboratory+Information+Management+and+Analysis+System+Development&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=%5B%5BFuture+Technologies%2C+Inc.%5D%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ftechi.com%2Fdna_biometric.shtml&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-49\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-49\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3lims-xpress\/prices\/?lang=en\" target=\"_blank\">\"Modern web based Lims from 10 Euro cent\/sample\"<\/a>. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Bytewize_AB\" title=\"Bytewize AB\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"2b7e72632dace83ccc9312311dc06e57\">Bytewize AB<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3lims-xpress\/prices\/?lang=en\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.bytewize.com\/o3lims-xpress\/prices\/?lang=en<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 8 May 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Modern+web+based+Lims+from+10+Euro+cent%2Fsample&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=%5B%5BBytewize+AB%5D%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bytewize.com%2Fo3lims-xpress%2Fprices%2F%3Flang%3Den&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:LIMS_feature\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202932\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 1.115 seconds\nReal time usage: 9.940 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 23490\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 28034\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 156443\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 61865\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 14\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 0\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 688.351 1 - -total\n 92.28% 635.217 1 - Template:Reflist\n 76.97% 529.825 36 - Template:Citation\/core\n 50.25% 345.874 25 - Template:Cite_web\n 25.57% 176.001 9 - Template:Cite_journal\n 6.10% 41.962 2 - Template:Cite_book\n 4.08% 28.064 39 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 2.67% 18.390 10 - Template:Citation\/identifier\n 1.73% 11.923 13 - Template:Cite_web_short\n 0.93% 6.432 20 - Template:Hide_in_print\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:3356-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403202923 and revision id 12049\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/45\/Laboratory_oven_for_samples-02.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/58\/Analyse_residus.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/bc\/QueryBuilder.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/4\/4d\/Laboratory-reagents.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/2e\/Workflow_IA.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/25\/Syvalidate_screen.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b3\/Freezers_for_cryopreservation_at_IMSC.JPG","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/ba\/Code_barres.png","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f9\/Gas_Chromatography_Laboratory.jpg","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b6\/Example_of_Telecommunication_Presence_Information.png"],"ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa_timestamp":1554323363,"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00_type":"article","8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00_title":"Laboratory information management system","8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system","8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tLaboratory information management system\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t Laboratories around the world depend on a LIMS to manage data, assign rights, manage inventory, and more.\nSometimes referred to as a laboratory information system (LIS) or laboratory management system (LMS), a laboratory information management system (LIMS) is a software-based laboratory and information management system that offers a set of key features that support a modern laboratory's operations. Those key features include \u2014 but are not limited to \u2014 workflow and data tracking support, flexible architecture, and smart data exchange interfaces, which fully \"support its use in regulated environments.\"[1] The features and uses of a LIMS have evolved over the years from simple sample tracking to an integrated laboratory + enterprise resource planning tool that manages multiple aspects of laboratory operation, from testing to marketing.\nDue to the rapid pace at which laboratories and their data management needs shift, the definition of LIMS has become somewhat controversial. As the needs of the modern laboratory vary widely from lab to lab, what is needed from a laboratory information management system also shifts. The end result: the definition of a LIMS will shift based on who you ask and what their vision of the modern lab is.[1] Dr. Alan McLelland of the Institute of Biochemistry, Royal Infirmary, Glasgow highlighted this problem in the late 1990s by explaining how a LIMS is perceived by an analyst, a laboratory manager, an information systems manager, and an accountant, \"all of them correct, but each of them limited by the users' own perceptions.\"[2]\nHistorically the term \"LIMS\" has tended to be used to reference informatics systems targeted for environmental, research, or commercial analysis such as pharmaceutical or petrochemical work. \"LIS\" has tended to be used to reference laboratory informatics systems in the forensics and clinical markets, which often required special case management tools. The process development execution system or \"PDES,\" while having similar functionality in some ways, has generally applied to a wider scope, including, for example, virtual manufacturing techniques, while not necessarily integrating with laboratory equipment. \nIn modern times LIMS functionality has spread even farther beyond its original purpose of sample management. Assay data management, data mining, data analysis, and the integration of electronic laboratory notebooks (ELNs) and third-party applications are all features that have been added to many LIMS, enabling the realization of translational medicine completely within a single software solution. Additionally, the distinction between a LIMS and a LIS has blurred, as many LIMS now also fully support comprehensive case-centric clinical specimen and patient data management.\n\nContents\n\n1 History of LIMS \n2 Technology \n\n2.1 Laboratory information management operations \n\n2.1.1 Sample management \n2.1.2 Instrument and application integration \n2.1.3 Electronic data exchange \n2.1.4 Additional functions \n\n\n2.2 LIMS architecture and delivery methods \n\n2.2.1 Thick-client \n2.2.2 Thin-client \n2.2.3 Web-based \n\n\n2.3 LIMS configurability \n\n\n3 The distinction between a LIMS and a LIS \n4 Standards affecting LIMS \n5 LIMS vendors \n6 See also \n7 Further reading \n8 References \n\n\n\nHistory of LIMS \nUp until the late 1970s, management of laboratory samples and their associated analysis and reporting was a time-consuming manual processes often riddled with transcription errors. This gave some organizations impetus to streamline the collection of data and how it was reported. Custom in-house solutions were developed by a few individual laboratories, while some enterprising entities at the same time sought to develop a more commercial reporting solution in the form of special instrument-based systems.[3] \nIn 1982 the first generation of LIMS was introduced in the form of a single centralized minicomputer, which offered laboratories the first opportunity to utilize automated reporting tools. As the interest in these early LIMS grew, industry leaders like Gerst Gibbon of the Federal Energy Technology Centre in Pittsburgh began planting the seeds through LIMS-related conferences. By 1988 the second-generation commercial offerings were tapping into relational databases to expand LIMS into more application-specific territory, and International LIMS Conferences were in full swing. As personal computers became more powerful and prominent, a third generation of LIMS emerged in the early 1990s. These new LIMS took advantage of the developing client\/server architecture, allowing laboratories to implement better data processing and exchanges.[3]\nBy 1995, the client\/server tools had developed to the point of allowing processing of data anywhere on the network. Web-enabled LIMS were introduced the following year, enabling researchers to extend operations outside the confines of the laboratory. From 1996 to 2002 additional functionality was included in LIMS, from wireless networking capabilities and georeferencing of samples, to the adoption of XML standards and the development of internet purchasing.[3]\nBy the early 2010s, some LIMS had added additional characteristics that continued to shape how a LIMS was defined. Examples included the addition of clinical functionality and electronic laboratory notebook (ELN) functionality, as well a rise in the cloud-based software as a service (SaaS) distribution model.[4][5] As of 2017[update], cloud-based LIMS are more numerous in quantity and adoption but not the de facto standard, as the costs and daunting nature associated with vendors transitioning legacy products to the cloud and with companies trying to integrate a cloud-based LIMS into a complicated IT environment have partially stymied growth.[6][7]\n\nTechnology \nLaboratory information management operations \nThe LIMS is an evolving concept, with new features and functionality being added often. As laboratory demands change and technological progress continues, the functions of a LIMS will likely also change. Despite these changes, a LIMS tends to have a base set of functionality that defines it. That functionality can roughly be divided into five laboratory processing phases, with numerous software functions falling under each[8]: \n\n the reception and log in of a sample and its associated customer data;\n the assignment, scheduling, and tracking of the sample and the associated analytical workload;\n the processing and quality control associated with the sample and the utilized equipment and inventory;\n the storage of data associated with the sample analysis; and\n the inspection, approval, and compilation of the sample data for reporting and\/or further analysis.\nThere are several pieces of core functionality associated with these laboratory processing phases that tend to appear in most LIMS:\n\nSample management \n A lab worker matches blood samples to documents. With a LIMS, this sort of sample management is made more efficient.\nThe core function of LIMS has traditionally been the management of samples.[3] This typically is initiated when a sample is received in the laboratory, at which point the sample will be registered in the LIMS. This registration process may involve accessioning the sample and producing barcodes to affix to the sample container. Various other parameters such as clinical or phenotypic information corresponding with the sample are also often recorded. The LIMS then tracks chain of custody (CoC) as well as sample location. Location tracking usually involves assigning the sample to a particular freezer location, often down to the granular level of shelf, rack, box, row, and column. Other event tracking such as freeze and thaw cycles that a sample undergoes in the laboratory may also be required.\nModern LIMS have implemented extensive configurability, as each laboratory's needs for tracking additional data points can vary widely. LIMS vendors cannot typically make assumptions about what these data tracking needs are, and therefore vendors often create LIMS that are adaptable to individual environments. LIMS users may also have regulatory concerns to comply with such as CLIA, HIPAA, good laboratory practice (GLP), and FDA specifications, affecting certain aspects of sample management in a LIMS solution.[9] One key to compliance with many of these standards is audit logging of all changes to LIMS data, and in some cases a full electronic signature system is required for rigorous tracking of field-level changes to LIMS data.\n\nInstrument and application integration \nModern LIMS offer integration with laboratory instruments and applications as standard. A LIMS may create control files that are \"fed\" into the instrument and direct its operation on some physical item such as a sample tube or sample plate. The LIMS may then import instrument results files to extract data for quality control assessment of the operation on the sample. Access to the instrument data can sometimes be regulated based on chain of custody assignments or other security features if need be.\nLIMS additionally typically allow for the import and management of raw assay data results.[10] Modern targeted assays such as qPCR and deep sequencing can produce tens of thousands of data points per sample. Furthermore, in the case of drug and diagnostic development, as many as 12 or more assays may be run for each sample. In order to track this data, a LIMS solution needs to be adaptable to many different assay formats at both the data layer and import creation layer, while maintaining a high level of overall performance.\n\nElectronic data exchange \nThe exponentially growing volume of data created in laboratories, coupled with increased business demands and focus on profitability, have pushed LIMS vendors to increase attention to how their LIMS handles electronic data exchanges. Attention must be paid to how an instrument's input and output data is managed, how remote sample collection data is imported and exported, and how mobile and other third-party applications integrate with the LIMS. The successful transfer of data files in a wide variety of formats, while maintaining the associated metadata and keeping it secure, is paramount. Historically speaking, the transition \"from proprietary databases to standardized database management systems such as Oracle ... and SQL\" has had significant impact on how data is managed and exchanged in laboratories[11], culminating today in cloud-based relational and NOSQL databases that can be set up, operated, and scaled with relative ease.[12][13]\n\nAdditional functions \nAside from the key functions of sample management, instrument and application integration, and electronic data exchange, there are numerous additional operations that can be managed in a LIMS. This includes but is not limited to[14][15][16]:\n\n audit management\n fully track and maintain an audit trail\n barcode handling\n assign one or more data points to a barcode format; read and extract information from a barcode\n chain of custody\n assign roles and groups that dictate access to specific data records and who is managing them\n compliance\n follow regulatory standards that affect the laboratory\n customer relationship management\n handle the demographic information and communications for associated clients\n document management\n process and convert data to certain formats; manage how documents are distributed and accessed\n instrument calibration and maintenance\n schedule important maintenance and calibration of lab instruments and keep detailed records of such activities\n inventory and equipment management\n measure and record inventories of vital supplies and laboratory equipment\n manual and electronic data entry\n provide fast and reliable interfaces for data to be entered by a human or electronic component\n method management\n provide one location for all laboratory process and procedure (P&P) and methodology to be housed and managed\n personnel and workload management\n organize work schedules, workload assignments, employee demographic information, and financial information\n quality assurance and control\n gauge and control sample quality, data entry standards, and workflow; reports\n create and schedule reports in a specific format; schedule and distribute reports to designated parties\n time tracking and performance assessment\n calculate and maintain processing and handling times on chemical reactions and workflows while assessing analyst, instrument, or test performance\n data mining\n search a wide variety of data repositories and their associated metadata to make and improve on research insights\n invoicing and sales\n provide an integrated structure to bill clients directly and track sales activity\nLIMS architecture and delivery methods \nA LIMS has utilized many architectures and distribution models over the years. As technology has changed, how a LIMS is installed, managed, and utilized has also changed with it.\nThe following represents architectures which have been utilized at one point or another:\n\nThick-client \nA thick-client LIMS is a more traditional client\/server architecture, with some of the system residing on the computer or workstation of the user (the client) and the rest on the server. The LIMS software is installed on the client computer, which does all of the data processing. Later it passes information to the server, which has the primary purpose of data storage. Most changes, upgrades, and other modifications will happen on the client side. \nThis was one of the first architectures implemented into a LIMS, having the advantage of providing higher processing speeds (because processing is done on the client and not the server) and slightly more security (as access to the server data is limited only to those with client software). Additionally, thick-client systems have also provided more interactivity and customization, though often at a greater learning curve. The disadvantages of client-side LIMS include the need for more robust client computers and more time-consuming upgrades, as well as a lack of base functionality through a web browser. The thick-client LIMS can become web-enabled through an add-on component.[17][18]\nWeb-enabled\nA web-enabled LIMS architecture is essentially a thick-client architecture with an added web browser component. In this setup, the client-side software has additional functionality that allows users to interface with the software through their device's browser. This functionality is typically limited only to certain functions of the web client. The primary advantage of a web-enabled LIMS is the end-user can access data both on the client side and the server side of the configuration. As in a thick-client architecture, updates in the software must be propagated to every client machine. However, the added disadvantages of requiring always-on access to the host server and the need for cross-platform functionality mean that additional overhead costs may arise.[17][18]\n\nThin-client \n The concept of cloud computing is one of the most recent architecture and delivery models to affect LIMS.A thin-client LIMS is a more modern architecture which offers full application functionality accessed through a device's web browser. The actual LIMS software resides on a server (host) which feeds and processes information without saving it to the user's hard disk. Any necessary changes, upgrades, and other modifications are handled by the entity hosting the server-side LIMS software, meaning all end-users see all changes made. To this end, a true thin-client LIMS will leave no \"footprint\" on the client's computer, and only the integrity of the web browser need be maintained by the user. The advantages of this system include significantly lower cost of ownership and fewer network and client-side maintenance expenses. However, this architecture has the disadvantage of requiring real-time server access, a need for increased network throughput, and slightly less functionality. A sort of hybrid architecture that incorporates the features of thin-client browser usage with a thick client installation exists in the form of a web-based LIMS.[17][18]\nAdditionally, maintenance support and warranty (MSW) agreements are usually offered with thin-client installations. Pricing levels are typically based on a percentage of the license fee, with a standard level of service for 10 concurrent users being approximately 10 hours of support and additional customer service at a set per-hour rate. Though some may choose to opt out of an MSW after the first year, it's often more economical to continue the plan in order to receive updates to the LIMS, giving it a longer life span in the laboratory.\nCloud and SaaS\nIn the early 2010s, LIMS vendors began to rent hosted, thin-client solutions as \"software as a service\" (SaaS). These cloud-based solutions tended to be less configurable than on-premise solutions and were therefore considered for less demanding implementations such as laboratories with few users and limited sample processing volumes. However, cloud-based software has seen greater adoption as the technology has improved, and configurable LIMS for laboratory operations big and small have become a more realistic option.[6][7]\n\nWeb-based \nArguably one of the most confusing architectures, web-based LIMS architecture is a hybrid of the thick- and thin-client architectures. While much of the client-side work is done through a web browser, the LIMS also requires the additional support of Microsoft's .NET Framework technology installed on the client device. The end result is a process that is apparent to the end-user through the Microrosoft-compatible web browser, but perhaps not so apparent as it runs thick-client-like processing in the background. In this case, web-based architecture has the advantage of providing more functionality through a more friendly web interface. The disadvantages of this setup are more sunk costs in system administration and support for Internet Explorer and .NET technologies, and reduced functionality on mobile platforms.[17][18]\n\nLIMS configurability \nLIMS implementations are notorious for often being lengthy and costly.[19] This is due in part to the diversity of requirements within each lab, but also to the inflexible nature of LIMS products for adapting to these widely varying requirements. The technology of LIMS solutions has improved as software design methodologies have improved, however, and many more configurable and adaptable options exist than previously. This means not only that implementations are much faster, but also that the costs are lower and the risk of obsolescence is minimized.\n\nThe distinction between a LIMS and a LIS \nHistorically, the LIMS and LIS have exhibited a few key differences, making them noticeably separate entities[20]:\n1. A LIMS traditionally has been designed to process and report data related to batches of samples from biology labs, water treatment facilities, drug trials, and other entities that handle complex batches of data. A LIS has been designed primarily for processing and reporting data related to individual patients in a clinical setting.[21][22]\n2. A LIMS needs to satisfy good manufacturing practice (GMP) and meet the reporting and audit needs of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and research scientists in many different industries. A LIS, however, must satisfy the reporting and auditing needs of hospital accreditation agencies, HIPAA, and other clinical medical practitioners.[21]\n3. A LIMS is most competitive in group-centric settings (dealing with \"batches\" and \"samples\") that often deal with mostly anonymous research-specific laboratory data, whereas a LIS is usually most competitive in patient-centric settings (dealing with \"subjects\" and \"specimens\") and clinical labs.[22][23][24]\nHowever, these distinctions began to fade somewhat in the early 2010s as some LIMS vendors began to adopt the case-centric information management normally reserved for a LIS, blurring the lines between the two components further.[24] Thermo Scientific's Clinical LIMS was an example of this merger of LIMS with LIS, with Dave Champagne, informatics vice president and general manager, stating: \"Routine molecular diagnostics requires a convergence of the up-to-now separate systems that have managed work in the lab (the LIMS) and the clinic (the LIS). The industry is asking for, and the science is requiring, a single lab-centric solution that delivers patient-centric results.\"[25] Abbott Informatics Corporation's STARLIMS product was another example of this LIMS\/LIS merger.[20] With the distinction between the two entities becoming less clear, discussions within the laboratory informatics community began to includes the question of whether or not the two entities should be considered the same.[26][27] As of 2017[update], vendors continue to recognize the historical differences between the two products while also continuing to acknowledge that some developed LIMS are taking on more of the clinical aspects usually reserved for a LIS.[28][29][30]\n\nStandards affecting LIMS \nA LIMS' development and use is affected by standards such as:\n\n Title 21 CFR Part 11 from the Food and Drug Administration (United States)\n ISO 17025\n ISO 15189\n Good laboratory practice\nLIMS vendors \nSee the LIMS vendor page for a list of LIMS vendors past and present.\n\nSee also \nLaboratory informatics\nCommon LIMS features\nFurther reading \n Gibbon, G.A. (1996). \"A brief history of LIMS\". Laboratory Automation and Information Management 32 (1): 1\u20135. doi:10.1016\/1381-141X(95)00024-K.   \n Wood, S. (September 2007). \"Comprehensive Laboratory Informatics: A Multilayer Approach\" (PDF). American Laboratory. p. 1. Archived from the original on 25 August 2017. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf .   \nReferences \n\n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 \"So what is a LIMS?\". Laboratory Information Management. Sapio Sciences. 28 July 2010. Archived from the original on 04 March 2016. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304102056\/http:\/\/sapiosciences.blogspot.com\/2010\/07\/so-what-is-lims.html . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 McLelland, A. (1998). \"What is a LIMS - a laboratory toy, or a critical IT component?\" (PDF). Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 1. Archived from the original on 04 October 2013. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131004232754\/http:\/\/www.rsc.org\/pdf\/andiv\/tech.pdf . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Gibbon, G.A. (1996). \"A brief history of LIMS\". Laboratory Automation and Information Management 32 (1): 1\u20135. doi:10.1016\/1381-141X(95)00024-K.   \n\n\u2191 Nagisetty, P. (02 November 2012). \"Is any one aware of a SaaS LIMS success story?\". LinkedIn. https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/2069898\/2069898-181604484 . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Mullin, R. (24 May 2010). \"LIMS in the Cloud\". Chemical & Engineering News 88 (21): 12\u201316. http:\/\/cen.acs.org\/articles\/88\/i21\/LIMS-Cloud.html . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 Knippenberg, R. (09 May 2017). \"Moving your Lab IT Infrastructure to the Cloud? Consider Nearshoring\". Astrix Blog. Astrix Technology Group. http:\/\/astrixinc.com\/moving-lab-infrastructure-cloud-consider-nearshoring\/ . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 7.0 7.1 Joyce, J. (01 May 2017). \"What You and Your IT Team Should Know About the Cloud\". Lab Manager. LabX Media Group. http:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/business-management\/2017\/04\/what-you-and-your-it-team-should-know-about-the-cloud . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Skobelev, D.O.; Zaytseva, T.M.; Kozlov, A.D. et al. (2011). \"Laboratory information management systems in the work of the analytic laboratory\". Measurement Techniques 53 (10): 1182\u20131189. doi:10.1007\/s11018-011-9638-7.   \n\n\u2191 Zipp, K. (21 February 2007). \"Regulatory compliance drives LIMS\". Design World. WTWH Media, LLC. http:\/\/www.designworldonline.com\/Regulatory-compliance-drives-LIMS\/ . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Khan, Masood N.; Findlay, John W. (2009). \"11.6 Integration: Tying It All Together\". Ligand-Binding Assays: Development, Validation, and Implementation in the Drug Development Arena. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 324. ISBN 0470041382. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=QzM0LUMfdAkC . Retrieved 07 November 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Wood, S. (September 2007). \"Comprehensive Laboratory Informatics: A Multilayer Approach\" (PDF). American Laboratory. p. 1. Archived from the original on 25 August 2017. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Amazon Relational Database Service (RDS)\". Amazon Web Services, Inc. https:\/\/aws.amazon.com\/rds\/ . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Lardionois, F. (14 February 2017). \"Google launches Cloud Spanner, its new globally distributed relational database service\". TechCrunch. Oath, Inc. https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2017\/02\/14\/google-launches-cloud-spanner-a-new-globally-distributed-database-service\/ . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 \"ASTM E1578 - 13 Standard Guide for Laboratory Informatics\". ASTM International. https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/E1578.htm . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Tennenhouse, E. (23 December 2016). \"How Our Readers Are Using LIMS\". Lab Manager. LabX Media Group. http:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/surveys\/2016\/12\/how-our-readers-are-using-lims . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Barrington\u2013Light, D. (31 July 2017). \"Data Integrity Challenges in Pharmaceutical Manufacturing: Meeting Tomorrow\u2019s Guidelines Today\". Bioscience Technology. Advantage Business Media. https:\/\/www.biosciencetechnology.com\/article\/2017\/07\/data-integrity-challenges-pharmaceutical-manufacturing-meeting-tomorrows-guidelines-today . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 O'Leary, K.M. (11 August 2008). \"Selecting the Right LIMS: Critiquing technological strengths and limitations\". Scientific Computing. Advantage Business Media. https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2008\/08\/selecting-right-lims . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 \"How Differences in Technology Affect LIMS Functionality, Cost, & ROI\" (PDF). LabVantage Solutions, Inc. 2011. pp. 2\u20133. Archived from the original on 27 February 2014. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140227052508\/http:\/\/www.labvantage.com\/resources\/pdf\/whitepapers\/ThinClient1101JY21CYL.pdf . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Royce, J.R. (31 March 2010). \"Industry Insights: Examining the Risks, Benefits and Trade-offs of Today\u2019s LIMS\". Scientific Computing. Advantage Business Media. https:\/\/www.scientificcomputing.com\/article\/2010\/03\/industry-insights-examining-risks-benefits-and-trade-offs-today%E2%80%99s-lims . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 20.0 20.1 \"Adding \"Management\" to Your LIS\". STARLIMS Corporation. 2012. Archived from the original on 28 April 2014. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/ . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 21.0 21.1 Friedman, B. (04 November 2008). \"LIS vs. LIMS: It's Time to Blend the Two Types of Lab Information Systems\". Lab Soft News. http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html . Retrieved 07 November 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 22.0 22.1 \"LIMS\/LIS Market and POCT Supplement\". analytica-world.com. 20 February 2004. http:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html . Retrieved 07 November 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 Friedman, B. (19 November 2008). \"LIS vs. LIMS: Some New Insights\". Lab Soft News. http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html . Retrieved 07 November 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 24.0 24.1 Hice, R. (01 July 2009). \"Swimming in the Clinical Pool: Why LIMS are supplanting old-school clinical LIS applications\". STARLIMS Corporation. Archived from the original on 13 March 2011. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/ . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Tufel, G. (01 February 2012). \"Convergence of LIMS and LIS\". Clinical Lab Products. MEDQOR. http:\/\/www.clpmag.com\/2012\/02\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/ . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Jones, J. (March 2012). \"What is the difference between a LIS and a LIMS?\". LinkedIn. https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/2069898\/2069898-98494737 . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Jones, John (September 2012). \"Are LIMS and LIS the same thing?\". LinkedIn. http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083 . Retrieved 07 November 2012 .   \n\n\u2191 \"FAQ: What is the difference between a LIMS and a medical laboratory quality system?\". AgiLab SAS. http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/ . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Difference Between LIS and LIMS\". CloudLIMS.com, LLC. 01 October 2016. https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\u2191 Reisenwitz, C. (11 May 2017). \"What Is a Laboratory Information Management System?\". Capterra Medical Software Blog. Capterra, Inc. http:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/ . Retrieved 14 September 2017 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategories: Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2017Articles with invalid date parameter in templateAll articles containing potentially dated statementsLaboratory informaticsSoftware systems\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 14 September 2017, at 19:37.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 60,141 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Laboratory_information_management_system skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Laboratory information management system<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:362px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Icos_Laboratories.JPG\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"df3af756412e96d7e4d8a0386662df33\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/dd\/Icos_Laboratories.JPG\" width=\"360\" height=\"270\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Icos_Laboratories.JPG\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"df3af756412e96d7e4d8a0386662df33\"><\/a><\/div>Laboratories around the world depend on a LIMS to manage data, assign rights, manage inventory, and more.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>Sometimes referred to as a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_system\" title=\"Laboratory information system\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"37add65b4d1c678b382a7d4817a9cf64\">laboratory information system<\/a> (LIS) or laboratory management system (LMS), a <b>laboratory information management system<\/b> (LIMS) is a software-based <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratory<\/a> and information management system that offers a set of key features that support a modern laboratory's operations. Those key features include \u2014 but are not limited to \u2014 <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Workflow\" title=\"Workflow\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"92bd8748272e20d891008dcb8243e8a8\">workflow<\/a> and data tracking support, flexible architecture, and smart data exchange interfaces, which fully \"support its use in regulated environments.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SapioWhatIs10_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SapioWhatIs10-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> The features and uses of a LIMS have evolved over the years from simple <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Sample\" title=\"Sample\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"42caec2b3b43728966d776543d4f905f\">sample<\/a> tracking to an integrated laboratory + enterprise resource planning tool that manages multiple aspects of laboratory operation, from testing to marketing.\n<\/p><p>Due to the rapid pace at which laboratories and their data management needs shift, the definition of LIMS has become somewhat controversial. As the needs of the modern laboratory vary widely from lab to lab, what is needed from a laboratory information management system also shifts. The end result: the definition of a LIMS will shift based on who you ask and what their vision of the modern lab is.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SapioWhatIs10_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SapioWhatIs10-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup> Dr. Alan McLelland of the Institute of Biochemistry, Royal Infirmary, Glasgow highlighted this problem in the late 1990s by explaining how a LIMS is perceived by an analyst, a laboratory manager, an information systems manager, and an accountant, \"all of them correct, but each of them limited by the users' own perceptions.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-McLelland98_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-McLelland98-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Historically the term \"LIMS\" has tended to be used to reference informatics systems targeted for environmental, research, or commercial analysis such as pharmaceutical or petrochemical work. \"LIS\" has tended to be used to reference laboratory informatics systems in the forensics and clinical markets, which often required special case management tools. The process development execution system or \"PDES,\" while having similar functionality in some ways, has generally applied to a wider scope, including, for example, virtual manufacturing techniques, while not necessarily integrating with laboratory equipment. \n<\/p><p>In modern times LIMS functionality has spread even farther beyond its original purpose of sample management. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Assay\" title=\"Assay\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ea17cf4415e898e1838538495235ef71\">Assay<\/a> data management, data mining, data analysis, and the integration of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebooks<\/a> (ELNs) and third-party applications are all features that have been added to many LIMS, enabling the realization of translational medicine completely within a single software solution. Additionally, the distinction between a LIMS and a LIS has blurred, as many LIMS now also fully support comprehensive case-centric clinical specimen and patient data management.\n<\/p>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History_of_LIMS\">History of LIMS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Up until the late 1970s, management of laboratory samples and their associated analysis and reporting was a time-consuming manual processes often riddled with transcription errors. This gave some organizations impetus to streamline the collection of data and how it was reported. Custom in-house solutions were developed by a few individual laboratories, while some enterprising entities at the same time sought to develop a more commercial reporting solution in the form of special instrument-based systems.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LIMSHistory-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> \n<\/p><p>In 1982 the first generation of LIMS was introduced in the form of a single centralized minicomputer, which offered laboratories the first opportunity to utilize automated reporting tools. As the interest in these early LIMS grew, industry leaders like Gerst Gibbon of the Federal Energy Technology Centre in Pittsburgh began planting the seeds through LIMS-related conferences. By 1988 the second-generation commercial offerings were tapping into to expand LIMS into more application-specific territory, and International LIMS Conferences were in full swing. As personal computers became more powerful and prominent, a third generation of LIMS emerged in the early 1990s. These new LIMS took advantage of the developing client\/server architecture, allowing laboratories to implement better data processing and exchanges.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LIMSHistory-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By 1995, the client\/server tools had developed to the point of allowing processing of data anywhere on the network. Web-enabled LIMS were introduced the following year, enabling researchers to extend operations outside the confines of the laboratory. From 1996 to 2002 additional functionality was included in LIMS, from wireless networking capabilities and georeferencing of samples, to the adoption of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/XML\" title=\"XML\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"fda82e3b4db7e4b2856b016933a1d2d1\">XML<\/a> standards and the development of internet purchasing.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LIMSHistory-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>By the early 2010s, some LIMS had added additional characteristics that continued to shape how a LIMS was defined. Examples included the addition of clinical functionality and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Electronic_laboratory_notebook\" title=\"Electronic laboratory notebook\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"a9fbbd5e0807980106763fab31f1e72f\">electronic laboratory notebook<\/a> (ELN) functionality, as well a rise in the cloud-based <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a> (SaaS) distribution model.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LinkedInSaaSModel_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LinkedInSaaSModel-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MullinLIMS10_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MullinLIMS10-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup> As of 2017<sup class=\"plainlinks noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, cloud-based LIMS are more numerous in quantity and adoption but not the de facto standard, as the costs and daunting nature associated with vendors transitioning legacy products to the cloud and with companies trying to integrate a cloud-based LIMS into a complicated IT environment have partially stymied growth.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KnippenbergMoving17_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KnippenbergMoving17-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JoyceWhatYou17_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JoyceWhatYou17-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Technology\">Technology<\/span><\/h2>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Laboratory_information_management_operations\">Laboratory information management operations<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The LIMS is an evolving concept, with new features and functionality being added often. As laboratory demands change and technological progress continues, the functions of a LIMS will likely also change. Despite these changes, a LIMS tends to have a base set of functionality that defines it. That functionality can roughly be divided into five laboratory processing phases, with numerous software functions falling under each<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MT5310_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MT5310-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>: \n<\/p>\n<ul><li> the reception and log in of a sample and its associated customer data;<\/li>\n<li> the assignment, scheduling, and tracking of the sample and the associated analytical workload;<\/li>\n<li> the processing and quality control associated with the sample and the utilized equipment and inventory;<\/li>\n<li> the storage of data associated with the sample analysis; and<\/li>\n<li> the inspection, approval, and compilation of the sample data for reporting and\/or further analysis.<\/li><\/ul>\n<p>There are several pieces of core functionality associated with these laboratory processing phases that tend to appear in most LIMS:\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Sample_management\">Sample management<\/span><\/h4>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:262px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Lab_worker_with_blood_samples.jpg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"ac71dd0bf91f76184b94b6846272a6fc\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/57\/Lab_worker_with_blood_samples.jpg\" width=\"260\" height=\"211\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Lab_worker_with_blood_samples.jpg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"ac71dd0bf91f76184b94b6846272a6fc\"><\/a><\/div>A lab worker matches blood samples to documents. With a LIMS, this sort of sample management is made more efficient.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p>The core function of LIMS has traditionally been the management of samples.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LIMSHistory-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup> This typically is initiated when a sample is received in the laboratory, at which point the sample will be registered in the LIMS. This registration process may involve <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Accessioning_(medical)\" title=\"Accessioning (medical)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d3a1f1a5d35fd9152d82893878bf9aa1\">accessioning<\/a> the sample and producing <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode\" title=\"Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355\">barcodes<\/a> to affix to the sample container. Various other parameters such as clinical or phenotypic <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> corresponding with the sample are also often recorded. The LIMS then tracks chain of custody (CoC) as well as sample location. Location tracking usually involves assigning the sample to a particular freezer location, often down to the granular level of shelf, rack, box, row, and column. Other event tracking such as freeze and thaw cycles that a sample undergoes in the laboratory may also be required.\n<\/p><p>Modern LIMS have implemented extensive configurability, as each laboratory's needs for tracking additional data points can vary widely. LIMS vendors cannot typically make assumptions about what these data tracking needs are, and therefore vendors often create LIMS that are adaptable to individual environments. LIMS users may also have regulatory concerns to comply with such as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/CLIA\" title=\"CLIA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"9c0b9bbf5c8d2310833a79d137ac621e\">CLIA<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/HIPAA\" title=\"HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"70050974d1eda9ff8cf9ecf7e4fcd015\">HIPAA<\/a>, good laboratory practice (GLP), and FDA specifications, affecting certain aspects of sample management in a LIMS solution.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-RegCompLIMS_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-RegCompLIMS-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup> One key to compliance with many of these standards is audit logging of all changes to LIMS data, and in some cases a full electronic signature system is required for rigorous tracking of field-level changes to LIMS data.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Instrument_and_application_integration\">Instrument and application integration<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Modern LIMS offer integration with laboratory instruments and applications as standard. A LIMS may create control files that are \"fed\" into the instrument and direct its operation on some physical item such as a sample tube or sample plate. The LIMS may then import instrument results files to extract data for quality control assessment of the operation on the sample. Access to the instrument data can sometimes be regulated based on chain of custody assignments or other security features if need be.\n<\/p><p>LIMS additionally typically allow for the import and management of raw assay data results.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LBAssays_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LBAssays-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> Modern targeted assays such as qPCR and deep <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Sequencing\" title=\"Sequencing\" class=\"mw-disambig wiki-link\" data-key=\"e36167a9eb152ca16a0c4c4e6d13f323\">sequencing<\/a> can produce tens of thousands of data points per sample. Furthermore, in the case of drug and diagnostic development, as many as 12 or more assays may be run for each sample. In order to track this data, a LIMS solution needs to be adaptable to many different assay formats at both the data layer and import creation layer, while maintaining a high level of overall performance.\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Electronic_data_exchange\">Electronic data exchange<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The exponentially growing volume of data created in laboratories, coupled with increased business demands and focus on profitability, have pushed LIMS vendors to increase attention to how their LIMS handles electronic data exchanges. Attention must be paid to how an instrument's input and output data is managed, how remote sample collection data is imported and exported, and how mobile and other third-party applications integrate with the LIMS. The successful transfer of data files in a wide variety of formats, while maintaining the associated metadata and keeping it secure, is paramount. Historically speaking, the transition \"from proprietary databases to standardized database management systems such as Oracle ... and SQL\" has had significant impact on how data is managed and exchanged in laboratories<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-WoodCompLabInfo_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-WoodCompLabInfo-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>, culminating today in cloud-based relational and NOSQL databases that can be set up, operated, and scaled with relative ease.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AWSAmazonRDS_12-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AWSAmazonRDS-12\">[12]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LardinoisGoogle17_13-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LardinoisGoogle17-13\">[13]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Additional_functions\">Additional functions<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Aside from the key functions of sample management, instrument and application integration, and electronic data exchange, there are numerous additional operations that can be managed in a LIMS. This includes but is not limited to<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ASTM_E1578_14-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ASTM_E1578-14\">[14]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-TennenhouseHowOur16_15-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-TennenhouseHowOur16-15\">[15]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-Barrington-LightDataInt17_16-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-Barrington-LightDataInt17-16\">[16]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<dl><dt> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Audit\" title=\"Audit\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8aa53ebae0994bc35dec1b579c6d201\">audit<\/a> management<\/dt>\n<dd> fully track and maintain an audit trail<\/dd>\n<dt> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Barcode\" title=\"Barcode\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0952b5b262392be0995237aec36d355\">barcode<\/a> handling<\/dt>\n<dd> assign one or more data points to a barcode format; read and extract information from a barcode<\/dd>\n<dt> chain of custody<\/dt>\n<dd> assign roles and groups that dictate access to specific data records and who is managing them<\/dd>\n<dt> compliance<\/dt>\n<dd> follow regulatory standards that affect the laboratory<\/dd>\n<dt> customer relationship management<\/dt>\n<dd> handle the demographic information and communications for associated clients<\/dd>\n<dt> document management<\/dt>\n<dd> process and convert data to certain formats; manage how documents are distributed and accessed<\/dd>\n<dt> instrument calibration and maintenance<\/dt>\n<dd> schedule important maintenance and calibration of lab instruments and keep detailed records of such activities<\/dd>\n<dt> inventory and equipment management<\/dt>\n<dd> measure and record inventories of vital supplies and laboratory equipment<\/dd>\n<dt> manual and electronic data entry<\/dt>\n<dd> provide fast and reliable interfaces for data to be entered by a human or electronic component<\/dd>\n<dt> method management<\/dt>\n<dd> provide one location for all laboratory process and procedure (P&P) and methodology to be housed and managed<\/dd>\n<dt> personnel and workload management<\/dt>\n<dd> organize work schedules, workload assignments, employee demographic information, and financial information<\/dd>\n<dt> quality assurance and control<\/dt>\n<dd> gauge and control sample quality, data entry standards, and workflow; reports<\/dd>\n<dd> create and schedule reports in a specific format; schedule and distribute reports to designated parties<\/dd>\n<dt> time tracking and performance assessment<\/dt>\n<dd> calculate and maintain processing and handling times on chemical reactions and workflows while assessing analyst, instrument, or test performance<\/dd>\n<dt> data mining<\/dt>\n<dd> search a wide variety of data repositories and their associated metadata to make and improve on research insights<\/dd>\n<dt> invoicing and sales<\/dt>\n<dd> provide an integrated structure to bill clients directly and track sales activity<\/dd><\/dl>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMS_architecture_and_delivery_methods\">LIMS architecture and delivery methods<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>A LIMS has utilized many architectures and distribution models over the years. As technology has changed, how a LIMS is installed, managed, and utilized has also changed with it.\n<\/p><p><b>The following represents architectures which have been utilized at one point or another:<\/b>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Thick-client\">Thick-client<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>A thick-client LIMS is a more traditional client\/server architecture, with some of the system residing on the computer or workstation of the user (the client) and the rest on the server. The LIMS software is installed on the client computer, which does all of the data processing. Later it passes information to the server, which has the primary purpose of data storage. Most changes, upgrades, and other modifications will happen on the client side. \n<\/p><p>This was one of the first architectures implemented into a LIMS, having the advantage of providing higher processing speeds (because processing is done on the client and not the server) and slightly more security (as access to the server data is limited only to those with client software). Additionally, thick-client systems have also provided more interactivity and customization, though often at a greater learning curve. The disadvantages of client-side LIMS include the need for more robust client computers and more time-consuming upgrades, as well as a lack of base functionality through a web browser. The thick-client LIMS can become web-enabled through an add-on component.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp_17-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabVantageDifInTech_18-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabVantageDifInTech-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p><b>Web-enabled<\/b>\n<\/p><p>A web-enabled LIMS architecture is essentially a thick-client architecture with an added web browser component. In this setup, the client-side software has additional functionality that allows users to interface with the software through their device's browser. This functionality is typically limited only to certain functions of the web client. The primary advantage of a web-enabled LIMS is the end-user can access data both on the client side and the server side of the configuration. As in a thick-client architecture, updates in the software must be propagated to every client machine. However, the added disadvantages of requiring always-on access to the host server and the need for cross-platform functionality mean that additional overhead costs may arise.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp_17-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabVantageDifInTech_18-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabVantageDifInTech-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Thin-client\">Thin-client<\/span><\/h4>\n<div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:362px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Cloud_computing.svg\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"68b2398137bd2f9af0e50289acecc0e7\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/thumb\/b\/b5\/Cloud_computing.svg\/360px-Cloud_computing.svg.png\" width=\"360\" height=\"326\" class=\"thumbimage\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Cloud_computing.svg\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"68b2398137bd2f9af0e50289acecc0e7\"><\/a><\/div>The concept of cloud computing is one of the most recent architecture and delivery models to affect LIMS.<\/div><\/div><\/div>A thin-client LIMS is a more modern architecture which offers full application functionality accessed through a device's web browser. The actual LIMS software resides on a server (host) which feeds and processes information without saving it to the user's hard disk. Any necessary changes, upgrades, and other modifications are handled by the entity hosting the server-side LIMS software, meaning all end-users see all changes made. To this end, a true thin-client LIMS will leave no \"footprint\" on the client's computer, and only the integrity of the web browser need be maintained by the user. The advantages of this system include significantly lower cost of ownership and fewer network and client-side maintenance expenses. However, this architecture has the disadvantage of requiring real-time server access, a need for increased network throughput, and slightly less functionality. A sort of hybrid architecture that incorporates the features of thin-client browser usage with a thick client installation exists in the form of a web-based LIMS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp_17-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabVantageDifInTech_18-2\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabVantageDifInTech-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<p>Additionally, maintenance support and warranty (MSW) agreements are usually offered with thin-client installations. Pricing levels are typically based on a percentage of the license fee, with a standard level of service for 10 concurrent users being approximately 10 hours of support and additional customer service at a set per-hour rate. Though some may choose to opt out of an MSW after the first year, it's often more economical to continue the plan in order to receive updates to the LIMS, giving it a longer life span in the laboratory.\n<\/p><p><b>Cloud and SaaS<\/b>\n<\/p><p>In the early 2010s, LIMS vendors began to rent hosted, thin-client solutions as \"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Software_as_a_service\" title=\"Software as a service\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ae8c8a7cd5ee1a264f4f0bbd4a4caedd\">software as a service<\/a>\" (SaaS). These cloud-based solutions tended to be less configurable than on-premise solutions and were therefore considered for less demanding implementations such as laboratories with few users and limited sample processing volumes. However, cloud-based software has seen greater adoption as the technology has improved, and configurable LIMS for laboratory operations big and small have become a more realistic option.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-KnippenbergMoving17_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-KnippenbergMoving17-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-JoyceWhatYou17_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-JoyceWhatYou17-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Web-based\">Web-based<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Arguably one of the most confusing architectures, web-based LIMS architecture is a hybrid of the thick- and thin-client architectures. While much of the client-side work is done through a web browser, the LIMS also requires the additional support of Microsoft's .NET Framework technology installed on the client device. The end result is a process that is apparent to the end-user through the Microrosoft-compatible web browser, but perhaps not so apparent as it runs thick-client-like processing in the background. In this case, web-based architecture has the advantage of providing more functionality through a more friendly web interface. The disadvantages of this setup are more sunk costs in system administration and support for Internet Explorer and .NET technologies, and reduced functionality on mobile platforms.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciComp_17-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciComp-17\">[17]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LabVantageDifInTech_18-3\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LabVantageDifInTech-18\">[18]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMS_configurability\">LIMS configurability<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>LIMS implementations are notorious for often being lengthy and costly.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-SciCompRisksBens_19-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-SciCompRisksBens-19\">[19]<\/a><\/sup> This is due in part to the diversity of requirements within each lab, but also to the inflexible nature of LIMS products for adapting to these widely varying requirements. The technology of LIMS solutions has improved as software design methodologies have improved, however, and many more configurable and adaptable options exist than previously. This means not only that implementations are much faster, but also that the costs are lower and the risk of obsolescence is minimized.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"The_distinction_between_a_LIMS_and_a_LIS\">The distinction between a LIMS and a LIS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Historically, the LIMS and LIS have exhibited a few key differences, making them noticeably separate entities<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_20-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StarlimsLimsLis-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p><p>1. A LIMS traditionally has been designed to process and report data related to batches of samples from biology labs, water treatment facilities, drug trials, and other entities that handle complex batches of data. A LIS has been designed primarily for processing and reporting data related to individual patients in a clinical setting.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lislims1_21-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lislims1-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-analytica_22-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-analytica-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>2. A LIMS needs to satisfy good manufacturing practice (GMP) and meet the reporting and audit needs of the U.S. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2be8927071ac419c0929f7aa1ede7fe\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> and research scientists in many different industries. A LIS, however, must satisfy the reporting and auditing needs of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital\" title=\"Hospital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f070c66d8123fe91063594befebdff\">hospital<\/a> accreditation agencies, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/HIPAA\" title=\"HIPAA\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"70050974d1eda9ff8cf9ecf7e4fcd015\">HIPAA<\/a>, and other clinical medical practitioners.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lislims1_21-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lislims1-21\">[21]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>3. A LIMS is most competitive in group-centric settings (dealing with \"batches\" and \"samples\") that often deal with mostly anonymous research-specific laboratory data, whereas a LIS is usually most competitive in patient-centric settings (dealing with \"subjects\" and \"specimens\") and clinical labs.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-analytica_22-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-analytica-22\">[22]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-lislims2_23-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-lislims2-23\">[23]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-starlims_24-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-starlims-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>However, these distinctions began to fade somewhat in the early 2010s as some LIMS vendors began to adopt the case-centric information management normally reserved for a LIS, blurring the lines between the two components further.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-starlims_24-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-starlims-24\">[24]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Thermo_Scientific\" title=\"Thermo Scientific\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e914753f99d483d4577b35fed71b3c94\">Thermo Scientific<\/a>'s Clinical LIMS was an example of this merger of LIMS with LIS, with Dave Champagne, informatics vice president and general manager, stating: \"Routine molecular diagnostics requires a convergence of the up-to-now separate systems that have managed work in the lab (the LIMS) and the clinic (the LIS). The industry is asking for, and the science is requiring, a single lab-centric solution that delivers patient-centric results.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ConvergeLimsLis_25-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ConvergeLimsLis-25\">[25]<\/a><\/sup> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Abbott_Informatics_Corporation\" title=\"Abbott Informatics Corporation\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"90479bab12020c96864541696a62156f\">Abbott Informatics Corporation<\/a>'s STARLIMS product was another example of this LIMS\/LIS merger.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_20-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-StarlimsLimsLis-20\">[20]<\/a><\/sup> With the distinction between the two entities becoming less clear, discussions within the laboratory informatics community began to includes the question of whether or not the two entities should be considered the same.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LinkedInDifLisLims_26-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LinkedInDifLisLims-26\">[26]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LinkedInLisLimsSame_27-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LinkedInLisLimsSame-27\">[27]<\/a><\/sup> As of 2017<sup class=\"plainlinks noprint asof-tag update\" style=\"display:none;\"><\/sup>, vendors continue to recognize the historical differences between the two products while also continuing to acknowledge that some developed LIMS are taking on more of the clinical aspects usually reserved for a LIS.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-AgilabFAQ_28-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-AgilabFAQ-28\">[28]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CloudLISDifference16_29-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CloudLISDifference16-29\">[29]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ReisenwitzWhatIs17_30-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ReisenwitzWhatIs17-30\">[30]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Standards_affecting_LIMS\">Standards affecting LIMS<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>A LIMS' development and use is affected by standards such as:\n<\/p>\n<ul><li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/21_CFR_Part_11\" title=\"21 CFR Part 11\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0ec495c20a8f17894bd0c1388eda8e7a\">Title 21 CFR Part 11<\/a> from the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Food_and_Drug_Administration\" title=\"Food and Drug Administration\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e2be8927071ac419c0929f7aa1ede7fe\">Food and Drug Administration<\/a> (United States)<\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_17025\" title=\"ISO 17025\" class=\"mw-redirect wiki-link\" data-key=\"e8525a8d5d35bc9c3c1015749eb8de05\">ISO 17025<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/ISO_15189\" title=\"ISO 15189\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e7867fe884a6e63d87c5a1bff5c28bc2\">ISO 15189<\/a><\/li>\n<li> <\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"LIMS_vendors\">LIMS vendors<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>See the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_vendor\" title=\"LIMS vendor\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"08236f0cd1dbb49b88a9624fcc944f20\">LIMS vendor<\/a> page for a list of LIMS vendors past and present.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"See_also\">See also<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_informatics\" title=\"Laboratory informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"00edfa43edcde538a695f6d429280301\">Laboratory informatics<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/LIMS_feature\" title=\"LIMS feature\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"ec5a33192a719be05e72cf732527e6aa\">Common LIMS features<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Further_reading\">Further reading<\/span><\/h2>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation Journal\">Gibbon, G.A. (1996). \"A brief history of LIMS\". <i>Laboratory Automation and Information Management<\/i> <b>32<\/b> (1): 1\u20135. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2F1381-141X%2895%2900024-K\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/1381-141X(95)00024-K<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=A+brief+history+of+LIMS&rft.jtitle=Laboratory+Automation+and+Information+Management&rft.aulast=Gibbon%2C+G.A.&rft.au=Gibbon%2C+G.A.&rft.date=1996&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1%E2%80%935&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2F1381-141X%2895%2900024-K&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul><li> <span class=\"citation web\">Wood, S. (September 2007). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Comprehensive Laboratory Informatics: A Multilayer Approach\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>American Laboratory<\/i>. p. 1. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 25 August 2017<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20170825181932\/https:\/\/www.it.uu.se\/edu\/course\/homepage\/lims\/vt12\/ComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf<\/a><\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Comprehensive+Laboratory+Informatics%3A+A+Multilayer+Approach&rft.atitle=American+Laboratory&rft.aulast=Wood%2C+S.&rft.au=Wood%2C+S.&rft.date=September+2007&rft.pages=p.+1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20170825181932%2Fhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.it.uu.se%2Fedu%2Fcourse%2Fhomepage%2Flims%2Fvt12%2FComprehensiveLaboratoryInformatics.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/li><\/ul>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<div class=\"reflist references-column-width\" style=\"-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;\">\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-SapioWhatIs10-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SapioWhatIs10_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-SapioWhatIs10_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304102056\/http:\/\/sapiosciences.blogspot.com\/2010\/07\/so-what-is-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"So what is a LIMS?\"<\/a>. <i>Laboratory Information Management<\/i>. Sapio Sciences. 28 July 2010. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/sapiosciences.blogspot.com\/2010\/07\/so-what-is-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 04 March 2016<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304102056\/http:\/\/sapiosciences.blogspot.com\/2010\/07\/so-what-is-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20160304102056\/http:\/\/sapiosciences.blogspot.com\/2010\/07\/so-what-is-lims.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=So+what+is+a+LIMS%3F&rft.atitle=Laboratory+Information+Management&rft.date=28+July+2010&rft.pub=Sapio+Sciences&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20160304102056%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fsapiosciences.blogspot.com%2F2010%2F07%2Fso-what-is-lims.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-McLelland98-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-McLelland98_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">McLelland, A. (1998). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131004232754\/http:\/\/www.rsc.org\/pdf\/andiv\/tech.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is a LIMS - a laboratory toy, or a critical IT component?\"<\/a> (PDF). Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 1. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.rsc.org\/pdf\/andiv\/tech.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 04 October 2013<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131004232754\/http:\/\/www.rsc.org\/pdf\/andiv\/tech.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20131004232754\/http:\/\/www.rsc.org\/pdf\/andiv\/tech.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=What+is+a+LIMS+-+a+laboratory+toy%2C+or+a+critical+IT+component%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=McLelland%2C+A.&rft.au=McLelland%2C+A.&rft.date=1998&rft.pages=p.+1&rft.pub=Royal+Society+of+Chemistry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20131004232754%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.rsc.org%2Fpdf%2Fandiv%2Ftech.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LIMSHistory-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-2\">3.2<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LIMSHistory_3-3\">3.3<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Gibbon, G.A. (1996). \"A brief history of LIMS\". <i>Laboratory Automation and Information Management<\/i> <b>32<\/b> (1): 1\u20135. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1016%2F1381-141X%2895%2900024-K\" target=\"_blank\">10.1016\/1381-141X(95)00024-K<\/a>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=A+brief+history+of+LIMS&rft.jtitle=Laboratory+Automation+and+Information+Management&rft.aulast=Gibbon%2C+G.A.&rft.au=Gibbon%2C+G.A.&rft.date=1996&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1%E2%80%935&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1016%2F1381-141X%2895%2900024-K&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LinkedInSaaSModel-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LinkedInSaaSModel_4-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Nagisetty, P. (02 November 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/2069898\/2069898-181604484\" target=\"_blank\">\"Is any one aware of a SaaS LIMS success story?\"<\/a>. LinkedIn<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/2069898\/2069898-181604484\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/2069898\/2069898-181604484<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Is+any+one+aware+of+a+SaaS+LIMS+success+story%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Nagisetty%2C+P.&rft.au=Nagisetty%2C+P.&rft.date=02+November+2012&rft.pub=LinkedIn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linkedin.com%2Fgroups%2F2069898%2F2069898-181604484&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MullinLIMS10-5\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MullinLIMS10_5-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Mullin, R. (24 May 2010). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/cen.acs.org\/articles\/88\/i21\/LIMS-Cloud.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS in the Cloud\"<\/a>. <i>Chemical & Engineering News<\/i> <b>88<\/b> (21): 12\u201316<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/cen.acs.org\/articles\/88\/i21\/LIMS-Cloud.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/cen.acs.org\/articles\/88\/i21\/LIMS-Cloud.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=LIMS+in+the+Cloud&rft.jtitle=Chemical+%26+Engineering+News&rft.aulast=Mullin%2C+R.&rft.au=Mullin%2C+R.&rft.date=24+May+2010&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=12%E2%80%9316&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcen.acs.org%2Farticles%2F88%2Fi21%2FLIMS-Cloud.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-KnippenbergMoving17-6\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KnippenbergMoving17_6-0\">6.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-KnippenbergMoving17_6-1\">6.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Knippenberg, R. (09 May 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/astrixinc.com\/moving-lab-infrastructure-cloud-consider-nearshoring\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Moving your Lab IT Infrastructure to the Cloud? Consider Nearshoring\"<\/a>. <i>Astrix Blog<\/i>. Astrix Technology Group<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/astrixinc.com\/moving-lab-infrastructure-cloud-consider-nearshoring\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/astrixinc.com\/moving-lab-infrastructure-cloud-consider-nearshoring\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. 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(01 May 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/business-management\/2017\/04\/what-you-and-your-it-team-should-know-about-the-cloud\" target=\"_blank\">\"What You and Your IT Team Should Know About the Cloud\"<\/a>. <i>Lab Manager<\/i>. LabX Media Group<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/business-management\/2017\/04\/what-you-and-your-it-team-should-know-about-the-cloud\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.labmanager.com\/business-management\/2017\/04\/what-you-and-your-it-team-should-know-about-the-cloud<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=What+You+and+Your+IT+Team+Should+Know+About+the+Cloud&rft.atitle=Lab+Manager&rft.aulast=Joyce%2C+J.&rft.au=Joyce%2C+J.&rft.date=01+May+2017&rft.pub=LabX+Media+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.labmanager.com%2Fbusiness-management%2F2017%2F04%2Fwhat-you-and-your-it-team-should-know-about-the-cloud&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-MT5310-8\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-MT5310_8-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Skobelev, D.O.; Zaytseva, T.M.; Kozlov, A.D. et al. 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Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Industry+Insights%3A+Examining+the+Risks%2C+Benefits+and+Trade-offs+of+Today%E2%80%99s+LIMS&rft.atitle=Scientific+Computing&rft.aulast=Royce%2C+J.R.&rft.au=Royce%2C+J.R.&rft.date=31+March+2010&rft.pub=Advantage+Business+Media&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificcomputing.com%2Farticle%2F2010%2F03%2Findustry-insights-examining-risks-benefits-and-trade-offs-today%25E2%2580%2599s-lims&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-StarlimsLimsLis-20\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_20-0\">20.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-StarlimsLimsLis_20-1\">20.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Adding \"Management\" to Your LIS\"<\/a>. STARLIMS Corporation. 2012. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/services-and-resources\/resources\/lis-vs-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 28 April 2014<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20140428060811\/http:\/\/www.starlims.com\/en-us\/resources\/white-papers\/lis-vs-lims\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Adding+%22Management%22+to+Your+LIS&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2012&rft.pub=STARLIMS+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20140428060811%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.starlims.com%2Fen-us%2Fresources%2Fwhite-papers%2Flis-vs-lims%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-lislims1-21\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-lislims1_21-0\">21.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-lislims1_21-1\">21.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Friedman, B. (04 November 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIS vs. LIMS: It's Time to Blend the Two Types of Lab Information Systems\"<\/a>. <i>Lab Soft News<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/liss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 07 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LIS+vs.+LIMS%3A+It%27s+Time+to+Blend+the+Two+Types+of+Lab+Information+Systems&rft.atitle=Lab+Soft+News&rft.aulast=Friedman%2C+B.&rft.au=Friedman%2C+B.&rft.date=04+November+2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flabsoftnews.typepad.com%2Flab_soft_news%2F2008%2F11%2Fliss-vs-limss-its-time-to-consider-merging-the-two-types-of-systems.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-analytica-22\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-analytica_22-0\">22.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-analytica_22-1\">22.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIMS\/LIS Market and POCT Supplement\"<\/a>. <i>analytica-world.com<\/i>. 20 February 2004<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.analytica-world.com\/en\/news\/35566\/lims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 07 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LIMS%2FLIS+Market+and+POCT+Supplement&rft.atitle=analytica-world.com&rft.date=20+February+2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.analytica-world.com%2Fen%2Fnews%2F35566%2Flims-lis-market-and-poct-supplement.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-lislims2-23\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-lislims2_23-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Friedman, B. (19 November 2008). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"LIS vs. LIMS: Some New Insights\"<\/a>. <i>Lab Soft News<\/i><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/labsoftnews.typepad.com\/lab_soft_news\/2008\/11\/lis-vs-lims.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 07 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=LIS+vs.+LIMS%3A+Some+New+Insights&rft.atitle=Lab+Soft+News&rft.aulast=Friedman%2C+B.&rft.au=Friedman%2C+B.&rft.date=19+November+2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flabsoftnews.typepad.com%2Flab_soft_news%2F2008%2F11%2Flis-vs-lims.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-starlims-24\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-starlims_24-0\">24.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-starlims_24-1\">24.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Hice, R. (01 July 2009). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Swimming in the Clinical Pool: Why LIMS are supplanting old-school clinical LIS applications\"<\/a>. STARLIMS Corporation. Archived from <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">the original<\/a> on 13 March 2011<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110313145726\/http:\/\/blog.starlims.com\/2009\/07\/01\/swimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Swimming+in+the+Clinical+Pool%3A+Why+LIMS+are+supplanting+old-school+clinical+LIS+applications&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Hice%2C+R.&rft.au=Hice%2C+R.&rft.date=01+July+2009&rft.pub=STARLIMS+Corporation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20110313145726%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fblog.starlims.com%2F2009%2F07%2F01%2Fswimming-in-the-clinical-pool-why-lims-are-supplanting-old-school-clinical-lis-applications%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ConvergeLimsLis-25\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ConvergeLimsLis_25-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Tufel, G. (01 February 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clpmag.com\/2012\/02\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"Convergence of LIMS and LIS\"<\/a>. <i>Clinical Lab Products<\/i>. MEDQOR<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.clpmag.com\/2012\/02\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.clpmag.com\/2012\/02\/convergence-of-lims-and-lis\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Convergence+of+LIMS+and+LIS&rft.atitle=Clinical+Lab+Products&rft.aulast=Tufel%2C+G.&rft.au=Tufel%2C+G.&rft.date=01+February+2012&rft.pub=MEDQOR&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clpmag.com%2F2012%2F02%2Fconvergence-of-lims-and-lis%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LinkedInDifLisLims-26\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LinkedInDifLisLims_26-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jones, J. (March 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/2069898\/2069898-98494737\" target=\"_blank\">\"What is the difference between a LIS and a LIMS?\"<\/a>. LinkedIn<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/2069898\/2069898-98494737\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/2069898\/2069898-98494737<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=What+is+the+difference+between+a+LIS+and+a+LIMS%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Jones%2C+J.&rft.au=Jones%2C+J.&rft.date=March+2012&rft.pub=LinkedIn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linkedin.com%2Fgroups%2F2069898%2F2069898-98494737&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LinkedInLisLimsSame-27\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-LinkedInLisLimsSame_27-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Jones, John (September 2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083\" target=\"_blank\">\"Are LIMS and LIS the same thing?\"<\/a>. LinkedIn<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/groups\/Are-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 07 November 2012<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Are+LIMS+and+LIS+the+same+thing%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Jones%2C+John&rft.au=Jones%2C+John&rft.date=September+2012&rft.pub=LinkedIn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.linkedin.com%2Fgroups%2FAre-LIMS-LIS-same-thing-2069898.S.147132083&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-AgilabFAQ-28\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-AgilabFAQ_28-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"FAQ: What is the difference between a LIMS and a medical laboratory quality system?\"<\/a>. AgiLab SAS<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/agilab.com\/faq\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=FAQ%3A+What+is+the+difference+between+a+LIMS+and+a+medical+laboratory+quality+system%3F&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=AgiLab+SAS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fagilab.com%2Ffaq%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-CloudLISDifference16-29\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-CloudLISDifference16_29-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\"><a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html\" target=\"_blank\">\"Difference Between LIS and LIMS\"<\/a>. CloudLIMS.com, LLC. 01 October 2016<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html\" target=\"_blank\">https:\/\/cloudlims.com\/lims\/lims-vs-lis.html<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Difference+Between+LIS+and+LIMS&rft.atitle=&rft.date=01+October+2016&rft.pub=CloudLIMS.com%2C+LLC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcloudlims.com%2Flims%2Flims-vs-lis.html&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-ReisenwitzWhatIs17-30\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-ReisenwitzWhatIs17_30-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation web\">Reisenwitz, C. (11 May 2017). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/\" target=\"_blank\">\"What Is a Laboratory Information Management System?\"<\/a>. <i>Capterra Medical Software Blog<\/i>. Capterra, Inc<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/blog.capterra.com\/what-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system\/<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 14 September 2017<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=What+Is+a+Laboratory+Information+Management+System%3F&rft.atitle=Capterra+Medical+Software+Blog&rft.aulast=Reisenwitz%2C+C.&rft.au=Reisenwitz%2C+C.&rft.date=11+May+2017&rft.pub=Capterra%2C+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.capterra.com%2Fwhat-is-a-laboratory-information-management-system%2F&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Laboratory_information_management_system\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol><\/div>\n\n<!-- \nNewPP limit report\nCached time: 20190403202922\nCache expiry: 86400\nDynamic content: false\nCPU time usage: 0.742 seconds\nReal time usage: 3.229 seconds\nPreprocessor visited node count: 20685\/1000000\nPreprocessor generated node count: 26223\/1000000\nPost\u2010expand include size: 150117\/2097152 bytes\nTemplate argument size: 67030\/2097152 bytes\nHighest expansion depth: 15\/40\nExpensive parser function count: 1\/100\n-->\n\n<!-- \nTransclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template)\n100.00% 619.914 1 - -total\n 82.43% 511.008 1 - Template:Reflist\n 80.56% 499.381 32 - Template:Citation\/core\n 65.43% 405.600 27 - Template:Cite_web\n 14.74% 91.355 4 - Template:Cite_journal\n 5.85% 36.248 56 - Template:Citation\/make_link\n 5.56% 34.481 1 - Template:Cite_book\n 2.85% 17.689 2 - Template:As_of\n 2.14% 13.292 2 - Template:DMCA\n 1.99% 12.324 4 - Template:Citation\/identifier\n-->\n\n<!-- Saved in parser cache with key limswiki:pcache:idhash:97-0!*!0!!en!5!* and timestamp 20190403202919 and revision id 31747\n -->\n<\/div><div class=\"printfooter\">Source: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory_information_management_system<\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<!-- end content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<!-- end of the left (by default at least) column -->\n\t\t<div class=\"visualClear\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\n<\/body>","8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00_images":["https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/d\/dd\/Icos_Laboratories.JPG","https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/57\/Lab_worker_with_blood_samples.jpg","https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/images\/thumb\/b\/b5\/Cloud_computing.svg\/720px-Cloud_computing.svg.png"],"8ff56a51d34c9b1806fcebdcde634d00_timestamp":1554323359,"f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd_type":"article","f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd_title":"Public health informatics","f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd_url":"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_informatics","f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd_plaintext":"\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\tPublic health informatics\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFrom LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJump to: navigation, search\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t Collecting and utilizing vital statistics data is only one of many applications of public health informatics.\nPublic health informatics has been defined as \"the systematic application of information and computer science and technology to public health practice, research, and learning.\"[1][2] Like other types of informatics, public health informatics is a multidisciplinary field, involving the studies of informatics, computer science, psychology, law, statistics, epidemiology, and microbiology.\nIn 2000, researcher William A. Yasnoff and his colleagues identified four key aspects that differentiate public health informatics from medical informatics and other informatics specialty areas. Public health informatics[1]:\n\n focuses on \"applications of information science and technology that promote the health of populations as opposed to the health of specific individuals.\"\n focuses on \"applications of information science and technology that prevent disease and injury by altering the conditions or the environment that put populations of individuals at risk.\"\n \"explore[s] the potential for prevention at all vulnerable points in the causal chains leading to disease, injury, or disability; applications should not be restricted to particular social, behavioral, or environmental contexts.\"\n \"reflect[s] the governmental context in which public health is practiced.\"\nContents\n\n1 History \n2 Application \n3 Informatics \n\n3.1 In the United States \n\n\n4 Notes \n5 References \n\n\n\nHistory \nBefore the advent of the Internet, public health data, like other healthcare and business data, were collected on paper forms and stored centrally at the relevant public health agency. As computers became more commonplace, some data and information would be computerized, requiring a distinct data entry process, storage in various file formats, and analysis by mainframe computers using standard batch processing. With the coming of the Internet and cheaper large-scale storage technologies, public health agencies with sufficient resources began transitioning to web-accessible collections of public health data, and, more recently, to automated messaging of the same information.[3][4][5]\n\nApplication \nIn the United States and other parts of the world, public health informatics is practiced by individuals in public health agencies at the national, state, and larger local health jurisdiction levels. Additionally, research and training in public health informatics takes place at a variety of academic institutions. In the United States, the bulk of public health informatics activities takes place at the state and local level, in the state departments of health and the county or parish departments of health. In other parts of the world the bulk of activities may occur at a national level, with local jurisdictions reporting directly to an appropriate government or health-related entity. Activities may include[3][4]: \n\n collecting and storing vital statistics such as birth and death records.\n collecting reported communicable disease cases from doctors, hospitals, and laboratories for infectious disease surveillance.\n sharing infectious disease statistics and trends with other entities, including the public.\n collecting child immunization and lead screening information.\n collecting and analyzing emergency room data to detect early evidence of biological threats.\n collecting hospital capacity information to allow for planning of responses in case of emergencies. \nAs part of the collection and application of public health data, several challenges still exist. Some entities may simply not be aware they need to report data to other entities. A lack of resources of either the reporter or collector may also hinder reporting and sharing of data. In some parts of the world, a lack of interoperability of data interchange formats (which can be at the purely syntactic or at the semantic level) may lead to under- or non-reported public health data. Finally, variations in reporting requirements across the states, territories, and localities pose challenges, which itself may lead to variability of incoming data to public health jurisdictions, requiring greater data quality standards.[5]\n\nInformatics \nDue to the complexity and variability of public health data, like health care data generally, the issue of data modeling presents a particular challenge. Flat data sets for statistical analysis were the norm; however, today's requirements of interoperability and integrated sets of data across the public health enterprise require more sophistication. The relational database is increasingly the norm in public health informatics. Designers and implementers of the many sets of data required for various public health purposes must find a workable balance between very complex and abstract data models and simplistic, ad hoc models that untrained public health practitioners come up with and feel capable of working with.\nAnother challenge is found in the need to extract usable public health information from the mass of available heterogeneous data. The public health informaticist is thus required to become familiar with a variety of analysis tools, ranging from business intelligence tools to produce routine or ad hoc reports, to sophisticated statistical analysis tools and geographical information systems (GIS) to expose the geographical dimension of public health trends.\n\nIn the United States \nThe Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia has played an important role in public health and infectious disease informatics. The agency's Center for Surveillance, Epidemiology and Laboratory Services (CSELS; formerly OSELS[6][7]) and its Division of Health Informatics and Surveillance (DHIS; formerly PHITPO and PHSIPO[6][7]) has focused on advancing the state of information science in these realms, applying digital information technologies to aid in the detection and management of diseases and syndromes in individuals and populations.[8] The CDC also created the National Electronic Disease Surveillance System (NEDSS)[8], which includes a free comprehensive web and message-based reporting system called the NEDSS Base System (NBS), used for managing and transmitting reportable disease data.[9]\nSince 2002, the CDC has promoted the idea of the Public Health Information Network to facilitate the transmission of data from various partners in the health care industry and elsewhere (hospitals, clinical and environmental laboratories, doctors' practices, pharmacies) to local health agencies, then to state health agencies, and then to the CDC. At each stage the entity must be capable of receiving the data, storing it, aggregating it appropriately, and transmitting it to the next level.[10] To promote interoperability between the NBS and other informatics systems, the CDC has also encouraged the adoption of several standard vocabularies and messaging formats from the health care world. The most prominent of these are the Health Level 7 (HL7) standards for health care messaging, the LOINC system for encoding laboratory test and result information, and the Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine (SNOMED) vocabulary of health care concepts.[9]\nA typical example of data transmissions to the CDC would be infectious disease data, which hospitals, labs, and doctors are legally required to report to local health agencies. The local health agencies must then report to their state public health department and the states must report in aggregate form to the CDC. Among other uses of this received data, the CDC publishes the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), \"the agency\u2019s primary vehicle for scientific publication of timely, reliable, authoritative, accurate, objective, and useful public health information and recommendations.\"[11]\n\nNotes \nSome elements of this article are reused from the Wikipedia article.\n\nReferences \n\n\u2191 1.0 1.1 Yasnoff, William A.; O\u2019Carroll, Patrick W.; Koo, Denise; Linkins, Robert W.; Kilbourne, Edwin M. (2000). \"Public Health Informatics: Improving and Transforming Public Health in the Information Age\" (PDF). Journal of Public Health Management and Practice 6 (6): 67\u201375. PMID 18019962. http:\/\/people.dbmi.columbia.edu\/~rik7001\/Yasnoff.pdf . Retrieved 11 June 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 Friede, Andrew; Blum, Henrik L.; McDonald, Mike (1995). \"Public Health Informatics: How Information-Age Technology Can Strengthen Public Health\". Annual Review of Public Health 16: 239\u2013252. doi:10.1146\/annurev.pu.16.050195.001323. http:\/\/www.annualreviews.org\/doi\/abs\/10.1146\/annurev.pu.16.050195.001323 . Retrieved 11 June 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 3.0 3.1 O'Carroll, Patrick W. (2003). Public Health Informatics and Information Systems. Springer. pp. 790. ISBN 9780387954745. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ap6uCR0Ybo4C . Retrieved 16 June 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 4.0 4.1 Lombardo, Joseph S.; Buckeridge, David L. (2012). \"Chapter 1: Disease Surveillance, a Public Health Priority\". Disease Surveillance: A Public Health Informatics Approach. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1\u201340. ISBN 9781118569054. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-xI2Kl39ZzoC&printsec=frontcover . Retrieved 16 June 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 5.0 5.1 Krishnamurthy, Ramesh S.; St. Louis, Michael E. (2010). \"Chapter 5: Informatics and the Management of Surveillance Data\". Principles and Practice of Public Health Surveillance. Oxford University Press. pp. 65\u201387. ISBN 9780195372922. http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=FF78GCiUbwUC&pg=PA70 . Retrieved 16 June 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 6.0 6.1 Advisory Committee to the Director (July 2013). \"Advisory Committee to the Director: Record of the April 25, 2013 Meeting\" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. pp. 9\u201314. http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/about\/pdf\/advisory\/4-25-13-acd-summary-v2.pdf . Retrieved 17 June 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 7.0 7.1 \"Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)\" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 27 July 2011. Archived from the original on 18 July 2013. https:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20130718025323\/http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/maso\/pdf\/CDC_Official.pdf . Retrieved 17 June 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 8.0 8.1 Division of Health Informatics and Surveillance (13 March 2014). \"Division of Health Informatics and Surveillance\" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/ophss\/csels\/dhis\/documents\/DHIS-Overview-3132014.pdf . Retrieved 17 June 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 9.0 9.1 Division of Health Informatics and Surveillance (10 December 2013). \"NEDSS\/NBS\". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http:\/\/wwwn.cdc.gov\/nndss\/script\/nedss.aspx . Retrieved 17 June 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"Public Health Information Network Functions and Specifications, Version 1.2\" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 18 December 2002. http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/phin\/library\/archive_2002\/PHIN_Functions_Specifications_121802.pdf . Retrieved 17 June 2014 .   \n\n\u2191 \"About the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) Series\". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 15 January 2010. http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/about.html . Retrieved 17 June 2014 .   \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSource: <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external\" href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_informatics\">https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Public_health_informatics<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\tCategory: Informatics\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\tNavigation menu\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\tViews\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPage\n\t\t\t\tDiscussion\n\t\t\t\tView source\n\t\t\t\tHistory\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tPersonal tools\n\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLog in\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRequest account\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\tNavigation\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMain page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRecent changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRandom page\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHelp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSearch\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTools\n\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWhat links here\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRelated changes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSpecial pages\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPermanent link\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPage information\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tPrint\/export\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCreate a book\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as PDF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDownload as Plain text\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrintable version\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\tSponsors\n\t\t\n\t\t\t \r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n \r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\n\t\r\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t This page was last modified on 17 June 2014, at 17:24.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThis page has been accessed 3,120 times.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tContent is available under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License unless otherwise noted.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrivacy policy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbout LIMSWiki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDisclaimers\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\n","f0372a80f101e9f6fd00490dc1ebcedd_html":"<body class=\"mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Public_health_informatics skin-monobook action-view\">\n<div id=\"rdp-ebb-globalWrapper\">\n\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-column-content\">\n\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-content\" class=\"mw-body\" role=\"main\">\n\t\t\t\t<a id=\"rdp-ebb-top\"><\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h1 id=\"rdp-ebb-firstHeading\" class=\"firstHeading\" lang=\"en\">Public health informatics<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-bodyContent\" class=\"mw-body-content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<!-- start content -->\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"rdp-ebb-mw-content-text\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\" class=\"mw-content-ltr\"><div class=\"thumb tright\"><div class=\"thumbinner\" style=\"width:602px;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Drug_overdose_death_rates_by_state_per_100,000_people_2008_US.png\" class=\"image wiki-link\" data-key=\"ca954e37aa8cf7fdad954cb6104aa831\"><img alt=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/a4\/Drug_overdose_death_rates_by_state_per_100%2C000_people_2008_US.png\" class=\"thumbimage\" style=\"width: 100%;max-width: 400px;height: auto;\" \/><\/a> <div class=\"thumbcaption\"><div class=\"magnify\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/File:Drug_overdose_death_rates_by_state_per_100,000_people_2008_US.png\" class=\"internal wiki-link\" title=\"Enlarge\" data-key=\"ca954e37aa8cf7fdad954cb6104aa831\"><\/a><\/div>Collecting and utilizing vital statistics data is only one of many applications of public health informatics.<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<p><b>Public health informatics<\/b> has been defined as \"the systematic application of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Information\" title=\"Information\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"6300a14d9c2776dcca0999b5ed940e7d\">information<\/a> and computer science and technology to public health practice, research, and learning.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-YasnoffPHI_1-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-YasnoffPHI-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-FriedePHI_2-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-FriedePHI-2\">[2]<\/a><\/sup> Like other types of informatics, public health informatics is a multidisciplinary field, involving the studies of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Informatics_(academic_field)\" title=\"Informatics (academic field)\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"0391318826a5d9f9a1a1bcc88394739f\">informatics<\/a>, computer science, psychology, law, statistics, epidemiology, and microbiology.\n<\/p><p>In 2000, researcher William A. Yasnoff and his colleagues identified four key aspects that differentiate public health informatics from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_informatics\" title=\"Health informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"055eb51f53cfdbacc08ed150b266c9f4\">medical informatics<\/a> and other informatics specialty areas. Public health informatics<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-YasnoffPHI_1-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-YasnoffPHI-1\">[1]<\/a><\/sup>:\n<\/p>\n<ol><li> focuses on \"applications of information science and technology that promote the health of populations as opposed to the health of specific individuals.\"<\/li>\n<li> focuses on \"applications of information science and technology that prevent disease and injury by altering the conditions or the environment that put populations of individuals at risk.\"<\/li>\n<li> \"explore[s] the potential for prevention at all vulnerable points in the causal chains leading to disease, injury, or disability; applications should not be restricted to particular social, behavioral, or environmental contexts.\"<\/li>\n<li> \"reflect[s] the governmental context in which public health is practiced.\"<\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"History\">History<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Before the advent of the Internet, public health data, like other healthcare and business data, were collected on paper forms and stored centrally at the relevant public health agency. As computers became more commonplace, some data and information would be computerized, requiring a distinct data entry process, storage in various file formats, and analysis by mainframe computers using standard batch processing. With the coming of the Internet and cheaper large-scale storage technologies, public health agencies with sufficient resources began transitioning to web-accessible collections of public health data, and, more recently, to automated messaging of the same information.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OCarrollPHI_3-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OCarrollPHI-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LombardoDS_4-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LombardoDS-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeePrincPrac_5-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeePrincPrac-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Application\">Application<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>In the United States and other parts of the world, public health informatics is practiced by individuals in public health agencies at the national, state, and larger local health jurisdiction levels. Additionally, research and training in public health informatics takes place at a variety of academic institutions. In the United States, the bulk of public health informatics activities takes place at the state and local level, in the state departments of health and the county or parish departments of health. In other parts of the world the bulk of activities may occur at a national level, with local jurisdictions reporting directly to an appropriate government or health-related entity. Activities may include<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-OCarrollPHI_3-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-OCarrollPHI-3\">[3]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LombardoDS_4-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LombardoDS-4\">[4]<\/a><\/sup>: \n<\/p>\n<ul><li> collecting and storing vital statistics such as birth and death records.<\/li>\n<li> collecting reported communicable disease cases from doctors, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Hospital\" title=\"Hospital\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"b8f070c66d8123fe91063594befebdff\">hospitals<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Laboratory\" title=\"Laboratory\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"c57fc5aac9e4abf31dccae81df664c33\">laboratories<\/a> for infectious disease surveillance.<\/li>\n<li> sharing infectious disease statistics and trends with other entities, including the public.<\/li>\n<li> collecting child immunization and lead screening information.<\/li>\n<li> collecting and analyzing emergency room data to detect early evidence of biological threats.<\/li>\n<li> collecting hospital capacity information to allow for planning of responses in case of emergencies. <\/li><\/ul>\n<p>As part of the collection and application of public health data, several challenges still exist. Some entities may simply not be aware they need to report data to other entities. A lack of resources of either the reporter or collector may also hinder reporting and sharing of data. In some parts of the world, a lack of interoperability of data interchange formats (which can be at the purely syntactic or at the semantic level) may lead to under- or non-reported public health data. Finally, variations in reporting requirements across the states, territories, and localities pose challenges, which itself may lead to variability of incoming data to public health jurisdictions, requiring greater data quality standards.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-LeePrincPrac_5-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-LeePrincPrac-5\">[5]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Informatics\">Informatics<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Due to the complexity and variability of public health data, like health care data generally, the issue of data modeling presents a particular challenge. Flat data sets for statistical analysis were the norm; however, today's requirements of interoperability and integrated sets of data across the public health enterprise require more sophistication. The relational database is increasingly the norm in public health informatics. Designers and implementers of the many sets of data required for various public health purposes must find a workable balance between very complex and abstract data models and simplistic, <i>ad hoc<\/i> models that untrained public health practitioners come up with and feel capable of working with.\n<\/p><p>Another challenge is found in the need to extract usable public health information from the mass of available heterogeneous data. The public health informaticist is thus required to become familiar with a variety of analysis tools, ranging from business intelligence tools to produce routine or <i>ad hoc<\/i> reports, to sophisticated statistical analysis tools and geographical information systems (GIS) to expose the geographical dimension of public health trends.\n<\/p>\n<h3><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"In_the_United_States\">In the United States<\/span><\/h3>\n<p>The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention\" title=\"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"176aa9c9513251c328d864d1e724e814\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<\/a> (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia has played an important role in public health and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Infectious_disease_informatics\" title=\"Infectious disease informatics\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"d318bbc2e54c35364b6d9d0c26f0be5d\">infectious disease informatics<\/a>. The agency's Center for Surveillance, Epidemiology and Laboratory Services (CSELS; formerly OSELS<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ACDMinsApril13_6-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ACDMinsApril13-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDCOrgArch_7-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDCOrgArch-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>) and its Division of Health Informatics and Surveillance (DHIS; formerly PHITPO and PHSIPO<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-ACDMinsApril13_6-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-ACDMinsApril13-6\">[6]<\/a><\/sup><sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-CDCOrgArch_7-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-CDCOrgArch-7\">[7]<\/a><\/sup>) has focused on advancing the state of information science in these realms, applying digital information technologies to aid in the detection and management of diseases and syndromes in individuals and populations.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DHISAbout_8-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DHISAbout-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup> The CDC also created the National Electronic Disease Surveillance System (NEDSS)<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-DHISAbout_8-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-DHISAbout-8\">[8]<\/a><\/sup>, which includes a free comprehensive web and message-based reporting system called the NEDSS Base System (NBS), used for managing and transmitting reportable disease data.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NBSAbout_9-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NBSAbout-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>Since 2002, the CDC has promoted the idea of the Public Health Information Network to facilitate the transmission of data from various partners in the health care industry and elsewhere (hospitals, clinical and environmental laboratories, doctors' practices, pharmacies) to local health agencies, then to state health agencies, and then to the CDC. At each stage the entity must be capable of receiving the data, storing it, aggregating it appropriately, and transmitting it to the next level.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-PHIN02_10-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-PHIN02-10\">[10]<\/a><\/sup> To promote interoperability between the NBS and other informatics systems, the CDC has also encouraged the adoption of several standard vocabularies and messaging formats from the health care world. The most prominent of these are the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.limswiki.org\/index.php\/Health_Level_7\" title=\"Health Level 7\" class=\"wiki-link\" data-key=\"e0bf845fb58d2bae05a846b47629e86f\">Health Level 7<\/a> (HL7) standards for health care messaging, the LOINC system for encoding laboratory test and result information, and the Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine (SNOMED) vocabulary of health care concepts.<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-NBSAbout_9-1\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-NBSAbout-9\">[9]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p><p>A typical example of data transmissions to the CDC would be infectious disease data, which hospitals, labs, and doctors are legally required to report to local health agencies. The local health agencies must then report to their state public health department and the states must report in aggregate form to the CDC. Among other uses of this received data, the CDC publishes the <i>Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report<\/i> (MMWR), \"the agency\u2019s primary vehicle for scientific publication of timely, reliable, authoritative, accurate, objective, and useful public health information and recommendations.\"<sup id=\"rdp-ebb-cite_ref-MMWRAbout_11-0\" class=\"reference\"><a href=\"#cite_note-MMWRAbout-11\">[11]<\/a><\/sup>\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"Notes\">Notes<\/span><\/h2>\n<p>Some elements of this article are reused from <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_health_informatics\" data-key=\"72fdf84bf3136964176ad1d8073aef92\">the Wikipedia article<\/a>.\n<\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"mw-headline\" id=\"References\">References<\/span><\/h2>\n<ol class=\"references\">\n<li id=\"cite_note-YasnoffPHI-1\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-YasnoffPHI_1-0\">1.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-YasnoffPHI_1-1\">1.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Yasnoff, William A.; O\u2019Carroll, Patrick W.; Koo, Denise; Linkins, Robert W.; Kilbourne, Edwin M. (2000). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/people.dbmi.columbia.edu\/~rik7001\/Yasnoff.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Health Informatics: Improving and Transforming Public Health in the Information Age\"<\/a> (PDF). <i>Journal of Public Health Management and Practice<\/i> <b>6<\/b> (6): 67\u201375. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/PubMed_Identifier\" data-key=\"1d34e999f13d8801964a6b3e9d7b4e30\">PMID<\/a> <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pubmed\/18019962\" target=\"_blank\">18019962<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/people.dbmi.columbia.edu\/~rik7001\/Yasnoff.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/people.dbmi.columbia.edu\/~rik7001\/Yasnoff.pdf<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 11 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Public+Health+Informatics%3A+Improving+and+Transforming+Public+Health+in+the+Information+Age&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Public+Health+Management+and+Practice&rft.aulast=Yasnoff%2C+William+A.%3B+O%E2%80%99Carroll%2C+Patrick+W.%3B+Koo%2C+Denise%3B+Linkins%2C+Robert+W.%3B+Kilbourne%2C+Edwin+M.&rft.au=Yasnoff%2C+William+A.%3B+O%E2%80%99Carroll%2C+Patrick+W.%3B+Koo%2C+Denise%3B+Linkins%2C+Robert+W.%3B+Kilbourne%2C+Edwin+M.&rft.date=2000&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=67%E2%80%9375&rft_id=info:pmid\/18019962&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpeople.dbmi.columbia.edu%2F%7Erik7001%2FYasnoff.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Public_health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-FriedePHI-2\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\"><a href=\"#cite_ref-FriedePHI_2-0\">\u2191<\/a><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation Journal\">Friede, Andrew; Blum, Henrik L.; McDonald, Mike (1995). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/www.annualreviews.org\/doi\/abs\/10.1146\/annurev.pu.16.050195.001323\" target=\"_blank\">\"Public Health Informatics: How Information-Age Technology Can Strengthen Public Health\"<\/a>. <i>Annual Review of Public Health<\/i> <b>16<\/b>: 239\u2013252. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Digital_object_identifier\" data-key=\"ae6d69c760ab710abc2dd89f3937d2f4\">doi<\/a>:<a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1146%2Fannurev.pu.16.050195.001323\" target=\"_blank\">10.1146\/annurev.pu.16.050195.001323<\/a><span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/www.annualreviews.org\/doi\/abs\/10.1146\/annurev.pu.16.050195.001323\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.annualreviews.org\/doi\/abs\/10.1146\/annurev.pu.16.050195.001323<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 11 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Public+Health+Informatics%3A+How+Information-Age+Technology+Can+Strengthen+Public+Health&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Public+Health&rft.aulast=Friede%2C+Andrew%3B+Blum%2C+Henrik+L.%3B+McDonald%2C+Mike&rft.au=Friede%2C+Andrew%3B+Blum%2C+Henrik+L.%3B+McDonald%2C+Mike&rft.date=1995&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=239%E2%80%93252&rft_id=info:doi\/10.1146%2Fannurev.pu.16.050195.001323&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.annualreviews.org%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.pu.16.050195.001323&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Public_health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-OCarrollPHI-3\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-OCarrollPHI_3-0\">3.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-OCarrollPHI_3-1\">3.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">O'Carroll, Patrick W. (2003). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ap6uCR0Ybo4C\" target=\"_blank\"><i>Public Health Informatics and Information Systems<\/i><\/a>. Springer. pp. 790. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 9780387954745<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ap6uCR0Ybo4C\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=ap6uCR0Ybo4C<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 16 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+Health+Informatics+and+Information+Systems&rft.aulast=O%27Carroll%2C+Patrick+W.&rft.au=O%27Carroll%2C+Patrick+W.&rft.date=2003&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B790&rft.pub=Springer&rft.isbn=9780387954745&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dap6uCR0Ybo4C&rfr_id=info:sid\/en.wikipedia.org:Public_health_informatics\"><span style=\"display: none;\"> <\/span><\/span><\/span>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"cite_note-LombardoDS-4\"><span class=\"mw-cite-backlink\">\u2191 <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LombardoDS_4-0\">4.0<\/a><\/sup> <sup><a href=\"#cite_ref-LombardoDS_4-1\">4.1<\/a><\/sup><\/span> <span class=\"reference-text\"><span class=\"citation book\">Lombardo, Joseph S.; Buckeridge, David L. (2012). <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external text\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-xI2Kl39ZzoC&printsec=frontcover\" target=\"_blank\">\"Chapter 1: Disease Surveillance, a Public Health Priority\"<\/a>. <i>Disease Surveillance: A Public Health Informatics Approach<\/i>. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1\u201340. <a rel=\"nofollow\" class=\"external text wiki-link\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/International_Standard_Book_Number\" data-key=\"f64947ba21e884434bd70e8d9e60bae6\">ISBN<\/a> 9781118569054<span class=\"printonly\">. <a rel=\"external_link\" class=\"external free\" href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-xI2Kl39ZzoC&printsec=frontcover\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=-xI2Kl39ZzoC&printsec=frontcover<\/a><\/span><span class=\"reference-accessdate\">. Retrieved 16 June 2014<\/span>.<\/span><span class=\"Z3988\" title=\"ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+1%3A+Disease+Surveillance%2C+a+Public+Health+Priority&rft.atitle=Disease+Surveillance%3A+A+Public+Health+Informatics+Approach&rft.aulast=Lombardo%2C+Joseph+S.%3B+Buckeridge%2C+David+L.&rft.au=Lombardo%2C+Joseph+S.%3B+Buckeridge%2C+David+L.&rft.date=2012&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B1%E2%80%9340&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.isbn=9781118569054&